MO D E R N E N G L I SH

I T S G R O WT H A N D P R E S E N T US E
 M O D E RN ENGLI SH

I T S G R OW T H A N D P R E SE N T U SE

GE O R GE PH ILIP RAPP, PH D
R
Q
.

P ROFES S OR OF EN G LISH IN TH E UN IV ERS ITY O F CINCINNATI

A UT H O R O F EN G LI S H G RAM M A R
”
OF TH E

NE W Y O RK
C HA R L E S SCR IB NE R S SO N S
’

1 9 09
 B R AN D E R M AT T H E W S
M A ST ER OF MO DER N E N G L I S H

T HI S VO L UM E
IS I N SC R I B ED BY HIS F RI EN D A ND DE B T O R

T HE A UT HO R
 P R E FA C E

T H I S b o ok is not d es ign e d to d o away w ith th e n ec e s

s ity fo r u si ng th e dic ti o n a ri e s , gramm a rs an d deta ile d
,

hi s to ri e s o f th e E ngli s h l a n gua ge but to pre p a re th e

,

w ay for th e m o re pro fi tabl e a nd i n te llig e nt use o f th e s e

b o oks T h e gram m a rs a nd th e dicti o n arie s a re th e mine s
.

i n w hi c h th e crud e m ate rial s th e n atura l re s o urc e s o f

, ,

th e l a n gua g e a r e s to re d ; th e prin cipl e s o f de v el o pm ent

a pp e a rin g in l a n g uage th e o pin i o n s w hi c h m e n h o ld wi th
,

re s p e c t to th e us e o f lan guag e th e se ar e th e a pplianc e s

,

a n d th e m ac hi n e ry by m ea n s o f w h i ch th e rich e s o f th e

di c ti o n a ries a nd e ncy c l o p e di as o f fac t m ay be m ade a vail

a bl e fo r e ffe c ti v e c o fn ma n d o ve r l an g ua ge . S o m e o f th e
m o re imp o rtant o f the se pri n cipl es and o pini on s it is th e
purp o s e o f thi s b o o k to present .

T h e ge n e r ali z ati o n s h e re s et fo rth are s o me o f th e m

th e c o mm o npla c es o f th e his to ric a l s tudy o f l ang ua ge .

Fo r statin g th e m a g ai n in h is o w n w ay th e auth o r d o es
,

n o t fee l that a ny ap o l o gy i s n e c e ssary . T h ey ar e giv e n

a s S imply a s p o s sibl e fo r th e a dv an ta ge o f t h os e r e ade r s

a n d s tud e n ts w h o w i s h to be i n fo rm e d a s to th e re s ults

o f th e m o d e rn s ci e n tifi c s tud o f l an g uag e bu t w h o

y ,

a re n o t th e m selv e s pro fes s i o n al li n g ui s t s . T h e bo o k i s

unte c hn i c al, but th e a u tho r h o p es n o t un s ch o la rly
, ,
.

A tte nti o n i s c all e d in th e bri e f bibli o gra phy a t th e e n d

o f th e v o l um e t o r e pre s e n tativ e wo rk s w hich m a b
y e
vi ii P R E FA CE

c o n s ulte d by tho s e w h o wish to ente r into th e sub

ec ts t r e a te d m o r e f ully th a n th e limi ts o f thi s v o l um e
j
p ermitte d .

P e rhap s full e r citati o n s o f li te ra ry auth o ri ti e s m ay

be e xp e c ted in dis c u ss i o n s o f p o in ts o f divide d us e tha n
ha ve b e en given I n gen e ral ho we v e r it do e s n o t se e m
.
, ,

t o th e a uth o r that th e a pp e a l to li te ra ry a uth o rity i s th e

pr o p e r m e th o d o f attack in e x a minin g dis pute d que s
t i o ns o f s p e e ch sp o k e n o r w ritte n a n d th a t v e ry li ttle
, ,

1 s gam e d by a n e l a b o ra te ass e mbl a g e o f e x a mpl e s fr o m

li te ra ry s o urc e s to c o n firm o r to di sprove a p o int o f

pre s ent us e W h e re ther e is a r eal di ff e r en c e o f prac
.

tic e — a n d this i t m ay be p o i n te d o ut is r e lative ly

, ,

infre quen t — ni n e tim es o ut o f te n it wo uld be a s eas y

to s upp o rt o n e S id e as th e o the r by th e te s tim o n y o f
li tera ry a uth o ri ty Pa st li te ra ry us e i s o nly o ne o f m an y
.

te s ts th a t m us t be a ppli e d i n d e te rmi n i n g pr e se nt use .

T h e re a di n g o f li te ra ry E ngli s h s ho uld s tre n gth en th e

ha bitual an d un co n s ci o us fe e lin g fo r e xpre ssio n by which
‘

o n e a cq uir e s a l a rg e a s ur e a n d a v a ri ed s e n se o f th e
, ,

p oss ibl e v a l ues o f la n guage I t s ho uld s ugge st what

.

m ay be do n e wi th la ngua ge by sh o w mg w hat h as b e en
d o ne w ith it L ite r ary E ngli s h inde ed s hould be re
.
, ,

gard e d in th e s am e w ay as sp o k en E nglish B o th ar e
‘

fo rm s o f e xpr e s si o n which ha v e to be r e d uc ed t o n atur al

a n d un c o ns ci o u s h a bit be fo r e th e y c an be s a id to h av e

b een m aste re d . N o w n o thi n g hi n de rs s uch m a s te ry

s o m uch a s a m e tic ul o us r e s p e c t fo r th e a uth o ri ty o f

literary pra c ti c e D e Q uin c e y o n c e s aid that a uth ors

.

a r e a d a n g e r o us cl as s fo r a n
y l a n g uag e H e m eant .
,

o f c o urs e th at th e li te r a ry h a bit o f min d is l ikely t o

,

pro ve dange r o us for a l an guage I t i s lik ely to pro v e

.

danger o us be c aus e it so o fte n l ea ds a sp eak e r o r w riter

 P R E FA C E ix
to di s trus t n a tur al a nd
sci o us habit e ven w he n
un c o n ,

i t i s right a n d to p ut in its s te a d s o m e c o n s c i o us th e o ry
,

o f li te r a ry pr o pri e ty S uch a ten d e n cy ho we ve r is

.
, ,

di re c tly o pp o s e d to th e true fee lin g fo r idi o m ati c E ng

lis h I t de s tro ys th e se ns e o f s e c uri ty th e a ss uran c e
.
,

o f p e r fe c t c o n gr ui ty b e tw ee n t h o ught a nd e xpr es si o n ,

w hic h th e unli te ra ry a n d un a c ade m i c S p e ak e r a n d w ri te r

Ofte n h a s an d whi c h with bo th li te r ary an d unlite ra ry
, , ,

i s th e ba s i s fo r a l l e xpre ss iv e us e o f lan g uag e The .

s o urc e o f autho ri ty i n decidin g que s ti o n s o f pro pri e ty

i n fo rm q ue s ti o n s w hi c h n a tura lly a ri s e l e ss a n d les s
,

fre que ntly a s o n e a c q uir e s a s ur e se n se o f th e e xpress iv e

value o f language li es n ot in p as t use but in w hat
, ,

might be c alle d future us e th at i s in th e effe ctiven e ss

, ,

O f th e e xpr es si o n u p o n th e mi n d s o f th o se wh o a r e t o be

th e r e c e ive rs o f t i B ut e o ugh
n
.
— perhaps to o m uc h
— h a s be e n s aid up o n thi s s ubj e c t i n th e b o d f t h
y o e

bo ok an d it m ay be le ft h e re wi th th e s tate ment th at
,

a lth o g o o d m o de rn E n gli s h d e riv e s m uc h fr o m tradi

ti o n al li te ra ry E n gli s h th e fin al te s t o f i ts go o dn es s
,

o r its ba dn e ss i s to be fo un d a l way s i n imm e d ia te a n d

n o t in p a st us e .

T o th e va ri o us e xc e ll e nt hi sto ri e s o f th e E n glis h
l ang uage by Eme rso n L o uns bury J e sp ers en T o ll e r
, , , ,

an d B ra dle y a s w ell a s to m o r e s p e ci aliz e d s tud i e s a n d

,

e s says th e a uth o r gr a te fully a ck n o w l e dges h is g e n e ral

,

in deb te dn es s W h e r e ve r thi s i n debte dn ess i s sp e c i fic

.
,

th e e nd e a v o r h a s b e e n to giv e th e cre dit wh e re i t i s d ue .

A b o ve al l th e Ne w E n gl is h D ic ti o n a ry h a s b een c o n
,

s ta n tl y a n d un fa il in gly help ful T his w o rk re a lly h o lds

.

th e mi rro r up to n a ture I t d o es n o t us e th e la n g ua ge
.

o f th e im a gin ati o n but i t i s a n a m a z in g re c o rd o f th e

,

w o rki n gs o f th e ima gin atio n O ne w h o w i sh e s to kn o w

.
! PR E FA CE

th e E nglish language c ann o t d o b ette r than give h is

day s a nd his n ights to th e s tudy o f th e Ne w E ngl i sh
D ic ti o na ry. T o tho s e fri e nds wh o ha ve disc ussed wi th
him th e ide a s which th e v o lum e c o n tain s th e autho r
, ,

ac k n o w l e dg e s a n i n de bte dn e s s n o t c o mp e n s ate d by thi s

fo rm al r e c o gniti o n . A m o n g the s e fri e ndl y disputa nts

h e w o uld m en ti o n in p a rticul a r P ro f A H T h o rn dik e
. . .
,

o f C o l u mbi a U n iv e r s i ty Mr J G B o wm an Se c r e ta ry
, . . .
,

O f th e C a rn e l e Fo un d ati o n
g a nd
, Mr C .M .B ake r.
,

H eadmas ter o f L atin in th e H o rac e M an n Sc ho o l .

G . P K . .

T HE U NIV ERSITY OF C IN C INNATI

June , 1 9 0 9
 CONTE N T S

I I NTR O D U CT I O N
II T H E E N GLI S H P E OP LE
I I I T H E E N GLI SH L A N GU A GE

IV E NGLI SH I NF LE CT I ONS
V E N GLI S H S O UN D S

V I E N GL I SH W OR D S
V II E N GLI SH G RAM M A R

VI I I C O N C LU SI O N

AP PE N D I x
T H E O L D E N GLI S H CH R O NI C LE , FO L . l a
. T H E PA R
O NE R S T A LE F O L 3 0 6 T H E F I R S T F O LI O
’ 3
D ,
. . OF

S HA K S P E RE L YC I D A S LL
.
,
. 1 6 5—1 9 3

B I B LI O G R A PHY
I ND E x OF S UB J E CTS
I ND E x OF WO RD S

I L L U S T R A T I O NS
T h e O l d E ngl is h Ch ro ni c l e , L a ud M S 6 3 6, fo l 1 3
. .

Ch a uc er T a l e , C a mb rid g e U niv M S G G
’ ’
s P a r d o ne r s . . . .

Sh ak s p ere, F irs t Fo lio , M e rc h

a nt of Ve nic e , IV 1,
1 19 152 .

A uto gra ph M ilto n L y c id a s , 11 1 6 5 1 9 3

’
of S .
 M O D E R N E N G L I SH

I NT R O D UC T I O N

1 . H i s t o ry and P o l it i c s . Histo ry , acc o rdi ng to th e

s ayi n g o f a distin gui shed mo de rn hi sto rian is p as t !
,

po li tics . T O th e c o nte mp o ra ry o bs e rve r , th e pr a c tic a l

m eas ur es s upp o rte d a nd o pp o s e d by th e vari o us riva l
p o liti c a l p a rtie s s ee m o f o nly p assi ng signific an c e be
c aus e they ari se o ut o f th e immedi ate daily pro ble m s
a nd ne e ds o f a c tual life When the s e sam e m ea s ure s
.
,

ho weve r are viewe d in th e p erspe c tiv e o f years the y

, ,

a re s e e n th en no t to be i nd e pe n de nt a nd un re late d .

M o re o r l ess un c on sci o usly to thems elve s th e prac tic al ,

poli tici an s h elp o r r e ta rd c erta in la rge pri nciple s o f

dev elo pm e n t in th e life of a p eo pl e P res ent p o litics is
.

hi s to ry in th e m aking .

2 T h e H i s t o ry o f L a n gua ge
. I n th e s a m e way th e
.

hi sto ry o f a lan guage is m erely th e re c ord o f th e practi

c al e v e ry -d a s p ee ch o f s ucc e ssiv e g ene ra ti o n s Ev r
y e
.
y
pe rson wh o sp e aks o r writes a language wh o h and s o n ,

fr o m o ne sp e ak e r to a n o th e r any o f th e tra ditio n s o f th e

langua ge i s in so fa r a fa c to r in th e hi sto ric al gro wth
, ,

o f th e la n gua ge . A n d th e wh o le h isto ry o f th e la ng ua ge
is m a de up o f th e sum o f th e in divid ual ac ts o f all tho s e
wh o in p a s t tim e s h a ve us ed th e lan gua ge in r e sp o ns e
4 M O D E RN E N GL IS H

to th e imme di ate prac tic al n e eds o f life J ust a s p oli .

tics i s hi sto ry i n th e m a ki n g s o pre sent e ve ry d a -

, y ,

sp ee ch an d w ri tin g is th e histo ry o f th e la n guage in th e

m akin g .

A n o th e r c on cl usi o n o f th e m o de rn p o li tic al his to ri a n s

is a ppli c a bl e to th e his to ry o f l ang uage I t is a v e ry .

gene ra l Opini o n a mo n g his tori ans that th e j ustific atio n

o f th e s tudy o f th e hi s to ry o f p a s t p e ri o ds i s to be f o un d

in th e a pplic ati o n o f th e r e s ul ts o f s u ch s tudy to th e

c on diti o ns o f pre s ent life M an l e arns t o kno w hi m se lf
.

be tte r to c o n duc t th e affairs o f h i s public an d priv ate

,

life b ette r fro m h avi ng o bs e rve d th e c o n s e quen c e s o f

,

th e a c ti o n s o f me n i n o th e r d ay s SO als o by th e s tudy
.

o f th e hi s to ry o f his s p ee ch h e l earn s to adj us t hims elf

m o re wis e ly to th e c o n diti o ns o f pr e s ent sp ee ch H e

‘
.

l earn s that c o nte mp o rary s p ee ch is n ot o n th e o n e han d ,

,

a chao s o f i n divid ua l i n sta n c e s n o r i s i t o n th e o th e r

, , ,

go ve rn ed ac c o rdin g to th e de cre es o f a rigid th eo retic al ,

sys te m H e pe rc e ive s th at i t is a living thing and that

.
,

th e pri n cipl e s w hich i t ill us trates in i ts gro wth ha v e all

th e fl e xibil ity an d va riety o f li fe T o e n abl e a s p e ak e r
.

o r write r t o r e a li z e this S piri t o r life o f h i s o wn pr e s e nt

, ,

Sp e e c h is o n e O f th e mai n e n ds o f th e his to ric a l s tudy

o f l a n g ua g e .

3 T h e F un c t i o n o f L a n gua ge T h e e ffo rt to un de r
. .

s tan d thi s spiri t to find o ut what th e te nde n cies o f o n e s

,
’

n ativ e sp ee ch a re go o d and bad is b eset wi th m any

, ,

di ffic ul ti es T h e un c e rtain ty o f th e b e ari ng o f pre s e nt

.

e v e n ts a l ways m a k e s diffe re n c e o f o pi n i o n p o ssi bl e If .

w e k n e w e x a c tly th e futur e s ign ific a nc e o f a n a c ti o n ,

w h e th e r i n p o li tic s in p e rs o nal c o n duc t o r i n s p ee c h w e

, , ,

S h o uld d o ub tl ess a ll h o ld th e s a m e o p 1 m o n wi th r e s p e ct
6 M O D E R N E N GLIS H

exigen cies o f o ne m an s tryin g ’

to liv e on te rms of s o cial
un d e rs tan di ng w i th a n oth e r .

4 . S p eech as S o c ia l C us t o m
sp e ci al func ti o n
. The
o f s p e ech a s s o ci al c us to m i s th e e xpr e s s i o n o f s o ci a l

ide as If m . e n ar e to liv e wi th e a ch o th e r if th e
y a re ,

n o t to be lik e s to ck s a n d s to n e s th e n th e y m us t h a v e ,

s o me m e an s o f c o n ve yi n g t o e ac h o th e r th e ir n ee d s ,

th eir d e sires th e ir id e a s the ir a spirati o n s

, , T his th ey .

might d o by va ri o us m eans S o lo n g a s th e ide as we re .

si m pl e and primitive they might be c o n v ey e d by v e ry

,

c rud e m e an s A br an di s h e d c l ub might se rv e to i ndi

.

c ate o n e s s e ns e o f th e right o f po ss e ssi on in a pi e c e o f

’

di sp ute d pro p e rty B ut it is o n e o f th e charac teri stic s

.

o f m a n as m a n th at th e id eas w hic h h e w i s h e s to c o n

ve y to h i s fe ll o w m e n h a ve n o t r e m ai n e d th us simple
-

a n d cr ud e T h e s o ci al i n te rc o urs e o f m e n h a s be c o m e
.

e x tre m e ly c o mpl e x b o th e m o ti o n a lly a nd i n tell e c tuall

, y ,

and c o rre s p o ndin g to thi s c o mple xi ty the re h as bee n

, ,

a n e q ual gr o w th in th e va ri e ty a n d th e s ub tl e ty o f th e

c ustom s o f sp ee ch O ut o f th e prac tic al nee ds o f c o m

.

m unic atio n h as a ri se n th e v a st fa bri c o f hum an l an

gua ge M anife s tly the n th e be st lan guage bei n g th at
.
, ,

which m o s t a d e q ua te ly realiz e s th e f un c ti o n o f l a n
g ua ge that is th e bes t w hich e nabl es men to e xpre ss
,

th e m s e lv es m o s t fully an d sa ti sfa c to rily in th e ir r el a

tio n s to e a ch o th e r T h is is th e id e a l to wards w hich
.

l anguage s triv e s I n th e an im a l w o rld w e S p e ak o f

.

de gene ratio n w h en c e rtain func ti o n s o f th e o rgan is m

ne c ess a ry to th e pr es e rv ati o n o f i ts li fe a nd th e e xi st .

e n c e o f i ts sp e ci e s b e c o m e w e ak e ne d I n th e s a m e w ay .

we m ay s p e a k o f d eg e ne r a ti o n in a l an gua ge whe n i t
change s in s uch a way th at Pit b ec o m es l e ss c apa bl e o f
 IN T RO D U CT I O N 7

p erfo rmi n g th e fun c ti o n s fo r w hich l anguage e xists ;

a nd , o n th e o the r h a n d w e m ay s p e a k o f gro wth a n d
,

impro v e ment in l an gua ge as it be c o m es m o re a nd m o re

e ffe c ti ve i n e n abl in g m e n t o u n d e rs ta n d e a c h o th e r .

5 T h e S p e e c h o f a D e m o c ra c y
. T h e n e c es si ty o f
.

re alizin g i n a n eve r inc re a si ng degre e this i d eal fun c ti o n

-

o f l a n g ua g e is o n e th a t i s p e c uli a rly i n c um be nt up o n a

dem o c racy T h e bes t n a tio n al s p e e c h for a d e m o cracy

.

i s th a t w hich e n abl e s i t to be m o s t f ully s el f e xpr e s s iv e-

.

I t i s in i ts el f that th e fa te o f a d em o c ra c y li es Fr o m
.

i ts o wn m e mb e r s m ust e m an ate all i ts l a w s i ts i d e al s o f

,

c o n duc t o f wh a te v e r n ature
,
.I t m ust ha v e c o n fide n c e
in th e v al ue o f its un ite d Opi n i o n ; a n d i ts prim e d uty
c o n sis ts in s uc h a free an d libe ra l e xch an ge o f ide as that
th e r e s h all be a un ite d o pi n i o n A d e m o cra cy w hi c h is
.

n o t s e lf e xpr e ss iv e a n d s e l f d e te rmi n i n g i s n ot a r ea l
- -

de m o cr ac y A nything in s p e e c h there fo r e whic h pr e

.
, ,

vents th e dem o cratic n ati o n fr o m re alizin g its e lf as a

s el f d e te rmi ni n g b o dy i s h a rm ful
- T h us th e n a ti o n a l
.

s p ee c h o f a d e m o c ra cy c a nn o t be s e c ti o n al ; i f th e r e is

n o t o n e unifo rm s pee ch a cc e p ta bl e to th e w h o l e n a ti o n ,

the n th e S p e e ch o f o ne re gi o n m ust h a ve e qua l a uth o rity

wi th tha t o f a n o th e r . T h e s p ee ch o f a d e m o c racy c an
n o t be a c l a s s s p ee c h ; it c an n o t be a tr a di ti o n al l ite r a ry

s p e e ch th e so c alle d
,
-
be s t E ngli sh o f a s p e cial limi te d
a c a d e mi c o r lite r a r
y cl ass . I ts r o o ts m u s t g o d ee p e r .

T h ey m us t s trik e d o wn i nto th e re gi o n o f th e pra c tic al

daily life of th e c i tiz en s w ho s e v o te and w h o s e o pini o n
m ake th e c o un try w ha t i t is If it is to h ave any en
.

durin g vi tality it mus t re st up o n th e bas is o f na ti o n al

c us to m w h e re n a ti o n al c us to m i s m a d e T h e duty o f
.

m akin g th es e c us to m s s oun d an d g o o d is o ne tha t re sts

8 M O D E R N E N GL I S H

o n al l a like T h e we lfare o f th e s p ee ch o f a d e m o cracy

.

c an n o m o re be le ft in th e h a n d s o f a fe w pr e s e rv e r s

o r r e g ul ato r s th an i t s p o li ti c al g o v e rn m e n t c an be l e ft

i n th e h a n ds o f a fe w s el f app o in te d dir e c to rs o r dic

-

tato r s .I n b o th a di ffuse d i ntellig enc e i s th e p ri m e

r e quisite to a healthy n atio nal li fe .

6 S p e e c h a n d E d uc a t i o n
. T h e o b s ta cles th a t
.

s tan d i n th e way o f th e reali z atio n O f th e ide al o f a

d em o cra ti c s p e e ch are c o n fes s e d ly num ero us and great .

I t is di ffic ult i n th e firs t pla c e to d e te rmi ne j us t h o w

, ,

m uc h v alue s h o uld be ascribed to traditi o n O l d ways .

a r e n o t g o o d m e r e ly b e c a us e th ey a re Old ; and O f c o urs e

th e sam e c a n be said o f n ew ways I t i s a fair c o n

.

s e r va tive as s ump ti o n ho we v e r tha t w hat h as s e r ve d

, ,

man s p urp o se i n th e p as t w ill c o ntinue to s e rv e i t

’

b e s t in th e pres en t until ch an ge d c ondi ti o ns d e m an d

,

n e w w ay s . B ut ag ain o n e m ust ta k e h ee d n o t to be
s o bli n d ed by o l d c us to ms as n o t to p e rc e i ve w h e n th e
,

c o ndi ti o ns a c tuall y are chang e d I n th e s e c o nd pla c e

.
,

dem o cracy wo rks fro m th e bo tto m up a nd n ot fro m ,

th e to p d o wn C o ns e quently p o p ular e d uc a ti o n w he n
.
,

i t is di ffus e d o ve r th e W h o l e b o dy o f s o ci e ty a s s o ci e ty ,

is at pre sent c o nstitute d is li k ely to be a s o m e w h at

,

thi n a nd i n a d e q ua te ki nd o f e d uc ati o n I t thus h ap .

p e n s th at the re are peo pl e wh o re st c onte nt wi th ve ry

imp erfe c t e duc ati o n wh o take th e dry husks o f th e
,

m e re rud iment s o f e d uca ti o n fo r th e r eality i ts e lf We .

find p e rs o n s w h o thi n k th a t th e s e cre t o f g o od E n gli s h

c o n sis ts m erely i n e xpre ss i n g the ms elv e s i n a c er tain
pr es crib e d way i n usi ng a c ertain intona ti o n o f v o ic e
,

o r a c er ta in q ua li ty o f v o wel so un d w h e n th e y s p e a k ,

o r o n e fo rm o f phras i n g o r e v e n o f s p elli n g
, ra the r ,
 I NT R O D UC T I O N 9

th an he r w he n th e y write
an ot ,
T h e y fa il to re ali z e
.

th at th e c o n v e nti o nal c us to ms o f sp e a ki ng a nd wri tin g ,

i m p o rtan t a s th e k n o wl e dge O f th e m i s a re neve rth e ,

l es s th e m e re pre l im inarie s th e e l e me n tary m e ch anic s

, ,

o f a g o o d us e o f l a n gua g e Englis h w hi ch i s m e rely

.

c o rr e c t c a n n o t c l ai m v e ry high prais e G o in g a li ttle .

_

l o we r in th e s c al e o f in telli ge nc e w e may fin d that a ,

m an wh o h as c o m e fro m g e nera ti o n s o f an c e s to rs wh o
c o uld n o t write is like ly to thi nk tha t th e Simple ability
,

to write i s th e pi nn ac le o f e duc a ti o n B ut fo r him p e r .

h aps i t i s ; and all that dem o cra tic educ atio n c an o fie r

to a ny l a rge b o dy o f pe o pl e in di ffe re n t s ta g e s o f d e
ve l o p m e n t i s th e o pp o rt un i ty fo r ea c h to re aliz e w hat

a t a give n m o m en t is th e high e s t a n d b es t thi n g fo r

h i m to d o T h e g en e ral l ev el c a nn o t be ra is e d by a
.

s in gl e ac t o r by th e a c ts o f a fe w but o nl y by th e
, ,

s um o f al l th e a c ts o f th e p e o ple w h o m ak e up th e

wh o le . I n s pi te th e refo r e o f th e l o w i d e al s o f c e r tai n
, ,

memb ers O f th e b o dy p o litic it m ust al ways rem ain ,

th e h o p e o f a d e m o cra cy th at th e av e rag e pl an e o f i ts
life wil l ris e high er and highe r f ro m ge ne ratio n to ge n
e r atio n A n d s o lo n g as th e life o f th e p e o pl e re ma i ns
.

vigo r o us s o l o n g a s the ir min ds an d th eir wills a re

,

e n e rg e ti c a nd s tirri ng this w ill r e m ai n a w ell fo und e d

,
-

ho pe .

7 T h e B e s t T e n d e n c y i n S p e e c h I n sp e ech the re
. .
,

fo r e th e ide a l a tti tu de o f mi n d is th a t w hi c h l e ads th e

,

s p e a k e r to un i te him s e lf to th o s e c us to m s a nd te n d en

c i e s whi c h i n h is o pi n i o n
, make for th e w e l fare o f th e
,

n a ti ona l i di o m in th e m o s t e ffe c tiv e m a n n e r I f Sp e ech .

ari s es a s w e h a v e s a i d o ut o f th e i m m edi a te s o ci a l r e l a
,

ti o n s o f m a n w i th m a n , it w ill be s e e n th a t th e r e i n lie s
10 M O D E R N E N GLI S H

th e final te s t of val ue It will be s e en als o that

its .
, ,

th o s e ten de n ci e s o f s p e e ch w i th w hich a sp eak e r o r

w rite r w ish es to uni te hims elf a r e m e rely m anifes tati o n s
Of g ene ral s o ci al ten d e n ci es Shall o ur id e al s o ci al
.

te n de n cy be o n e th a t m a ke s fo r e xclus iv e ne s s fo r th e ,

dev el o pme nt o f limi te d cl as s di s ti n c ti o n s O r s h all it

be a broade r a n d m o re lib e ra l tende n cy o n e tha t is d e m ,

o c r ati c a n d g e n e r o usl i n cl u s iv e I n s p e ch h ll w
y e s a e

e n d e a v o r t o c ultiva te r e fi n e d a n d m o r e o r less a rbi tra ry

d i s ti n c ti o n s w hich s h all e n abl e us to m ak e a s tric t divi

si o n b etwe e n c o nv e nti o nal a n d literary E n gli s h o n th e ,

o n e h an d ,
a nd w h a t m ay be c a lle d n a tur al a n d se lf

determin ing E nglish o n th e o th e r ? I s th e be s t E n gli s h

th at w hich is a cq uire d by l e arn i n g a nd fo ll o wi n g a n e x
te rn al r ule o r is i t th e E n glish W t h i s a cquire d by fo l
,

lo wi ng s o ci al c usto m th e b e s t as e a ch vi e ws it a nd a s
, , ,

ea ch is br o ugh t i n to c o n ta c t w ith i t i n th e a c tual pr o c,

e ss e s o f livi n g S p e a ki n g a nd w ri ti n g
, , T h e s e ar e so m e
o f th e q ue s ti o n s w hich e a ch o f u s m us t a n sw e r fo r him

sel f . Ne c e s s arily e v e ry s p eake r a n d e v e ry write r m us t

fo ll o w s o m e te n de n cy o f th e s p e e c h o f th e c o m m uni ty ,

w h e th e r thi s be c o ns ci o us o r un c o n s ci o us Ev e ry o n e .

o f us i s a lway s fo ll o w i n g a t th e s a m e tim e th a t h e is
,

helpi ng to ma k e c us to m I n what dir e c ti o n sh all w e

, .

thro w o ur i n fl uen c e B e fo re we c an ans wer this q ue s

ti o n we m us t h a v e s o m e k no wle dge o f th e c o n flic ti n g
c us to m s a nd te n d e n c ie s o f o ur s p e e ch a n d as t hi s k n o wl
,

e dge gr o w s i n bre a d th an d c e r tai n ty th e a n s we r t o th e ,

q ues tio n will be c o me a cc o rdi ng to o ur s ymp athi es c o r

, ,

res o nd in l e a sy a n d un h e si ta ti n g
p gy .

8 L i t e r a r y a n d S p o k e n L a n gua ge
. I n al l s tudy .

o f l a ng ua g e a s e xpr e ss i o n it is no w ge n e rally c o n c e ded

, ,
 INT ROD U C T IO N 11

by th o se wh o ha v e given m uch th o ught to th e m atte r ,

th at th e S p o k en a s c o mp a re d w ith th e w ri tte n o r li te ra ry
,

lan gua ge i s o f fa r th e gre a te r imp o rtan c e I t is m ainly

,
.

in th e S p e e ch o f m e n and w o m e n a s th e y c o m e in to
dire c t so ci al r el ati o n s with e a ch o ther th at lan guage d e
vel o p s a n d gro ws i n a n a tura l un tra mm el e d a n d e ffec
, ,

tiv e w ay T h e l an guag e o f li te r ature i s me re ly an

.

appr o xi m a te tra n s crip ti o n m o re o r l es s r e m o te o f th e

, ,

l anguag e o f spee c h I t i s fro m th e latte r that th e l a n

.

guage o f li te ratur e i s d e riv e d an d i t m us t alw ays r eturn

,

to its so urc e to r e ne w i tse lf wh e n a s i t c o n s tan tly te nds

,

to d o i t b e c o m es a tte n uate d an d o utw o rn

,
T hi s b e i n g .

grante d it re adi ly fo ll o ws th at it is s p ee ch w hich w e

,

s h o uld s tudy n o t o nly fo r e fie c ti ven e ss i n c o n v e rs a ti o n

, ,

but als o fo r e ffe c tiv en e ss in li te ra tur e T h e p o p ul a r

.

o pi ni o n i s n o t us ually in a c c o rd w i th th i s s ta te m e n t It .

is o fte n b eli e ve d th a t th e la ngua ge o f li te rature i s s o m e

thi n g di ffe r e nt fro m a n d b e tte r th an th e l an guag e o f
sp e e c h . T hi s l a tte r b ein g th e c o mm o n p osses s i o n o f all
, ,

is l o o k e d d o wn up o n as s o m e thing ign o bl e o r at l east ,

n o t a dmira bl e B e c ause it is familiar it is re ga rde d a s

.
,

c o n te mp tibl e I t is s upp o se d tha t th e a b ili ty to use th e

.

E ngli sh o f lite ra ture is a sp e c i al a nd a c quire d a cc o m

p li s h m e n t a nd th a t o n e l e arns th e lan gua ge o f li te r ature
,

as o n e l e a rn s a n e w ar t l ik e pl ayi n g th e pi a n o o r p a i n t
,

i ng. B eing a Sp e cial a nd highe r a c co mplis hm en t th e ,

lan guage o f litera ture i s thus o ften r e garde d as furni sh

ing th e m o d e l fo r th e la n guage o f s p e e ch an d th e th e o ry ,

is h e ld that th e la tte r S h o uld be m a d e t o c o n fo rm as

f ull y a s p os sibl e to th e fo rm e r “
O n e n e e d o nly talk
.

”
lik e a b o o k to reali z e th e a bsurdi ty o f s uch a b e li ef .

O n th e o th e r h and it is n o c re di t to th e la n g ua g e o f l i t
12 M O D E R N E N GL I S H

e r a ture to bo o k L ite rary language which is

r e ad lik e a .

bo o kis h w e d o n o t r e g ard a s a dmira bl e ; o n th e c o n

’
tra ry wh e n we w an t to pra i s e a n a uth o r s s tyl e we
, ,

rathe r s ay th at it is true n a tural real T h e fac t is t hat

, , .

literature en dea v o r s m e re ly to tran s c ribe life to giv e in ,

th e p e rm ane n t fo rm o f wo rds a n d s e n te n c es th e p a ssin g

e xp e ri e n c es th o ughts a nd e m o ti o n s O f m e n
, , A cc o rdin g .

a s i t d o e s thi s th e m o r e dir e c tly a n d tr uly th e gr e ate r ,

lite rature it is T he re is n o n ee d to pro ve that l an guage

.

is o n e o f th e m o s t chara c te ris tic e xpr e ssi o ns o f h um an

li fe I t i s a s sp e aking b e in g s that m en think o f the m
.

se lv e s . T h e wri te r the re fo re wh o w i s h e s t o tra n scrib e

, ,

h um a n life m us t tra n scrib e it in th e fo rms o f s p ee ch in

,

w hich it fin ds its m o st imm e di ate e xpre s s i o n H is ta s k .

i s p a rall e l to th at o f th e a rti st W hen a p o rtrait p ai nte r .

w i sh e s to p ai n t a p o r tra it h e m us t s tudy th e fe atur e s

,

o f th e huma n fa c e a n d th e li ne s o f th e hum a n fig ur e ;

wh e n a l an ds c ap e p ain te r w ish e s to tran sfe r to c a n v a s

his impres si o ns o f sea o r lan d h e m us t go i nto th e o p en ,

a n d s tudy cl o uds tr e e s a n d a tm os ph e re
, , B o th ar e said .

