TOPIC TWO - COASTAL EROSION

Preamble/Definitions

The coast is the broad region where land and Ocean meet. Coast can be carved into

several shapes: steep rock cliffs, broad low beaches, crescent of small beaches or bays,

alternating rocky headlands or wide sweeping sandy tidal flat.

Coastal erosion is defined as ‘the process of episodic removal of material at the shoreline

leading to a loss of land as the shoreline retreats landward’. Coastal accretion is defined

as the product of deposition of material at the shoreline, leading to a gain of land as the

shoreline advances seaward. When the shoreline is lifted above the sea, erosion

predominates, while accretion is main process in subsided shoreline.

Nature of the coastline region is determined by: the tectonic setting, the

lithology (earth materials) at the shore and the energy of water at the

shoreline.

Tectonic setting

Plate tectonic is a major factor that influences the nature of the coast. The position of

the continental margin with respect to the plate boundaries dictates the

geometry of the coast.

The continental margin is composed of: the continental shelf, the continental slope, the

continental rise and the abyssal plain.

Tectonically, the continental margin can be classified into two:

a. Passive Continental Margin

The passive continental margins are usually developed on geologically quiet

coast that lack earth quakes, volcanoes and young mountain belt. The margin

consists of the wide and gently dipping continental shelf, the continental slope,

the continental rise and the abyssal plain at a depth of up to 5 km. They are

usually associated with divergent plate boundaries.

Typical shoreline landforms along such coasts include: broad sandy beaches, sand

bars (narrow ridges of sand parallel to the beach just off-shore), low-lying sandy

islands; and wide tidal flat that are either muddy or sandy. Both erosion and

accretion occur along the shoreline on this type of margin.The edges of most

landmasses bordering the Atlantic Ocean and most parts of Indian Ocean are

within this type of margin.

b. Active Continental Margin

Active continental margins are characterized by earthquakes, volcanoes and

young mountain belt. The margin consists of a narrow relatively steep continental

shelf, steep continental slope and an oceanic trench. They lack the continental

rise and an abyssal plain. Active continental boundaries are formed when

continental margins occurs as or coincide with the leading of lithospheric plate

that terminates at the subduction zone or transform fault. At this type of margin,

the continental shelves are tectonically deformed. Examples

Shorelines landforms on this type of margin are characterized by topography of

prominent cliff and headland jutting out into the sea alternating with narrow inlets

and irregular bays some filled with small rocky beaches. Erosion is the dominant

process on this type of margin.

Types of Beach Erosion

Based on tectonic setting, coastal erosion can be classified into two: Beach erosion and

Cliff erosion

Beach Erosion

A beach is a gently sloping surfaces washed over by the waves and covered by sediment.

The sediments are generally loose and mainly sandy. The sandy sediments are generally

produced by wave erosion and accretion along the coast as well as by river transportation

delivered near the coast. A typical sandy beach is a dynamic environment, not a fixed

static landform. This is due to action of the waves that is in constant motion in moving

the materials of the beach; sometimes to destroy the beach (erosion) and sometimes to

broaden and extend (accretion). Beach erosion and accretion are common along passive

continental margin.

Wave action at beaches is firstly by swash, which involves moving of sediments onto

sloping surfaces of beach by waves. The swash of a wave has enough current competence

to lift up sand grain and carry them along, in the same way that river current does. The

second action is backwash, which carries particles back down again to their original

position on the slope. The net resultant effects of these movements a zig-zag movement

along the shore.

In addition, the effect of longshore current moves materials laterally along the coast,

generally at an angle to the shore line; this is referred to as littoral drift. Longshore current

is persistent on most beaches; hence materials are transported from one end of the
beaches to another. However, reversal of drifts direction with season results into zero net

movement over the year in some beaches, but not so on others.

Sediment accumulation due to Longshore Drift

Another phenomenon at beaches is the effect of output and input. This involves

movement of sand from the beach to submerged near-shore area. In times of relatively

calm weather the sand will gradually be shifted back up the beach and widen it.

In natural state, beaches tend to maintain balance between input and output. However,

interference in terms of building, pave beach parking lot, erection of sea protection

devices and construction of piers tend to make beach shrink in one place and grow in

another.

Other action that may influence beach erosion, is the damming of large river for flood

controls or power generation. This result into drastic reduction in sediment load carried

to the beach by such rivers and can cause erosion of the sand-starved beach.
Barrier Islands

These are long, low, narrow islands that generally occur parallel to the coastline in the

offshore area. They are generally formed through action of longshore current. They are

extremely vulnerable to erosion but very attractive aesthetically; hence, heavily

developed in most part of the world.

Cliff Erosion

Erosion is the dominant process along tectonic beaches and wave action is the most
wave active erosion agent. Wave action can be by: hydraulic action, attrition, abrasion,
solution and corrosion.

i. Hydraulic action
Hydraulic action occurs when waves striking a cilff face compress air in cracks on
the cliff face. This exerts pressure on the surrounding rock, and can progressively
splinter and remove pieces. Over time, the cracks can grow, sometimes forming a
cave. The splinters fall to the sea bed where they are subjected to further wave
action.
ii. Attrition
Attrition occurs when waves causes loose pieces of rock debris/sree) to collide with
each other, grinding and chipping each other, progressively becoming smaller,
smoother and rounder. Scree also collides with the base of the cliff face, chipping
small pieces of rock from the cliff or have a corasion (abrasion) effect, similar to
sandpapering.
iii. Abrasion or otherwise known as corrasion occurs when waves break on cliff faces
and slowly erode it. As the sea pounds cliff faces it also uses the scree from other
wave actions to batter and break off pieces of rock from higher up the cliff face
which can be used for this same wave action and attrition.
iv. Solution
This involves dissolution of some rocks by sea water such as chalk or limestone.
v. Corrosion
Corrosion or solution/chemical weathering occurs when the sea's ph (anything
below pH 7.0) corrodes rocks on a cliff face. Limestone cliff faces, which have a
moderately high pH, are particularly affected in this way. Wave action also
increases the rate of reaction by removing the reacted material.

Cliff erosion process

Hydaulic Action Process:The compressed air exerts enormous pressure at the tip of the crack. As
the water falls back the air pressure is released and rock is pulled out from the crack further
enlarging the hole

Primary factors that influence rates of cliff erosion are: rock erodibility, wave, bathymetry

a) Rock erodiblity
Eodibility of rocks at the coast depends on the rock strength and the frequency,
orientation and sizes of discontinuity (bedding planes, fault, joint) within the rock.
Also significant are presence of non-cohesive materials such as silt and fine. Rock
erodiblity or hardness is function of the geology of the coast region. Coastal
lithologies are classified into two types with notably different erosional responses
to coastal processes:
  Sedimentary rocks:
At coastline characterized by sedimentary rocks, the geology is usually
characterized by cohesive sedimentary rocks- mostly Tertiary in age. Erosion
is mainly by hydraulic action, attrition and abrasion. Solution may also occur
if the rocks are carbonates. Erosion occurs and persistently causes recession
of the coastline and unlike the sandy beaches, there is no recovery. The
topography is characterized by gentle slope of straight bluff marked with
occasional landslides and slump scar.

Erosion along Typical Coastline Characterized by Sedimentary rocks

 Crystalline rock coasts. Generally, crystalline rocks (hard rocks) are more
resistant to coastal erosion. Erosion is mainly by hydraulic action, attrition
and abrasion. However, in highly fractured rocks, hydraulic action o wave
can enlarge fractures especially at the base of cliff to cause rock fall or rock
flow.
 b) Wave
The rate at which cliff fall debris is removed from the foreshore depends on the
power of the waves crossing the beach. This energy must reach a critical level to
remove material from the debris lobe.
The cliff fall debris can dissipate wave energy on the foreshore and provide a
measure of protection to the adjoining land.
c) Sea level fluctuation
Coastal erosion can be greatly affected by the rising sea levels globally. The
impeding sea level rise due to global warming may have adverse effects on
coastline worldwide
d) Bathymetry
The configuration of the seafloor, controls the wave energy arriving at the coast,
and can have an important influence on the rate of cliff erosion. Shoals and bars
offer protection from wave erosion by causing storm waves to break and dissipate
their energy before reaching the shore. Given the dynamic nature of the seafloor,
changes in the location of shoals and bars may cause the locus of beach or cliff
erosion to change position along the shore

Environmental Impact

Coastal erosion has devastating effects, inclucing the loss of infrastructure such as roads.
It also threatens populations, who can no longer live close to the coastline, and the worry
is it is expected to increase due to climate change and sea level rise.

In many countries, the coasts are economically important since a large part of the gross
domestic product (GDP) is derived from coastal activities such as fishing, tourism and
commerce. Hence, populations are concentrated along the coastline, with a rate of
urbanization slightly higher than the interiors. As a result, many capitals and major towns
are coastal.
Along the northwest coast of Africa average rates of coastal retreat are between one
and two meters per year. However, more serious rates of up to hundreds of metres per
year have been observed locally, especially when the process has been created by
human activities.This will bring other problems such as salinisation of water and soils,
degradation of ecosystems and flooding. Such predictions were reiterated in the fourth

Over the next 60 years, erosion may claim one of every four houses within 500 feet of
the U.S. shoreline. Most of the damage from erosion over the next 60 years will occur in
low-lying areas that also have the highest risk from flooding.
The average annual erosion rate along the Atlantic coast is about 2 to 3 feet.
The highest erosion rates in the United States are in coastal areas bordering the Gulf of
Mexico. A major storm can erode the coast inland 100 feet or more in a single day. The
Atlantic coast has the largest number of structures located within the 60-year erosion
hazard area. Ecological concerns related to erosion arise primarily because of the scarcity
of wetlands. Coastal erosion may increase during the next 50 to 100 years if polar ice
caps melt and cause a rise in sea levels.

Erosion Control

Hard-erosion controls
Hard-erosion control methods provide a more permanent solution than soft-erosion
control methods. Seawall and jetties serve as permanent infrastructure. These structures
are not immune from normal wear-and-tear and will have to be refurbished or rebuilt. It
is estimated the average life span of a seawall is 50–100 years and the average for a
groin is 30–40 years.

Soft erosion control

Soft erosion strategies refer to temporary options of slowing the effects of erosion. These
options, including Sandbags and , are not intended to be long term solutions or
permanent solutions.