'

to fo ll o w n ature b e c a use i t is th eI r I mpre s s i o n s o f th e

,

re ality in n ature which th ey e n d ea vo r to re c o rd I n th e .

s a m e way th e li te r a ry a r ti s t m us t fo ll o w n a ture n o t o n ly ,

by s tudying th e i nne r m oo d s an d ac tuatin g m o tiv es O f

m e n but a l s o th e w ays i n w hi c h the s e m o o ds a n d m o
,

ti ve s fin d the ir m o s t n a tura l an d e ffe c tive e xpre ssi o n I t .

i s tr ue o f c o ur s e th at litera ry l a n guag e h as c us t o m s a n d
, ,

c o n v e n ti o n s for e x ampl e m e te r in p o etry w hi c h a r e

, , ,

p e c ulia r to its elf I n th e s a me way p ai nting h a s c e r

.

ta i n devic e s tri c ks o f m e th o d w hi c h i n th e m s elves ar e

, ,

un true to na tur e but which a r e u se d b e c a us e to th e

,

b e ho lder they pro duc e o r heighten th e effe c ts o f n a ture .

14 M O D E R N E N GL I S H

of li te rature up o n th e l an g uage o f sp e e c h Greek li te r

a ry s tyl e is n o t a S p e ci al c a s te l an g uag e fo r li te ra ry u
p r

po s es but rathe r an e x t ens i o n o f th e sp o ke n l anguage to

,

w ri tten u s es . M o li er e th e o nly Fren ch man w o r thy to

,

rank as th e fe llo w o f Shaksp e re o we s m uch o f his ,

po we r to th e n atural n ess o f his style Hatin g as h e di d .

hyp o cri sy a nd affe c tati o n in e v e ry fo r m we s h o uld e x ,

pe ot to fin d him n atura l an d re al in hi s writin g I n .

S h o rt i t is a fals e s tan da rd o f v a l ue t o a s s um e th at th e

te s t o f high e s t e xc e ll en c e is to be f o un d o n ly in pri n te d
a n d w ri tte n wo rd s T h e s e ar e m e re ly m ak e shi fts an d
.

s ub sti tute s fo r th e r e ali ty T h ey s e rv e to be s ure a

.
, ,

ve ry imp o rtant p urp o s e Fo r o n e thin g th ey pres e rv e

.
,

w h a t o th e rwi s e might b e c o m e l o s t if i n trus te d o n ly to

o r al tra nsmis s i o n T hey p e rfo rm a tre m en do us s e rvic e
.
;

to h um an it y als o by e x te n di n g th e b o un d s o f i n divid ua l
e xp e ri e n c e. I n a libra ry o f b o o k s w e c an c o mm un e a t
w ill wi th th e s pirits o f a l l a g e s a nd a ll pla c es In d e e d .

th e a bili ty to w ri te is s o highly rega rde d by m anki n d

th at p e rhaps n o o th e r ki nd o f fa me is s o gen erally a n d
s o e a g e rly d e sI r e d as li te ra ry fa m e Ye t thi s gl o ry
.

sho uld n ot bli nd o n e to th e fac t th a t literature i s n o t

s elf pr o ducing but gro ws o ut o f nature T h e a s piran t
-
, .

fo r li te ra ry fam e m us t n o t o nly k n o w l e tters a b o v e a ll ,

h e m us t kn o w li fe I f h e w i s h e s to write fo r h is age
.
,

h e m us t k n o w h o w th e m e n o f h is a ge S p e ak H e m us t
‘

n o t e xp e n d a l l h i s e n e rgy a n d a dmir ati o n up o n b o o k s ,

but m ust turn to th at fo rm o f th e languag e w hi c h a b o ve

th e l a ng ua ge o f b oo ks i s th e m o s t wo n d e rful th e m o s t
, ,

dignifi e d and th e m o st wo rthy o f re sp e c t th e fle xibl e

, , ,

s ub tle s p e e ch o f men in th e infi ni te r e latio ns o f hum an

li fe.
 II

T HE E NG L I SH PE O PL E

1 . S p eech a nd R ace . The

E n glis h language is o ne
o f th e m o s t wi d e ly di strib ute d l an g ua g es o f th e m o d e rn

w o rld . C e nte r e d o riginally i n th e li ttle ki n gd o m o f

E n glan d th e s p ee ch h as s pre a d to al l th e fo ur c o rn e rs
,

o f th e gl o b e I t h as be c o m e th e Sp e e ch o f two o f th e
.

m o st p o we rful n ati o n s o f m od e rn tim e s a nd is n o w ,

t h e s p ee ch o f th e m o s t n um e r o u s c iviliz e d p e o pl e o f

th e wo rld I n th e c o urse o f i ts h i s to ry it h a s i m p o s e d
.
,

i ts e lf up o n p e opl e s o rigi n ally s peakin g m any differ ent

l anguages and o riginall y o f very d iv e rs e ra ci al o rigin s ;
a nd al th o ea c h n e w b o dy thus i n c o rp o r a te d h as a fi e c ted

th e w h o l e th e sto c k o f th e l a ng uag e h a s re m ain e d e s

,

s e ntia l l y th e s a m e to th e pre s e nt d ay I t shall be o ur

.

fir s t ta sk to tak e a s urv ey o f th e hi s to ry o f th e E n gli s h .

l an guage fro m thi s e thnolo gic al o r ra cial p o in t o f vi ew .

2 C el ti c B rit a i n
. I n th e firs t c entury befo re C hri s t
.
,

wh e n th e i s l an d o f G re a t Britain fir st b e c a me w e ll
k n o wn to th e R o m ans w h o we re th en th e m o s t p o we r
,

f ul as w e ll a s th e m os t highly civi liz e d n a ti o n o f

E uro p e i t w a s o cc upie d by a r a c e o f C e ltic p eo pl e
, ,

s p e aki n g a C el ti c l an g ua g e T hi s r a c e h ad b e e n pre
.

c e d e d i n B ri ta i n b v ar i o us di ffe r e n t pre hi s to ri c ra c e s
y ,

c onc ern in g w hi c h littl e is k no wn ; it wa s one o f th es e

pr e hi sto ri c ra c e s h owe ve r w hi ch reare d th e gre at
, ,

m o n olith s at Ston e h e n ge o n S ali sbury Plain The.

16 M O DE R N E N GLIS H

C el tic inh abi ta nts o f th e i slan d c a lle d the ms elves Brit

o n s a n d fr o m thi s n am e o f th e p e o pl e th e c o un try w a s
,

c a ll ed Bri ta nn i a by th e R o m a n s w h e n c e is d e ri ve d o ur ,

m o d ern Bri tain T h e C e l ts o f Britai n we r e m e rely a

.

branc h o f a gre a te r C el ti c p e o pl e w hich the n dw e l t i n

G aul a n d in Sp a in th e C e l ts o f G aul be in g th e pre d e
,

c e s s o rs o f th e Fra n k s a T e uto n ic p e o pl e fro r w h m

rn o '
,

th e c o un try d e riv e d i ts m o d e rn n a m e o f Fran c e On .

t h e C o nti n e n t th e C e l ts h ave b e e n alm o s t c o mpl e te l y

a b s o rb e d by th e R o m an a n d T e uto nic c o n q uero r s o f
th e ir c o un tri e s B ut in E n gl an d to this d ay th ey h a v e
.

m ai n tain e d a m o re o r l es s s e p ara te e xi s te n c e a n d th eir ,

s p e e ch s till s urviv e s i n th e G a eli c o f th e H ighl a n d s o f

Sc o tl an d th e W e l s h o f Wal e s a n d a l so in th e Iri s h o f
, ,

Irelan d U ntil c o mp ara tiv ely re c ent tim es a C eltic

.

s p e e ch wa s a l s o sp o k e n in C o rn w all

3 T h e R o ma n I nv a s i o n s
. T h e firs t m ili ta ry inv a.

s i o n w hich th e R o m an s th e w o rld c on q ue r o rs m ade

, ,

a g a i n s t th e C e l ts o f Bri ta i n w a s in th e y ea rs 5 5 a n d
,

5 4 B C un d e r th e l e a d e r s hip o f J uli us C aes a r

. .
, T hi s .

wa s m o r e in th e n a tur e o f a n e xc ursi on fro m G a ul ,

howe v e r w he r e C aesa r wa s th e n c ampaigni ng than

,
1
,

a s e ttl e d a tte mp t t o c o n q ue r th e c o un try T h e s e ri o us .

c o n q ue s t o f Bri tain w a s n o t un d e rtak e n un til a b o ut a

c e n tury la te r A D , 4 2 un d e r th e E mp er o r C l audi us ;
. .
,

a n d a b o ut th e y e a r A D 8 0 th e Co un try w a s o rg a ni z e d
. .

a s a R o m a n pr o vi n c e un d e r th e c o mm an d o f th e R o m an
,

g en e ral A gric ol a T h e p o rt i o n s o f th e c o untry o cc upi ed

.

by th e R o m an s w ere chiefly th o se c e n tral , s o uth e rn ,

a n d e aste rn p a r ts w hi c h l a te r b e c a m e th e ki n gd o m o f

E n gl an d T h e m o un tai no us re gi on s o f W al es i n th e
.

1 S e e G l li W B k IV nd V
a c a r, oo s a .
 T H E E N GL I S H PE O P LE 17

W est and o f Sc o tl a n d in th e No rth we re s o ught o ut a s

a pl a c e o f r e f ug e by th e C el ts w h o h ad b e e n driv e n o ut

o f th e m o r e fe r til e re gi o n s o f t h e l o wl a n d s I n thes e
.

fa s tn es s e s th e y mai n ta in e d a n i n d ep e n d en t a nd h o s til e
e xi s te n ce. A s a pr o te c tio n ag a ins t C e l ti c in v a s i o n s fro m
th e n o rth th e E m p e ro r H a dri an (A D 1 2 0 ) buil t a w all
. .
,

f w h i h re s til l s tan di n g b w e n th e Fir th o f

‘

p a rt s o c a e,t e

S o lway a n d th e m o uth o f th e riv e r T yn e A s e c o n d wall

.

w a s l a te r b uil t by A n to ni n us P ius e x te n di n g fr o m th e
,

Fi rth o f C lyde to th e Firth o f Fo rth ; a n d s till la te r the s e

w al ls w e r e fur th e r e x te n de d by th e Emp e ro r S e ve r us ,

wh o c a m e to Bri tai n i n th e ye a r 20 8 I n th e pro te c te d

.

re gio ns th e R o man civiliz ati o n in Bri tain w as pros p er o us

a n d h ighly d e v e l o p e d . T h e gro und w a s c ultiva te d a n d ,

s h e e p a n d ca ttl e w e r e r ais e d T h e mi n es o f C o rn w a ll
.

a n d o f N o r th umb e rl an d w e re w o rk e d a n d a n e x te n s ive

c o mm erc e w ith th e C o n tin ent w as carrie d o n T h e R o .

man s b uil t h o uses te mpl e s th ea te r s a l ta rs a n d ba ths

, , , ,

a fte r th e s tyl e o f th e buildi n g s o f th e ir h o m e c o un tr

y ,

a n d r ui n s an d r e lic s o f th e s e h o us e s th at h a v e be e n
p re

s e rv e d to m o d e r n ti m e s s h o w th a t s o m e o f th e m m us t

h ave b e e n v e ry l ux uri o us T h e y buil t a l s o highw ay s

.

( a s fo r e x a m pl e W a t li n g S tr ee t e x ,t e n di n g th e w h o l e

bre ad th o f E ngla n d fro m C a n te rbury to C he s te r ) s o m e ,

p art s o f w hi ch are i n u se to this d ay O ur w o rd stre e t “ ”

.
,

de riv e d fro m L atin str a ta i n th e phra s e str a ta vi a p av e d

, ,
”
w ay , was b o rr o w e d fro m th e R o m an s o ldi e rs bo th o n ,

th e C o n tin e n t a n d i n Bri ta in T h e s e h igh ways w e re

.

b uil t in a cc o r d an c e w i th th e u sual p o li c y o f th e R o m a ns
, ,

a s m i li ta ry ro a ds t o fac il i ta te th e p a s s a ge o f tr o o p s fr o m

o n e se c ti o n o f th e c o u nt r
y t o a n o th e r W a ll e.d c i ti e s

w e re a l s o e s ta blis h e d a t v ari ous adv a n tage o us p o i n ts in

18 M O DE R N E N GL I S H

Britai n a nd m any o f th e s e ha v e lik e wi s e la ste d to

,

m o de rn tim es s o m e O f the m still pr es e rvi n g p a r ts o f th e

,

o l d R om an d e fe n se s T h ey we re c all e d c a str a a nd thi s

.
,

w o rd i n i ts m o difi e d f o rm s app e a rs i n th e n a m es Ch es
, ,

te r Wi n c h es ter D on c a s te r G l ouce ster Wor c es te r E x e ter

, , , , ,

( i n A n gl o S
-
a x o n ti m e s k n o w n a s E x a n c e a s te r
) a n d in ,
-

m any o th e r n a m es o f to w n s and pl ac es T h e l an guage .

w hich w a s s p o k en by th e R o m ans in Bri ta in w as th e

L a ti n l a ng ua ge in a p o p ul a r o r c o ll o q ui al fo rm b e in g th e ,

o rdi n ary l a n g ua g e o f th e s o ldi e r s a n d m e rchants wh o

c o n sti tute d th e l arge r p ar t o f th e p o p ul ati o n I t w a s .

th e s a m e l a n gua ge as th a t s p o k e n i n G a ul by th e R o m an
c o n que r o rs o f tha t c o untry an d if th e R o man s in E n g
,

lan d h a d c o nti n ue d in unin te rrupted r es iden c e a s they ,

did in G aul it i s q uite pro b able th at th e lan gua ge o f

,

G re at Brita in to -d ay w o uld be a R o m an c e S p ee ch i ns te a d
o f E ngli s h .

T h e R o m an o cc up ati on o f Bri tain h o we v e r c am e to a

, , ,

s udde n end I n th e fo ur th an d fif th c enturi e s A D th e

. . .
,

pressur e o f th e n o rth e rn trib es up o n Italy a nd R o m e be

an t o m a ke i ts e lf fe l t n d R o m e w a s c o mp e ll e d to
g a ,

s tre n gt h e n h e r h o m e d e fe n ses T o d o thi s i t was n e ces

.

s ary t o c a ll i n c e rt ai n o f th e l e gi o n s th a t w e r e s ta ti o n e d

i n th e pr o vin c e s a n d n aturally th e m o s t di s ta n t w e r e th e
,

fir s t th us to be giv en up I n th e yea r 4 0 7 th e gr ea te r
.

p art o f th e R o m an s o ldi ery l e ft Brita in ; i n th e ye a r 4 1 0

th e l a st R o m an l e gi o n wa s w ith dr a w n a n d th e E m p e r o r ,

H o n o ri us s e n t a l e tte r to th e p e o ple o f Bri tai n i n w hi c h

h e to ld the m to t ak e c h a rg e o f th e ir o wn d e fe n s e .

Si n c e th e R o m a n c iviliz a ti o n i n Bri tai n h ad b e en a l

t o g eth e r m il ita ry in c h a ra c te r th e w ith d r aw al o f th e
,

legi o n s imm e di ately pr e par e d th e w ay fo r th e bre aki n g

 T HE E N G LI S H P E O PLE 19

d o wn of th e w h ol e R o m an m s f g
s te o v e rn m e n t an d
y o

fo r th e n e x t imp o rtan t an d dra m ati c ep i s od e in th e

his to ry o f th e is l an d t h e c o ming o f th e E n glis h
, .

4 T h e A n gl o—S ax o n C o n q u e s t
. Bes i d e s the ir h er
.

e di ta r e n m i t h C l ts f th m un t i n u r gi n f
y e es , e e o e o a o s e o s o

W ale s an d Sc o tla n d th e R o man s in B ritain h a d h ad

,

a n o th e r foe to c o n te n d w i th T he se w e r e c e rta i n G e r
.

m ani c S a x o n tri be s w h o w ere in th e h a bi t O I C I O S n

I
'

‘
S

o ve r fr o m n o rt h G e rm an a n d ra v a gin g th e ea s te rn c oas t
y
o f Bri tai n k n o w n as th e S a x o n Sh o re be c a use i t w as e x
,

p o s e d to t h e a t ta c k s o f t h e S a x o ns W hil e .t h e R o m a n

s o l di e rs w e r e s til l s ta ti o n e d in Bri tain th e se pre da to r

y
ta n ds o f wa rri o rs c o uld be ea s ily h e ld in ch e c k W it h .

th e d e pa rt ure o f th e le gi o n s h o w e v e r th e sta te o f afla ir s

, ,

w as al te re d .Th e C e lts o f th e hig hl an ds fin din g t ha t ,

th e de fe ns es o f th e c o un try h ad be e n w ea k e n ed bv t h e
wi th dra w al o f th e R o ma n s o ldi e ry s w a rm e d d o wn fr o m
,

t h e ir roc kv fas tn e ss e s an d i m m edi a te ly be gan th e ta s k

,

o f re a i ni n g th e i r an c e s tral kin d o ms I t i pr b bl
g g s o .a e

tha t th e R o m an c itiz e ns le ft be hi n d in th e to wns af te r th e

d e pa rt ur e o f th e le gi o ns w er e an un wa rli k e p o p ula ti o n .

T h e d e fe ns e o f th e c o un try h ad s o l o n g be e n l eft in th e
ha nds o f a p ro fe s si o na l mili tar v c l ass that w h en thi s
c las s w as re m o v e d th e r e w e r e n o n e l e ft tra in ed in th e

a rts o f w ar to ta k e its pla ce A t an y ra te th e inh a bi t

.

a n ts o f th e R o m an to w ns an d t h e d w ell e rs in th e R o man

vi llas w e re n o m atc h f or th e rude an d w a rlik e C e lt s .

Th e y w e r e t hu pl a c e d be tw e e n t w o fir e s th e C e lts o n
s
,

th e o n e S id e an d th e m ar a udi n g G e rm an i c tri be s o n th e
’
o th e r . T hi nk in g to s e iz e th e m o re f a vo ra bl e b o rn o f t h e
dil e mma th ey turn e d to th e G e rm ani c in vad e rs a n d
,

as k e d the m to c o m e o v e r a nd h el th e m u bd u th ir
p s e e
20 M O D E R N E N G LI S H

ene mi es I n r esp o n s e to this in vitati o n e x ten de d by

.
,

V o r tige rn kin g o f th e R o m a n Brito n s tra di ti o n tells us

, ,

th at t wo Sa x o n c h iefs H e ng e s t a nd H o rs a w i th th eir
, ,

fo llo wers l an de d o n th e i sl a n d o f T hane t o n th e c o as t o f

, ,

K ent in th e y ea r 44 9 T rue to their c o mpa c t they fir s t

, .

a id e d th e R o m a n Bri to n s to driv e b a ck t h e C e lts but ,

th e s to ry g o es th a t o bs e rvi n g th e w e akn e s s o f th e ir alli e s

,

a n d th e rich n e s s o f th e l a n d th e y s e nt w o rd b a ck to
,

th e ir c o untrym en at h o m e th at th e y s h o uld c o m e o v e r
an d a s s i s t th e m th at t h ey might to g e th e r p o s s es s th e
,

l a nd T h e warri o rs wh o c am e in resp o n s e to this r e q ues t

.

we re o f thr e e trib e s o f n o r th G e rm an s th e A n gl e s , ,

w h o l ive d in th e r e gio n o f m o de rn Ho ls te i n th e J ut e s , ,

w h o liv e d i n th e re gi o n o f m o d er n J utl an d a n d th e ,

Sa x o n s wh o liv ed in th e r e gi o n o f m o d e rn S chl e s w ig
, .

T h e s to ry o f th e c o nflic t b e tw e e n the s e T e uto n ic trib e s

an d th e R o m an Bri to n s w i th w h o m t h e C el ts n o w be
,

c am e un ite d a gai ns t th e c o mm o n foe h as bee n but im ,

p erfe c tly re p o rte d by his to ry W e k no w that th e .

s tr uggl e w a s s tub bo r n b ut it i s pl a i n th at th e Bri to ns

,

w e re un abl e to s tan d o ut a ga i n s t the ir ba rb a r o us fo e

m en . B attl e afte r battle w as fo ught but a lways wi th ,

th e r e sult th at th e Bri to n s w e re driv e n fur th e r i nl a n d

an d up i nto th e m o un ta i n o us re gi o ns t o w hich th e R o

m an s s e v e ral c e nturi e s b e fo re h ad drive n th e o rigi na l

C e lts . L ate r tradi ti o n h a s d e v e l o
p ed I n gre a t d etail th e
s to ry o f Ki ng A r th ur th e h e ro ic l e a d e r o f th e Bri to n s
, ,

an d o f his t welv e gr e at b attl es a ga i ns t th e T e uto nic

heathen But th e re a re no a uth entic re c o rd s o f the s e

.

t we lv e b attl e s o r o f Ki n g A rth ur th at w o uld e n able us

, ,

t o b uild up a c o n n e c te d s to ry o f th e e v e n ts A ll w e .

k no w is that o ut o f th e we l te r an d c o nfusi o n o f th e s e
 22 M O DE R N E N GLI S H

Sax o nki ngd o ms we re Wess e x th e kin gdo m of th e W e st ,

S a x o n s ; Ess e x th e kin gd o m o f t h e E as t Sa x o ns Sus s ex

, ,

th e k i n gd o m o f th e So uth Sa x o n s ; a nd M iddl e s e x th e ,

kinn m o f th e Middl e S ax o n s Fo r a l o n g tim e the s e .

va ri o us A n gli a n J utish a nd Sa x o n kingd o m s m ai n

, ,

tain ed s ep ara te e x is te n c e s /
T h ey we re firs t uni te d in to
.

a l o o se s o r t o f c o n fe d e r ati o n b Egb e r t w h c m t th
y o a e o e ,

thr o n e o f W e s s e x i n th e y ea r 80 2 but i t wa s n o t until ,

th e b eginn i n g o f th e t e nth c e ntury that th e un i o n b e c a m e

c o mple te a n d l as ti n g T his un ite d p e o ple as h as b e en
.
,

s ta te d c all e d i tse lf th e E n gli s h p eo pl e

, T h ey ar e al s o .

k no wn by th e n a me A ngl o Sax o ns a c o mp o s ite n a m e -

,

m ad e up o f th e tw o m o s t imp o rta nt trib e s th a t uni te d to ,

fo rm th e n ati o n ; thi s nam e h o we ve r i s a n i n v e nti o n o f

.
, ,

s ch o l ars an d hi s to ri a n s o f l a te r tim e s an d a lth o i t i s ,

a c o n ve n i en t d e s crip tiv e n a m e i t s h o uld be r e m e mb e r e d ,

th a t th e A n gl o Sa x o n s in the ir o w n p e ri o d c al l ed th e m
-

s elv e s E nglish a n d the ir c o un try E ngl and 1

T o bri n g .

o ut th e fa c t o f th e dire c t s e q ue n c e o f th e late r p e ri o d s o f

E n gli s h his to ry a fte r th e e a rlier it is O fte n c o n ve ni e n t ,

to s p e a k o f th e A n gl o Sa x o n p e ri o d a s th e O l d E n glis h
.
-

p erio d an d o f th e l angua ge o f th e tim e a s O l d E n glish

,
.

T hi s te rmi n o l o gy th us r un s p a rall e l to th e s ucc e e din g

Middle E ngli s h a nd M o de rn E n gli s h p e ri o ds .

1 T h e w o r d s E ngla nd , E ngl is h are pr o no unce d a s th o ugh th ey we r e

wr itte n I ngla nd , I ngl is h A S a m a tt e r O f fact i n e arl ie r pe r io d s th ey w e r e
.

wr it te n , t h e p r o nun ci at io n b e ing t h e n i n a cc o rd w ith th e S pe lling

o ft e n S O .

x
I n A ngl o -S a o n t h e wo r d s w e r e w r i tte n E ngla l a nd , E ngl is c , a nd w er e pr o
n o unce d a s wr itte n B ut t h e v
. o wel e b
e fo r e ng c h a nge s r e g ul a rl y in

M id d l e E n gl is h t o i , A ngl o -S a x o n s trenge, fo r e x a mpl e , bec o m in g s tr i n

g
”

/
.

b
T h us E ngla nd , E nglish e c a me I ngla nd I ngl is z a nd we r e s o W r itte n f o r a
,
.

t i me . L ate r th is ph o n e tic s pel l ing w a s r e fo r me d t o a gre e wit h th e

o r i ina l A n l o-S a x o n s p e l l i n g , E ng a l th o th e p r o n unc i a t io n h as r e
g g
m a ine d I ng T h ese tw o w o r d s a r e th e
. o nl
y o nes i n E ngl is h i n wh i ch
t h e c o mb i na ti o n eng is p ro no un c e d i ng .
 T H E E N GL I S H PE O P L E 23

5 . The C ivi l i z at i o n of th e A n gl o S a x -
o ns . At
th e ti m e of rrival in E n gl and th e A n gl o Sax o n s
th e ir a -

w e r e a h eath e n p e o pl e w o rshippi n g th e g o d s T h o r a n d
,

W o den and th e m any o the r di vinities o f th e T e uto ni c

,

myth o l o gy an d religio n T hey w e re s e amen a n d w ar

.

r io rs and gain e d a l a rge p a r t o f th e ir livelih o o d like th e

, ,

D a n es o f a l a te r p e ri o d by m aki n g plunde ri n g e xp e di
,

ti o n s up o n t h e c o as ts o f n e i ghb o ri n g c o un tri e s W ith .

th e ir se ttle me n t i n E n gl a n d h o w e v e r a gre at ch an g e
. ,

c a m e o v e r thi s w ild a n d b a rba ro us p e o pl e H a vi n g n o w .

a ri c h a n d fe r til e l a n d i n th e ir p osse s s i o n th ey w e re n o ,

l o nge r imp e ll e d to liv e by r o bbe ry a n d vio le n c e but ,

s ettl e d d o wn to th e p e a c e ful o cc up a ti o ns o f fa rmi n g a n d

rais i n g sh e e p a nd c a ttl e T he y s o o n bec am e rich an d

.
,

w i th thi s i n c r ea s e in we al th n a tura lly c a m e a greate r

de v e lo pm e nt o f th e a rts a n d o f th e m o re h um an e as p e c ts
o f l ife T h e gr e ates t c ivili z in g i nfl ue n c e h o we v e r to
.
, ,

whi ch th ey w e re s ubj e c te d w as th a t o f C hri s ti a n ity in ,

tr o d uc e d t o th e m by th e R o m an m is s i o n ary A ug usti n e ,

a nd h is a ss is ta n tS i n t h e ye a r 5 9 7
y
T h e r e s p o n s e to
.

A ug us ti ne s pr ea chin g was imm e diate a n d e n th us i a stic

’
,

a n d i n a Sh o rt tim e th e wh o l e O f A n gl o Sa x o n E n gla n d -

be ca m e C hri s tia n G r a duall y als o

. th e n e wc o m rs
,
e ,

w o rke d o ut a p o li tic al s ys tem a n d fr o m b e ing a disc o n

,

n e c te d gr o up o f triba l kin gd o ms o r s tate s th e b e c a m e

y , ,

i n th e tim e o f A lfr e d an d h is s ucc e s s o rs a n ati o n i n th e ,

tr ue s e n se o f th e w o rd w i th o n e ki n g and a s tr o n gl
, y
c e n traliz e d g o v e r n m e n t to h o ld th e m t o geth e r T h e ir .

s p e e ch w a s o f c o urs e G e rm an i c a n d it w a s cl o s e l r e l ate d
, , y
,

to th at s p o k e n i n G e rm an y a nd o th er p a rts o f n o rth e rn
E ur op e (s e e pp 4 6 . I n c o urs e o f ti me thi s sp e e c h al so
be c am e th e v eh ic l e fo r li te rary e xpre s si o n b oth in verse ,
24 M O D E R N E N G LI SH

an d in pro se . As
is almo st a l ways true o f th e b egin
n i ngs o f a nati o n al li te ratur e O l d E n glish p o e try p r e
,

c e de d pr o s e A s ea rly a s th e b eginni ng o f th e s e v en th
.

c e n tury O l d E n glis h p o etry was pro bably c o mp o s e d an d

w ri tte n do w n i n E n gl an d al th o all th e m anus crip ts w hich
,

ha ve been pre s e rve d to m o dern tim e s are c o pie s w hich

d ate fro m a p e ri o d c o n sid e rably late r M o s t o f thi s .

p o etry is highly tra di tio nal in cha ra c te r ; fo r altho th e

A n gl o Sa xo n s by thi s tim e h a d g e n e rall y turne d to
-

q ui e t a gric ultur al an d p a s to ral purs uits th eir p oe try ,

n e v e rth e l e ss i s ve ry w a rlik e i n t o n e ; a nd a lth o th ey

h ad l o n g s i n c e c e a s e d to fo ll o w th e wate r e x te nsiv e ly ,

th e se a its d ange r s a n d i ts a ttra c ti o n s is o n e o f the ir m o st

, ,

fr e que n t p o etic the m e s T hi s is true n o t o nly o f their

.

n a tiv e he ro i c p o e try as fo r e x ampl e th e gre at e pic p o e m

,

B eowulf w hich i s th e m o s t imp o r tant li te ra ry m o n um ent

,

o f th e O l d E n gli sh p e ri o d th at h as c o m e d o wn t o us but ,

a ls o o f th e l ate r p o e t ry o f th e s ch o o l o f C aedm o n w ri tte n ,

ab o ut th e middl e o f th e s e ve n th c e ntury an d o f th e ,

sch o o l o f C yne wulf wri tten ab out th e middle o f th e

,

e ighth c e ntury whi c h i s s tr o n gly u nd e r C hri s ti a n influ

,

e n c e a n d th e s ubj e c t m a tte r o f w hich i s C hri s ti a n s to ry

a nd l e g e n d T hi s p o et ry als o is c a s t in th e Old e pic

.

w a rlik e m o uld o f th e e arli e r n ativ e v e rs e T h e e x pl a

.

n a ti o n o f this is to be fo un d in th e fa c t th at all Ol d E ng

li s h p o e try is p o p ula r in its o ri gi ns — th at is it go e s ,

ba ck to th e early wa rlik e p erio ds o f th e ra c e w hen p o etry

w a s h an d e d d o wn by o ral tr a di ti o n fr o m mi n s trel to
mi ns tr e l A n d a s p o etry i s a lw ays v e ry c ons erv ativ e
.
,

it is n a tur al th a t w h e n th e p e ri o d o f w ri tte n lite rature

began th e Old p o e tic tradi ti o ns an d c o nv e nti o n s s ho uld
be pres e rv e d by th e side o f m uch tha t w a s ne w T he .
 L
T H E O L D E NG ISH C HRON IC E L
B
Fro m th e o d l e ia n ma nusc ript, L a ud 636 .

(For d e s crip tio n, se e A p pe nd ix .

)
26 M O D E R N E NG LIS H

gr eat b o dy o f O l d E nglish p o e try is pres e rved in three

vo l um e s or c o d e x es of mi s c ellane o us c ontent M an u
, , ,

script J unI us ! I in th e B o dl eian L ibrary at O x fo rd ;

th e V e rc e lli B o o k f o un d i n th e y e a r 1 822 i n an o ut -O f
,

th e way libr a ry a t V e rc elli I taly w h e r e i t is s till p r e

-
, ,

s e rve d ; and th e Ex e te r B o o k th e pr op er ty o f Exete r ,

C athe dral i n E n glan d .

O l d E n gli s h pr o s e o n th e o th e r ha n d th e b o dy o f
, ,

w hic h was n o t w ri tte n un til th e n i n th c e ntury a n d

l ate r i s c o mpl e tely un de r th e d o min anc e o f th e new
,

o r d e r o f th o ught T h e re is n o thi n g primi tiv e a nd tra

.

d itio n al ab o ut th e pr o s e but o n th e c o n tra ry it is al l

, , ,

dis tin c tly C hris ti an in to ne and fo r its p e ri o d v e ry ,

m o de rn It c o n s i sts m ai n ly o f histo ric al philo s o phical

.
, ,

a n d r e ligi o us o r e x e g etic a l w ri ti n gs a nd c e n te rs chi e fly ,

a b o ut th e n a m e o f A l fr e d wh o di e d i n 9 0 1 a nd o f JEl f
, ,

ric wh o die d n ea r th e cl o se o f th e O ld E nglish p e ri o d

,

a b o ut th e y ea r 1 0 2 0 O n e o f th e m os t i mp o r tant pros e
.

d o c um e nts is th e O ld E n glis h Ch r oni cl e th e earli es t ,

a ttemp t a t th e c o n s e c utiv e wri ti n g o f hi s to ry i n t h e

E n gli sh to n g ue I t w as pro b ably c o mpil e d un de r th e

.

dire c ti o n o f Ki n g A lfre d a b o ut th e middl e o f th e n i n th

c e ntury but it was c on ti n ue d in v a ri o us fo rm s by late r
,

h an ds th e L a ud v ersio n o f which th e o p enin g is h e re

, ,

re pr od uc ed c o ming d o wn as l ate as th e middl e o f th e

,

tw e lfth c e n tury .

O n th e w h o l e o ne m us t s ay th at b etwe en th e a rrival
o f H e n ge s t a n d H o rs a i n 449 a n d t h e cl o s e o f th e O l d

E n glish p e ri o d wi th th e c o min g o f W illi a m th e C o n

u e ro r in 1 066 th e A n gl o Sa x o n s h ad d e ve l op ed a -
q ,

re l a tive ly high c iviliz ati o n T h ey we re well go v e rned .

,

th e y h a d a n e n lighte n e d r e lig io n th e y c ul tiv a te d l ea rn ,

 T H E E N GL I S H PE O PLE 27

ing an d le tters . In so m e o f
rts fo r ex a mpl e th e
th e a ,

m aking o f e n am ele d j e welry th ey we re fam o us and , ,

th e e mbr oi d e ry o f e c c l es i as tic al ga rm en ts d o n e by th e
A n gl o Sa x o n w o m e n h ad e ve n a C o ntin e ntal re p utati o n
- .

T h e p e o ple liv ed in c o mfo rt a n d o ften in l ux ury s o m e ,

o f th e sa tire s o f th e tim e s s h o wi n g th at th e n a s a l w ays , ,

e x tra v a g a n c e in dre ss and th e table a c c o m p an i e d pr o s

p e ri t
y . O n e m us t n o t thi nk th e r e f o re o f th e
,
O l d ,

E nglish p eri o d as barba ro us an d un civiliz ed I t wa s .

i n d e ed th e p e ri o d o f th e be ginnin gs o f E ngli sh sp e e ch
and E nglis h li terature but e v e n in the ir be ginn i n gs
,

o ur l a ng uag e a n d lite r atur e a fio rd m uc h th at m a and

y
S h o uld be s tudi e d n o t o n l y fo r i ts hi s to ric al i n te r e s t
, ,

but als o fo r its i ntrin s i c w i sd o m an d b e a uty .

6 . T h e D a ni s h I n v a s i o n s and t h e D a ni s h C on
q ue s t . mi dst o f the ir p ea c e ful de v elo pm e nt
I n th e ,

h o we v e r th e A n gl o Sa x o n s were c all e d up o n to m eet a

,
-

great d anger H i s to ry r ep e a te d i tse lf ; fo r j ust as th e

.

w e ake ne d Bri to n s s e ve ral c en turi e s be fo re h a d yi e lde d to

th e atta c ks o f th e J ute s A n gl e s and Sax o n s s o n o w
, , ,

the s e l a tte r al s o w e ak ene d by th e re fi ni ng i n fl ue n c e s o f

,

c i vili z ati o n a nd b t h e gr ad ual d e c a y o f th e ir w a rlik e

y
habits w ere c o mpell e d to m eet th e a dvan c es o f c e rtain
,

kins m e n o f theirs fr o m th e C o n ti n ent th e D ane s T h e , .

m eth o d o f th e D ani s h i nv asi o ns wa s pra ctic all y th e s am e

a s tha t o f th e o ri gi n al A n gl o Sa x o n i n va s i o n
-
T h ey firs t .

c a m e o n m a ra udin g e xp ed iti o n s r e turn i n g e a ch tim e to

,

th eir o wn c o untry A b o ut th e y ear 85 0 h o we v e r th e y

.
, ,

b egan a c amp aign o f c o n ques t and s ettle m e nt and in a , ,

s h o rt ti me th e g a i n e d c o n tr o l o f a l l E n gl an d e x c e p t th e
y,

littl e ki ngdo m o f W es s e x s o uth o f th e T ha m e s w hich

, ,

wa s h eld and d e fe n d ed by th e h e r o i c A lfre d A fte r .

28 M O DE R N E N G L I S H
"

A lfr e d de ath in 9 0 1 h is s o n an d s ucc es s o r Ed ward and

’
s ,

a fte r E d wa rd A l fre d s gra n d s o n E th e ls ta n s ucc ee d e d

’

, ,

i n wi nni n g ba ck th e gre a te r p a rt o f E n gla n d fro m th e

D a ne s .B ut this s uc c e s s wa s o nly te mp o ra ry fo r in , ,

th e r e ig n o f fE th el r e d th e U n re ady ( 9 78 th e
‘

D an e s and No rth m en c a m e o ve r to E n glan d i n e v e r

i n creas i n g numbe rs a nd gain e d po s s e ssi o n o f th e e n
tir e l a n d .

I n th e y e a r 1 01 7 C nut be c a m e ki ng o f E ngl and ,

a nd a D a n i s h ki n g o cc upi e d b o th th e E nglish and

D a ni s h th r o n e a t th e sa m e tim e C nut was suc c e ede d by
’

hi s so n H ar d ac n ut (1 039 an d H a rd a c n ut wa s
s ucc ee de d by Ed wa rd th e C o n fe ss o r (1 042 in
w h o s e l o n g a n d p e a c e ful re ign th e D a n e a nd A n gl o Sa x o n -

in E ngl an d be c am e fuse d i n to o ne p e o ple C l o s ely .

r el ate d in bl o o d and sp eaking l an guag e s whi c h h ad a

grea t de al in c o mm o n th e two p eo pl e s th e c o n q ue re d
, ,

an d th e c o n q ue r o rs readily un i te d
, W ith that re m a rk
.

a ble vi tali ty w hich h as al w ays ch a r a c te ri z e d i t th e A ngl o ,

Sa x o n lan g ua ge s ucc e e de d in cro w di ng o ut th e D a n ish ,

a nd th o m o difi e d i n s o m e r e sp e c ts by th e i n fl uen c e s
to w hi c h th ey h ad b ee n s ubj e c te d i t was a n E n gli s h ,

l ang uag e an d an E ngli s h p e o pl e th at aro s e aga in o ut

o f th e D a ni s h C o n q ue s t .

7 T h e N o rm a n C o n q ue s t A fte r th e c o ming o f
'

. .

th e A ngl o Sa x o n s to Bri ta i n in th e fi fth c en tury un

-
,

d o ub te dly th e e v e n t m o s t fa r rea chi ng in its l ate r efie c t

-

up o n th e s p e e ch a n d th e i ns ti tuti o ns o f t h e p e o pl e w h o

inhabite d th e i s l a n d was th e No rm an C o n q ues t unde r

W illi a m th e C o n q ue ro r in 1 0 6 6 T h e D ani sh C o n que st
.

h a d n o t b e e n with o ut its e ffe c t ; but o w in g to th e cl o s e

r e latio nship in blo o d a n d sp ee c h th a t e xi ste d b e tween th e
30 M O DE R N E N G L I S H

The first c t o f th e C o n q ues t up o n E ngl an d wa s

e ffe

to pl ac e No rm an s i n th e p o si ti o n s o f a uth o ri ty i n th e
c o un try a nd th us to m ak e Fren ch th e l angua ge o f th e
,

c o ur t and th e r uli n g class e s B ut th e re is n o in dic ati o n

.

tha t W illi amo r a ny o f his s ucc e ss o r s a tte mp te d to

c o e rc e th e n ativ e E ngli s h sp eaki ng p o p ul ati o n in to usi n g
-

Fr e n ch a nd a t firs t th e gro wth o f th e N o rma n Fr e n ch

,

i nflire n c e up o n E ngli s h w as v e ry S l o w T h e r e i s e v e ry
.

r ea s o n to b e li e v e that if th e r el ati o n s b etween Fran c e and

E ngl and h ad c e a se d wi th th e C on q ues t i t wo uld ha ve ,

b e e n but a s ho rt tim e b efo re th e No rm an Fren c h w ere as

'

c o mple tely fus ed with th e En glis h a s th e D anes h ad be

c om e B ut th e No rm an Fren ch i nflu en c e up o n E ng
.

li sh al th o it wa s at firs t s l o w w as i n cre a si ng Fr e n ch
, , .

w a s n o t fo rc e d up o n th e E nglish by a ny e dic t o f l a w but ,

i ts us e w a s e n c o ura g e d by a n e ve n m o re p o w e rful fo rc e ,

s o ci a l c usto m A s th e l a n guag e o f th e ruli n g cl a ss

.
,

Fren ch c am e to be r e garde d a s th e p o li te a n d c ultiv a te d

l anguage Ins truc ti o n w as a fte r a tim e n o l o nge r giv e n
.
, ,

in E n glish but th o s e wh o s tudi e d a t a l l s tudi e d Fre n ch

, , ,

a nd i f a n y o th e r l a ng ua g e L a ti n
, , Even whe n N o rm andy
.

wa s l o s t to E n gl a n d in th e yea r 1 20 4 an d la te r wh en in
, ,

t h e mid d l e o f th e c e n tury th e s e p a r ati o n b e tw e en th e

,

t wo c o un tri e s b e c a m e m o r e c o mpl e te by th e d e c r e e s o f
Ki n g L o uis I ! o f Fra n c e an d H en ry III o f E n glan d ,

th e l atte r pr o hibi ti n g E n glis hm e nfro m h o ldi ng e sta te s

in No rm a n dy and th e fo rm e r pr o hi bi tin g No rm a n s fr o m
,

h o ldin g e s tates i n E ngl and th e c ul tiva ti o n o f Fren ch

,

c o n tin ued I n s pi te o f th e s e d e cre e s the r e m ust h av e

.
,

be en a c o nti nual fre sheni ng o f th e s tr e a m o f i n flue n c e by

th e p as s i n g ba ck a n d fo rth o f Fr e n chm e n n o t o nly N o r ,

ma ns but Fre n chm en o f o th e r p a r ts o f Fran c e to and ,

 T HE E NG LI S H PE O PLE 31

fro m E ngl an d T h e ti es o f bl oo d c o uld n o t be d isre

.

ga rde d e v en th o p o liti c al c o nditi ons h ad change d

,
.

A n o th e r m ain r e as o n fo r th e i nc r e a s i n g i nfl uen c e o f
Fr en c h up o n En gl is h i s to be fo un d in th e wa y in w hich
E nglis hm e n th e m s elv e s c a m e to r e gard Fren c h T h e .

gre at bo dy o f E n glishm en th e pl ai n p e o ple wh o w e re

,

little influenc e d by q ue s ti o ns o f fashi o n o r e duc atio n ,

n e v e r s p o k e an y thi n g but E n gl i s h I n th e m iddl e and

.
'

th e hi gh e r s o c i a l lite ra ry a nd e d uc a ti o na l li fe h o w ev e r
, , , ,

Fren ch a cq uire d a s p e c i al di s ti n c ti o n A s th e l an guag e

.

o f th e r ulin g cl a ss i ts a uth o ri t w a s n a t urall gr e a t I t

y y .

w as m o re o ve r c o mm o n ly re ga rd e d as th e p o lite s t l an
, ,

g uage o f E ur o pe T h e U niv e rsity o f P aris fo unde d

.
,

a b o ut 1 1 70 w a s a pl a c e o f r e s o rt fo r th e sch o la rs o f al l
,

E ur op e I n th e Fr e n ch l an g uage wa s w ritten a great

.

a n d gro w i n g li te r atur e w hich o th e r n a ti o n s th e E ngli s h

, ,

e s p e c i a lly s tr o v e to i m i ta te a n d abs o rb
, I t wa s th e l an
.

guage al s o o f p o li te i nte rc o urs e and th e Fr en c h capi tal

,

wa s r ega rd e d n o t o n ly a s th e s e at o f l ea rn i n g an d o f
l ette rs but a l so o f re fin e m e nt T he re gre w up th us in
.

E n gland a s o rt o f G all o m ani a a s it m ay be c alled a , ,

s e n s e o f r e s p e c t a nd a dmirati o n fo r e v e ryth in g Fre nch

b e c a use it w as Fren ch T h e heigh t o f this fa shi o n was

.

n o t r e a ch e d un til b e twe e n th e y e a rs 1 3 00 a n d 1 3 5 0 but ,

it i s thi s fa shio n abl e fa d m o re tha n anythi n g e l s e th at

a c c o un ts fo r th e p o we r ful i n fl u e n c e o f Fr e n ch i n thi s ,

e a rl y p e ri o d up o n E n gli s h
, T h e Fre n ch w hi ch w as i m i
.

ta ted in th e fo ur te e n th c e n tury w a s o f c o urse n o l o n g e r

No rm an Fre n c h but th e Fre n ch O f P a ris
, F o r i t E ng
.

lish was e ven i n d an ge r fo r a tim e o f being give n up

a lto g e th e r a s th e l a ngua g e o f li te ra ture an d p o li te c o n v e r

sati o n . T h os e w h o c o n tin ued to us e E n gli sh s tro v e O fte n

32 M O DE R N E N GL I SH

to m ak e it as ne ar lik e Fr en ch as p o ss ible T h e imi ta .

tio n c o n si s te d i n th e b o rro w i n g o f w o rd s a n d phra s e s in ,

th e a da p ta ti o n o f Fr e n c h l o c uti o n s a nd i di o m s to E n gli sh
usag e i n th e c a rry i ng o v e r o f Fre n c h pro n un ci ati o n to
,

E ngli s h w o rd s a n d e v en in s uc h m e ch an ic al matters as
s p elli n g a n d ha n d w ri t i n g T hi s us e o f Fre n ch s p elli n g
;

an d w ri ti n g wa s i n a w a f o rc e d u p o n E n gli s h S i nc e
y .

i n s tr uc ti o n in E n gli s h w a s n o l o ng e r giv e n in th e s ch o o ls ,

but o nly in Fre n ch w he n o n e w ish e d to w ri te E n gli sh

,

th e rule s o f Fr e n c h sp e lli n g a n d th e s tyl e o f Fre n ch

w ritin g w e re S i m ply t ra n s fe rre d to E n gli s h T h e e x ten t .

to w hic h thi s G a ll ic i zi n g o f th e E n gli s h l an g ua g e wa s

c a rri e d m ay be s e e n fr o m th e us a g e o f th e w rit e r o f th e

c o ll e c ti o n o f s aints liv e s kno w n a s th e E arly S o uth

’

E ngli s h L e g e n dary w ritten ab o ut 1 2 80 T h e a uth o r o r

, .
,

c o mpile r o f this legend ary j udgin g fro m th e s e ntim ents

, ,

h e e xpr e ss es w a s un d o ubte dly a p atri o tic E ngl is hm an

, ,

but h i s p atri o ti s m d i d n o t pre v e n t h i m fr o m follo w i n g

Fre n c h fa shi o n s T h us h e s e e m s to ha ve pro no un c e d
.

h is fi n a l th s i n E n glis h w o rds lik e brea th d ea th e tc

’
, ,
.
,

w i th a v e ry fa i n t a n d a lm o st disa pp ea ri n g s o un d a s a ,

Fre n c hm an to w h o m th e th s o u n d wa s s t ran ge a nd
,

di ffic ul t w o uld ha ve d o ne H e e v e n rim e s w o rds which

, .

h av e fin al th wi th w o rds whi c h d o n o t as fo r e x ample , ,

s ta n d e th a n d l a n d e I n imi ta ti o n o f Fr en c h s p elli n gs
1
.

lik e l a ngue morgue e tc in whi ch u i s w ritte n afte r th e g

, ,
.
,

to i n dic a te th e h a rd q ua l ity o f th e s o un d w e h a v e S p e ll ,

i ng s s uch as fing uer fo r finger kingue fo r ki ng a nd , ,

d oggu e for d og Such s p e lli ngs h av e n o t i n de e d e ntir e ly

.

di sa pp ea re d fro m E nglis h to this d ay W e s till spell .

tongue w hich i s O l d E ngl is h tung e a n d w hich a cc o rd

, ,

1 T h e fi nal e of la nd e is o f c o ur se
pro no unce d .
 T HE E N G LI S H PE O PLE 33

i ngl y sh o uld giv e M ode rn E n gli s h tung like l ung ;

,

but bo th th e 0 i n s te a d o f u a n d th e u afte r th e g
, ,

are s ur viv al s o f th e se Fr e n ch sp elli n gs O th e r i n

.

s ta n c es o f Fr ench gu in E n glish w o rds are guil t g ui l d , ,

gue ss .

T o wa rd th e middl e o f th e fo urteenth c entury h o w ,

e ve r thi s m a d a dmira ti o n fo r e v e ry thi n g Fr e n c h b eg a n

,

to s uffe r a d e cli n e a n d E ngli sh b e g a n to ri s e a ga in to

th e a s c en d en cy . T h us i n 1 8 6 2 it w as d e cre e d tha t a l l
pl eadings in th e l a w c o urts in E n gl and s ho uld be m ade
i n E nglish and n o t in Fre n ch a nd in th e s a m e yea r th e
,

E n gli s h P a rli a ment for th e fir s t time wa s o p e n e d w ith

a n E ngli s h S p ee c h . Fr en ch s till c o n ti nue d to be c ul ti
vate d as a p o li te ac c o mplishm ent as i ndee d it is to thi s
,

d ay but fro m thi s ti me o n E n gli sh c a m e to be m o re a n d

,

m o re th e l anguag e o f li te r ature and s cho lars hip a s we ll

,

a s o f th e high e r o fficia l a n d c o ur t l ife in E n gl a n d a n d ,

by 1 5 0 0 (th e end o f th e Middl e E nglish p e ri o d) Fren ch

h ad l o ng c e as e d to be a se ri o us ri val o f E ngli sh It .

s h o uld be r e m emb e r e d h o w e v e r th a t th e E n gli s h w hi c h

, ,

th us c a me to th e fr o n t a g ain w a s v e ry differ e n t fro m th e

i e ra ry E n gli s h o f th e p e ri o d b e fo re th e Fr e n ch i n v a
l t
sio n . E n gli s h h ad b e en s o lo ng n e gle c te d in fa vo r o f
Fr e nch th at th e fe eli n g fo r i t as a s tan da rd li te r ary l a n
guage h a d largely di e d o ut I t b e c a m e fo r a tim e
.

a l mo st a lto g e th e r a p o p ul a r di ale c t C o n s e que ntly wh e n

.

E ngli sh b egan again to ris e in to s upre m a cy it w as th is

,

p o pul a r tra nsfo rm ati o n o f th e o lde r E ngli sh that g rad

uall y a ss um e d th e ra nk o f th e n e w s tan da rd s p e e ch .The
n e w E n gli s h o f th e M iddl e E n gl is h p e ri o d is th e re fo r e

th e O ld E n glis h o f th e A n gl o Sa x o n p e ri o d as thi s l atte r

-

w as m o difie d firs t by th e i nfl uenc e o f Fren ch a nd

, ,

3
34 M O DE R N E NG L IS H

se c o nd by its pa s s age thro ugh th e tra n s fo rmi ng ba th of

th e p o p ul a r sp eec h .

8 . S um m a ry of t h e I n flu e n c e o f t h e N o r m a n C o n

q ue s t . The
infl ue n c e o f th e No rma n C o n q ues t a nd its
c o ns e quen c es up o n th e E nglis h l an guage a n d th e E nglis h
p e o ple was pr o fo und T h e raci al di s tin c ti o n b e tw ee n
.

No rm an an d E n gli shm an w as s o o n l o s t ; fo r th e No rm an
w h e n h e h a d a cc e p te d E n gl an d a s h i s h o m e a nd e ve n m o re ,

whe n h e h ad a cc e p te d E ngli s h s p e e c h b e c a me to all in ,

te n ts a n d p urp o s e s E n gli s h So c o mpl etely w e re E n glis h

.

a n d No rm an a s simil a te d th a t th e third o r fo ur th g en e r a

ti o n af te r th e C o n q ue s t m us t O fte n ha v e b e e n un a ble to
dis ti n g ui s h b e twe en th e tw o e le m e n ts o f th e p o p ul a ti o n ;
all we re a lik e E n gli s h I t wa s h o we v e r a n e w E n glish
.
, ,

an d a di ffe re n t E ngl an d th a t gra d ually e m e rg e d a fte r th e

C o n q ue s t T h e s p e e c h a n d th e wh o le b o dy Of th o ught
.

o f th e n ati o n as a r e s ult o f th e dir e c t a n d i n dir e c t

,

i n fl uenc e o f th e C o n q ue s t h a d underg o n e a r e mark able

,

ch ange I n th e first plac e fro m a c o mp a rati vely highl y

.
,

i nfle c te d l anguage E n glis h b e ca m e a la n g uage o f fe w in

,

flec ti o ns (se e pp 77 E ) .T h e vo c ab ul a ry o f th e la n g uag e

.

chan ge d fro m a pure v o c a bulary th at is o ne ma d e up , ,

O f wo rd s O f th e s a m e lin g uis tic s to ck to a bili ngual ,

v o c ab ulary a vo c ab ulary m ade up o f T e uto ni c a n d

,

R o m an c e el em e n ts T h e infl ue n c e o f Fre n ch e xte n d e d

.

a l s o to th e phr a si n g o f E nglish th e gr o upi n g o f w o rds ,

in th e s ente n c e a n d in m any w ays dire c t a nd i n dire c t

, , ,

w hi c h a r e diffic ul t to fo llo w th e n e w te n d e n ci e s affe c te d

,

th e w h o l e to n e o f E n gli s h th o ught a nd e xpr e ssi o n The .

langua ge afte r it h a s been s ubj e c te d to th e Fr enc h

i n flue nc e i s m o re s upple ; it is th e ve hi cle for m o r e
'

va ri e d fo rm s O f e xpres si o n than it h ad be e n b e fo re I n .
 T HE E N G LI S H PE O PL E 35

thi s i t w a s m e rely foll o wi ng th e ch ange in th e intell e c

tua l li fe O f th e E n gli s h p e o ple w hich a fte r th e C o n q ues t
,

was ri c h e r a n d to uch e d m any m o re s id es o f li fe than it

e v e r h a d in th e O l d E n gl is h p e ri o d T his n e w Spiri t i n
.

E n glish th o ught a n d l e tte rs re c eive d its f ulle s t e x

pre s s i o n in th e w ritin gs o f G e o ffr e y Chauc e r (1 34 0
I n Ch a u c e r w e h a v e o n e w h o w a s n o t o n l y a
c o n s umm a te a r ti s t i n th e us e o f la n gua ge but o n e a l s o ,

wh o i ns te a d o f th e si mpl e O l d E n gli s h them e s o f w ar

,

fa re and r el igi o n c o uld s o un d th e wh o le g am ut o f

,

hum an e m o tio n l o v e p a th o s hum o r chiva lry th e d ra

, , , , ,

m a tic i ns ti nc t th e fe eli n g fo r n a ture i n s h o r t all th o s e

, ,

s ha d e s o f th o ugh t a n d fe e li n g w hich th e E n gli s h h e a r t

is c ap a bl e o f e xp e ri e n cin g o r th e E n glis h to ngue o f

e xpr es s i n g .

9 M o d e r n E n gl a n d
. T h e E n gla n d o f th e cl o se o f
.

th e M iddl e E n gli s h p e ri o d w as n e v e r a g a i n s ubj e c te d to

fo r e ign i nv as i o n o r t o a ny gre a t e x te rn a l ra c i al i n fluen c e s .

T h e th o ugh t a nd l a n g ua g e o f th e pe o pl e fo l l o we d in
gene ral a p eac eful li n e o f d e ve l o pm e nt a c c o mp anyin g ,

th e i n tell ec tual in du s tria l a n d p o litic a l gro w th o f th e

, ,

c o untry an d o f th e wo rld as a wh o l e Th e p e ri o ds in .

m o de rn tim e s that ha v e bee n m o s t i m p o r tan t fo r th e

hi sto ry o f th e l anguage ar e th e R e n as c e n c e pe rio d fro m ,

a b o ut 1 50 0 to th e dea th o f S h a k s p e r e i n 1 6 1 6 in ,
”
w hi c h th e m ain p urp o se w a s th a t o f e n r i c hi n g th e
lan guage (se e pp 2 34 . th e p e ri o d o f D ryd e n

(1 631 — 1 7 0 0 ) a n d P o p e (1 68 8 t h e s o c a ll e d -

A ugu stan p e ri o d o f E n gli s h lite ra tur e i n w hic h m uch ,

th o ugh t a n d a tte n ti o n w as give n t o p o l i s h in g a n d

p uri fyin g th e l an gua ge ; a nd th e m o st re c e n t p e rio d
o f s c i e n ti fi c i n d us tri a l c o m m e r c i a l a n d p o l itic al e x n
, , , p a
36 M O D E R N E N GLI S H

i
s o n, w i th its m a rve l o us e x te n si o n O f th e b o un d s o f
h uman tho ught a nd a c tivi ty O f th es e l ate r i nfluen c e s .

p e rhap s th e m o s t sign ific ant are th o se which ari se fro m

th e c o mm e rc i a l an d c o l o n i al e xp a ns i o n o f th e E n glis h
p e o pl e a nd c o n c e rning the s e a wo rd in e sp e ci al may
,

be s aid .

1 0 W o r l d E n gl i s h
. H is to ry m ak es fe w a pp e al s to
.

th e im agin a ti o n s tr o n g e r tha n t ha t pr e s en te d by th e pic

tur e o f th e li ttl e kingd o m o f E n gl a nd r e a chin g o ut s te p
by s tep un til n o w i ts sp e e ch an d its civiliz ati on c irc le
th e gl o be B e ginnin g wi th th e un io n o f Sc o tlan d a nd
.

E n glan d unde r o n e kin g I n 1 60 3 and th e c o n ques t o f ,

Ir elan d unde r Eliz ab e th th e thre e c o untri e s w hi c h by , ,

late r a c ts o f uni o n fo rm e d th e ki ngdo m o f G r eat Brtiain

a n d Ir e la n d e n te re d o n a p e r io d o f te rri to ri a l a n d r a ci a l
'

e xp a n si o n th a t a lm o s t p as se s b eli ef By th e s e ttle ment .

a t J a m e s to wn i n 1 6 0 7 a n d th e la te r s e ttl e m e n ts i n o th e r
,

p ar ts o f thi s c o untry th e n ati o nal s p e e ch o f th e C o nti

,

n e n t o f N o rth A m e ric a w a s d e te rmin e d as E n gli sh a ,

fac t as s ur e d by th e vic to ry o f W o l fe o ve r M o n tc alm in

1 75 9 T h e s e p arati o n o f th e c o l o n i e s fro m th e m o th e r
.

c o u ntry in 1 776 a nd th e l ate r o pe ni n g o f t h e ir ga te s t o

,

a lm o s t c o un tl e ss h o s ts o f fo r e ig n imm igr an ts h av e n o t

av aile d t o c ha ng e th e d e s ti n y o f th e E n gli s h l a n g uag e

in th e U ni t e d Sta te s I t is to d ay as m u ch th e n ati o na l
.

s p e e ch o f th e c o un try a s i t i s o f C a n a da o r o f E n gl an d

h e rs elf 1
By th e E n glish s e ttl e ment o f A us trali a in th e
.

1
P e rh ap s th e O pinio n o f an E n gl is h ma n on th is p o int m ay be wo r th quo t
i ng . I t is th a t of E A F re e m an , t h e h i sto r ia n
. . of th e No r m an C o nq ues t,
wh o , i n h is I mp re ss ions of th e Unite d S ta tes , L o n d o n , 1 883 , sp eak s a s f o l l o ws
T o m e t h e E ugli sh -Sp e a ki ng C o m m o n we al th o n th e A me r ic a n m a inl a nd is
sim pl y o n e p a r t o f th e g r e a t E ngl is h f o l k ,
a s t h e E n gl i s h -
s p e a k i n g ki n g
d o m in t h e E uro p ea n i sl a nd i s a no th e r p a r t M y wh o l e l i ne o f t h o ug h t
.
38 M O D E R N E N GLI S H

ne ighb ori ng islands E nglish o c c upie s a unique p o si tion

,

a s a n a lm os t p an A s i atic l a ng uag e -
I t is s p o k e n i n a .

c o rrupt and simplifi e d fo rm k n o wn as P idgin E n gli sh , ,

by m er c h an ts and s ailo rs all a l o n g th e c o a s ts I t is a ls o .

,

h o we ve r th e lang uage o f o ri e n tal diplo ma cy t o a c o n

,

s id e ra bl e e x te n t an d it i s s ig n ific a n t th at th e m o d e rn
,

e d u c a ti o n a l m o v e m e nt b o th in C hi n a a n d J a p an la ys
great s tres s o n th e c ultiv ati o n o f th e E n gli sh l an gua ge .

A m e ric a n p o sses si o ns i n th e P h ilippi n e s w ill s erv e to

s tren gthe n th e p o siti o n whi ch E ngli s h tak e s in th e
Fa r E as t 1
.

I t h as b ee n e s timate d th at th e n umb e r o f p e o pl e
S p e a kin g E n gli s h a s th e ir n a tiv e to n g ue i s a t pr e s e n t

b e twe e n o ne h un dre d an d tw en ty a nd o n e hun dr e d a n d

thirty milli o n s T h e n umb e r w h o S p e a k G e r m a n i s
.

e s ti ma te d at a b o ut e i gh ty milli o n s a n d th e n umbe r o f ,

R us sian s at ab out th e s am e T h e n umb e rs s p eaki ng .

Fren ch Spani s h a n d Itali a n a re e s ti m ate d to be a b o ut

, ,

fifty mi lli o n s e a c h T h e ra te o f i n c r e a s e o f E nglis h in

.

th e la s t c e n tury h a s b ee n m uc h gre a te r th an th a t o f a ny
o th e r la n g ua g e Sin c e E n gl is h i s S pr ea d o ve r s u ch a
.

w i d e e x te n t o f te rri to ry a nd i s th e l a n gua g e o f r ap i dly

gr o win g an d d e v e lo pi n g c o untri es i t is alto ge th e r li k e ly ,

th a t thi s pr o p o rti o n ate ra te o f i n cr e as e w ill c o n ti n ue to

be a s gr e a t in th e f utur e a s it h a s b e e n i n th e pa s t .

A dde d to thi s th e fa c t th at E n glis h i s th e s p ee ch o f an

1 P res id e nt (th e n Se cr etary ) T aft, in a re

p o rt s u b m itte d to C o ngress
in Ja nu ar
y, 1 9 0 8, c a ll s a t t e ntio n t o t h e f a ct t h a t in t h e d e c a d e o f th e
A me r ic a n o cc up a t io n o f t h e P h il ipp i ne I sl a n d s , E ngl i s h h ad co me t o be

s p o ke nby a gr e ate r n um be r of n a ti ve s th a n h a d b ee n th e c a se w ith

S pa ni sh i n t h e s e ve ral c ent uri e s o f S p a n is h o cc u a t io n , a s tr ikin g ill us
p
t r a ti o n of th e d iffe r e nc e b e t wee n E n glis h a nd S p a n is h m e th o d s of

c o l o n iz a t io n .
 T H E E N GL IS H PE O PLE 39

ggres s ive and ve nture s o me p e o ple that be c ause o f th e

'

a ,

s impli c i ty o f i ts s tr uc tur e a n d o f i ts bi l i n g ua l ch a ra c te r

a s a R o m a n c e a n d a T e uto ni c t o ng ue c o mbi n e d i t is th e ,

m o s t e a s ily a cquire d o f all th e la n g ua ges of th e w e s te rn

wo rld o bvi o us ly E ngli s h h a s a be tte r c h a nc e th a n a ny
,

o the r li vin g l an g ua ge o f b e c o mi n g a w o rld l an gua ge - .

Eve n th e tra diti o n al na ti o nal vic es o f in s ul a rity and c o n

c e i t m a k e f o r th i s re s ul t T h e E n gish a n d A me ri ca n s a r e
.
,

un d o ub tedly th e gre a te s t tra v el e rs o f m o de rn ti m e s a n d

, ,

th e te n a c i ty wi th w hi c h th e y h o ld to th e ir n a tiv e s p ee c h
a n d n a tiv e c us to ms i n fo r e ig n l a n ds w hil e i t O fte n j u s tly
,

e xp os e s th e m to th e c ha rge o f c o m pl a c en c y a n d pr o vi n

c i ali t a t th e s a m e ti m e m a k e s th e m e ffe c tive di s trib uto r s

y ,

o f E n glis h i d e as a n d tra di ti o n s I f M o ha m m e d w ill n o t

.

o to th e m o unta i n th e n th e m o un tai n m us t c o m e to
g ,

M o h a m me d T hat E n gli s h wi ll e v e r be c o m e th e l a n
.

guag e o f famili ar daily in te rc o urs e i n n o n E n glis h -

c o un tri e s i s o f c o ur s e b e o n d th e r a n g e o f p os s i bi li ty
, y ,
.

T h e re i s n o in di ca tio n th a t a ny c o un try w ill e v e r alto

ge th e r giv e up i ts n ative idi o m fo r an o the r e x c e p t ,

thr o ugh th e gra d ua l m e th o d o f c o mple te n a ti o n al a nd

ra c ial ass imila ti o n B ut tha t E nglis h m ay b ec o m e th e
.

l angua ge o f in te rna ti o n al s c ien c e o f in te rn a ti o n al d i

,

p l o m ac
y ,
o f i n te rn a ti o n a l tr a v e l a n d c o mm e rc e i s q uite
,

w i thi n th e limits o f th e p o s s ibl e I n th e m e di eval p e

.

ri o d th e v a ri o u s n a ti o n s ea c h l e a r n e d o n e o th e r l a n g ua ge

b es ide s their nativ e i di o m fo r th e p urp o se o f i ntern a

ti o n al c o mm u ni catio n a n d thi s se c o n d l an g ua ge w as
,

a l wa s L a ti n L t r t h pl f L ti n t nd d to be
y . a e e a c e o a e e

ta k e n by Fr e n c h W i thin th e l as t tw o or three ge n era

.

tio ns h o w e v e r Fre n c h h as b e gun to yi eld to E n glis h

, , ,

a n d th e un i v e r s a l l a n g ua g e o f th e futur e is m o r e li k e ly
40 M O D E R N E NG LI SH

to be E n glish tha n an
y ot he r of th e to ng ue s of m o dem
or a n ci e n t E ur o p e .

11 . A rt i fic i a l L a n gu a ge re c e n t y e ar s a great
. Of
d eal h a s b e en s ai d a b o ut a un ive r sa l lan guage I n all .

pr oj e c ts o f thi s n ature th e atte mp t i s to m an ufac ture a n

a r tifici a l l ang ua ge w hich s ha ll be fre e o f th e de fe c ts Of

e x is ti n g l a n g ua ges a n d whi c h ,b e c a us e o f its r e as o n ,

a bl e n es s a n d e c o n o my will in du c e th e n ati o n s O f th e
,

w o rld t o a cc e p t it i n t h e pl a c e o f th eir n ative S pe ec h .

A rti fici a l l an g uag e s a r e n o t o f re c e n t o rigin S uch li n .

g u i s ti c e xp e ri m e n t s h a v e b e e n m ad e f r o m th e e a rli e s t
tim e s s o m e o f the m e x tre m e ly i n g e n i o us but n o n e tha t
, ,

e v e r r e aliz e d i n th e s l igh tes t d e gre e th e h o p e s w hi c h

1
th e ir c r e a to r s h ad fo r th e m I n E n gla n d th e la te r. ,

s e ven te e n th a n d e a rl e igh tee n th c e n turi es w e r e p r o

y
d uc tive o f a n umb e r o f a r ti fi c ia l l a n gua ge s O ne as s et .
,

fo rth by Sir T h o m as U rq uhar t in a v o l um e p ublis h e d

in L o n d o n I n 1 6 5 3 b o r e th e a llu ri n g titl e L ogop a n d ec
,

te i s i on , or an I n tr o d ucti on to th e Un ive r s a l L a nguag e

d ig e sted i n to si x bo oks , p ubl i sh ed both f o r h i s own u ti l i

ti e a nd th a t o f a ll
p r egn a n t a n d i ng en i ous sp i r i ts . In
o ur o w n d ay v a ri o uspiri ts h a v e p ro mul
“ i n g e n i o us S

ga ted s c he m e s O f un ive rsal lang ua ge V o l a p uk E s p e r , ,

a n to G l an ik an d o th e rs li te ra lly to be n umb e re d by
, , ,

th e d o z e n a n d a l l di ffe re n t
, W h y hav e none o f th es e .

e xp e rim e n ts s uc c e e de d ? I n th e firs t pl a c e b e ca use th e ,

a tte mp t t o fo i s t a n a r tifici a l l a n gua g e up o n a p eo pl e

r un s c o unte r to al l th e prin cipl es o f deve l o pm en t tha t

h av e go v e rn ed th e gr o wth o f a p eo ple A n ativ e s p e e ch .

a ri ses i n a c o mm un i ty as th e i n tim ate ac c o mp a nim en t

1 Fo r a ful l d escriptio n o f al l th e s e e n d e a vo rs , see C o uturat et L e a u,

H is to ire d e la la ngue uni vers e lle , P a r is, 1 9 0 3 .
 T H E E N GLI S H PE O PL E 41

o f al l its ci al c us to ms I t i s a grdd ual and la rge ly

so .

un c o n s c i o us gro w th ari si ng o ut o f th e imm e di a te e x

,

p e r i e n c e s o f li fe N o s p e e ch a s w e s h all h a v e c o ntin ual

.
,

o c c as i o n t o p o i n t o ut h as e ve r s ub m i tted to t h e s ys
,

te ma tiz ings o f th e th e o ris t n o m atte r h o w re a so n abl e

,

an d c o n s i s te n t th e s e s e e m e d to be T h e atte m pt th ere .
,

fo re to brin g a b o ut th e a cc e p tan c e o f an a r tifi c i al l a n

,

g uage o n re as o n able gr o unds is n o t lik e ly to s uc c e ed ,

be c a us e O f th e sim ple fa ct that a l a ng ua ge is no t und e r

th e c o n tr o l o f th e dire c t rea s o n I t i s a c o mm o n s o c i al
.

p o ss es s io n and a p eopl e fo rtunate ly do es n o t and c an

, ,

n o t c h an g e i ts s o ci a l c us to m s a n d h abi ts by a s udde n
,

a c t o f will M o re o v e r o n e m ay d o ubt wheth e r an arti

.
,

fic ial la n guag e th e bes t th at c an be devi s e d by a n i ndi

,

vidual o r a gr oup o f i n di vidual s e v e r c an be as go o d ,

a s a n atur al lan g ua g e A n a tura l l a n g ua ge w hich h as

.

de v elo p e d thro ugh tho us and s o f ye ars h a s a c q uire d

p o s sibili tie s o f e x pres sro n in tho ught and e s pe c ially in
,

feelin g whi c h n o la n guag e m an ufa c ture d in c o ld bl o o d

,

c a n h o p e to e q ua l T h e w i s do m o f th e n a ti o n i s gre ate r
.

th a n th e w is d o m o f a n i n dividua l a nd a n a ti o n al l a n ,

g ua ge s um s up al l th e p ast wi s do m o f th e p e o pl e Ye t .

a g a in ,
a uni v e r sal la n g ua g e to r e m ai n un iv e rs a l a fte r
,

it h a d o n c e be e n a c c ep te d by al l p e o ple s m us t n o t be ,

a ll o we d t o c h an g e But if a nythin g c a n be le ar ne d
.

fro m th e hi s to ry o f lan g ua g e it is j us t this th at al l , ,

l an guage s a re c o n tinually s ubj e c t to c h an ge a nd th at ,

n o thi n g c an pre v e n t th e m fro m cha n gi n g T h e a d vo .

c a te s o f a unive rs al l an gua ge m ust ac c o rdi ngly n ot o nly

p e rfo rm th e i ni tial miracl e o f ge tti n g the ir l an guage
a c c e p te d but th e m u s t th en p e rfo rm th e s e c o n d m ir
, y
a cl e a c o n tin uo us o n e o f k e e pi n g th at l a n g ua g e
, , p e r
42 M O D E R N E N GL I S H

m ane nt an d fix e d In s h o rt n o a rtifici al l anguag e no

.
, ,

m atte r h o w skilfully it is c o n struc ted is like ly ev e r to ,

e x te n d b ey o n d th e s m all gr o up o f th e o ri s ts w i th w h o m

it o rigina te s a n d th e s e wil l c o nti n ue t o p urs ue i t o nly

,

un til thei r a tte nti o n i s a ttra c te d to s o m e m o re di v e rt

i n g theo ry . T h e w a y lan guage s s pre a d i s n o t thro ugh

th e o ry but thr o ugh th e ir us e
, A n d th e r e as o n w h y th e
.

E n gli s h l ang uage i s o n e o f th e m o s t widely dis tribute d

o f th e m o de rn w o rld i s tha t m e n wh o h av e sp o k en
,

E nglis h h av e m a de thei r w ay to al l c o rn e rs o f th e e arth ,

ha v e c a rri e d w ith th e m th e ir ideal s o f life an d c o n duc t ,

an d , wi th thes e id e al s th e s p e e ch i n which th e y fin d
,

e xpr ess i o n . A rti fic i al la n g uage s ar e we ll e n o ugh a s

“
pl aythin gs fo r i nge nio us Spirits but a r e al langua ge ,

i s fo rm e d i n th e m ark e t pl a c e s a nd by th e fires i d e s o f
a livi n g w o rld .

I f o n th e o th e r h an d a n a rtificia l la n g uag e is d e vis e d

, ,

o nly fo r th e ex pr e ss i o n o f S impl e a n d i m p e r s o n a l id e as ,

s u ch a s m i gh t a ri se i n i n te rn a ti o n a l c o mm e rc i al o r e v e n
, ,

s c i e n tific c o mm un i c a ti o n the n th e m atte r b e c o m es i m

,

p o r tant o n ly to a re la tive ly s m all num b e r o f p e ople A n .

a r tifici a l l a n g uag e o f s uc h ki n d i s o f n o t m uc h m o r e s i
g
n i fic a n c e th a n a c a bl e c o d e o r a s y s te m o f s ign al s M o st .

o f th e lan g ua ges w hi c h h a v e b e e n fas h i o n e d fo r s u ch

purp o s e s hav e b e e n c o ns tr uc ted o n th e b asis o f L atin ,

as , fo r e x ampl e th e a t pre sen t m uc h e xpl o i ted E s p e r

,

a n to . L ati n is ch ose n a s th e b a sis b e c a us e i t i s i n o n e ,

fo rm o r a n o th e r a n a tura l i n h e ri ta nc e o f a ll s o uth ern

,

E uro p ean s it fo rms a l a rge pa rt O f th e E ngl is h vo c abu

,
-

l a ry an d third i t i s th e lan gua ge w hich m o s t e d u

, ,

c ated p e r s o n s a r e lik e l to k no w o r t o h a v e k n o wn
y
b es ide s the ir n ativ e s p ee ch if they kno w any ,
B ut .
 T H E E N GL I S H PE O PLE 43

Obvio us ly if yo u d o n o t kn o w L a ti n and it is ha rdl y a

, ,

warra n tabl e a s sump ti o n th a t e ve rybo dy k no ws L a ti n ,

o u m us t firs t l e a rn i t if y o u w a nt to a pply i t to th e
y ,

un de rs tan d i ng o f a n a r tifi c i al l a n g ua ge b as e d o n L a ti n.

O n e m igh t th us ha v e to l ea rn L a ti n s upp o s e dly a m o r e

,

diffic ul t l an g uag e in o rde r to pre p are th e way fo r le arn

,

ing a n e a sy a rti fi c ial la n g uag e

, . B ut n o a rtifici al l a n
guage h as ye t b e en m ade e fie c ti ve fo r i nte rn a tio nal ,

s ci e n ti fi c o r b u sin ess co m m un ic a tio n a n d i t is n o t o nly

, ,

do ubtful if i t c an be but als o if it we re m ade ge n erally

,

e ffe c ti ve w h e th e r m o r e w o uld n o t be l o s t th an w o uld be

,

gaine d C e rtain ly an ar ti fic i al la nguage w o uld be harm

.

ful if it s h o uld in a n y w ay pre v e nt o r lim i t th e s tudy o f

th e n a tur al la n guage s . T h e r e is a n o l d s ayin g th at a
m a n i s a s m a ny ti m e s a m a n as h e h as lan gua ge s . NO
a r ti fi c i a l l a n gua g e will e v e r ta k e th e plac e o f a kn o w l

e dg e o f t h e n a tur a l l an g ua ge s ; a t m o st it c a n o n l
y
m ak e th e un di s criminating s atisfie d with an inade q uate
s ubstitute .
 I II

T HE E NG L I SH L A NG UA G E

1 . T h e C l a s s i fic a t i o n of L a n gua ge s . O ne o f th e
imp o r tant r e s ults o f th e m o dern study o f lan g uage h as
be en th e clas sific ati o n o f th e va ri o us la n gua g es o f th e
w o rld i n to gro ups a cc o rdi n g to th e ir r e l ati on ships .

A l th o th e s c i en c e Of l angua g e h as n o t b een a ble t o

c o nfirm th e Scrip tural s to ry o f th e o rigi nal creati o n o f
l anguage n o r a s yet e v e n to arriv e a t any altogethe r
, , ,

s ati sfa c to ry th eo ry of th e be ginnings o f sp ee ch it n e v e r ,

th el e ss h as d o ne a great d e a l in di s c o v e ring li n e s o f e vo
l uti o n a n d d e v el o pm e n t i n th o s e l an g ua g es o f w hi c h we
h ave re c o rd I t h as disc o v e re d tha t the re h as be en a
.

c o n tinual change and gr o wth in lan gua ge th at th e l an ,

guages o f m o de rn tim e s a re ea ch o f the m a hi sto ric

pro d uc t which de vel o p ed sl o wly and reg ularly o ut o f
pr e c e di ng s ta ge s M o re o v e r i t h as Sho wn th at m any
.
,

a pp a r e n tly d i ss i m il a r l an gua g e s a re r e a lly cl o s e ly r el a te d

a n d a r e th e d e s c e n da n ts o f s o m e s i n gl e o rigi n al s t o c k .

It h a s thus divid e d la ng ua g e s in to famili e s .

2 . Th e I nd o -
E ur o p e a n F a m il y of L a n gu a ge s .

O ne of la rge st an d m o s t c a re fully s tudied gro up s o r

th e
fa mili e s o f l an guage s i s th a t k n o w n as th e In d o E uro p e a n -

o r I n do G e rm an ic fa mily
- T h is gro up c o mpri se s c e rtai n
.

o f th e l ang ua g e s o f A s i a a n d pra c ti c ally al l th e l a n g ua g e s

o f E ur o p e T h.e o rigi n a l u n i fi e d I n d o -E uro p ean l an

guage fro m which th e y are all th e o re ti c ally de rive d i s n o
46 M O D E R N E N GL I S H

d i a l e c ts I nd i a ; a nd (b) th e I ra nia n l a nguage s , i ncl ud ing

of

P e r s i a n a nd A ve s ta n i n th e ir vario us p erio d s , b e s id e s s eve ra l

o th e r l a nguage s of th e tab l el a nd s O f C e ntra l A s ia .

2 . A rme ni a n i n p arts o f A s i a M i no r
, s p ok e n .

3 Gre ek , wh i c h
. a
y b e m
s ubd ivid ed i nto t h e var i o us G re ek

d ia l e c ts , I o nic , A tti c , D o ric , e tc

4 . A l b a ni a n , sp o k e n i n th e l imite d r e gio n of A l ba ni a ,
no rth of Gr e e c e .

5 . I ta l i c . Th e main l a ngua ge o f th i s b ra nc h i s L a ti n, fro m

wh ic h a re d e rive d th e mo d e r n R o ma nc e l a ngua ge s , Fr e n c h ,
S p a nis h , I ta lia n , P o r tugue s e , a nd P ro ve n gal , a nd seve r al
o th e r l e s s k no wn l a ngua ge s b e s id e s .

6 . C e l tic . T h i s b r a n c h m a y b e s ubd ivi d e d i nto G al lic ,

th e l a nguage o f th e p e o p l e o f a nci e nt G a ul , o f w h i ch l i ttl e i s

k n o wn ; B ri tis h , th e l a ngua ge of th e o rigi n al i nh a b ita nts of

B ritai n ; W e l s h , th e l a n ua ge of W al es a nd G a elic , i n cl ud
g
i ng th e l a ngua ge of th e S c o tch H ighl a nd s , I is h , r a nd M a nx .

7 . T e uto ni c or G e r m a ni c . T h i s b r a n c h , th e o ne we a re

p artic ul a rl y inte re s te d i n , f a ll s i nto th re e ma in s ub d i v i s io n s ,

as f o l l o ws

()
a E a s t G erma ni c , th e ma i n d ial e ct of wh ich is G o th ic,
k n o wn c h i e fly f ro m f ra gme n ts of a tr a ns l a tio n of

th e B i bl e , m a d e i n th e f o ur th c e n tury b y U lfil as ,
th e b i s h o p of th e West G o th s .

()
b N o r th G e r ma ni c , i nc l ud i ng I c e l a nd ic , N o r s e , S w e d
ish , a nd D a ni s h .

()
c W e s t G e r ma n i c ,
i n c l ud ing th e f o ll o wing l a ngua ge s
I . E ngl i s h , i n its va r io us p e r io d s Of A n gl o Sa x o n , o r -

O l d E ngl i s h , M i d d l e E ngli s h , a nd M o d e r n E n gl i s h .

I I Fris ia n , i n th e t wo p e rio d s
. of Old a nd M o d e rn
Fris i a n .

I I I F ra nco ni a n, th e
. c h ief mo d ern r
re p e s e nta ti ve s of

wh ic h are th e l a nguage s Of H ol l a nd a nd Fl a nd e r s .

IV . Low G e rm a n , th e mo d e r n r e p r e s e nta ti ve of

wh i ch is P l a ttd euts c h .
 T HE E N G L I SH L A N G U A GE 47

V H igh G er ma n , i n i ts th r e e p erio d s o f O l d H igh

.

G e r ma n , M id d l e H igh G e rma n, a nd N e w High

G e r ma n , th e l a ngua ge o f m o d e r n G e r ma ny .

8 . B a l to S l a vo nic
-
. T h is bra nch f a l l s i nto two ma i n d ivi
s io n s () a th e B a l ti c l a ngua ge s , i nc l ud i ng O l d P r us s i a n , L i th u
a ni a n , a n d L e ttic ; a nd (b) th e Sl a vo ni c l a n gua ge s , i ncl ud i ng
R us s ia n, B ul garia n , I llyri a n , B o h e mi a n, a nd Po lis h .

3 . T h e P rin c ip l e s of C l a s s i fi c a t i o n of L a n gua ge s .

The q ues ti o n a rises H o w d o w e kn o w that th e s e l an

,

guages are r e la te d ? W hat a r e th e p o i nts o f diff e ren c e

a nd r e s e m bl an c e w hi c h j us tif u s i n h o ld i n g to ge the r th e
y
l an guages of th e In do E uro p e a n fa mily in a s i n gle gro up
-
,

a n d a t th e s a m e t im e i n di vidi n g this gro up i n to th e

e ight bra n ch es i n di c a te d a b o v e w i th th ei r fur th e r s ub ,

di vi si o n s ? I n a n s w e rin g t h e q ues ti o n i t s h o uld be ,

n o te d first that th e In d o E ur o p e an family i s c o n s ti

, ,
-

tute d a gro up a p a rt fr o m th e o th e r l a n g ua g e s o f th e
w o rld by c e r ta in fea tures w hi c h al l th e l ang uage s o f th e
fa mily ha ve i n c o mmo n but wh i c h a re un kn o wn to l a n ,
'

gua ge s o uts i d e th e gro up T hus firs t o f all th e l an .

, ,

guages o f th e I nd o E ur o p e an fa mily a r e all infle c tio n al

-

i n s truc ture th at i s th e y in di c ate th e rel a ti o n s w hi c h

, ,

w o rds b e a r to ea ch o th e r in th e se nte n c e by th e us e o f
c as e gen der n umbe r ten se v o i c e an d o the r e n din gs
, , , , ,
.

T hi s s e e ms t o th o s e w ho s e n ati ve S p ee ch 1 s I nfle c tio n al

s uch a n a tural c h a r a c te ri s ti c o f l a n g ua ge th a t i t is o fte n

s upp os e d tha t a l l lan gua g e s m a k e u s e o f th i s d e vi c e .

Suc h is n o t th e c a s e h o we v e r a n d th er e are c e rtai n l a n

, ,

g ua ges lik e th e C hi n e se w hic h ha ve n o i nfle c ti o n a t

, ,

all a n d o th e rs l ik e th e T urk is h
, , w hi c h h a v e a k i n d o f ,

i nflec tio n th at is s o d ifle re nt fro m o ur ki n d o f i nfle c tio n

th at i t h a s to be p ut i n to a n e n ti re ly s e p a r ate c la s s fro m it .
48 M O D E R N E N G LI S H

I n th e s e c o n d pl a c e it h a s b e e n fo un d that th e l an
,

g ua g e s of th e I ndo E uro pean family hav e a c o ns ide ra ble

-

n umb e r o f w o rds i n c o mm o n th a t a r e n o t f o un d in o th e r

lan g ua ge s a nd th e n umber a n d th e chara c te r o f the s e

,
~

w o rds a r e s o sign ific an t as to l e a d o n e a lm o s t n e c e ss arily

to th e i nfe re nc e that th e y a r e a c o mm o n i n h e ri ta nc e fr o m
a c o mm o n o rigin al s to c k T h e s t udy o f th e l a ng uage s
.

o f th e Ind o E u r o p e a n fa mily fr o m th e p o i n t o f vie w o f

-

the ir s o un d s a nd o f th e ir s yn ta x c o n firms th e r e s ul ts o f
th e s tudy o f v o c abula ry a n d infle c tio n a n d m a kes un ,

a v o id abl e th e c o n cl us i o n th at w e h a v e i n th e m a gr o up

o f cl os e ly a n d m utually re l ate d l an g uag e s .

T h e m e th o d by w hi c h th e di visi o n o f th e fa mily i nto its

bran ches h as be e n o b tai n e d is simil ar to th at w hich dete r .

min ed th e clas sific ati o n O f th e fa mily as a w h o le I t h as .

b e en foun d that alth o al l th e branche s Of th e fami ly

,

ha v e c e rta i n c harac te ris tic s in c o mm on w hich ho ld the m

,

t o g e th e r a s a fa mily a t th e s a m e tim e ea ch bra n ch h a s

, ,

its Ow n i n divid ual ch ara cte ri s tic s d ue to th e s p e ci al d e

,

vel o p me n t i t h as fo ll o w e d a n d th e S p e cia l i n fl ue n c e s to

which it h as b ee n s ubj e c te d I t w o uld c a rry us to o fa r

.

a t pre s e n t to a tte mp t to S h o w a ll th e sp e ci a l c h a ra c te ri s

ti c s O f e a c h bran ch fo r ex a mpl e h o w G r e e k diffe r s fr o m

, ,

L ati n a n d h o w C eltic di ffe rs fr o m b o th al l we c an d o i s

to p o i n t o ut th e m ai n ch a ra c te ris tic s w hich di s ti ng ui s h
th e T e uto n ic o r G e rm an ic bran ch ,th e o n e in which o ur
s p e ci a l i n te re s t li e s .

4 T h e T e ut o ni c L a n gua ge s
. T h e m ain cha ra c te r
.

i s tic s w hic h th e T e uto n ic l an g ua ge s ha v e i n c o mmo n a s

fe a ture s di s ti ng ui s hi n g the m fro m th e o th e r I n d o E ur o -

p ean langua ges a r e fo ur (a) a re g ula r shifti ng o r c han ge

o f c o ns o na n t s k n o wn a s G rim m s L a w ; (b ) th e T e u
’
,
 T H E E N G LIS H L A N G UA GE 49

to n ic l ific ati o n o f th e v e rb as s tro ng an d w eak (o r ir

c ass

re gul ar and re g ula r ) (c ) th e tw ofo ld de cl e ns i o n o f th e

a dj e c tiv e a s s tro n g a n d we a k ; (d) th e T e uto n i c s ys te m

o f w o rd a cc e n t -
T h e las t three o f th ese cha ra c te ris tic s
.

ne e d o nly a w o rd o f e xpla nati o n but th e i m p o rtan c e o f

,

G ri mm s L a w m ak e s it de se rvi n g o f a m o re e x te n de d
’

d i sc uss i o n a nd w e s hall the r e fo re l ea v e i t t o th e la s t

, .

A c o m p ari so n o f th e M o de rn E nglis h v e rb w hi c h is ,

r e pres e n ta tiv e o f th e T e uton i c v e rb in ge n e ral with th e ,

L a tin a s r e pr e sen tativ e o f th e o rigin al In d o E ur o p e a n -

v e rb will s ho w th e dis tingui shi ng fea ture s o f th e T eu

,

to n ic v e rbal sys te m T h e E n glis h v e rb c o n si s ts o f two

.

c l a s s es th e w e a k o r r e g ul a r v e rb which fo rms i ts p a s t
, , ,

te n se by a ddi n g d o r e d (s o m etim e s a ss imil a te d to t) to

,

th e pr esen t o r i n finitiv e s te m a s fo r e x ample wa lk

, , ,

wa l ke d wa lke d ; a nd s e c o n d th e s tr o n g o r irre g ul a r
, , ,

v e rb whi ch fo rm s its te ns es by an intern al ch an ge o f

,

th e ra dic a l vo we l o f th e wo rd as i n th e v e rb s ing s a ng
, , ,

s ung . T h e L a tin ve rb o n th e o th e r h and fall s i nto a

, ,

n umb e r o f d ifle re n t c la sses de p e n de nt to be s ur e o n th e

,

fo rma ti o n o f th e prin cip al p a rt s but in w hich c an be ,

fo und n o suc h s i mple pri n cipl e o f te n se fo rm ati o n a s tha t

w hich di s ti nguis h es th e E n glis h ve rb .

T h e tw o fo ld d e cl e ns i o n o f th e adj e c tiv e h as b ee n lo s t
i n M o d e rn E ngli s h i n a sm uch as th e d e c l e nsro n o f th e
,

adj e c tiv e
( e xc e p t f o r c o mp a ri so n ) h a s b ee n l o s t a l to

geth e r I n th e O ld E ngli sh pe ri o d o f th e l an g ua ge
.
,

h o w ev er th e full de clen sio n o f th e a dj e c tive w a s still

,

mai ntai ne d a s it is in Ne w H igh Ge rm an to this d ay

, .

T h e simpl e pri n ciple O f it i s thi s tha t wh e n th e a d j e c

tiv e is pr e c e d e d by a d e m o n s tra tiv e pro n o un o r a d e finite
a rticl e i t is d e cli n e d i n o n e wa c all ed w e ak a nd wh e n
, y , ,
50 M O DE RN E N GL I SH

no t pre c e de d by a de m o n strative pro no un o r a de fini te

a r ti c le i t i s d e cli n e d in a n o th er way c a ll e d s tro ng
, , .

T h us th e phr ase Th es e yo ung bog s wo uld tak e th e weak

fo rm o f th e a dj e c tive in O l d E n gli s h pa s gaong a n ouap a n ,

but th e phrase Young bogs w o uld tak e th e s tr o n g fo rm ,

G e onge cn ap a n L atin lik e M o de rn E nglish wo uld ta k e

.
, ,

th e s a m e fo rm o f th e a dj e c tiv e i n b o th phr ase s .

T h e T e uto nic sy ste m o f wo rd a cc e n t is s uffic i e n tly -

ill us trate d by M o de rn E n glish us age T h e rul e the re is .

tha t w o rd s o f n a tiv e o rigin u s ua lly tak e th e s tr ess o n th e

r o o t syllable a n d this ro o t syllabl e e x c e p t in th e c ase o f
, ,

prep os i ti o n a l c o mp o un d s is alm o st a lwa ys th e first syll a

,

bl e o f a w o rd M o r e o v e r th e a cc e nt o f E n glis h wo rd s is
.
,

fix e d that i s a n o un h a s th e s a m e a cc e nt n o m atte r
, , ,

wha t its c ase may be a n d a v e rb k e ep s th e sa m e a cc en t

,

thro ugh a ll i ts va ri o us i nfl e c tio n s L atin o n th e co n

.
,

trary w hich i s a gai n r e pre s e ntativ e o f th e In d o—E uro pean

,

a cc e n t h as wh a t i s c a ll e d a f r e e o r va r i a bl e a cc en t c h an g
, ,

ing w it h th e v a ri o us fo rms o f a w o rd T hus th e n o mi .

n ativ e is s tr e s s e d i m e r d tor but th e a cc us a tive is i m er

p , p
a tar em T h e E n gli s h d e rivative w o r d
.
“ e mp e r o r
”
h as, ,

a fix e d a cc e n t o n th e firs t syll a bl e .

5 G r i mm s L a w
.
’
T his l a w i s n am e d G rimm s L a w
.
’

b e c ause it h a s be c o m e g e n e r ally k n o wn thr o ugh its for

m ul atio n in th e yea r 1 82 2 by th e G e rm a n sch o l a r J a c o b
, ,

G rimm wh o w a s n o t o nly th e wri te r o f th e fa m o us fa iry

tal es but w a s al s o a phil o l o gis t o f grea t i nd us try a n d
,

l ea rn i ng I t is c a lle d a l aw but it is p ur e ly a n e mpiri

.
,

c al l a w T h at is to s ay by Obs e rvati o n th e dis c o v e ry

.
,

was m a d e th a t a d e fini te s e t o f l i n g uis ti c ph en o m en a

o p e ra te d i n a c e rta i n r e g ul a r wa a n d t h e g e n e r a liz a ti o n
y ,

dra wn fro m thi s o bs e rv ati o n wa s fo rm ulate d as th e la w ,

 T H E E N G L IS H L A N G U A GE 51

or r ul e o f th e ph e no me n a T his k in d o f l a w d o e s no t
,
.

imply tha t th e ph e n o m ena mus t ac t in a c e rtain way ,

th at th e r e is a c o m p e llin g l aw giv e r o r p o w e r b a c k o f th e
-

l a w w hic h c o n tro ls its a c tio n I t S impl y s ta te s w h a t

.

d oe s h app en o r w hat a pp ea rs to o ur o bs e rvati o n to h ap

,

n T h u l tim a te e xpl a n ati o n o f th e c a us e o f th e s e ri es

p e . e

o f ph e n o m e n a k n o w n a s G rimm s L a w i s o n e th at s o
’
,

fa r h a s es c a p e d th e s c i e n tific s tud e n ts o f la n g uag e T h e

, .

fa c ts a s th e y a r e w e acce p t b e c a us e w e o bs e rv e th e m but ,

n o s a ti s fa c to r t h r i xpl n ati o n o f th e s e fac ts h a s

‘

y e o y n e a

e t be en br o ugh t fo r w a rd
y .

Th e ph e n o m e n a w hi c h ar e th e fa c ts up o n whi c h
G ri mm s L aw is b as e d ar e c e r ta i n r e g ul a r c h a n ge s i n
’

s o un d s I t w as Ob s e rv e d th a t w he r e I nd o E ur o p e an
.
-

w o rd s (a s r e pre s e n te d s ay by G reek o r L a ti n ) a pp e a r e d
wi th c er ta in c o n s o n a n ts th e sa me w o rd in th e T e uto n i c
,

la nguages a pp e a re d wi th differe n t c o n s o n a n ts al ways , ,

ho w e ve r ac c o rdin g to a re g ul a r s c heme o f e quiv ale n ts

, .

T h us In d o E ur o p e an p b eca m e re g ul a rly G e rm an i c f
-
,

a nd d b e c a m e r e g ul arl h r l i f E gli h
y t ; t e e a t o n O n s f o o t t o

G re e k 7 0 8 0 9 (p o d OS ) is the re fo r e Obvi o us
- -
O the r illus .

tra ti o ns o f th e ch an g e o f p to f a re L a ti n p a ter E n gli s h ,

f a th er ; L a t i n p e l l is E n gl i sh f e ll , T h e c h a n ge o f I n d o
.

E ur o p e a n d to t i s furthe r i llus trate d by E n glis h too th ,

L atin d en t i s E ngli s h te n (O l d E n gli sh tig on ) L a ti n

-
,

d e c em A n o the r re g ul a r c h a n g e w hi ch h a s b ee n ill us
.
,

tra te d by th e w o rd pa irs E n gl i s h f a th er L a tin p a ter a n d

-
, ,

E ngl ish too th L atin d e nt i s i s th a t o f In do E ur o p e an t

,
-
,
-

t o T e uto n i c th Furth e r illus tra ti o n s ar e L atin tr es

.
,

E ngl is h th r ee ; L ati n tenui s E n gli s h thi n ; L atin tu , ,

E n gli s h th ou A n o th e r r e gul ar c h a nge i s th at fro m

.

I n d O E ur o p e a n c to T e uto ni c h as i n L a ti n co r n us E n
- -
, g ,
52 M O D E R N E N GLI S H

li sh h orn ; L atin col l i s E ngli s h hi l l Illus trati o ns o f

-
, .

the s e c ha n g e s migh t be i n cr e a s e d ind e fin ite l y I n s te a d .

o f a ddi n g o th e rs h o w e v e r it will s u ffic e t o m ak e a en

, , g
e r a l s tate m e n t o f all th e c o n s o nan ts a ffe c te d by th e l a w

a n d th e ir c o rre s o n d e n ce s T h y m b gr o up e d a s
‘

p e a.
y e

fo ll o ws :

T h e I nd o -E uro p e a n l a b i al c o n so n a nts bh , b, 10 b e c am e re

s p e c tivel h T i b, p
y t e e uto n c c o ns o n a n ts , f .

T h e I n d o -E uro p e a n d e n ta l c o n so n a nts d h , d , t b eca me re

s p e c ti ve l y th e T e uto nic co n s o na nt s d , t, th .

T h e I n d o -E ur o p e a n p a l a ta l a nd guttura l c o ns o n a nts gh , g,
k ( c) , b e c a m e r e s p e c tiv el y th e T e uto ni c c o n s o na nts g, k, h .

. It sho uld be un d ers to o d o f c o urs e tha t thi s is a ve ry

, ,

ge neral s ta tem e n t o f G rimm s L aw and th at a s th us e x

’
, ,

pre ss ed it is o p e n to num e ro us e xc e pti on s a n d to th e

,

q ualific ati on s o f s o m e imp o rtant s ub law s M o re o v e r it - .

,

S h o uld be r e m e mb e r e d i n tra ci n g ba ck E n glis h w o rd s

to th e ir c o gna te s i n th e o the r I n d o E ur o p e an l an guag e s

-

w hich a re n o t s ubj e c t to this s hi fti n g o f c o n s o nan ts as fo r ,

e x a mple L atin t h a t th es e o th e r l a n g uag e s m ay a l s o h a v e

, ,

h a d e ach i ts o wn p e c uli a r de v e l o pm en t in i ts c o n so n an t
sy s te m w hich m a s e rv e to o b s c ur e th e s impl e o p e ra
y
ti o n o f th e l aw I t i s al so a pp a r ent tha t o nly th o s e E n g
.

li s h w o rds w hi c h ar e o f n ati v e o rigin th a t i s o nly th at , ,

ha lf o f o ur bilin gual lan gua ge which i s T e utonic a n d

’
n o t l a te b o rr o w e d R o m an c e c a n be s ubj e c t to G rimm s
,

L aw . D e s pi te i ts v ari o us re s tric ti o n s an d q ualific ati o n s ,

ho weve r G rim m s L aw is o ne o f th e m o st va lua bl e l in

,
’

g u i s ti c pri n cipl e s which w e p o s ses s I t e n abl e s us n o t

.

o nl y to gr o up th e T e uto n ic la n g ua g e s to g e th e r but a l s o ,

o fte n to d e te rmi n e th e his to ry a n d e t m o l o g o f th e vo

y y
c abul ar i e s o f th e va ri o u s T e uto n i c l a n g uag es to tell ,
54 M O DE RN E N GL IS H

G rimm
s L aw o r th e firs t shifting o f c o ns o
’
s ubj ec t to ,

n an ts but th e G e rm an c o n s o n ants w hich r e s ul te d fro m

,

th e o p e ra ti o n o f G rim m s L a w h a ve un d e rg o n e a fur th e r
’

c h a n e a s h iftin w h i h i p c ul i r t t h t l g g
g g c s e a o a a n ua e
—

, ,

an d w hic h is o n e o f th e thi n g s which j us tify th e li n g ui st

i n s e tti n g o ff th at lan gua ge a s a s p e ci a l s ubdivi si o n o f

th e T euto n i c l an g ua g e T h us w h e r e E n glish h a s p
.
,

G erm an u s ually h as f o r pf in c o gn ate w o r d s a s in E n g ,

li s h h elp G erm a n h e lf en ; E n gli s h sh ip G erman

, ,

E n gli sh s leep G e rman s chl af en E n glis h sh e ep G erm an

, ,

s c h af ; E n gli s h sa
p G e rm a n sa f
p ,
L ik e w i s e w h e r e E n
g .
‘

lish h as d G erm an us ua lly h as t a s in th e fo llo wi n g ,

p a irs o f w o rds : d e a d tot (fo rme rly sp e lled tod t) d e af

, ,

ta ub ; d e a l th ei l (th e h b ei n g s ilen t i n pro nun ci a ti o n ) ;

,

d o th a n
,
co l d ka l t h old h a l ten ; an d s o wi th m any
, ,

o th e r s E n gli sh t fr e q uently app ears a s G e rm an z o r tz ,

.

as in to , an tin , z i nn to oth , z a hn to ngue , zung e wr i te,

r i tz en ; c a t, ka tz ; s i t, s i tzen . E n glis h v a pp ears in c og

n a te G e rm a n w o rd s as b, as in o ver , o ber ; l ea ve, (

ar

l a u ben ; g ra ve, gr a b ; s h ove, s chi eben ; l ove, l i ebe ; kna ve,

kn a be .

7 P e ri o d s
. of s e venth c en tury
E n gl i s h . Fr o m th e ,

th e e arli e s t p e ri o d o f w hich w e h a v e any k no wl e dg e o f

re c o rd ed fo rm s o f E n glis h th e lan g uage h as b e en s ubj e c t ,

to c o n s ta n t c h a n g e I n this it m e r e ly p a r tak e s o f th e
.

n atur e o f l a ng uag e in g e n e ral fo r s p ee c h s o l o ng as i t , ,

is livi n g I n a c tual un c o n s tr ain e d use is c o nti n ually ,

gro win g a nd d e v el o pin g I t is o nly in th e s o c all ed .

-

”
dea d l an guage s th at l anguag e c an be dra wn up i nto
a s s te m o n c e a n d fo r all F r o m th e e arli e s t I nd o
y .

E ur o p e an ti m e s the re fo r e d o w n to th e pre s e nt d ay
, , ,

i t is s afe to say th a t th e l an g ua g e w hi c h w e n o w k n o w
 T HE E N GLIS H LA N G U A GE 55

as E ngli s h h a s b een c e as ele s sly th o o ften impe rc epti ,

bl y dro ppi ng old a nd a s s um in g n e w fo rm s

, Si n c e .

thi s pro c ess h as b een unbr o ke n fr o m th e begi nn ing it is ,

i n a w ay ill o gic al to divide th e his to ry o f th e l a n g uage

i n to p eri o ds T he re have been h o w ev e r c er tain tim es
.
, ,

a t which c han g es to o k pl a c e m o r e ra pidly th a n a t o the r s ,

o wi n g t o s p e c i al a tte n d a n t c irc um sta n c e s a n d pro vid e d ,

w e k e e p alway s i n m i n d th at th e d a te s by w hich w e
divide a l an g ua ge into p e ri o ds a re m o r e o r l es s arbi
t ra rily c h o se n th ey w ill s e rv e th e c o nve n ie n t p urp ose o f
,

i n dica ting ro ughly th e l arge g e n eral divisi o ns in th e d e

ve l o p m e n t o f th e l a ng ua ge I n thi s way w e ma y i ndi
.

c a te thr ee gr e at divi si o n s i n th e his to r

y o f E n glish
I . T h e O ld E nglis h , or A n gl o -
S a x o n p e r io d , b e gi nni ng
wi th th e c o mi ng o f th e A n gl e s , J ute s , a nd S a x o n s to

E ngl a nd a nd e n d ing with th e N o rm a n Co nque s t i n

1 0 6 6, or b e tt e r, a bo ut 1 1 00 .

II . T h e M id d l e E ngli s h p e ri o d , e xte nd ing fro m 1 1 0 0 to

a bo ut 1 5 0 0 .

III . T h e M o d er n E ngl i s h p erio d , e xtend ing fro m 1 5 0 0 to

th e p re s e nt time .

T h e lan guag e in ch o f the se p e ri o ds is dis tinguished

ea

by d e v el opm e n ts w hi c h are to a larg e e x ten t ch a ra c te ri s tic

o f th e r e S e c ti ve p e ri o d s T h d v l pm t ff c t
p e s e e . e o e n s a e

a ll th e v a ri o us s ide s o f th e l a n g ua g e s o un d s in fl e c -
, ,

ti o ns w o rds a n d syn ta x a nd i t w i l l be th e p urp o s e o f

, , ,

th e f o ll o wi n g c h ap te rs to giv e a n a c c o un t o f th e c h an g e s
in th e langua ge fro m th e s e s e ve r al p o ints o f vie w .
 IV

E NG L I SH INFL E C T I O NS

1 . T h e N a t ur e of I n fle c t i o n . It h as a lre a dy be e n
p o inte d o ut (pp 4 7 ff ) that i nfl e c ti o n is o n e o f th e
. .

di s ti ng ui shi n g ch a ra c te ri s tic s o f th e family o f I n d o

E uro p e an l an g uage s T h e e x ten t to whi c h th ese va ri
.

ou s l a n g ua g es ma k e us e o f i n fl e c ti o n d i ffe r s gre a tly ,

an d th e re i s o fte n c o n sid e rabl e v ari a ti o n a s in E n gli sh , ,

e v e n i n th e p e ri o d s o f o ne a nd th e s a m e l a n g uage .

B ro a dly de fine d i nfle c tio n is th e ch ange o r v a ri ati on

,

in th e fo rms o f a w o rd fo r th e p urp o s e o f in di c a ti n g
c o rr e sp o n din g variatio ns in i ts m e ani ng an d us e T his .

d efi ni ti o n imp li e s th at th ere is a c e rtain ro o t ele m e n t

w hich re main s c o ns ta nt , but which is giv e n sp e cific
a pplic a ti o n a n d m ea n in g b a ddi ti o n s to thi s e l e m e n t
y .

T his d e fin i ti o n h o we ve r i s to o bro a d fo r th e tra di ti o nal

, ,

us e o f th e t e rm in fl e c ti o n s i n c e i t i n cl ud e s n o t o n ly
,

i nfle c ti o n fo r p e rs o n n umb er c as e gen d e r t ense and

, , , , ,

s o fo r th but a ls o s uch w o rd ch a n g e s a s s wif t a dj e c tiv e

,
-
, ,

t o swif t lg a dv e rb
-
,
T h e te rm us ua lly e m plo ye d h o w
.
,

e ver to d es ig n a te s uch a c h a nge a s th at o f swif t to

,

s wiftl y is d e riva ti o n o r c o mp o si ti o n By c o mp o s i ti o n
.

o n e m e a n s th e pl ac i n g to g e th e r o f tw o wo rd e l e m e n ts

e ach o f w hi c h h a s a m o r e o r l e s s se pa r a te a n d i n de

p endent e xi ste n c e T h e degre e s o f this indep en denc e

.

may v a ry greatly A c o mp o un d like h ouse boa t i s m ad e

.
-

up o f two wo rds ea ch o f wh ic h m ay be c o m pl e tely

,
 E N G L I S H I N FL E C T I O N S 57

i n d e p e nde n t . O n th e ot he r h an d th e ly
-
of th e co m
p o un d swif tly , th e -
d om o f ki ng d om, th e -n e ss of ki n d
n es s , ar e rea lly c o mple te s e p ara te w o rds T hey
not .

h a v e h o we v e r m o r e m e a n i n g a s i n d e p e n d e n t e l e m e n t s
, ,

i n th e w o rd th a n true i nfle c ti o n s as fo r e x a m pl e th e ,

pl ural s o f bo oks th e pre te ri te e ndin g e d in d ifier e d

-
,
-
,

a n d th e p a rtic ipial e n din g en in sp oken I t is n o t - .

a l wa s e as i n fac t it i s n o t al w a s p o ss ibl e to dra w

y y , y ,

th e l in e b e t w ee n c o mp o si ti o n a n d i n fl e c ti o n a n d it i s ,

a l to ge th e r pr o b abl e th a t a g o o d m an y i n fle c ti o n al e l e

m en ts ar e m erely w e aken e d fo rms o f e a rlie r c o mp o si

tio nal el e m e nts o f w o rds T h e t wo thi ng s run int o .

e a c h o th e r imp e rc e p tibly an d a h ard a n d fa st divi si o n ,

b e twe e n th e m c ann o t be m ad e I t is bes t to re gard .

i n fl e c ti o n as th e g e ne ra l te rm i n c l udin g i n fl e c ti o n pr o p e r ,

a n d d e riv a ti o n an d t o us e th e s p e cific te r m d e riv a ti o n

, ,

o r c o m p o s iti o n fo r th os e i n s ta n c es in which th e e l e m e n ts
,

1
o f a w o rd a re pl ai n l
y fe l t to h av e s e p a ra te e xi sten c e .

I nfle c tio n may be o f thr e e k ind s ini ti al i n te rn al o r , , ,

e n d infl e c ti o n I n fo rm e r stage s o f th e l a n gua g e in iti al

.

in fl e c ti o n w a s us e d to fo rm th e p as t ten s es o f c e r tain
ve rbs kn o wn a s re dupli c ating v erbs ; this w as a m eth o d
,

o f te ns e f o rm a ti o n s im ila r t o th e us e o f a ugm e n ts i n

G ree k I t h a s b e en c o mpl e tely l o st in l a te r E n glish an d

.

i s o nly v e ry s pa ri n gly r epre se n te d in O l d E ngli s h A .

1 A d e fi ni tio n of i nfle c tio n is o fte n ma d e t o th e e ffe c t th a t i nflec tio n

i nc l u d e s o nl y th o s e va r i at i o n s o r ch a n g e s i n th e f o r m of a w o r d f o r th e
ex p r e s s i o n o f d iff e r e n t use s w ith i n i ts o wn p a r t o f s e e ch
p ; wh e n th e p a rt
o f s ee c h is ch an ed , m o s itio n
th en B
w e h a ve
u t th e n o un ki ng
co d om
p g p .

g i ve s king d o m w h ic h is s till a n o un ; ma n
,
hoo d , gives ma nh o od , al s o a
n o un . j
A g a i n th e n ume r al a d ec t i ve o ne by t h e a d d itio n o f -ly be c o m e s only ;
j
t h e wor d o nly m a y b e a n a d ective as i n th e o nly ma n, o r a n a d ve r b a s i n
, ,

If ! only kne w S h a ll w e ca ll t h e c h a nge o f o ne to o nly in flec tio n w h e n o nly

.

is j
use d as a n a d e ct i ve , a n d c o mp o s itio n wh e n i t is us e d a s a n a d ve r b ?
58 M O D E R N E N G LI S H

ki nd o f in iti al infle c tio n is us e d i n M o d e rn En glish to

i ndic ate gen de r as in ma n ,
s e rva n t a nd
-
m a i d -ser va n t, c ock

s
p a r r ow, h e nsp a rr ow is b e tte.r h oIt
w e v e r to r e g a rd , ,

s uch w o rds as c o m o un d s o r d e riv a tiv e s si n c e th e t wo

p , ,

e l e m en ts o f w hich e a ch i s c o mp o s e d h a v e s e p ara te e x i s

te n c e .T h e w o rd wo ma n w hich l o o k s a s th o it w e r e ,

th e fe min i ne o f ma n w i th th e fe m i ni n e infle c ti o nal sylla

bl e wo p re fix e d is o rigi nally a co mp o un d wo rd whi c h h a s
-
,

b e c o m e o bsc ure d It is O l d E nglish wij th e M o dern

.

”
E ngli s h wi fe ma n wife ma n
,
T h e wo rds ma l e a n d
2 : .

f ema l e a l s o l o o k lik e in fle c tio n al fo rms o f th e s a m e w o rd ,

but hi s to ric ally th ey are n o t T h e w o rd ma l e c o m e s .

thro ugh th e Fr en ch fr o m th e L atin ma s cn l us a w o rd o f ,

t h e s a m e m e an i n g T h e w o rd f ema le c o m e s fro m L ati n

.

“ ”
f emel l a a dimi n utiv e o f f emina wo m an
,
T hi s w o rd , .

sho uld give in E n glis h th e fo rm f emell which in dee d is ,

th e fo rm th at C h auc e r a nd h is c o n te mp o ra ri e s us e d .

T h e w o rd f e mell h o we v e r b e c am e c onfus ed with m a l e

, ,

a nd th e s e c o n d syll a bl e o f i t w as s upp os e d to be th e

s a m e a s ma l e hen c e th e fo rm f ema le T h e sylla bl e

, .

f e c o n s e que n tly a l th o i t ,o rigi n all y h a d n o s u ch v a l u e (

,

is n o w pra c tic ally f e lt to be a fe min in e fo rmi ng i nfle c

ti o n al pre fix to ma l e .

I nfle c tio n in E ngl i sh is c o mm o nly h o we ve r e i th e r inte r , ,

n al o r e n d i n fle c ti o n Ex ampl e s of internal infl e c ti o n a re

'

s ing ,
s a ng s ung; ma n
, men ; too th teeth ,
T h e m o st , .

g e ne ral m e tho d o f infl e c ti o n i n E nglish c o n sis ts in th e

addi ti o n o f i n fle c tio n al ele m e n ts a t th e e nd o f a w o rd ,

as in (I ) si ng (h e) si ng s; c a t c a ts ; wa l k wa l ke d
, , , .

T h e r e are thre e o th e r way s o f s h o wi ng th e diff e re nt

us e s o f a w o rd w hich a r e n o t true i n fl e c ti o ns but m ak e ,

shi fts to tak e th e pl a c e o f i nfle c ti o ns T h e first o f th es e .

 E N G L I S H I N FL E C T I O N S 59

is th e us e of th e m e ch anic al de vic e of th e a p o strophe in

th e p o s se ssive c as e as in boy s bogs ; so far as th e s o un d
,
’
,
’

o f th e s e w o rds i s c o n c e rn e d th ey c anno t be d i s tin g uish e d

fro m th e n o mi native a n d o bj e c tive pl ural boys a n d th e , ,

val ue o f th e ap os tro ph e is p urely vis ual T h e s e c o n d .

de vic e is that o f us i n g al to ge the r diffe ren t wo rds for th e

vari o us value s o f a pa r t o f s pe e c h a s fo r e x ampl e g o went , , ,

o n e; a m o r i s w b n f th t n s f th v rb
g , a s ee o
, r e , e e s o e e ;
ba d wor s e wor st ; go od better be st fo r th e d e grees o f
, , , , ,

th e a dv erb o r a dj e c tiv e ; I y ou h e fo r th e p e rs o n s o f th e
, ,

p e rs o n al pron o un T h e third e q uiva lent fo r tr ue in

.

flec tio n i s th e d evic e o f usi ng a phras e a s fo r e xa mple , ,

mor e s wif t mos t swif t i n th e c o mp a ri so n o f th e adj e c tive

,

a n d a d ve rb ; h e h h h d i h
( ) as
go ne
( )e a g
, o n e e tc n t e , .
,

c o n j ugati o n o f th e ve rb E nglish h as bee n driv en to us e

.

th es e d e vic es v e ry e xte n sively to m ak e up f o r i n fle c ti on s

w hich i t h a s lo s t .

.
“
2 E n gl i s h a s a G r a mm a rl e s s T o n gue T h e his .

to ry o f E n glis h in fl e c tio n s h as b ee n o n e o f c o n ti n uo us
l os s A s far b ack as w e c an go in th e his to ry o f th e
.

E n gli sh language we can trac e a gra dual breakin g do wn

o f th e in fle c ti o n al s s t e m A n d e v e n w h e n w e a rriv e
y .

a t th e e arli e st p e ri o d s o f O l d E n gli sh th e r e a re s ur e i n ,

di c a tio n s th at th e l a n g uage i s alr e a dy in a transiti o n al

s tage and that th e te nd en cy to wards in fle c ti o nal l o s s in
,

E nglish is o ne th at go es far back into th e prehistoric

p e ri o ds o f th e l an guage T his te nde nc y to w ard inflec
.

tio n al l o s s i s n o t to be r e g ard e d as a degene ra ti o n o f th e

languag e T h e la ng uage o f l e ss highly c iviliz e d p eoples
.

a n d e ra s i s o fte n m o r e e l a b o ra tely i n fl e c ted th an th e l an

g uage of a m o re highly de v el o p ed p eo ple a n d civili z ati o n .

T h us to d ay th e la ng ua ge o f c e r tai n trib e s o f Af ric an

60 M O D E R N E N GL I SH

s a vages is infin i tely m o r e c o mpl e x in grammatic al s truc =

t ure th a n tha t o f a ny o f th e E ur o p e an n a ti o n s I n h is .

sp ee ch th e s a va g e make s us e o f a gre at de al o f unn e ce s

s a ry m a chi ne ry a n d a s is a lm o s t a lw ay s tr ue o f th e r ud e
, ,

a n d un c ul tiva te d h e m ak e s a tre m e n d o us ph s ic a l e ffo r t

, y
i n a tte mp ti ng to e x pre s s th e c o n tent o f h i s mi n d .

T h e d ev e l o pm ent in th e E n gli s h infle c tio n al sy s te m

h as o f c o urs e b e e n al to g eth e r un c o ns ci o us s o far a s th e
, , ,

us e rs o f th e l ang ua ge a r e c o n c e rn e d T h e la ng ua ge
.

'

ch ange d to me et th e nee ds o f tho s e wh o sp o ke it an d no ,

c onsci o us the o ry o f impr o vin g th e lan g uage by gettin g

rid o f un n e c es sa ry i nfl e c ti o n s h as e ve r be en 1 n o p erati o n .

I n flec ti o n s w e re l o s t be ca us e i n th e pr a c tic al use o f th e

,

lang uage m e n ten de d to e xpress th e ms elv es as bri e fly as

,

p o ss ibl e In E n gli sh furth e rm ore th e l an guage h as d e

.
, ,

ve l o p e d fre e ly a n d un re s tr ai ne dly fro m th e ea rli e s t tim e s

d own to th e M o de rn E n gli s h p e rio d T his w o uld n o t.

h av e b e e n th e c a s e a t l e as t w i th li tera ry E n gli sh if w e
, ,

h ad h a d a great clas sic lite ra ture in th e O l d E n gli s h

p e ri o d whi c h w as s et up an d r e ta in e d as a m o del for al l
,

late r p e rio ds as cla s sic al L ati n li te rature b e c a m e th e

,

m ode l fo r all l ater gene ra ti o ns o f R o mans I f th at h ad .

tak e n pl a c e o ur la n gua ge w o uld n o w pr o b ably h a v e th e

c o mp arativ ely ela b o rate O l d E n glis h in fle c tio n al sys te m ,

i ns te ad o f th e pres ent M o de rn E n gli s h o ne which is ,

a lm o s t c o mpl e te ly d e v o id o f i n fl e c ti o n .

T h e n um be r o f M o d e rn E n gli sh i nfle c ti o n s is s o sm all

th at th ey m ay be v e ry bri e fly s umm a ri se d T h e o nly p a rts .

o f sp e e ch which ar e c ap a bl e o f i n fl e c ti o n a r e th e n o un ,

th e pro n o un th e ve rb a n d fo r th e s in gl e c h ar a c te ris
, ,

ti c o f c o mpa ri s o n th e a dve rb and th e a dj e c tiv e al tho

, ,

c o mp aris o n migh t j ust a s w ell be c all e d c o mp o si ti o n

62 M O DE R N E N G L I S H

a so s1 mp l i fied
l i ts r ul e s of
c o n c o rd an d it c o ns e q uently ,

do e s n o t pre s e n t th e sa m e ki n d o f gra mm a tic al s ys te m

a s th e cl as sic a l la ng ua ge s T h a t it i s a . gramm arl es s

”
to ng ue , h o we v e r i n th e true s en s e o f th e wo rd gram
,

m a r is n ot at all tr ue
,
T h e l an guage h as its s truc
.

t ur e an d i ts rule s o f righ t a n d w ro n g a n d it is as ,

n e c es s ary to o b se rve th e m a s i t w as fo r G re e k a nd

R o m an to o bs erv e th e ir i nflec tio nal sys te m and r ule s o f

c o n c o rd .

3 T h e I n fle c t i o ns
. of t h e O l d E n gl i s h P e r i o d . It
is c o n ven ien t to divide th e h i sto ry o f E n gli sh in fl e c ti o n s
i n to thr e e chron o l o gica l p e rio d s c o rres p o n ding to th e
,

thre e gr e a t s ta ges in the ir d e v e l o pm e n t T h e firs t is th e .

O l d E n glis h p e ri o d fr om th e e a rli e st r e c o rd s to ab o ut
,

1 1 0 0 thi s i s th e p e ri o d o f f ul l i nfl ecti on s T h e se c o nd .

i s th e Middl e E n glish p e ri o d fr o m 1 1 0 0 to a b o ut 1 5 0 0 ;
,

this is th e p e ri o d o f l eve l e d i nfl e c ti ons T h e thi rd i s th e .

M o de rn E n gl i s h p e ri o d fr o m 1 5 00 to th e pre sen t tim e

, ,

a n d this i s th e p e ri o d o f l o st i n e c ti o ns T h p ri d of
fl e e o s .

c o urs e p a ss o v e r i n to e a ch o th e r gra d ua lly al th o a t ,

th e tw o m ai n dividin g li ne s a t 1 1 0 0 a n d 1 5 0 0 cha ng e s
, ,

to o k pla c e m o r e ra pidly tha n d urin g th e c e ntra l p o rt i o n s

o f th e p e ri o d s .T h e r e is th e r e fo re bo th i n th e O l d E n g
, ,

li s h a nd in th e Middle E n gli s h p e ri o d a fairly s ta bl e an d ,

fix e d c en tr al o r c las si c al fo r m of th e l anguage which we

shall brie fly de s cribe .

T h e O l d E n gli s h i s c alle d th e p e ri o d o f full i nfl e c ti o n s

b e c aus e th e i nfl e c ti o n s o f th e lan guage at that ti me w e re
n o t o nly r e l ativ e ly m o r e n um e r o us th an th ey w e r e i n

l ate r p eri od s but w e re al s o pr o n o un c e d w i th a ful l a nd

,

distin c t s e n s e o f th e v alue s o f th e vari o us v o we ls i n th e

i nfle c tio nal e n dings Si n c e th e i n flec tio n al e n di ng s b o re
.
 E N G LI S H I NFL E C T I O N S 63

n o acc e n t, it w ill be m e th o d o f pr o n Ounc

se en th a t th is
ing th e infle c tio nal v o w el s i s ve ry di ffe r e n t fr o m th e
ten de n c y o f M o de rn E n gl is h (o r e v en o f M i ddl e E ng
lish) ; w he re w e regul arly o bs c ure fin al un a cc e n ted
sylla bl es i n pr o nun c i a ti o n O n e o r t w o ill us tra ti o n s w ill
.

s uffi c e to m a k e this p o i n t cl ea r I n O l d E n gli sh a n o un .

in th e no mi na tiv e si n gul a r m igh t e n d in a as h unta -

, ,

“ h unte r ” “ t o n g ue
; o r e as tunge or u as s unu
- -
, , , ,
”
so n o r -o as wl e n co
, pri d e No w th e se va ri o us
, .

e n di n gs w e r e a l l giv e n di s tin c tly a n d c l e a rly th e v a l u e s

o f th e v o wel s a - e u and
,
- o a nd w e r e n o t o b s c ur e d
,
-
,
-
,

a n d sl urre d a s th e y w o uld be i n o ur M o d e r n E ngli s h

pro n un ci ati on T h e s am e prin c ipl e h o lds true wh en th e

.

in flec ti o n al syll abl e c o n si s ts o f a v o w e l fo ll o w e d by a

c o ns o n an t or c o n s o nants T h e n o un s ta n . s to n e h as , ,

a g e n itiv e s i n g ul a r s ta n e s a n d a n o mi n a tiv e a n d a c c us a

tiv e pl ura l s ta na s ea c h o f w h ic h i s cl ea rly d i s ti n g ui s h e d

,

by th e va l ue o f its vo w el I n s h o rt w e may s ay tha t th e

.
,

i nfle c ti o nal en di ng w a s tre a te d wi th a great d e a l m o re

r e sp ec t an d c o n s id e rati o n in th e O l d E ngli sh p e ri o d
th an in l a te r p e ri o ds T he re w as m o r e fe elin g fo r i t
.

a n d c o n s e q ue n tl y a s tro n g e r t e n d e n cy m akin g fo r i t s

pre s e r vatio n .

T h e te n d e n cy w hich kep t th e vo wel s o f th e in flec

tio na l s yll abl e s full a n d c lea r se rv e d n at urall y to p r e ,

v en t th e l o ss o f i n fle c ti o n al e ndin gs T h e e x te nt o f .

i nfl e c ti o n in th e O l d E n glis h p e ri o d m ay be bri e fly i n di
c a te d c h o o s i n g fo r thi s p urp o s e th e W e s t S a x o n d ia l e c t
,

in th e e a rly W e st S ax o n p e ri o d th a t is E n gl is h b e twe e n , ,

th e y e a rs 80 0 a n d 9 0 0 in th e c entr al a nd s o uth e rn p a r ts
,

o f E n gl a n d . T h e n o un i nfl e c te d fo r thr ee g e n d e rs ,

m a sc uli ne fe min in e a n d ne ute r a n d g e n d e r in O l d

, , ,
64 M O D E R N E N GLI S H

E nglish , as in
M o de rn G erm a n o r L atin was s till gram ,

m a ti c a l no t n atural o r l o gic al as it h a s b e c o me in
, ,

M o d e rn E n gli sh T hat is ge nde r i n O l d En glis h refers

.
,

to th e w y i n w h i c h a n o un i s i n fl e c te d n o t n e c e s s a rily
a ,

to th e se x o f th e p e r so n o r o bj e c t de s ig na te d by th e n o un .

T h us O l d E nglis h n o un s e n di ng in a a re ma s c ul in es a nd -
,

thi s i n cl ud e s s uch n a m es o f i nan im ate o bj e c ts a s m o n a ,

moon n oma
“ na m e s te or r a s ta r
” 1
T h e n o un .
, ,

i nfl e c te d al s o fo r two n umbe rs singula r a n d plura l I t ,

.

1 n fle c te d fo r five c a s e s n o mi n a tive g e n i tiv e

, (f r o m w hich ,

i s d e riv ed th e m o de rn p o s s e ss iv e ) dative (lo s t i n M o d e r n ,

E n gli sh) acc usativ e (th e m o de rn o bj e c tiv e ) an d ins tru

, ,

m e n ta l (als o l o s t in M o d e rn E n gli s h ) Furthe rm o re i t .

i n fl e c te d fo r clas s o r typ e o f de clen si o n the re being tw o ,

m ai n typ es o f n o un de cl ensi o n th e s tr o ng a nd th e we ak , ,

a n d e a ch o f th e s e cl ass e s c o n sis te d o f s e v e ra l s ub typ e s -

o r cl ass e s T h e s o m e wh a t c o mplic ate d s tate o f a ffa irs

.

m ay be b e s t re pr e s e nte d by th e fo ll o w i ng tabl e o f th e
,

di ffe re nt inflec tio nal e n di ngs w hich th e n o un s o f th e

vario us ge n d er s a n d typ e s m ay tak e Wo rds which .

a pp e a re d in c e r ta i n c a s es wi th o ut a n y infle c ti o n al e n d

ing ar e i ndic a te d m er e ly by th e d ash Sin c e th e in .

1 T h e d i stinc tio n b etween t h e gra mm a tic al g e nd e r o f O l d E ngl is h ,

ba se d up o n t h e fo r ms of wo r d s, a nd th e na tur a l g e n d e r o f M o d e r n
E n gl is h , b ase d up o n th e me a nings of wor d s , s h o ul d be cl e a r ly a p pr e

h end ed . j
I n O l d E ngl ish , a d e c tive s h a ve ge nd e r a s wel l as no uns, s inc e
t h ey a r e i nfle c te d in fo r m s t o a gre e w ith t h eir n o un s With th e l o ss o f .

i n fle ct io ns , M o d e rn E ngli s h h as give n up th e d i sti n ctio ns o f g ra mmatica l

n d d u th t m n w f th m u h s i m l e r a n d m o r e n a tur a l
g e e r,
a n s e s e e r o o r e c p
p p se o f
ur o i nd i c a ting se x . T h is e x pl
wh y E ngl ish m e n o fte n find i t
a in s

d iffic ul t to un d e rs ta nd wh y th e p o s se s sive p ro no un m us t be fe m ini ne i n a

”
F r e n c h s e nte nce l ike I l a p er d u s a j e mme, H e h as l o st h is W ife B ut th e .

p j
o s s es s ive s a i s a n a d e c tive , a n d a s s uc h i t m ust ta k e th e f e m i ni n e fo r m

w h en it m o d ifie s a fe m i ni n e n o un n o m atte r wh a t its a ntece d e n t m ay b e ,

,

or wh a t its l o gic al m e a ning m a y be .

 E NGLIS H I N FL E C T I O N S 65

s tr um e ntal is al ways th e s ame a s th e d ative in th e

no un , it i s n o t m e n ti o n e d sp e c ific a ll y i n th e ta bl e .

INGUL A R
S . P L UB AL .

4 1, ”
a, "
e, “
0 0 N o min a tive “
as , 4 1 , ”
a, “
8 ,
“
an .

-
es , -e
,
-
an . G en iti ve -a
,
-e na .

-
e, -a n, -0 . D a tive -
um .

-e
,
-
an , -0 . A c c us a tive sa m e as th e n o mi n a ti ve .

An e x aminati o n o f thi s table will Sh o w tha t th e in flec

tio n al s yst e m o f th e O l d E ngl i s h n o un is n o t di s ti n c ti ve
fo r al l us es t ha t th e s am e e n d in g h a s so m e tim e s to d o
,

d uty for v a rio us v al ues o f th e n o un T hus th e e ndin g .

e ma a pp e a r i n a n c a s e o f th e s in gul a r o r i n th e n o m i
y y
-
,

n a tiv e o r a c c us a tive pl ural ; a nd th e r e a re o th e r e n di ng s

a l s o w hich h av e to be us e d s e v e ra l tim es th e e ndi n g a n ,

-
,

fo r e x am ple bei n g use d five ti m e s

, T h e m o s t di sti n o .

tiv e an d ch ara c te ri s ti c e n din gs a r e th e es o f th e g e n i tiv e -

s in g ul a r w hi c h a ppea r s o n l i n t h e ge ni tiv e s i n gula r ;

, y
-a s w hi ch a pp ea rs o nl i n th e n o mi na tiv e a n d a c c usa
, y
tive pl ural ; a nd um w hi c h i s a l w ays th e e n d ing o f a ll
-
, .

n o un s i n th e d ativ e pl ur a l I t wi ll be s e e n late r th at .

th e se e n di ngs a re j us t th e o n e s th a t are i mp o r ta n t i n th e
fur th e r d e vel o pm e nt o f th e i nfle c tio n al s ys te m T he de .

c l e n s io n o f th e s tr o n g m as c uli n e n o un s tei n s to n e th e ,

s tr o n g fe mi ni n e n o un l d r “ l o re l e a rn i n g th e s tro n g
, ,

n e ute r n o un hof c o urt ,

a n d th e w e a k m a s c uli n e n o un

s teor r a
“ s ta r an d th e w e ak fe mi ni n e n o un tunge
, ,

“ to n gue m ay be ci te d in ill us tra ti o n o f th e de c le ns i o n

,

o f five l arg e gr o up s o f O l d E n glish n o un s a l th o th ese ,

five a r e n o t e xh a us ti ve o f al l th e diff e r e n t O l d E ng
l ish de cl e n si o n s T h e de cle n si on s of s tdn and ste or r a
.

a r e t pi c al o f b
y y f a r th e gr e a te s t n um b e r o f n o uns in

O l d E ngli sh .
66 M O D E R N E N GL I S H

S T RO N G .

811mm . PLUBAL .

M a scul i ne F e m
. . N eu . M a sculin e . Fem . New .

N omi na tive s tan l ar h of s tan a s l ar e h o fu

G e ni tive s tane s l ar e h o fe s s tan a l ar a or l are n a h o fa
D a ti ve s tan e l are h o fe s tan u m l arum h o fum
A c c usa ti ve s tan l are h of s tana s l are h o fu
‘

VVELAKL
PL UBA L .

F emi ni ne . Femi ni ne .

t unge tunga n
tungan tun ge n a
tunga n tun ga ni
tungan tun ga n

T he r e v ari o us min o r d e cl ensi o n s o f th e no un i n

are

O l d E ngli sh b es ide s th e a b o v e five typ e s but m o s t o f the s e , .

h av e b ee n m o r e o r l ess c o mplete ly assimil ate d in late r

E nglis h to th e typ e fo rm s r e pr e s ente d by stai n and
s teorr a . O nly o n e h a s le ft c o ns id e r a bl e tra c es i n
M o de rn E n glis h n o uns in which th e pl ural n umbe r w as
,

fo rm e d by m utatio n o f th e radi c al v o w e l Fo r e x ampl e .

,

O ld E ngli sh f o t gas mus br o c e tc fo rme d th e ir plural s

‘ '

.
, , , , ,

f et, g é s ,m ys b r
, ék c o rr e sp o
,
n di n g t o M o d e r n E n gli s h
f f m m i T h w rd b h
'

o o t , e e t ; g oo s e
g e e s e,; ou se c e e o r o,
c as .

disappe are d in th e s ingul a r 111 M o d e rn E nglish which ,

s h o uld h av e br o ok ; i ts plur a l i s r e ta i n e d h o we v e r i n , ,

br e eches whi c h h a s th e o l d m uta ti o n o f th e v o w e l to

,

i ndic ate th e pl ural but whi c h h a s al s o a dded th e re gul a r

,

plural -s en di n g o f n o uns like std n S o me o th e r w o rds .

which in O ld E ngli s h b e l o ng t o thi s cla s s o f m uta ti o n

plurals h av e be en a ttra c te d c o mpletely into th e l arge r
cla ss o f re g ul a r n o un s T h us O l d E ngl is h boc bec
'

.
,

sh o uld give r e g ul a rly M o de rn E n glis h book wi th th e ,

pl ural be ek lik e goose g ees e B ut by a nalo gy to th e

, , .
 E N G L IS H I N FL E C T I O N S 67

l arge cl as s o f pl ural s i n s with o ut m utati o n o f th e vo we l -

,

be e k w a s ch an ged to boo ks .

T h e Ol d E n gli s h a dj e c tive d iffe r s fro m th e M o d e r n

E n gl i sh a dj ec tive in th at i t i nflec ts fo r a ll th o s e fo rm s
fo r whi c h th e n o un i nfle c ts fo r g e n de r n umb e r c as e a n d , , , ,

typ e o r c l a ss a s stro n g a n d w e a k
, T h e rule s o f c o n c o rd .

a ls o d e ma n d th a t a n a dj e c tive S h a ll a gre e i n i ts i nfl e c ti o n

w ith th e ge n d e r n umb e r a n d c as e o f th e n o un w hi c h i t
, ,

m o difies T h e m ain in fle c tio ns o f th e a dj e c tive fo r a l l

.
,

ge nders a n d typ e s a re as follo ws : ,

Bmann n. PL UB AL .

-a
,
-
e . N omina tive -a
,
-an .

-
es , -re
,
-a n . G e n i tive -r a
,

-um , -r
e, -
an . D a ti ve um .

-n e
,
-e
,
-
an . A c c usa ti ve s a me a s th e n o mi na tive .

With th e a dj ec tive s h ould be gro up e d th e d e finite

a rti c l e fo r th i s p ar t o f Sp e e c h i n O l d E n gl is h is a r e al
,

adj e c tiv e in fle c tin g li k e th e a dj e c tiv e and lik e t h e

,

M o de rn G e rm an a r tic le for gender n umbe r an d c a s e , , , .

T h e i nfle c ti o ns o f th e a rticl e a re a s fo ll o ws :

S INGULAR . PL UR AL .

M a scul ine . F emi nin e N e uter . . M a scul i n e F emi ni ne N euter

. . .

N omina tive $ 6, th e $60 beet 1

G enitive D5 of th e beé r e bee s

'

8,

D a tive pae m , to th e pé re baem

A c c usa ti ve “ th e
po n e , pa bee t
I nstr umenta l “b w ith th e
by, y or

1 T h e sym ol b al s o
“
w r itte n 3 , (c all e d th o rn
is e uiva l ent t o th th e q
b
s ym o l ar e (c all e d t h e d ig r a ph ) h a s th e so un d o f M o d e r n E n l ish a i n h a t
g ,

x
t h e val ue o f O l d E ngl ish a , a s fo r e a mpl e in s tein, e i ng t h e s a me a s t h e
’

b
a in M o d e r n E n gl ish f a th er .
68 M O D E R N E N GLI S H

T h e O ld E n glis h p e rs on al pro n o un differs m ainly fro m

th e M o d e r n E n gli s h i n th at i t h as pre s e rv e d r e m n ants
o f a n o l d d ua l n umb e r th e o n ly s urvi v a l i n an p e ri o d
, y
o f E n gli s h o f a n infl e c ti o n w h i ch pr o b a bly i n pre hi s to ric ,

s tag es o f th e l a n g ua g e a pp e a re d a ls o i n th e n o un th e
, ,

a dj e c tiv e an d th e v e rb ; a n d se c o n dly
,
i n t h at i t h a s ,

o nl y o n e fo rm fo r th e s e co n d p e rs o n h e M o d e rn E n
g , ,

“ ”
lis h tho u wi th its v ari o us c ase fo rms T h e dual .
,

n umb e r s urviv es o n l i n th e p e r s o n a l pr o n o un o f th e
y
firs t an d se c o n d p e rs o ns T h e i n fle c tio n s o f th e O l d . _

E n gli s h p e rs o n al pro n o un fo ll o we d in ea ch ca s e by its ,

M o de rn E n gli s h de rivativ e o r e q uivalent whe n it h as

one , ar e a s fo llo w s :

Fmsr '
P S N SING
ER O UL AR . SE CO ND P S N SING
ER O ULA R .

N o min a tive i c , N o mina tive an, “th o u

mi n , G e nitive Si n , “ th i ne
G e n iti ve
”

m e,
“
D a ti ve D a tive 86 , th ee
A cc usa ti ve m e,
“
A cc usa tive h e, th ee

D UA L .

N omina ti ve wi t N o mina tive g i t

G eniti ve un c er G eniti ve i ncer
D a tive unc D a tive in c
A c c us a tive un c A cc usa tive i nc

PL URA L . P
LURA L .

N o mina tive w e, “we N omina tive é

g , ye

Ge niti ve fire , use r “o ur G enitive co we r ,

‘

o ur
or y
D a ti ve fis , “us Da tive é o w, “
yo u
A cc us a tive fis , “us A cc us a tive é o w, “ o u
y

THI D P S N SING L
R ER O U AR.

M ascul in e . F emi ni ne .

N o mina ti ve h e, “h
e
”
h e o, “ sh e

G enitive h i s, “h is h i e re, “h e r

D a ti ve h i m, “
h im h ie re , “h er

A c ausa tive h i ne , h
“ im h i e, “h er
70 M O D E R N E N GL I S H

th e fo rms me th ee us and you L ik e th e fir s t p ers on

, , , .

s i n g ul a r b e c a us e it was in th e un s tre s s e d p os i ti o n O l d
, ,

E nglis h 123 d eve l o p e d a w ea k fo r m with sho r t v o we l ,

M o de rn E nglis h us alth o ugh r e gul arly u s ho uld giv e

,

on
( f
o
. O l d E n gli s h h a s M o d E n
g h,o u s e T
. h e .
,

fo rm s o f th e third p e rs o n w ere v a ri o us ly m o difi e d The .

dative a n d a c c usative s i ngul a r w e re simplifi ed unde r

o n e fo rm fo r th e m a sc uli n e h im th e o l d da tiv e fo r th e
, , ,

f e mi n in e h er like w i s e th e o l d d a tive
,
T h e n e ute r dativ e .

a c c u sa tiv e f o rm b e c a m e hi t
“ ”
it th e o l d a c c us ativ e th e
, , ,

o l d d a tiv e h i m n o t b e in g us e d he r e a s th e d ativ e w as i n
, ,

th e m a s c uli n e a n d fe mm m e b e c a us e o f i ts id e n ti ty wi th
th e m as c uli n e fo rm T h e g e n i tive s in g ul a r o f th e n e ute r
.
,

h i s w as als o gradua ll y disc a rded b e c aus e o f its ide n tity

,

w i th th e ge n i tive s in gula r o f th e m as c uli n e a n d in i ts

‘

plac e w a s d e vel o p e d a ne w g enitive si n gula r n e ute r

f o rm e d by a ddi ng th e r e g ula r s en di n g o f ge n itiv es to -

th e un i nfle c te d f o rm o f th e n o min ative I n all th e s e .

d e v e l o pm ents it w ill be s e e n th at th e te n den cy was

t o w a rds a limi ta ti o n o f th e numb e r but a ls o to w ards a ,

s tri c te r d e fi n i ti o n o f th e v al ue o f fo rms O l d E n gli s h .

p ermi tte d ide n tity o f fo rm s in diffe ren t grammatic al c at

e o ri es h i s fo r e x a mple fo r bo th m as c ulin e a n d n e ute r
g , , ,

gen itive ; but th e te n de n cy at l eas t o f l ate r E n glis h , ,

dev e lo pm en t h as b een in th e dire c ti on o f a s ingl e fo rm

fo r e ach gra mm a ti c a l c ate g o ry T his te n d e n cy w a s .

help e d in th e pre s ent i n s tan c e by th e change fro m gra m

m atic al to l o gi c a l ge nde r S o l o ng a s gen d e r w as a
.

p urely gram m atic al di s tin c ti o n as in O l d E nglis h o n e , ,

might us e th e s a m e fo rm fo r m as c ul in e a nd ne ute r ; but

w he n ge n d e r c a m e to m e a n a r e a l diffe re n c e in th e n ature
o f th e o bj e c t s d e s igna te d a s in M o de rn E ngli s h i t wa s
, ,
 E N GL I S H I N FL E C T I O N S 71

o bvi o usly n e c ess a ry to h a ve di stin c tive fo rm s fo r th e

di ff e re n t g e n d e rs T h e pl ural fo rm s did n o t p ers i s t
.

bec aus e o f th e ir simila rity in fo rm to s ingul a rs hi o f ,

th e pl ur al n o t b e i ng re a dily dis ting ui s ha bl e fr o m h e o f

“ ”
a n d h i m b e i ng
th e s in g ul a r hi e r a fro m h i er e
, h er , ,

identic al in s ingula r a n d pl ural Fo r th e O l d E nglis h .

fo rms w e r e c o n s e q ue n tly s ubs titute d th e fo rm s th ey ,

th eir th em pr o b a bly un d e r th e i n fl ue n c e o f th e S c an
, ,

d inavi an fo rms w hich b e gi n wi th th a n d p e rh ap s al s o

, ,

p ar tly o ut o f re c olle c ti o n o f th e pl ural fo rms o f th e d efi

n i te a rticl e wh ic h a ls o b e gi n w i th th
, T h e firs t p e r s o n
.

s i n g ul a r o f th e fe mi ni n e b e c a m e s h e in w hi c h th e r e i s ,

pro bably to be s e en an am algam a ti o n o f th e O l d E nglis h

fe m in in e a r ti cl e 8 60 w i th th e pr o n o un h eo w hi c h might ,

o th e rwi s e h a v e b e e n c o nfus e d wi th th e m as c uli n e h e .

T h e a dv e rb in O l d E n gl is h d o es n o t diffe r grea tly fro m

its us e in Middl e a n d in M o de rn E nglis h in a l l thr e e ,

s ta ge s o f th e l a n g ua ge be in g s usce p tible o f in fl e c ti o n

o n ly fo r th e p urp os e o f s h o wi n g de gr e e s o f c o m p a ri s o n .

V a ri o us in fl e c ti o n s h o we v e r w hich w e r e l o s t in l a te r
, ,

E nglis h we re us e d in O l d E n glis h w ith th e p o we r o f

,

fo rmi n g a dve rbs T h us th e d ativ e s in g ula r e n d in g e

.
-
,

a dd e d to a n a dj e c tiv e fo rm e d an a dv e rb e s of t a d
g ,
. .
, ,

s of te a dv e rb ; th e d a ti v e pl ura l e n di ng w a s s i m i
j e c ti ve
, ,
” ”
l arl y u se d 6 g hwi l
,
. .
, tim e M o de rn E n gli s h whil e
, , ,

wi th th e dativ e pl ur al i nfl ec ti o n hwi lum w a s us e d with , ,

s e n s e o f M o d e r n E n gl is h
“ a t ti m es
” “ fro m tim e to ,

tim e. T h e gen i tiv e sin g ul a r e n di ng es al s o o fte n h a d -

adv e rb ia l v al ue a s i n d oeg
“ d ay
”
d oege s “by d ay
, , , , .

With th e gra dual di s appe a ranc e o f i nfl e c ti o ns the se ,

in fle c tio n al a dve rb s c e a s e d t o be us e d th e ir pla c e be in g ,

tak e n l a rgely by th e c o m p o si ti o n al a dv e rb with ly - .

72 M O DE R N E N GL I S H

Th e dve rb i n -u m p e rs i sts h o w e ver in th e archaic fo rm

a , ,

w hil o m th e e s a dv e rb o f g e n itive o rigi n is n o t n o w

-

di s ting ui sh abl e fro m th e pl ural fo rm B ut in c o nstr uo .

”
ti o n s lik e Eve ni ng s i s th e b es t ti m e to s e e hi m th e ,

w o rd eve ni n gs is a d ir e c t s urviv al o f th e o l d gen i tiv e

a dv e rb c o n s tr uc ti o n W ith th e l o s s o f final inflec tio n al
.

- e ,
a dv e rb s li k e s of te c o uld n o lo n g e r be di s ti ng uish e d

fr o m th e a dj e c ti v e fo rm s of t T hi s typ e o f a dve rb
.

f o rm ati o n a l s o p e rs is ts in M o d e r n E ngli s h in a dv e rb s
”
wi th o ut e n din g a s in c o ns truc ti o ns lik e
, Go s l ow
“ H e fo ugh t h a r d but th e r e w a s n o h o p e f o r him
,

a n d ve ry c o mm o nl y i n Bibli c al a n d p o e tic E n gli s h in

phras es lik e ex ceed ing gla d “ ”

th e s un sh o ne cold
,
”
up o n th e e a rth .

T h e i nfle c ti o n o f th e O l d E nglish v e rb d i ffers fro m

th at o f th e M o de rn E n gli sh v e rb o n ly i n h a vi n g a la rg e r
n u mb e r o f sp e cific fo rm s fo r th e v a ri o us p e rs o n s te n s e s , ,

e tc . T h e re wa s c o n s id e ra bl e v a ri e ty a m o n g th e di al e c ts
o f O l d E n gli s h i n th eir t r e a tm e n t o f th e i nfl e c ti o ns o f

th e v e rb th e m o s t c o ns e rv a tive di a l e c t b e i ng th e W e s t
,

Sa x o n w hich is m a d e th e b a si s o f this d e scrip ti o n

, In .

O l d E n gli sh v e rbs a r e cla s sifi e d a s w eak th e M o de rn

, ,

E ngli s h reg ula r verb s and s tr o n g th e M o de rn E nglish

, ,

irr e gula r v e rb s (se e a b o v e C h ap te r III B e sid e s , ,

th ey i n fle ct fo r th e thre e p e rs o ns ; fo r tw o n umbe rs ; fo r
three m o o ds i n di c a tiv e i mp e ra tive a n d o p ta tive o r s ub
, , ,

j un c tive th e las t m o o d be i ng us e d m uc h m o r e e xten

,

s i ve l y i n O l d E n gli s h th a n it i s i n M o d e r n E n gli s h ; fo r

th e fo r m a ti o n o f th e v e rb al s th e p a r ti c iple a nd th e i nflu
,

iti ve ; a n d fo r tw o te n s es th e pr ese n t an d th e p as t o r
,

pre te r ite T h e fo rm s o f th e pr e se n t t e n se a re a ls o
.

u s ed w i th th e v a l ue o f th e futur e a n d b e s id e s th e ,
 E N G LIS H I N FL E C T I O N S 73

s impl e inflec tio n al te ns e s , M o de rn E ngli sh, th ere as in

ar e a numb e r o f p h r as a l v e rbs fo rm e d w i th th e a ux il i ,
” ” ”
a ri es h a bba n h ave s oula n s hall wi llan will been
, , , , , , ,

“ be ” e tc j o in e d to th e i nfin i tiv e o f th e m ain v e rb .

,
.
,

O l d E ngli sh like M o d e rn E n gli s h h as n o re al infle c

,

tio nal p a s siv e but o nl y a c o mp o un d o r phr as al p ass ive

, ,

“be ” “ ”
fo rm e d wi th th e h e lp o f th e v e rb be en w as , , ,

e tc . j oin ed to th e p as t pa rticiple o f th e v e rb T h e in
,
.

”
finiti ve e n d s us ua lly in a n si ng a n to s i n g but o cc a
-
, , ,

s i o n all y a ls o i n i a n en d i a n t o e nd
~

,
T h e pre p o siti o n , .

“ to is n o t use d in O l d E n gli s h m e re ly a s th e s ign o f

th e i n fin i tiv e a s in M o de rn E ngli s h but wh e n us e d i t i s
, ,

fo ll o w e d by th e i nfle c te d fo rm o f th e i n fini tive in th e ,

dative c ase th e w ho le b ein g virtually a prep o siti on al

,

phras e i ndic atin g purp o s e e g to si ng a nne for th e “ . .

, , ,
”
p urp os e o f si n ging to end i a nne in o rde r to en d “ ”
, , .

T h e pres e nt p a r tic i pl e e n ds i n e nd e si ng end e th e p as t -

,

p artic iple o f th e s tr ong v erb ends in eu sa ngen s ung -

, ,

o f th e wea k v e rb i n cd od fr e quently c arryi ng als o

-
,
-
,

” ”
t e pre fix ge e g g f y e
h e l l d .fil l ed.
g
, e—en d o d e n de d , , , .

T h e p e rs o n a l e n d in gs a r e fe w in n umb e r Fo r th e pre s .

e n t te n se i n di ca tive s i n g ula r th ey ar e e es t eO i c singe -

,
-
,
-
,

Ou singes t he si ng ed ,
A ll p e rs o n s o f th e pl ural e n d in
.

-a i5 we ge h ie si nga b
, ,
B ut m os t verb s w h o s e in fin i
.
,

tives e nd in i a n h a v e a 6 in th e third p e rs o n si ng ula r

-
,
-
,

a n d i a O i n a l l p e rs o n s o f th e plura l
-
I n th e o pta tiv e o r .

s ubj un c tiv e all s i n g ul a rs e nd i n e a nd a ll pl ural s in en - -

.

I n th e p as t te n se th e fir st an d thi rd pers o n s o f s tr o ng
ve rbs h av e n o e n dings : i c sa ng h e s a ng but th e s e c ond ,

p e rson h as th e e ndi n g e a nd lik e w i se in th e ro o t o f -

,

th e wo rd ta k e s o v e r th e r a di c a l vo w el o f th e plura l Ou ,

s un e
g T h e
. pl u ra l h as th e e n di n g o n fo r all p e rs o n s we -
, ,
74 M O DE R N E N G LI S H

g e, hi e g s un on . I n th e weak s e c o n d p e rs o n ve rb th e
sing ul ar o f th e p as t ten s e h as th e -es t ending o f th e pre s
e nt b u f yll e d e s t; th e firs t a nd third are i c f y ll ed e h e
, ,

fy ll e d e a n d t h e
, pl ur a l we g e hi e fy l l e d o n T h,e s ub j u
,
n c .

tiv e fo rm s ar e th e s a m e fo r th e p a s t as fo r th e pr e s ent e ,
-

fo r th e si n gula r and en fo r th e pl ural

,
-
T h e o n ly o the r .

fo rm s which n ee d be n o te d a re th o s e o f th e imp era ti ve ,

which a pp ea r in th e si ng ul a r e i the r w ith o ut e n din g o r

w ith th e e n di n gs -e o r -a and in th e plura l with th e en d ,

ing -a O, or i a ?5
-
.

4 . T h e I n fle c t i o ns of th e M i d d l e E n gl i s h P e ri o d .

T he lang uage o f th e Middle E n gli sh p eri o d un d e rwent a

great n umb e r o f ch an ge s affe c tin g no t o nly i nflec ti o ns , ,

but al s o v o c ab ul a ry s o un ds a n d th e w ho l e s tr uc tur e of
, ,

th e languag e T h e c a us e s o f thi s d e v e l o pm ent this

.
,

th o ro go i ng r e c o ns truc ti o n o f th e l an guag e are v e ry ,

c o mpl e x So far as i nfle c ti o n s go h o we ve r o ne o f th e

.
, ,

m ai n c aus e s wa s pretty c e rta inly a ch a nge in th e w ay

wo rd s w e re a cc e nte d in th e Middl e E ngli sh p e ri o d T h e .

o nly ki nd o f w o rd s tr e ss w hich c o uld h av e pr e se rv e d th e

full infle ctio n al e n di ngs o f th e O l d E n gli sh p e ri o d is a

ge ne r al o r di s trib uted s tre ss s pre a d o ve r th e w o rd as a ,

w h ol e B ut in th e Middle E ngli sh p e ri o d app ar e ntly

.

th e s tre s s o f w o rd s b e g an to b e c o me m o r e lik e that o f

M o de rn E n gli sh to be plac ed str on gly and h e avily o n
,

th e fir s t syll a bl e s o f w o rds w i th a c o n s e q ue nt o b s c urin g

,

a n d w e ak e n i ng o f th e la te r s ylla bl es o f th e wo rd s A .

s e c o n d m a in c aus e o f inflectio nal change in th e Middle

E ngli sh p e ri o d wa s th e c o ndi ti o n o f general s o cial and
p o litic al un r e s t which a c c o mpani ed th e p eri o d o f th e
D anish C o n q ue s t a n d a li ttl e l ate r th e No rman C o n
, , ,

q ue s t Th e r e s ult o f th es e two c o n ques ts was th e

.
 E N GL IS H I N FL E C T I O N S 75

c ompl ete o v e rthr o w o f th e E nglis h s o ci al an d p olitic al

sys tem Fo r a p e ri o d o f s ev e ra l g e n e rati o ns th e re w a s a
.

tim e o f gre at c o nf us i o n ; th e s tandard s th e tradi tio n al ,

rul es and h abi ts o f th e E n gl ish p eo pl e o f Bri tai n in ,

s p e e ch a n d i n o th e r m a tte rs we re fo rg o tte n a n d br o k e n
,

do wn T h e re sult was that th e c o n s tra i nts o f a rigid

.

s o cial c usto m o f c o n v e n ti o n al e d uc ati o n an d g o o d br e e d

,

i ng b eing to a c o n sid e rabl e e x te nt re m o v e d th e l a ng uag e

, ,

was all o w e d to dev e l o p in a n un tr a mme le d a n d p o p ula r

w ay . T h e usa ge s o f th e ra di c a l th e ig n o ran t a n d un
, ,

e d uc a te d pa r t o f th e p e o pl e we r e n o t h e ld i n ch e ck a nd

th e re s ul t w a s th at w h e n E n glish b eg a n to r e as se r t i ts e lf ,

it w as n o l o ng e r th e E n gl is h o f th e O l d E n gl is h p e ri o d ,
'

but a n E ngli s h th a t h a d b e e n m o difi ed by p a s si ng

thro ugh a p e ri o d o f p o p ula r a nd n atura l d e v el o p m en t .

T h e si tua ti o n w as v e ry m uc h a s th o w h a t w e n o w
c all go o d E ngli sh s h o uld fo r s o m e r eas o n o r o the r be
given up s ay as a r es ult o f a J ap anese c o n q ue s t o f
,

M eric a Fo r a tim e J ap ane se w o uld h av e th e upp e r

.

han d A me ric an s w o uld all try to l e ar n Jap an es e to

.
,

talk J ap an e s e t o a c t lik e J a p a n e s e b e c a use th e J ap a

, ,

n e s e w o uld giv e to ne to e v e r thi n g a n d w o uld be th e c o n

y
tr olli n g p o we r i n th e c o un try E n glis h w o uld n o l o n ge r
.

be ta ught in th e sch oo l o r th e h o m e and th e o nly p e rs o ns

,

wh o wo uld use E n gli s h wo uld be th e p o p ul a ce wh o ,

w o uld no t o f c o urs e c o m e i nto c l o s e c o nta c t w i th th e

n e w r ulin g civiliz a ti o n o f th e c o untry T h ey w o uld
.

s p eak th e ir n atura l s pee ch th e E ngli s h o f th e p eo pl e ,

an d th e o l d go o d E ngli s h wo uld b e c o m e e xti n c t an d

w o ul d be cr o w d e d o ut by th e “ ”
i n c o rre c t E nglis h o f
th e une d uc a te d a n d h e e dl es s p a r t o f th e p o p ul a tio n A l l .

wh o sp ok e Engli s h at al l m ight th e n s ay Yo u w as ,
76 M O DE R N E N GL I S H

”
i ns te a d of Yo u w e r e He i n st e a d o f H e
a n i ’
t,
” ”
is n t
’
p e rhaps H e d o ne it in stea d o f H e did
, ,

it a n d a th o usan d simil a r us es whi c h a r e n o w h e ld

i n c he ck by th e s tan d a rds o f c areful E n glis h wo uld be

c o me general Fo r a tim e then we s h o ul d all to ge th er
.
, ,

”
be un e d uc ate d a nd p o p ular B ut s upp o s e n o w
.

that a fte r s e v e ra l gene ra ti o n s this J ap a n e s e i nv a s io n an d

th e pre s tig e o f thi n gs J a pa n e s e s h o uld p ass o v e r a n d th at ,

E n glish Sh o uld b egi n to re a ss ert i ts e lf S o o n th e e duc a .

tiv e a n d c o n s e rva tive i n s ti n c t w o uld set to w o rk Th e .

m o re tho ughtful p a rt o f th e p e ople w o uld a gai n c o n

s truc t a sys te m o f th e l a nguage a nd a gain we s h o uld,

ha v e rule s o f gra mm a r a c o rr e c t sp e e ch a t th e side o f

, ,

a n i n c o rr e c t o n e B ut th e n e w c o rr e c t sp e e ch w o uld be
.

b a se d Simply up o n th e usa ge o f th e p eo ple o f thi s late r

g e n e rati o n a n d c o n s e quently i t w o uld c o n tain muc h tha t
,

th e e a rli e r g e n e ra ti o n r e ga rd e d a s i n c o rre c t A fte r th e .

l ang uage h ad p as s ed thro ugh th e p op ul ar s tage an d h ad

He
”
e m e rg e d a ga i n i nto a c ultiv a te d s tag e Yo u wa s , ,

”
H e d o n e it might v e ry w e ll be th e o nly
’
a in t, a nd

p o ssibl e c o rre c t fo rms T hi s a s h as b e en s aid is what

.
, ,

happ e ned in th e Middle E nglis h p e ri od T h e o l d s tand .

a rd s o f c o n v e n ti o n a l pr o pri e ty a nd c o rr e c tn es s we re m o re

o r less fo rg o tte n th e l an g ua g e fo ll o w e d th e fre e and n u

,

r e gulated i m pulse s o f th e p eo ple a nd c o n s e quen tly when

,

i t r o s e aga i n to th e p o s i ti o n o f a s ta bl e a n d clas sic al l it

c ra ry la n g ua g e i n th e tim e o f C ha uc e r a n d h i s pr e d e c es

s o rs it wa s a v e ry di ff e rent l an g ua ge fr o m wha t i t h ad
,

b ee n in th e tim e o f A lfre d an d fE l fric I t is no t me c es .

s ary ho we v e r o r e ven r ea s o nable to re gard th e language

‘

, , ,

o f th e Middl e E n gl i s h p e ri o d a s a c o rr up t a n d d e g e n e r

a te f o rm o f O l d E nglish , fo r th e s e te rm s s upp os e th at
78 M O D E R N E NGL I S H

be th e fo ll o wing sche me o f no un i nflec ti ons in Middl e

E ngli sh :
Smo um n . Pmmu .

es , -e n.

“
es , “
ent

Se v e ral imp o rtant c o ns e q uen c es follo we d this le v eli ng

o f th e dis ti n c tiv e O l d E n glish v o we l e n di n gs un d e r th e

v o wel e I n th e firs t pla c e th e gro upi ng o f th e no un s

-
.
,

i nto class es o r typ es o f de cl en si o n h a d largely to be

, ,

given up fo r th e prin ciple o f this clas sific ati o n was th e

,

di ffe ren c e in v o we l e n ding T h e two c las se s which re

.

m ai ne d we re th e clas s o f th e stro ng and weak no un s th e ,

s tro ng n o uns bem g th o se that fo rm ed the ir gen itive s in

gular and n o min a tive a nd a cc us ativ e plura ls in es th e -
,

w e a k n o uns th o s e th at us e d th e e n d i n g en fo r th es e an d -

o th e r fo rms M o re o ve r wi th th e br eaking d o wn o f th e
.
,

differen t cl ass e s o f d e c lensi on pa s s ed a way a ls o gram

matic al g e nde r A l l i n fl e c ti o n s b e in g l e v e l e d un d e r
.

th e gen e ral i nfl e c ti o n s e es -
e n th e re w as n o l o ng e r
,
-
,
-
,

a ny re as o n o r i n d e e d a n y m e an s fo r k e e pin g up th e d is
, ,

tin ction s o f gr a mm a tic a l g en d e r a n d w o rds we re us e d as

,

they a re i n M o d e r n E nglis h wi tho ut ge n de r e xc ep t in

, ,

s o far as th e y s ta te b t h e ir l o gic al m e a n i n g th e s e x o f
y , ,

th e Obj e c ts w hich th ey d es ign ate T h e i nfl e c ti o n o f a

.

typic al s tr o n g n o un i n Middle E nglish is th a t o f s ton

( th e v o we l g
a h a vi ng ch an e d to o i n th e Middl e E n gli s h

p eri o d) o f a typic al we ak n o un th at o f ster r e s tar

, , , ,

in th e fo ll o wi ng p ara digms ; le tte rs which are e n cl o se d

wi thi n pa re nthes e s a re s uch a s are s o m e tim e s dro ppe d
 E N G LI S H I N FL E C T I O N S 79

in th e rly M iddle E ngli s h p e ri o d a n d are

ea a lto g ethe r
dro pp e d in th e late r Middl e E ngli sh pe ri o d .

S IN GULAR . SIN GUL AB .

N o mina l i ve s to n N omina tive s ter re

G e ni ti ve s to n e s Gen itive ( )
s te rr e n

D a tive s to n e () D a tive s te rre (n)

A c ausa tive s to n A cc usa tive ( )

s te rr e n

PL UR A L . Pnum .

N omi na tive s to n e s N omina ti ve s te rr e n

G enitive )
s to n e n e , s to ne s
( G enitive s te rr e n e
( )
D a tive s to n e n , s to n e s D a tive s ter re n

A c c usa tive s to n es A c c us a ti ve s te rre n

T h e te n de n c y o f al l i nto th es e two
no un s wa s to fall
gro ups th e ston ston es gro up a nd th e s terr e s ter r en gro up
,
-
,
- .

T h e s ton ston es gr o up a s th e m o re n um e r o us gro up

-
, ,

te n d e d t o imp o s e i ts elf up o n th e s ter r e s ter r en gr o up s o -

,

th at be si d e s th e s e fo rm s a nd c o n te mp o ra ry w ith the m
a r e o fte n f o un d th e fo r m s s ter r e s ter r es , .

T h e l o s s o f gra m ma ti c a l g e n d e r in th e n o un n aturally
l e d to th e l o ss o f agr ee m en t in in fl e c ti o n b e tw e e n th e
n o un a n d i ts a dj ec ti ve s o fa r a s g e n d e r is c o n c e rn e d
, .

T h e s a m e l e v el in g o f in flec tio nal e n din gs to o k pla c e in

th e a dj e c tiv e a s in th e n o un ; th e o nl y o n e w hich p er
s is te d a fte r th e l o s s o f th o s e i n dic ati v e o f g en d e r w as

th e v o wel e w hi c h s e rv e d to m a rk th e pl ura l n umb e r

-
,

a n d th e w eak i n fl e c ti o n o f th e a dj e c tive T h e in fl e c tio n .

o f th e Middl e E ngl ish a dj e c tiv e god “ ”

g o o d wo uld , , ,

th e re fo re be as fo llo ws
,

ST R O NG . Wm .

S i ngula r , al l ca se s a n d ge n d e rs , S ingula r , al l c a s e s a nd ge n d e rs ,
go d .
go d e .

P l ur a l , al l c as e s an d ge n d e rs , P l ura l , all c a se s a n d ge n d e rs ,

go d e .
go d e .
80 M O D E R N E N GL I S H

An e xa mple of a r
g sin g ula r w o uld be th e phras e
s t on

A yong S guy er (f
C ha uc e r s P ro l o g to Th e Ca n te r
r m ’
o

bury Ta l e s 1 , a s tr o n g pl ura l w Oul d be a n d s ma l e

.

l 9 ; it sho uld be re me mber ed that e ve ry

.

v o w e l is pro no un c e d in M iddle E n glish) ; a w e a k si ngu

l a r i s th e phra se Th e y o nge s on n e a n d a w eak plural th e , ,

phra se Th e ten d r e cr op p es (b o th ibid l .

,
.

I n th e c a se o f th e d e fini te a r tic l e th e fo rm s w i th ini ,

ti al s th a t is s e a n d s e c g av e up this 3 fo r 1) (th ) by a na l
, , ,

o t o th e m a j o ri ty o f th e fo rm s o f th e a rti c l e which b e gi n
gy ,

w i th p . T his g av e fo r th e n o mi n a tiv e S in g ula r fo rm s pe ,

pe o pee t
,
B ut by a re g ula r ph o n e ti c de v e l o pm en t th e
.
,

v o we l o f pe a be c a m e th e sa m e as tha t o f pe and w ith th e ,

lo ss o f gra mmatic al ge nde r in th e n o un th e sep a rate ,

n e ute r fo rm poet wa s giv e n up a s a n a rti c l e its pl a c e b ei n g ,

tak e n by th e fo rm pe o f th e m asc uli n e an d fe mi n i n e no

l o n ge r neede d as a n ar ti c le th e fo rm poet its elf per ,

sis te d w ith c han ge d val ue as a d e m o ns trativ e pro no un .

Ha v in g g o n e a s far a s thi s a nal o gy th e n o pe ra te d s till

,

furthe r a n d th e re b e i n g li ttl e n e e d fe l t fo r infle c ting

,

th e a rticl e i n th e o th e r c as e s a n d fo r g e n d e r s i nc e i t w a s ,

rea dily a ss um e d th at th e ar tic l e w a s o f th e s am e c as e a nd

ge nde r a s th e n o un w i th w hi c h i t wen t th e s in gle fix e d ,

fo rm pe (th e ) e s ta bli s h e d i ts e lf fo r all g e n ders n umb e rs , ,

a nd c ase s o f th e a r ticl e T h e m a i n pri n cipl e th e r e fo r e

.
, ,

w hic h o p e ra te d in th e S i m plific a ti o n o f th e de fin ite a r ti

c l e i s that o f s ub s ti tuti o n o n e s i n gl e typ e fo rm cr o w di ng
,

o ut all th e do z e n o r m o r e i n fl e c ti o n s o f th e O l d E ngli s h

a rticl e .

I n fle c tio n o f th e v e rb a s stro n g a n d w e ak o r irre g ula r ,

a n d re gul a r p e rs i s te d in th e Middl e E n gl is h p e r i o d but

, ,

fro m e a rly Middl e E n gl is h ti me s th e re w a s a te nd e n cy

 m m
‘

v lir i
nl tl the
y i mrt finur li no
t

u
h
'
r
p e stud ies :
a cu my
mptu c

T H E BEG IN N IN G O F C H A U C ER S
’“ P A RD O N ER S T A E
’
L .
”

Fro m C a mb rid ge U n ivers ity L ibra r M S G G 4 2 7 fo l io 306

y . .
, . . .

(For d esc ription , s ee Append ix .

)
82 M O DE R N E N GL IS H

on th e p art o f s tr o n g ve rb s to b e c o m e weak fo r e x a mple , ,

O l d E n gli s h wep a n wé op , be side Middle E n glish wep en

' ’

, ,
” ”
wep te , wee p we p t
, T his ten de n cy w hich w as d e
.
,

vel o p ed s till furth e r i n th e M o d e rn E nglis h p e ri o d an d ,

w hi ch is Still o p e ra tiv e w as d ue to th e fa c t tha t th e ,

w e a k v e rbs w e re th e m o re n um e ro us a s w e ll a s b e in g ,

t h e s i m pl e r a n d m o re re a di ly a ppre h e n de d m ann e r o f
te n s e fo rm a ti o n Th e w e ak v e rbs th us te n d e d to b e c o m e
.

th e typ e fo rm cr o w di n g o ut by an al o gy to t he m m an y
,

Old s tro n g v e rbs and attra c ting to th e ir cl ass al l n e w

v e rb s tha t e nter e d th e l ang uage Ex a mi ni ng th e d e .

s crip ti o n o f ve rb i n fl e c ti o ns fo r th e O l d E n gl ish p e ri o d v

given a b o ve it w ill be s e e n tha t th e g en e ral r ul e o f

,

th e l e veli n g o f i nfle c ti o n a l v o w el s un d e r th e v o w el e -

a ffe c te d a c o n s id e r a ble n umb e r o f v e rb fo rm s T h e en d .

i ngs a O i a O o f th e pre s ent plur al b e c am e -eO like th e

-
,
-
,

third s in g ul a r T h e e n di ngs e a a n d a 6 i a 6 o f th e
!
- - - -
.
, , ,

imp er ativ e b e ca m e res p e c tiv e ly e an d eO T h e in fini tiv e - -

.

e ndi n gs a n -
i a n a n ne b e c a m e e u enn e
,
-
,
- I n th e pre t -
,
- .

e ri te pl ur al th e —on d on e n di n gs b e c am e en
,
- d en -
,
- .

O th e r ch an g e s w e re d u e to di ffe r en t c a use s T h e e nd .

i n g o f th e pr e s en t pa r ticipl e -en d e te n de d to fall t o

ge the r w i th c e rtai n no uns n a min g a c ti o n s w hich e n de d
re gula rly in ung i ng e g l a ugung de sire lon gin g
-
,
-
, . .
, , , ,

an d which i n O l d E n glish w e re di sti n c tly fe l t as n o un s

a nd n o t a s p a r ts o f th e v e rb Th eir simil arity I n fo rm .

,

ho we ver a nd al s o i n m eanin g attrac te d th e pres en t

, ,

p ar ticipl e to th ese n o uns wi th th e re s ult th at th e end e ,

-

p artic ipial i nfle c tio n was giv e n up an d th e n o un in -ung

'

, ,

-
ing a nd th e pr ese nt p a r ticipl e be c am e i n di sti n g ui sh a bl e
,

i n fo rm b o th wi th th e e n din g i ng
, A n o th e r s i mp l ific a -
.

ti o n th at te n d ed to tak e pla c e a ffe c te d th e pre te ri te

 E N GLIS H I N FL E C T I O N S 83

tens es . E ngli s h s tro ng v erb th e prete rite

I n th e O l d ,

pl ura l s te m wa s fr e q ue ntly d iffer e nt fro m th e prete ri te

s in g ul a r a n d th e p as t p a rticipl e O ften d i fle r e d fro m b o th
, .

I n Middl e E n gli sh th e thr ee pr e te ri te s te m s te nd e d to be

c o m e alik e t o si mplify un d e r o ne fo rm j us t a s th e fo rms
, ,

o f th e a rti c l e a ll te nd e d to s i mpli fy un d e r th e typ e fo rm

th e. T hus th e O l d E n gli s h v e rb bi n d a n ba n d bun d e n , , ,

bun d en be c am e in M i ddl e E n glis h bi n d e bo un d boun d

, , , .

T hi s l e v eli n g n e v e r b e c a m e c o m pl e te a s in th e c as e o f,

th e a r ti c l e a n d w e s till ha v e in M o de rn E ngli s h v e rb s
,

l ike s ing sa ng sung ; d r ive d r ove d r iven ; th e simpl ifica

, , , ,

tio n h o w e ve r a fle c te d a c o n sid e ra bl e n umbe r o f ve rb s

, , .

5 . T h e I n fle c t i o n s Of th e M o d e rn E n gl i s h P e ri o d .

A l th o th e M o d e rn E n glish pe ri o d is calle d th e p e ri o d
o f l o s t infle c ti o n s it s h o uld be un d e rs to o d th a t thi s t e rm
,

i s u s e d wi th r e l a tiv e a n d n o t ab s o lute m e ani n g A l l

, , .

i nfl e c ti o n s h a v e n o t b e e n l o s t in th e M o d e rn E ngli s h
p e ri od alth o c o mp are d with th os e o f th e M i ddle E ng
,

l is h o r th e O ld E n gl is h p e ri o d they hav e dwin dl e d to a

v e ry s m all n um b e r N ever thel e ss th e lan guage sti ll r e
.

m ai n s an m fle c tio n al la n g uage an d fo r th e e xpr e s si o n o f

,

c e r ta i n ideas n o o th e r m e an s t ha n in fl e c ti o n h as b e en

de vi sed T h e de velo pm e n ts in th e M o d e rn E n gli sh

.

peri o d a ris e fro m th e furthe r c a rryin g o ut o f th e two

t e n d e n c ies o f th e M i ddl e E n gl is h p e ri o d firs t th e te n d ,

e n cy to wa rd s o b s c urin g th e v o w e l s o f i nfle cti o nal

syll abl e s a nd s e c o n d
, th e te n d en cy to wa rds s imp li fic a
,

tio n by th e s ubs ti tuti o n o f o n e typ e fo rm in th e pl ac e o f

a va ri e t o f fo r m s I n th e p g f r o m th e M i ddle
y assa
. e

E nglis h to t h e M o d e rn E nglis h peri o d th e la ng uage d id ,

n o t a ga i n b e c o m e m e r e l p p ul a r di a l e c t w h i c h l a te r
y a o

w as e l e va te d to th e dig nity o f a s ta n da rd l i te r a ry
84 M O DE RN E N G L I S H

l angua ge as h ad o cc urred in th e tra nsi ti o n fr o m th e O ld

,

E ngli sh to th e Middl e E n glish p e ri o d O n th e c o n tra ry .

,

fro m th e e n d o f th e M iddl e E ngli s h tim e to th e pre sen t

d ay th e l a n guage h a s b e en w atc h e d wi th i n c re a s in g c a re
and vigilan c e I t h as bee n sy s te m atiz e d re g ul ate d
.
, ,

p urifi e d ; i n sho rt it h as tended to be c o m e m o re a nd

,

m o re a n es tablis he d and s ettl e d li te ra ry a nd c o n ve n tio nal

l an g ua g e T h e cha nge s
. c o n se q uently which ha ve
, ,

t ak e n p l a c e i n th e M o de rn E nglish p e ri o d h av e b e e n
c o mp ar ativ e ly sl o w an d c o mp a ra tively fe w in numb e r .

T h e d ifle re n c e b e tw e en th e E ngli s h o f th e y ea r 1 9 0 0 a nd
th e y e a r 1 5 0 0 i s m u ch l e ss th a n th at b etwe e n th e E n g
lish o f th e y ea r 1 25 0 an d th e y e a r 1 00 0 T h e M o d e rn .

En glish h as been a re gul atin g r efinin g sys te matiz i n g

, ,

p e ri o d ra th e r th an a r e vol uti o niz in g r e c o ns truc ting

, ,

p eri o d .

T h e fi nal re s ul t in th e e arly M o d e rn En gli s h p e ri o d

, ,

o f th e w e a k e n in g o f in fle c ti o n al v o wel s wa s a s h as b e e n ,

s tated their c o mplete l o s s T hu s startin g with th e O l d

, .

E ngli s h diss yllabic n o un n a m a “ n ame

”
-w e ge t i n
, ,

M i ddl e Engli s h th e fo rm na m e s till a di ssyll able but

-
,

in M o d e r n En gli s h w e hav e n a me a m o n o syll a bl e th e , ,

fi nal e h avin g n o o th e r v al ue than to i n dic ate th e

-

l ength o f th e radic al v o w el L ikewi s e th e O l d E n glis h

.

pl ural sta n a s th e Middle E n glis h ston es be c o me s

-
,
-
,

M o de rn E nglis h s ton(e ) s ; and the O l d E n gli sh gen itive

s ta n es
-
,
Middl e E n gli s h s ton es is M o de rn En gli s h
-
,

s ton (e) s wi th an a p o stro ph e a s a m e ch a ni c al d e vic e to

,

dis tin g ui s h th e p o s s ess ive fro m th e pl ural With th e .

l o ss o f th e fin al e di sapp eare d al so th e l as t rem nant o f

-

c o n c o rd b e t wee n th e a dj e c tiv e a n d its n o un F o r w h e re .

Middle E nglis h in dic a te d agree m en t in p l ural numbe r

86 M O DE RN E N GLI S H

a typ e fo rm fo r all
geni tives fe mini n e as well as ma sc u ,

lin e an d ne ute r in th e s i n g ul ar T h e O l d E ngli s h ge ni

, .

tiv e plur al i n fle c ti o n fo r a l l g en d e rs wa s a -en a w hich -

, ,

i n M id dl e E n gli sh b e c a m e -e en e I n M o d ern E n g li s h
,
-
.
,

in fle c tio n al lo s s w o uld h a v e d e priv e d th e g e n i tive o f a ny

e n di n g i n th e pl ur al I n ste a d h o w e ve r th e g e ni ti ve
.
, ,

s i n g ula r e n di n g b e c a m e typic a l n o t o n l f o r al l ge n d e rs
y
o f th e s i n g ul a r b ut fo r th e pl ura l as w e ll
, T h e e n di n g .

-
e s w a s f e l t t he r e fo re as a g e n e r al i z e d i n fl e c ti o n s ta n d
, ,

i n g fo r th e g e n itiv e o r p o ss e s s iv e r e l ati o n W e ge t c o n .
,

s e q u e n tly a s th e g e n e ra l typ e fo rm o f th e s in g ul a r n o un
,

i n M o d e rn E ngli s h s ton e e x c e p t s ton e s th e g en i tiv e o r

' ’
, , ,

p o s s e s s iv e w hi ch in wri ting a n d pri n ti ng h as a n ap o s

,

tro p h e be fo r e th e -s to di s tin g ui s h th e w o rd fr o m th e
pl ural A s i mil a r m e c hanic a l d e vi c e i s us e d to m a rk
.

th e g e n i tiv e o r p o ss e ss iv e plura l fr o m th e p o s s e ss iv e s in
gula r an d th e o the r fo rm s o f th e pl ura l ; he re h o w eve r , ,

th e a p o s tr o ph e i s pl a c e d a fte r th e s a s i n s to n e s th o
’
-
, ,

th e ph o n e tic v al ue o f th e w o rd i s th e s am e a s th at o f th e
p o s se s siv e s i n gula r We h a v e th e re fo re as type o f th e
.
, ,

plural i nfle c tio n th e c o m m o n fo rm s to ne s w ith th e p o s

, ,

T hi s us e o f th e ap o s tro ph e a s a
’
se s sive pl ura l s ton es .

m e ch a ni c al d evi c e to i n di c ate th e p o ss e s sive is o f c o m

p a r a tivel
y l a te o r igi n I t b e c a m e e s tabli s h e d o n ly a t
.

th e e nd o f th e s e v e n te e n th a nd i n th e e a rly e igh te e nth

c en turi e s as a r e sul t o f th e gr ow m g in fl uen ce o f pri nti ng
and o f rm ter s r ul e s I is f c o urs e a d e vi c e fo r th e
’

p t o .

e e a nd n o t fo r th e e ar B efo re th e us e o f th e a p o s tr o
y .

h h w e v e r a n o th e r m e th o d o f i n di c a ti n g th e p o sse s
p e
, o ,

s iv e h a d b e c o m e pre t ty g e n e ra l i n w ri ting th e u se o f th e ,

pro no un h is i ns tea d o f th e ge n itiv e e n di n g -s as in G o d ,

h is wr a th fo r G o d s wr a th T h is pro no un h i s w a s n e v e r
’
.
,
 E N GLI S H I N FL E C T IO N S 87

pr o no un c e d in sp o ke n s p e ech but lik e th e a p o s tro phe , ,

i t s e rv e d m e r e ly a s a vi s ua l symb o l to i nd i c ate th e p os
s e ss i ve r el a ti o n I n pro o f o f th is th e r e ma rk o f th e
.

Elizabethan vers i fier G a bri e l H arvey th e fri e nd o f , ,

Sp e ns er m ay be c i te d
, H a rvey i s c o mpla ini n g th at th e.

E ngli s h s p elli n g o f h is d ay w a s m isl e adin g to th e p o et ,

b e c aus e o fte n w o rds w e re sp e lle d a s di ssyll ables but pr o

n o un c e d a s m o n o s lla bl e s a n d c o n tinue s thu s :
“ B u t s ee
y ,

wh a t a bs urdi ti e s thys yl fa uo r e d O r th o grap h ye o r rath e r ,

P s e ud o graphy b a th e e n ge n d re d a n d h o we o n e e rro ur
, ,

s till br ee d e th a n d b e g e ttet h a n o th e r H au e w e e n o t .

M o on e th fo r M o on th e , s i th en c e fo r s inc e, wh i l e s t fo r whi l ste ,

h a n ta s i e fo r h n s i e , c uen fo r e vn , D i ue l fo r D i vl , G o d
p p a

hy s wr a th fo r G e d d es wr a th, an d a th o us and e o f th e s a m e
” 1
s ta mp e .

M o de rn E n gli s h h as de v elo p ed s p e ci al fo rm s o f th e
p o s s e ssive w h e n th e p o ss e ss iv e s tan d s in abs ol ute p o sitio n ,

th a t is wh e n i t i s n o t i m m e d ia te ly fo ll o we d by th e n o un
,
”
w hi c h i t m o difi e s T hus w e say T hi s i s my h at o r in
.
, , ,

th e a rch a ic fo rm T his is th y h at ; but

” “ T his h a t is
,

min e thine , I n th e ir o rigI n s th e th i ne min e fo rm s o f th e

.
,

p os sessiv e ar e dir e c t s urvi val s o f th e O l d E n glis h geni

ti ve s Oi n mi n
, Fo rm e rly th a t i s i n th e M i ddle E n gli s h
, .
, ,

p erio d thes e full fo r m s w e r e r e tai n ed befo re w o rds be gi n

,

n i n g w ith a v o w e l s o und a s th e a r e s till i n M o d e rn E n

y g,

lish p o e try e g “ Mi ne e ye s ha v e s een th e gl o ry o f th e

,
. .
,

1 G b i l H
a v y Of R f
r e m d V if /
ar i g w itt n in 1 5 79 1 5 80
e ,
e or nde er s z n , r e -
,
a re

p rinte d i n S mith , E l iz a betha n Cr itica l E ss a ys , I , 1 2 0 N o tice i n t his p as .

s a e h o w fr e e l n d i i t tl H t h fi l h the ,
g y a n co n s s e n y a r ve y u s e s e n a -e e g ,
a ,
. .

h owe , nzoonth e , whils te th o usa nd e , s ta m e O f c o ur se no ne o f t h e se fi nal

p , .

’
e s we r e A t th e cl o s e o f t h e M id d l e E n gl ish p e rio d wh e n
p r o n o un ce d
-
.

t h e fi nal e s h a d l o st a ll h o n e tic val ue , t h e w e re o fte n r e ta i ne d i n s e l l

’
-
p y p
i ng, b ut a l so o fte n d r o pp e d , a nd e ve n we r e in d isc r i mi nat el y ad d ed to th e
sp el l in of wo r d s to w h ic h th ey h a d n eve r re a ll y b e l o ng e d
g .
88 M O DE R N E N G LI S H

c o mi ng o f th e L o rd but th e abbreviate d fo rms my thy , ,

te n d e d to be c o m e g en e ral espe ci ally b e fo r e wo rds b egi n ,

n i n g w1 th a c o n s o na nt W h en sp e cial fo rm s w e re r eq uired
.

fo r th e p o s s e s s ive in ab s o l ute p o si ti o n th e full fo rms ,

min e th i ne we re n a turally ch ose n and my thy hi s our

, , , , , , ,

a nd y our b e c a m e th e o nly f o rm s fo r th e p o ss e ssiv e i n

a dj e c tiv e p o si ti o n B ut th e fo rm s h i s h er our y our and

.
, , , ,

th eir i n a b s o l ute p o s i ti o n a ls o unde r w e nt a ch an ge

, In
, .

O l d E n gl is h th e r e w e r e n o t two fo rms o f th es e p r o
n o un s th e s a m e fo rm b ei ng us e d in b o th th e a dj e c tiv e
,

a nd a bs o lu te p o s i ti o n s I n Middle E n glish t h e n u .

ch anged fo rm s c o n ti nue d to be us e d for s o m e tim e as ,

th e W ycli ffe P urv e y Bible L uke vi 2 0 : th e kyngd om

-
, ,

of G o d i s our e B u t gr a d ua lly a dis ti n c tiv e g e n i tiv e

y .

e n di n g fo r th e se a b s o l ute p o s s e s siv e s w a s fe lt t o be

n e c e s s a ry a n d t w o f o rms c a m e i n to use
, T h e firs t was .

m a d e by a ddi ng th e re gula r -s ge nitiv e en di ng a s th e type ,

i n di c ati o n o f th e p o sse s sive r elati o n givi n g our s y our s , , ,

a n d o f c o urs e h i s w hich n e e d e d n o a ddi ti o n

, B u t by .

a n a l o gy to th e mi ne t h in e f o rms i n fl ue n c e d p e rh aps a ls o
, ,

by th e p o ss e ss ive a dj e c tiv e own p o s ses siv e s w ith a n n ,

-

e n di n g w e re fo rm e d givin g mine thi ne our n y our n

, , , , ,

th e i r n e tc, Exampl e s of this s e c o nd kind o f fo rm ati on

.

a r e fo un d in th e W y cliffe P urv ey Bibl e a s i n M ark xii -

, ,

7 : th e er i tage s ch a l be our un ; M atthe w v 3 : th e kyng ,

d om of h evene s i s h e r ne T his fo rm o f th e a bs o lute .

p o s se ssiv e p ersis ts in M o de rn English o nly in p o p ula r

sp ee ch th e s ta n da rd o r c o n v enti o nal us e ha vi ng b e c o m e
,

1
y our s , h er s, th eir s, e tc .

1 S o me o f th e d ial e cts of E n gl a nd h ave c a rr ie d th is meth o d o f p ossess ive

fo r matio n o ver i nto th e n o min a tive , e sh is n, co m p o se d o f t h e n o mina
.
g .
,

tive s h e, to wh ich a re a d d e d fi rst t h e p o ss es s ive -s

, a nd th e n th e a b so l ute

p o s se ssive n e n d ings
-
. S ee W r igh t ,
E nglis h D ia lect Gra mma r, p . 2 75 .
90 M O D E R N E N GL IS H

r eal s i ng ul ar i s n o w y ou y our y ou I n s o m e di al e c ts
, , .
,

e s p e ci a lly i n E n gl a n d th e th o u th in e th e e fo r m
, ,
s al s o ,

p e rs i s t in p o p ula r Sp o k en us e I n th e e arlie r M o d e rn
.

E nglis h p eri od in th e ti me o f Sh ak sp ere a nd as l ate

, ,

a s th e e a rl e igh t ee n th c n t ury t h e t w f rms th ou

y e o o ,

a nd y ou e xi ste d i n g o o d E n gl is h S i d e b s id e a n d
y ,

t h ey c o uld be a nd w e re us ed in c u rre n t c o ll o q uia l

s p e e ch w ith g o o d e ffe c t T h e fo rm th ou was us e d i n
.

th e c o n v e r s ati o n o f fri en d s o r o f a h us b an d a n d wi fe
, ,

th e tr ans i ti o n to y o u i n di c a ti n g a S ligh tly m o r e fo rm a l

t o n e I n c o n v e r s a ti o n T h us fo r e x a m pl e in th e c o m e
.
, ,

di e s o f E the re ge and V anbr ugh two m e n fri e n d s o r tw o ,

w o m en fri e n d s (but n o t a ma n a n d a w o m a n un l e s s ,

th e y a r e h us b an d a n d W ife ) u s ually a ddre s s e a c h o th e r

,

a s th ou but to o th e rs th e y a r e I n E th e r e e s S h e
’
ou
, y g .

Woul d if S h e Could Sir Fre de ri c k a bo i s te ro us s wa sh

, ,

buckl e r n o i sy an d fa mili a r use s th ou to M rs Ri c h th e

, ,
.
,

e ffe c t b e i n g o n e o f a s o r t o f fri e n dly g o o d n atu r e d i m

:

,
-

p e rtin en c e Mrs Rich b ei n g on ly h is fri e n d a n d th er e

, .

fo r e pr o p e rly to be a ddres s e d by y ou I n s p e akin g to .

s e rv a nts a n d th o s e o f i nfe ri o r so ci al r a n k a n d i n givi n g ,

o rd e rs ,
th ou w a s a l s o th e fo rm us e d I t w a s lik e w is e .

us e d i n c o n te mp tuo us l anguag e a s i n Sir T o by s a dvi c e

’
,

t o Sir A n dr e w A g ue ch e e k “ I f th o u th o u s t him s o m e
’
,

thric e i t sh all n o t be a mi ss
, ( Tw e f
l th N ig h t III , ,

A ll this i s w h a t w e sh o uld e xp e c t fo r th e la n g ua ge o f ,

fa mili a r I n te r c o urs e o f fri e n d s hip an d o f c o nte mp t is

, ,

a ll o n s o m e wh at th e s a m e pl a n e — th at i s it i s a l l th e ,

l an g uage o f s tr o n gly c ollo q ui al a nd familia r c ol o r I t is .

i nte re s ting to o bs erv e th at th e fo rm s th ou thin e and th ee , ,

hav e b e en a t all p e ri o ds th e o n e s use d in praye r a nd

g e n e rally in el e v at e d di sc o urs e a nd this is true e v e n o f ,
 E N G LI S H I N FLE C T I O N S 91

th ose p eri o ds i n whi c h th o u is used as a m ark of fa mili

a rit o r o f c o n te m
p t T h e p o li te f o rm s y ou y our y ou
y .
, ,

h a ve n ev e r be e n us e d in a ddre s sin g th e D ei ty pro bably , ,

firs t o f all bec a use th ere w as o rigi nally a fe elin g o f in

c o ngr ui ty i n u s in g wh a t was fa shi o n able o r c o ur tly l an

guage fo r this p urp o s e ; an d no w o f c o urs e y ou is n o , ,

l onge r c o ur tly o r fa shi o n abl e but to o fam ilia r to be us e d

,

fo r l o fty p urp o s e s M o r e o ve r th e la nguage o f p o etry

.

a n d pr a ye r i s a l w a s s tr o n gly tra di ti o n al a n d c o n s e rva

y
ti ve ; i t w o uld c o n s e q ue n tly te n d to pr e se rv e th e o l d
hi s to ri c a l us ag e o f th e E ngli sh to ng ue an d o n c e th e us e ,

o f th ou w a s fix e d i n s a c r e d l a n g u ag e a s i n th e pray e r ,

b o ok a n d th e E n glis h tra n s la ti on o f th e Bibl e it w o uld ,

n a tur all b e v e ry i n flue n ti a l i n m a i n tai n i n g th at us a g e

y
thr o ugh l a te r p e ri o d s T his fee li ng fo r th ou a s th e o nly
.

pr op e r fo rm to be us e d in addr e s sin g th e D eity i s w e ll

bro ught o ut in a p a ss ag e o f a s ix teenth c e ntury w o rk A ,

D i a l ogue a ga in s t th e F euer P e s ti l en ce printe d in ,

A b e gg a r M e n di o ns app e a r s a t a d o o r s o li c i ti n g alm s
, , ,

a n d r e c i te s p a rt o f th e L o rd s P r aye r a s fo ll o ws : O ur
’

fa th e r w h i ch e a r t in h e a ue n h all o w e d be yo ur n am e , ,

o ur kyn d o m co m e u r w ill b d n in r th i t
y g y o e, o o e yea a s
”
is in h e a ue n e tc ,u p o n wh i c h h e i s ridi c uled by C ivi s
.
,

a nd U x o r th e g e ntl e m e n fr o m wh o m h e i s s o lic i ti n g
,

a l m s o n e o f wh o m r e ma rk s
, M e th in k e I d o e h e are a
,

g o o d m an erl y B e gge r a t th e d o o re and w ell br o ught up , .

H o w r e ue re n tl y h e s aieth h is P a te r No s te r ! h e th o us no t
”
G o d but yo u [ s ! h i m
,
.

T h e di sc rep an cy b etwe en th e pl ura l fo rm y ou a s a

w o rd o f a ddres s t o a s i ngl e p e rs o n dis turb e d gr e a tly th e
p e ac e o f m in d o f th e fo unde rs o f th e S o c i e ty o f Friends
1 . x
E a rl y E ngl is h T e t S o c iety, E x tr a S e ri es, V o l L II , p 5
. . .
92 M O D E R N E N GL IS H

or Q ua k ers b.s e rv T h ey
e d th a t th e Bible m ea n i ng o f
o ,

c o urs e th e E nglis h transl atio n alw ays u s e d thou to o n e ,

a nd y o u to m an y T h ey th o ugh t it n ot fi tti ng th e re fo re
.
, ,

th at m e n s h o uld use a m o r e dign ifi e d fo rm o f e xpres si o n

i n a ddr e ss i n g e a ch o the r than th ey us e d in a ddre ss i n g
th e L o rd M o r e o v e r y ou a s a wo rd o f a ddress to a s ingle
.

p e rs o n is n o t c o n s i s te n t with th e well kn o wn r ul e o f -

gra mm ar acc o rdi ng to which y o u i s pl ural an d the refo re

, ,

o n th at s c o re a l s o i ts us e a s s i n g ul a r w a s w ro n g T his .

i s j ust th e ki n d o f li n g ui s tic cr o tc h e t w hich w e migh t

“

e xp e c t t o s ti c k i n th e mi n d o f a h alf e d uc a te d p e rs o n -

like G e o rg e Fo x th e fo un der o f th e So ci e ty o f Fri e nds ;

,

and i t i s n o t s urpri si n g to s e e him c o m e fo rth i n

de fens e o f Th ou to On e an d You to M a ny to use his ,

o w n ba ttl e cry H e p ublishe d a w o rk c alle d A B a ttl e

-
.

D oor 1
f or Te a ch er s a nd P r of ess or s to l ea rn S ingul a r a nd

P l ur a l Y o u to
M any and T ho u to O n e : S ingul a r O ne , ,

T h o u ; P l ur a l M any Yo u whi ch w a s pri nte d in L o n do n

, , ,

fo r “ R o b e rt Wils on and to be s old at h is Sh o p at th e

Sign e o f th e Blac k Spr e a d E a gle a n d Wi n d mi l in M ar
- - -

ti n s l e G r a nd 1 6 6 0 T h e te ach e rs a n d pr o fe ss o rs o f
, .

h is d ay Fo x ta k es to ta s k in th e fo ll o wing fa s hi o n
D O n o t th ey s p e ak fal s e E n glis h fal se L a tin e fa ls e , ,

G r e e k fal s e H e br e w fal se C ald e e fal s e Syri a ck a n d

, , , ,

A ra bic k fa ls e D utch fal s e Fr e n ch ; a n d fal s e to th e

'

, ,

o th e r T o ng ue s th at fo ll o we s h e re in thi s B o o k th at
, ,

do th n ot s p eak th ou to one w ha t e v e r h e be Fath e r , , ,

1 b
A attl e-d oor , a s t h e wo r d i s use d h e r e , me ans a p r im er L ite r all y .

t h e wo r d m e a n s a w o o d e n ba t sh a p e d s o m e wh a t l ike a t e nnis r acke t

, B ut .

b
i t i s us e d i n t h is m e t aph o rical s ens e e c a us e th e e a rl y p r ime r, o r h o r n- o o k, b
c o nsis te d o f a c a r d b o ar d with th e a b c, e tc .
, on it , s ur r o un d e d by a wo o d en
ri m w ith a h a nd l e , a n d co ve r e d w i th a t ra ns p a r e n t pi ece of h o rn , t h e w h o l e
b eing sh ape d so me wh a t l ike a fla t ba t o r r a c ke t .
94 M O D E R N E N GLI S H

i gul a r (I ) sing (th ou) si ng e st (he) sing eth but th e

s n , , ,

plura l is th e s a me i n b o th el e va te d and n o rmal s tyle .

6 C o n c l us i o n s
. T h e ge n e r al e ffe c t o f infle ctio n al
.

l o ss and s ubs ti tuti o n h as b e en to ch ange to a c o n sider

a bl e e x ten t th e s tr uc tur e o f th e E ngli s h lan gu a ge .

Fro m a l a ng ua ge in w hich e a ch w o rd was clo s ely a n d

fo rm a lly unite d t o s o m e o th e r w o rd by a gr e e m e n t i n
gra mma ti c a l fo rm th a t i s fro m a synthe tic lang uage
, ,

E ngli s h h as de v e l o p e d i nto a lang uage in which th e

w o rds s o fa r a s fo rm a l c o n c o rd o r agr e e m e nt g o es ar e
, ,

a lm o s t a l to g e th e r free an d i n d e p e n d e n t T h e l an g uag e.

h as de v el o pe d typ e fo rms w hich c an s ta nd i n a ny p o si

ti o n th eir r e l a ti o n s hips b e in g i n dic a te d l a rg ely by th e
,

o rd e r o f th e w o rds a s th e y a r e p ut to ge th e r n o t by ,

infle c ti o n al e le m en ts T his ki n d o f l an g ua g e is c all e d

.

a n aly ti c in c o n tras t to syn th etic b e c a u s e i n i ts s tr uc

, ,

ture it i s m a d e up o f i n d e p en d e nt un its w hich may be

e a sil y de ta ch e d fr o m e a ch o th e r w h e re as i n th e syn
,

th e tic s tr uc tur e th e la ng uag e bi nds th e w o rd gr o up i n to

,

a w h o l e i n w hich a l l th e w o rds a r e m utually d e p e n de nt

fo r th e ir fo rm o n th e ir pla c e i n th e gro up T hi s w ill .

be m a de clea r by a n ill us tra ti o n T h e adj e c tiv e o ld in

.

o ur m o d e rn a n alyti c l an g uage m ay m o di fy a ny n o un

o f a ny ge n de r n umb e r
, o r c a se ; i t is a p e rfe c tly free
, ,

un iv e rs a l w o rd un i t -
I n a syn th e ti c s tage o f th e l a n
.

guage h o wev e r a s in O l d E n glis h th e a dj e c tive o l d

, , ,

h a d to ta k e o n v a ri o us fo rms a c c o rdi n g to th e g e n d e r ,

n umb e r a n d c as e o f th e n o un a n d ac c o rdi ng as i t wa s
, ,

infl e c te d s tro n g o r w e ak T hus th e M o dern E nglish

.

phras e s th e o ld ma n a nd th e o l d men ch ang e s o nly th e ,

w o rd ma n th e o th e r w o rds b ei ng typ e fo r m s th at m o dif y

,

th e pl ura l a s well a s th e S i n g ul ar I n O l d E nglis h

. ,
 E N G L I S H I N FL E C T I O N S 95

h ow eve r , we ho uld hav e to ch ange al l three

s w o rds ,
ca l d a ma n fo r th e s ing ul a r a nd pa c a ld e men for th e
" ”

se ,

pl ural .

I t will be s een xa mpl e that th e m o d e rn

fr o m this e

a n aly ti c l a ng ua ge h a s i n m a n y r es p e c ts g a i ned in e c o n

om o v e r th e o ld e r s y nth eti c l a ng ua g e By t h e use

y .

o f typ e fo rm s t h e m o d e r n l ang ua ge s a v es mu c h us el e s s
,

repe ti tio n T hus in th e two M o de rn E ngl is h phra s e s

.

c ite d i n th e pr e c e din g p a ragra ph th e i d e a s o f si ng ula r

,

and pl ur a l a re e ac h e xpr es sed o n c e by m a n a n d men ,

a nd n e e d n o t s o fa r as p o we r o f c o n v e i n g th e th o ught
, y
is c o n ce rn e d b e e xpr e s s e d by th e m o difyi ng w o rds
, .

B ut in O l d E ngli s h n o t o n ly d o e s ma n e xpr e s s th e
s i n gul a r id e a but i t i s e xpre s s e d a l s o by th e i n fl e c ti o n
,

i n se a nd ea ld a a n d i n th e c a s e o f th e pl ural th e id ea
’

of pl ur ali ty i s e xpr e sse d thr e e ti m e s as w e ll o nc e by ,

men o n ce by e a ld a n an d o n c e by pd
,
N o thin g i s gai n e d
.

by this three fo ld re p e titio n o f th e ide a o f pl ura lity a n d ,

M o de rn E nglish i s m uch th e s impl e r an d m o re rea s o n

abl e i n a ll o wi n g i t to be ass um e d th at w h e n o n e use s

th e n o un m en a dj ec tiv e s w hi c h l imi t this n o un a r e

,

pl ural al s o I n th e s ame way th e s ynthe tic l anguag e

.

h as to r ep e at th e id e a o f g e n de r o r o f c a se wi th e a ch
n e w m o di f i ng w o rd w h e r e a s i n M o d e rn E n gli s h thi s
y ,

r ep e ti ti o n is lik e wis e a v o id ed by th e use o f typ e fo rm s

fo r all ge nd e rs and ca ses .

O n e furth e r illus trati o n o f th e cha n g e fro m synth e tic

to a n aly tic s truc tur e a nd th e a dv an tage o f th e l a tte r
,

o v e r th e fo rm e r m a b e ci te d th e e x a mpl e b e i ng ta k e n
y , ,

fro m M o d e rn E ngl is h a n d L ati n th e l atter a m o r e h ighly

,

inflec ti o n al an d the r e fo r e m o re s yn th e tic la ng ua ge th an

, ,

a n p e r i o d o f E n gli s h T h E n gli h r l tiv e pr n u n wh o

y e . s e a o o
96 M O DE R N E N GL I S H

is a typ e fo rm e xpre ss i ng m e re ly th e i nte rro gative i dea

,

w i th o ut limi tati o n o f ge n d e r o r n umbe r T o tra n sl a te

.

th e E n gli s h s e n te n c e Wh o d i d i t ? i n to L a ti n h o we v e r
, , ,

w e sh o uld h a ve to giv e fo ur s en te n c es Qui s h oc f e cit ? ,

th e pr o n ohn b ei n g th e si ng ul a r m asc ulin e i n te rro ga tiv e ;

Q u a e h o c f e c i t th e pr o n o u n b e i n g t h e s i n g ul a r fe min in e ;
Qui h oc f e cer un t ? th e pl ura l m a sc uli n e ; a n d Qua e h oc
f e c er unt ? t h e pl u r a l f e mi n i n e S i n c.e th e q ue s ti o n

W d id i us ually c o ntai ns n o impli c a ti o n o f gende r

h o t ?

an d numb e r a n d i s m e r e ly a q ues ti o n fo r i n fo rm ati o n i t

, ,

i s m a ni fes tly b e tte r to h av e a g e n e ra l typ e fo rm i n w hich

t o c a s t th e q ue s ti o n th a n t o be c o mp e ll e d to m a ke i t
,

sp e cific as to gend e r an d n umb e r as th e L atin m us t d o .

T h e E n gli s h a nalyti c fo rm o f e xpr e ss i o n a n s w e r s m o re

e x a c tly t o th e l o gi c o f th e s i tuati o n a nd is c o n s e q ue n tly
,

to be re g a rd e d a s b ette r th an th e synth e tic fo rm o f

1
e xpr e s s i o n .

T h e q ue s ti o n naturally aris e s w h e th e r M o d e rn E nglis h

h a s c a rri e d th e pr o c e s s o f s i m plific a ti o n a n d s ubs tituti o n
a s fa r a s i t c a n an d if n o t
, if i t i s l i kely to c a rry it
,

fur the r . A s to th e firs t h al f o f thi s q ue s tio n it is o b ,

vi o n s th at the r e is ro o m fo r furth e r simplific a ti o n in th e

E ngli sh lan gua ge a n d th at th e language w o uld be th e
,

gai n e r by fur the r si m pl ific a ti o n s T h e s e s implifyi n g s ub

.

s ti tu ti o n s ar e i n de e d c a rr i e d o ut i n s tr a ta o f th e l a n g uage

w hich d o n o t fee l th e r es tra i n i n g fo r c e o f th e c o nve n

ti o nal a n d s ta n d a rd s p e e c h T hu s w e h av e al l o bs erve d
.

th a t childre n s triv e to s ubs titute th e typ e pl ur al i n s -

fo r th o s e fe w irre g ul a r pl ur al s th a t s urviv e in E n glish ,

1 Se e Je s per s e n,P r ogre s s i n L a ng ua ge, pp 3 0 - 3 1 ; a nd s ee J e Sp e r s e n s

.
’

b o o k , p a ss i m, f o r a d e t a il e d c o ns id er ati o n o f th e a d va n ta g e s o f a n a nal ytic

l a ng uage o ve r a s ynt h e ti c o n e .
98 M O DE R N E N G LIS H

fo r th e pre terite tens e s usin g fo r this p urp o s e th e reg u

,

l ar fo r m o f th e pr e te ri te si n g ul a r .

B ut th e q ue s ti o n w h e th e r o r n o t M o d e r n E n gli s h will
c a rry o ut f urth e r th e s e s implific ati o n s by typ e s ubs titu
ti o n i s o n e w hi c h d o es n o t d ep e n d up o n pre c e den t o r to
, ,

an c o n s i d e r abl e e x te n t up o n th e re a s o n a bl e n ess and

y ,

a dv a n ta ge o f s uc h ch a n g e s . T h e E n glish l a n g uage o f
t o d ay h as b ec o m e s o fix e d by l o n g us e by th e sys tem a ti c
-
,

s ta te m e n ts o f i t w hi c h ha v e b e e n m a d e by th e gra m

m ari an s an d rh e to ric i an s by th e c o n v e n ti o n alizin g te n

,

d e n c ies w hich a l wa ys a c c o mp a ny th e high e r fo rm s o f

c iviliz a ti o n
, th a t c ha ng e s i n s uc h o bvi o us fe ature s o f
l angua g e as in fl e c ti o n find i t e xtre m ely h ard to m ak e
th e ir w ay i n to g o o d us e . T h e p o p ula r di al e c ts w ill c o n
ti nn e to gro w a n d de ve l o p i n a f re e r a n d l es s tra mm el e d
w a y but th e c ul tiv a t e d sp e e c h th o n o l e s s s ubj e c t to
, ,

c o n ti n uo us c h a n ge i s m o r e l ik e ly to ch a n g e i n s ub tl e r
,

wa ys th an by th e dire c t s ubs ti tuti o n o f o ne fo rm fo r

a n o th e r.
 V

ENG L I SH S O U ND S

1 . Th e S t ud y of E n gl i s h S o un d s . A l th o o ne of

th e m o s t re c e nt bran ch e s o f lin gui s tic s tudy th e s tudy ,

o f s o un d s ,
o r ph o n e tic s to give th e s ubj e c t its te c h
,

ni c al n a m e , h as b e e n o n e o f th e m o s t pr o d uc ti v e o f
valuable res ul ts T h e s tudy o f th e s o un ds o f p as t p e
.

ri o d s h as m a de th e s c i e n c e o f e tym o l o gy p o ss ibl e an d it ,

h a s b e e n o n e o f th e c hie f m e an s o f dete r m ini n g th e rela

ti o n sh ip s o f l a ng ua ge s G rimm s L a w fo r e x ampl e i s a
’
.
, ,

ph o n e ti c l a w T h e s tudy o f c o n tem p o ra ry s o unds al so

.

i s h e lpful in v ari o us w a ys I t i s o f gr e at pra c ti c al v al ue

.

to all wh o ha v e a nythin g to d o wi th fo r e ign la n gua g es ,

o r wi th th e e a rli e r s tag e s o f th e ir o w n l an g uag e T h e re .

i s n o qui c k e r o r m o re c e r ta i n w ay o f a ppre h e n din g a n

un famili a r s o u n d th a n by o bs e rvi n g h o w th a t i s by just , ,

w h a t p o s iti o n s an d m o ve m e n ts o f th e v o c al o rg an s it i s
m ad e a nd th e n by re pe a ti n g thes e p os i ti o ns an d m o ve
,

m ents fo r o ne s s elf A n o th e r re a s o n fo r the s tudy o f

’
.
t

th e s o unds o f c o n te mp o ra ry s p ee ch i s b a s ed o n th e ge n

e ral prin c ipl e th at w e all o we i t to o urs e lv e s t o k n o w

w ha t w e d o an d to c h o o s e to d o th o s e thin gs th a t will
,

c o n d uc e m o s t to o ur h a ppi n es s a n d w e lfa r e I t migh t .

s e e m th a t i t c o uld be ta k e n fo r gra n te d th a t e v e ry o n e

n at ura lly k n e w j us t h o w h is s p e e ch s o un d e d wi th o ut ,

givi ng a ny sp e c i al a tten tio n to th e m atte r Exp e rim e nt .

a n d o b s e r va tio n h av e sh o wn h o w e v e r , th a t th i s is fa r
,
1 00 M O D E R N E N GL I S H

fr o m be ing tr ue O n e wh o h a s n o t giv e n c o nside r able

.

a tte n ti o n to th e s tu d f s p h un d d -
n t u u lly
y o e e c s o s o e s o s a

h ea r h is o wn s p e e c h a cc ur ate ly a n d j us tly H e nee ds .

th e gift to h e a r him s e lf a s o th e r s h e a r h i m T im e and .

a g ai n i t ha s b e e n s h o w n th a t a p e r s o n thin k s h e s a s
y
o n e thi n g w h e n a c tua ll y th e s o un d w hich h e utte r s i s

diff er e n t O fte n if o n e s s p ee c h c o uld be r e c o rde d o n

.
’

th e di s c o f a ph o n o gra ph w h e n r epr o duc e d i t w o uld n o t

,

be r e c o gn i z e d a nd w o uld be di s claim e d by th e p e r so n
w h o utte re d it .

T h e pra c tic al b e a ri n g o f a l l this i s o bvi o us P r o n un .

c i a ti o n a n d gr amm a r a r e w i th o ut d o ub t th e m o s t g e n e r

a ll
y appli e d a n d o n th e w h o l e
, ,
t h e s impl, es t a n d m o s t
e ff e c tiv e t es ts o f c ul t iv a ti o n a n d e d u c a ti o n A s H o lm e s
.

in th e Au to cr a t s ays a m o v e m e n t o r a phr a s e o fte n t e ll s

,

”
y o u a ll
y o u w a n t t o k n o w a b o u t a p e rs o n N o d o ub t
.

the r e i s da n g e r o f dra w i n g to o s we e pin g in fe r e n c e s fro m

th e sp e e c h o f o th e rs a d a n g e r t o w hi ch a l l th e cri tic
.

, ,

a n d th e c riti c i s e d a r e e q uall y l i abl e

, N e v e rthe l e s s in
.
,

th e en d s p e e c h r e m a i n s th e s ur e st a n d m o s t c o n v e ni e n t
:

i nde x o f th e s o c i al h a bits a n d th e i n te ll e c tual l ife o f th e

p ers o n w h o u s e s i t I t b e h o o v e s al l th e re fo re to tak e
.
, ,

c o gn iz an c e o f th e m atte r o f th e ir s p e e c h e s p e c ia lly o f
,

th e s ub tl e a n d e l us iv e m atte r o f pr o n un c i a ti o n Ev ery .

p e rs o n o wes i t to him s e lf to kn o w w ha t th e fa c ts o f his

pro n un c i a ti o n are a n d h o w thesefac ts i mpres s o the r p e r
s o n s w i th w h o m h e i s thro w n in c o n ta c t W hen h e h as .

a j us t a ppre c i a ti o n o f a ll th e s e fa c ts h e c a n th e n o rd e r
,

h i s c o n duc t a s s ee m s wi s es t a n d b e s t to hi m B e fo re we .

c a n pr o c e e d h o w e v e r t o th e i n te llige n t di s c uss i o n o f
, ,

hi s to ri c al so un d chan ge s o r o f sp e c ific q ues ti o n s o f c o n

t e m p o ra ry pr o nun c ia ti o n i t w ill be n e c es s a ry firs t to
, , ,
1 02 M O D E R N E N GL IS H

l ear n Fren ch an d G e rm an an d Fr en chm en a nd G ermans

,

learn E n gli s h tha t al l w i th pra c ti c e ar e e q uall y c ap a bl e

, , ,

o f pr o d uci n g all th e s o un d s o f th e va ri o us l a n g uag e s .

E a ch sp e cial l ang ua ge the refo re m ak es wh at s e e m s to

, ,

be a n a rbi trary ch o ic e o f a c e rtai n n umb e r o f p o s s ible

s o und s ; an d w e m ay c o n s e q ue n tly d e fi n e E n gli s h h o
p
n e ti c s a s th e s tu d
y o f t h e s o un ds us e d i n th e c o n s tr uc ti o n

o f E n gli s h s p e e ch .

T h e o rg a n s m ai nly c o n c e rn e d in th e pr o d uc ti o n o f
s p e e ch s o un d a re th e lun gs ; th e l ary n x i n w hi c h are ,

t h e gl o tti s a n d th e v o c a l ch o rd s ; th e c a vi ty o f th e
m o uth in w hich th e to n gue th e p ala te th e lip s an d th e
, , ,

t e e th a re i mp o r ta n t m o difi e rs o f s o un d ; a n d th e ca vi ty
o f th e n o s e . T h e l un gs a r e c o n c e rn e d wi th th e pro d uc
ti o n o f s o un d o n ly i n th a t th ey se n d fo r th th e c o l um n o f
a i r whi c h l ate r 1 s m o difi e d by th e m o re S p e c i al o rg a n s o f

v o me s o a s to pro duc e s o un d W he n o ne pr o d uc e s .

s o un d by pl ayin g a w i n d i n str um e n t th e c o l um n o f a ir
pas ses unm o difi e d by th e s p e e ch o rgans i n to th e m o r e
dis tan t m o di fyin g a gen t th e h o rn o r flute o r wh atev e r
, , ,

th e i n s trum e n t m ay be U nde r n o rm a l c o n di ti o n s it i s
.

o nly th e e xpira to ry c o l um n o f a ir th a t i s u s e d i n th e

pro duc ti on o f s p e e ch s o un d th e i n spire d a ir bei ng pr o

,

d uc tive o f s o und o nly in th e c as e o f sighi ng an d a fe w

i n te rj e c ti o ns .

T h e l a ryn x o r vo ic e bo x is th e firs t pl a c e a t which

’

, ,

th e a i r fr o m th e l un gs o n its p a s sa g e o utwa rd m ay m e e t
w i th any o b s tr uc ti o n T h e la ryn x i s re ally a p a rt o f th e
.

w i n dp ip e o r tra c h e a a n d l e a ds fr o m th e r e a r e n d o f
, ,

th e o p e ni n g o f th e n o s e an d m o uth to th e l un gs Fr o m .

th e back o f th e m o uth a sec o n d tub e th e g ull e t o r e s op h , ,

a g us l e ad s i n to th e s to m a c h
,
T h e c o mm o n sp a c e a t th e
.
 E NG L I S H SO U ND S 1 03

back o f th e m o uth fro m w hi c h thes e two c a nals br anch

is c al l e d th e ph arynx T h e e ntran ce to th e tra che a or
.
,

w i n dp ip e is pro vid e d w i th a v a lve o r lid c all e d th e

, ,

e p igl o ttis whi c h c a n be l o we red i n th e a c t o f s wall o w

,

i ng s o a s to pr e v e n t fo o d fr o m p a ss i n g d o wn th e
tr a ch e a W he n fo r a ny re ason th e e p igl o tti s fails to
.

wo rk a s i t d o e s s o m e tim e s a nd p o r ti o n s o f fo o d o r
, ,

w ate r mak e th e ir w ay i n to th e tra c h e a w e p e rfo rm th e ,

o p e ra ti o n p o p ula rly k n o wn a s s wall o wi ng by th e Sun

”
d ay thr o at .

T h e l a ry n x i ts elf is a circ ula r o r n ea rly circ ul a r a n d, ,

tub ul a r c o mbin ati o n o f c artilag e s a nd m us cl es The .

la rges t o f th ese c ar til ages th e thyroid o r s hi eld like

,
-

c ar til a g e fo rm s th e m ain s tr uc tur e o f th e la ryn x ; i t c a n

,

be fe l t fr o m th e o uts ide o f th e thro a t a nd i s c o mm o nly ,

k n o wn a s th e A da m s apple A n o the r imp o rtan t c a rti

’
.

l age i s th e cri c oid o r ring c ar til age whi c h fo rm s th e

, ,

base o f th e vo i c e box o r la ryn x an d to w hich th e vo c al ,

c h o rd s a r e a tt a ch e d T h e m us cl e s o f th e l ary n x p a s s
.

fro m o n e c artil a ge to th e o th e r a n d h av e a s th e ir c hi e f
fun c ti o n th e c o n tr a c ti o n and l o o se nin g o f th e v o c a l c h o rds .

T h e s e c h o rds ar e tw o in n umb e r an d th ey ar e atta ch e d to,

th e b a s e o f th e la ryn x p as s i n g a ppro xima tel y o v e r th e

,

m iddl e o f th e o p e ni n g o f th e l a ry n x T h e y ar e n o t to .

be th o ugh t o f a s c h o rd s li k e vi o lin s tri ngs fo r o n e s id e ,

o f e a c h i s c o mpl e te l a ttac h e d t o th e s id es o f th e v o ic e
y
box . T h e vibra ti ng p art is o nly th e fre e o ute r e dge o f
e a c h w hi c h
, a s h as b een s ta te d c an be tightene d or
, ,

l o o sen e d by th e a id o f c erta i n m us cl es T h e sp ac e be .

twe en th e tw o o ute r e dg e s O f th e vo c al c h o rds w hich ,

v ari es o f c o urs e in wid th a cc o rdi n g to th e ten si o n o f th e

c h o rd s is c all e d th e gl o ttal ri ft o r r ima
,
g l o tti,d i s W h e n .
1 04 M O DE R N E N G L I S H

th e e dge s of ho rds a re re l a x ed allo win g a w ide rift

th e c ,

b etween th e m th e br ea th fr o m th e l ungs p ass es thr o ugh

,

thi s sp a c e w i th o ut s e tti ng th e c h o rd s i n vibr a ti o n an d , ,

c on s e q uen tly n o s o und is pr o d uc e d i n th e l a ry nx T his

, .

l as t q ualific a ti o n i s imp o rtant b e c a us e th e air fro m th e

,

l ung s m ay still m e e t w i th s o m e Ob str ucti o n fr o m th e

o rga n s o f th e m o uth o r n o se i n which c a s e s o un d w o uld
,

be pr o d uc e d I f i t d o e s n o t it p as s e s o ut o f th e n o s e o r
.
,

m o uth a lm o s t n o i s e l es sly an d th e pro c e s s is s i m ply that

,

o f br e a thi n g W he n th e ri ft i s n a rro w e d h o w e ve r by
.
, ,

th e s tr e tchi n g o f th e v o c a l c h o rds th e p a ss ag e o f th e a ir ,

m ak es th e c h o rds vibrate a n d th e s o un d w hich we call

,

vo i c e is pr o d uc e d I t s h o uld be cl e a rly un d ers to o d th a t

.

th e w o rd v o i c e 1 s h e re use d i n a r es tri c te d a nd s p e c i a l
s e n se I t do e s n o t m e an any s o und pro duc ed by th e o r
.

gan s o f sp e e ch but o n ly th o s e s o un ds i n th e pro duc ti o n

,

o f w hich th e v o c a l ch o rd s a r e s e t in v i bra ti o n Suc h .

s o un d s ar e ca ll e d v o ic e d s o un d s o th e rs a r e vo i c e l e s s
, In .

w hi sp e ri n g v o i c e le ss s o und s ar e pr o d uc e d i n th e s a m e
,

way a s w he n th ey ar e giv en th e ir full r e s o nan c e but in

th e w hisp e ri n g o f v o ic e d s o un d s th e v o c a l ch o rd s d o n o t
vibrate o r vibra te o nl y sligh tly a lth o th ey ar e m a de
, ,

te n s e an d th e gl o tt a l rift i s a cc o rdin gly n a rr o we d as in

, ,

th e pr o d uc ti o n o f th e f ull v o ic e d s o unds -
.

W e may no w p ass to th o s e o rgans a b o ve th e l a ryn x

w hich a r e imp o r tan t fo r th e pr o d uc ti o n o f sp e e ch s o un d .

T h ey a r e th e ph a ryn x th e c a vi ty o f th e m o uth and th e

, ,

c avity o f th e n ose T h e s e thr ee s pa c e s are t o geth e r

.

k n o wn a s th e r eson a nce c h a mber a nd they a re o f th e ,

gre ate s t imp o rtan c e in th e pr o d uc ti o n o f s o und b e c aus e ,

n o c o l um n o f a i r c an pr o c e e d fr o m th e l un gs w hi c h is

n o t m o difi e d in s o m e way by th e re s o n an c e c ha mbe r In .

1 06 M O DE R N E N GLI S H

titi o n , right a n d a l e ft p o rti o n A s h as b e en

in to a .

s ta te d th e e n tra n c e to th e n asa l p a s s a g e c an be c l os e d
,

by r ais in g th e v el um in w hich c a s e al l breath p a ss es o ut

,

thr o ugh th e m o uth “ T al ki ng thro ugh th e n o s e

. is a
p o p ula r mis c o nce p ti o n of th e fa c ts T h e truth is that
wh e n o ne “ talk s thr o ugh th e n o s e o n e d o e s n t talk
’

thro ugh th e n o se as o n e sh o uld but th e ve l umi s th en

,

, ,

rai se d o r th e e n tran c e to th e n a sal p a ss age is c l o s e d be

,

c a us e o f th e s we llin g d ue to c o ld o r s o m e o th e r d i s turb

a n c e o f n o rm a l c o n diti o n s an d th e un pl e a s a n t e ffe c t
,

w hi c h r es ults i s d ue to th e l ac k o f th at r e s o n a n c e w hi c h
th e s o un d s h o uld ha v e re c e iv e d by p as s i n g thr o ugh th e
”
n a sa l c h a m b e r A n as al t wa n g
. i s d ue t o th e s am e
c au Se I t is a ge n e ra l prin c iple th a t a ll s o un ds s h o uld
.

be give n a s m uch re s o n an c e a s th ey a r e c ap a bl e o f r e c ei v
i ng an d th e sp e ak e r wh o h a s a llo we d hi m s elf to fall i n to
,

th e h a bi t o f sp e a ki n g w i th th e flat un m us ic a l q uali ty o f
,

s o un d w hi c h r e s u lts fr o m th e c l os in g o f th e n a sal p as

s age s h o uld c ul tiv ate a m o r e o p

, e n m e th o d o f s o un d

pr o duc ti o n T h e diffe ren c e betw e e n th e clo s e d an d th e

.

o p e n n as a l p a s s a g e m a b a s i ly Ob s e rv e d by firs t imi
y e e

t atin g th e s p e e c h o f o n e s uffe ri n g fr o m a c o ld a n d th e n
s p ea kin g w i th th e f ull q u ali ty o f so un d w hich n o rm ally

c ha r ac te riz e s th e c o rr e c t u se o f th e v o i c e .

3 V o i c e d a n d V o i c e l e s s S o un d s
. H avin g d e
.

s cr ib e d th e m a i n o rg a n s o f s p e e c h w e m a pr o c ee d n o w
y
,

t o s o m e a cc o unt o f th e m o di fic a ti o n s o f so un d pr o d uc e d

by th es e vario us o rgans T h e first imp o rtan t di sti n c ti o n

.

i s tha t be twe e n v o i c e d a nd vo i c e le ss s o un ds V o ic e d
.

s o unds whi c h a re al so c alle d so n ant s o unds a re th os e

, ,

i n th e pr o d uc ti o n o f whi c h th e v o c a l c h o rd s a r e s e t in
vibra tio n A l l v o w e ls are vo ic e d b e caus e vo w e l s a re
.
,
 E NG L I S H S O UN D S 1 07

pro duc e d by th e vibra ti o n o f th e v o c al c ho rds th e d if ,

fe re nc e b e twee n v o we ls be i n g c a us e d by m o dific a ti o n o f
th e s o und pro d uc e d by th es e vibra ti o n s thro ugh c h an g
i ng th e c o n fig ur a ti o n o f th e re s o n a n c e c h a mber So m e .

c o ns on an ts are vo ic e d o the rs a re vo ic e les s Ex a mpl e s

, .

o f v o i c e d c o n s o n an ts a r e g i n g o b i n boy d i n d a y
, , .

I n th e pro d uc ti o n o f v o ic e l e ss s o unds w hich a r e al s o ,

c alle d s urd s o u n d s th e v o c al c h o rd s a re n o t s e t i n vibra

,

tio n but th e s o un d is pro du c e d thr o ugh m o difica ti o n o f

,

th e c o l um n o f air by th e v a ri o us o rg an s o f s pe e c h tee th , ,

to n g ue a n d lip s a fte r i t h as p a sse d thro ugh th e ri ft o f

, ,

th e gl o tti s w i th o ut m o vi ng th e v o c al ch o rd s Ex am pl es .

o f v o ic e l e ss c o n s o n a n ts a r e i n t i n ti n k c in
()
p p y
a , ,

By pl ac in g th e fin g e r o n th e A d am s a pple
’
ki ng c a n , .

o n e c an w i th a l i ttl e pr a c ti c e
, e as ily fe e l th e v i br ati o n
,

o f th e v o i c e bo x in t h e pr o duc ti o n o f v o i c e d s o un d s a n d ,

c a n th us d is tin g ui sh so un d s w hi c h a re v o ic e d fr o m th o s e

w hi c h a r e n o t th us c o n firm ing th e te stim o n y o f th e

,

c ars . I n pr o n o un c i ng a v o i c e l e ss c o n s o n an t o n e s h o uld
di stingui s h b etw e en th e c o n s o n an t an d th e v o we l tha t
a cc o m p a ni e s it T h e n a m e o f th e l e tte r t fo r e x a mpl e
.
, ,

c o n s ists o f th e v o i c e l e s s c o n s o n a n t t fo ll o we d b a v o wel
, y
wh i ch i s th e s a me a s th e v o wel in tea h e s ee e tc ,
In
, , .

fo rmi n g c o n s o nan ts fo r th e p urp o s e o f o b s e rvin g the m ,

a l wa s d i s ti n g ui s h b etwee n th e c o ns o n an t a n d a n a m
y y cco

p anyin g v o w el .

4 V o w e l s a n d C o n s o n a nt s
. W he n th e p ass ages
.

thr o ugh th e m o uth a nd thr o ugh th e no se a re l e ft o p e n ,

s o th at th e a ir p a s s i n g thr o ugh th e l a ry n x a n d th e re set

,

tin g th e v o c a l c h o rds i n vibra ti o n m ay c o n tin ue wi th o ut

,

fur th e r o b s tr uc ti o n thr o ugh th es e p a ss a ge s to th e o uter

a ir a v o w e l s o un d i s pr o d uc e d
, T h e p a s s ag e i s w id es t
.
1 08 M O DE R N E NG L I S H

o p en in pro n o un ci n g th e v o wel a in f a ther it is vari

o usl y m o di fie d i n pr o n o un ci n g th e o th e r v o w el s but a t ,

n o tim e is i t c o mpl e te ly cl o s e d c o mi n g n e a r e s t to b e i ng
,

s o in pro n o un ci n g th e v o w e l c c i n s een ke en e tc ,It , .

s h o uld be n o tic e d th a t v o w e l s c a n be l e n g th e n e d i nd e fi

n itel i n pr o n u n ci a ti o n t h e o n ly q u e s ti o n b i n g th
y , e e

a m o unt o f bre a th o n e h as a t o n e s di sp o s a l
’
.

Whe n th e c o l umn o f air fro m th e l ungs as it ap ,

.

r o a c h es th e o ute r a ir i c mpl ly pp d b
p s,()a o e te s t o e o r
( ) ,

c o mpl e tely s to pp e d a t o n e p o i n t but a ll o w e d t o e s c ap e

at a n o th e r th e s o un d pr o d uc e d i s a c o n s o n a n t
, I n th e .
-

firs t c a s e when th e c o l umn o f air is c o mpl e tely sto pp e d

, ,

th e c o n s o n an t pro d uc e d is c a ll ed a s to p c o n s o n an t o r
e xplo s ive b o th n a ,
m e s b ein g des crip tiv e o f th e m e th o d
o f fo rm a ti o n o f t h e se s o un ds Ex ampl e s o f s to p o r e x
.

pl o s ive c o n s o n ants ar e g b d k p t Sto p c o n s o nants

, , , , , .
,

s in c e th e y a r e pr o d uc e d by a s udd e n a n d m o m e nta ry

e p O S I O n o f th e brea th c a n n o t be l e n g th e n e d
, .

I n th e s eco n d c a s e w h e n th e c o l um n o f air i s o nly

,

p a rtly sto pp e d in its e s c ap e to th e o ute r air th e c o n so ,

n a n t pr o d uc e d 1 s c a ll e d a c o n ti n uan t c o n s o n a n t C o nti n .

n ants a r e o f v a ri o us ki n ds c aus e d by th e i n te rfe ren ce o f

,

di ffe r en t p ar ts o f th e sp ee c h o rgan s T hey c o ns i s t (1 ) o f .

s pi ra n ts c a us ed by th e i n te rfe r e n c e o f th e te e th a nd lip s
,

w i th th e c o l um n o f a ir ; s piran ts m ay be vo ic e d a s fo r , ,

e x a mpl e v in va t ; s (z ) i n p h r a s e ; th i n f a th e r ; o r
,

v o i c eless li ke f i n f a t ; c (s ) in p l a ce th in thin ; (2 )
,

o f l i q uid s o r li n g ua l s c a us e d by th e i n te rfe r en c e o f th e
,

to n gue w i th th e c o l u m n o f a i r a s fo r e x ampl e l a n d r ;
, , ,

3 f l a us e d by th e c o mpl e te o b st r uc tio n o f th e
( ) o n a s a s c ,

e xi t thr o ugh t h e m o uth c aus i n g th us a l l th e a ir to p as s

,

thro ugh th e n o s e ; th e e x a mple s a r e m a nd n ; (4 ) o f

1 10 M O DE R N E N GLI S H

b e t we e n th e i nitial c o nso na nts i n keen a nd co l d gees e a nd

g o l d .

()e L ingual , or to ngue c o ns o na ntsh in wh ich th e to ngue is

c h i e fly i ns tr umental i n f o rmi ng th e s o und s , a s in l , r . T h e re
re va rio us ki nd s of l a nd r
i n E ngl ish , b ut I 1 s us ua l l y a lve o
l a r-li ngua l , th a t i s , th e to ngue i s p l a c e d a ga in s t th e upp e r

g u m s ,
a nd r i s us u al l y h a I d p a l a te li ngua l .

(f ) N a sal o r n o s e c o n so n a nts , i n th e fo rma ti o n of wh ic h

th e a nd l ip s , th e and s o me o th e r t f th e
-
no s e or no s e p a r o

mo uth , a re i n s trume n tal . N a sal c o n s o n a nts m a y b e cl a s s ifie d

as ( )
1 b il a b i a l , as m i n ma n ; (2 ) a l ve o l a r , a s n in n ea r ,

()
3 f ro n t p a l a t al ,
a s ng in ki ng ( o b s e rve th a t ngi s p r o n o un c e d
a s a s i ngl e n a s a l c o n s o na n t , n o t tw o c o n s o n a n ts , n a n d g)

()
4 b a c k p al a ta l o r guttura l , a s ng in l o ng (
a ga i n p o no unc e d
r

a s a s i ngl e c o ns o na nt
) .

I n f ully de s cribin g a nd n aming a c o n s o n an t ther e ,

fo r e i t wi ll be o bs e rv e d th a t th e re a r e three thi ng s to
,

be n o tic e d fir s t w h e the r i t i s a v o ic e d o r v o i c e l es s c o n
, ,

s o n a n t ; s e c o n d w h e th e r i t is a s t o p o r c o n ti n ua n t ; a n d
, ,

third w h at pa rts o f th e v o c al o rg an s a r e chi e fly i n s tru

,

m enta l in i ts fo rm ati o n T h e fo ll o wi n g tabl e give s a

.

lis t o f th e m o s t imp o rtant E nglis h c o n s o n an ts fro m

th e s e thre e p o i nts o f vi ew
 E N G LI S H SO U ND S 111

6 . C l a s s i fic a t i o n of V o w el s . T he
v o w els lend the m
s elve s l e s s re a dily to des c rip ti o n an d c la s s ific ati o n th an

th e c o n s o n a n ts b e c a us e th e p os iti o ns a n d m o v e m e n ts o f
,

th e o rg an s o f v o ic e in th e pr o d uc ti o n o f v o we ls a r e l e s s
e a s ily o bse rve d a nd s ta te d th a n th ey a re i n th e pr o d uc

ti o n o f c o n so n ants S o m e wh at l o os ely v o we l s a r e o fte n

.
,

sp o k e n o f a s (a ) fro n t p al a ta l v o w e l s i n which th e ,

v o i c ed s o un d i s m o difie d by n a rr o wi ng th e p assage o f
th e m o n th by m e ans o f ra i si ng th e to n g ue to wa rds th e
h ard p alate a n d (b) ba c k p alata l o r g uttura l v o wel s
, ,

fo r m e d fur the r bac k i n th e m o nth by th e to n g ue a n d ,

th e s o ft pa l a te Fro n t p ala tal v o we ls a r e a (in ma n) ;

.

et ; a (in h a te ey (in th ey ; a i i
e
(i n l ) ) ) y ( n sa
y) ; (i n

kin) ; i (in ma chin e ) ; ee (in s ee n) B a ck pala tal o r

.

guttural vo we ls ar e 0 0 (in f ood ) ; 0 0 (in wo od g ood ) ; ,

i b on e ; 0 (in n o t) ; i (i n mi n e) ; a (i n f a th er ; a (in
0
( n ) )
f )a l l . A l o o se di s ti n c ti o n o fte n m a d e i s t h a t b e t w e e n

c l os e a n d o p e n v o w el s th e to ng ue i n th e cl o s e v o w e l
,

b ein g raise d f ur the r to wa rd th e ro of o f th e m o uth than

in th e o pe n v o wel T hus th e vo w e l o i s s aid to be cl o se
.

in n o te but Op e n in n o t ; th e v o wel e i s s aid to be

,
‘
c l os e i n th e b o rr o we d w o rd f ete (o r i n th e c a s e o f th e

s am e s o u n d w it h di ffe re n t s p e lli n g in th e n a tiv e w o rd s

,

ma te l a te
, , but o p e n in th e w o rd men T h e m e chan .

i c a l d e vi c e o f pla cin g th e c e dill a b e n e a th th e v o we l to

i n di c ate th e o p e n q uali ty i s s o m e tim es us ed a s i n o e , , .

T h e c l as s ific a ti o n o f v o wels as c lo s e an d o p e n is n ot a
g o o d o ne h o w ev e r sinc e 0 and g e a nd e are so far a s
, , , , ,

s o un d g o e s w hi c h i s th e es se nti al m a tte r r eally two

, ,

q uite di fler e nt v o wels th o w ri tte n alik e an d e ach

, , ,

i n a n e x a c t s ys te m s h o uld h a v e its d i s tin c tiv e n am e

, .

A n o th e r d is tin c ti o n w hi ch i s o fte n l o o s e ly a n d i n c o r
112 M O DE R N E N GL I S H

re c tl y m a de is th a t betw e en lo n g a nd s h o rt vo wel s .

T h e v o w e l o o f n ot is s aid to be th e s h o rt v o we l th e ,

l o n g o f which i s e x e mplifie d in n ote so als o th e v o we l

o f met i s s a id to be th e s h o r t e s o un d th e v o w e l o f th ey
, ,

th e l o ng e s o un d B ut a n e x a mi n ati o n o f th e s e s o un d s
.

w ill sh o w that 0 o f n ot i s n o t m e re ly th e o o f n o te s h o r t
e ned n o r is e o f me t m e r ely th e s h o r te n e d s o un d o f th e
,

v o w el o f th ey T h e diffe ren c e is n ot me re ly tha t o f

.

length but a ls o o f qual ity ; a n d we ha v e to d o wi th

,

t wo e n tire ly s e p a r a te a nd d ifler e nt vo wel s o unds i n ea ch

c as e I n usin g th e te rmi n ol o gy l on g and sh o rt c are
.
,

s h o uld be ta k e n th at t h e v o we ls s o d e scribed ar e r e ally

o f th e sa m e ki n d T h us th e firs t v o w e l of th e w o rd
.

mo tive i s th e sho rt s o un d o f th e v o we l i n n ote th e two ,

s o unds d iflering o nly in th e de gr e e to which they a re

pro l o n g e d a n d th e lo ng v o wel s o und o f f a te is s ho rt
,

in th e firs t syll a bl e o f th e c o mp o und p a y-r ol l .

A r e a l dis ti n c ti o n whi c h S h o uld be o bs e rv e d is th at

b e tw een simpl e v o wels and diph th o n gs A simpl e v o wel .
,

as i ts n a m e i ndi c ates is o n e w hich c o nsis ts o f o n ly o n e

,

v o wel s o un d ; a di phth o n g is a do ubl e s o und which

begins wi th o n e v o w el q uali ty an d shade s o ff at th e e nd
into an other T h e v o we ls o f note o f f a te o f f o od are
.
, ,

all simpl e v o we l s ; but th e v o we l o f h ous e n ow s l oug h , ,

i s a d o uble s o un d s ta rti n g w ith th e s o un d o f a i n f a th er

, ,

a n d e ndi n g w i th th e s o un d o f u givi n g th e c o m bi n ati o n

,

a u (s o s p e ll e d i n G e rm an h a us l a ut ,
T h e o the r
,

E nglish diph th ongs are th e v o we l o f try buy r id e c o m , , ,

p ose d of a i e q uiv al e nt th ere fo re to a i an d th e

, ,

diphtho n g o i tha t is oi as ex e mplified in boi l boy

, , , ,

coin . I t sh o uld be n o te d tha t simpl e v o we l s a r e s o m e

tim e s w ri tte n w i th t wo l e tte rs as for e x a mple th e
, , ,
1 14 M O D E R N E N GL I SH

an d is driv e n c o n se que n tly to use th e sa m e symb o l fo r

di fle ren t s o unds a s fo r ex a mpl e th e v o we l a in th e
, , ,

w o rd s h a t h a te p a th ba r e ba l l a bo ut
, , , T h e c o nve n
, , .

tio n al symbo ls o f th e alph ab e t i t is th us s e e n m ay va ry , ,

a s t o th e ir s ig n ific a n c e w i thi n c e r tai n pr e tty w id e limi ts .

I f we t urn n o w to th e s o un d s o f th e la n gua g e th e m
s e lv e s w e S h all fin d th e m i n m a n y w ay s v e ry i m p e rfe c tly
,

an d i n c o n s i s te n tly r e pr e s e nted T hus w e m ay h av e a .

simpl e s o un d re pre s e n te d by two symb o l s as th e v o wel ,

e a o f s e a t o r th e c o n s o n an t th o f th ing
, O r th e s a m e .

s o un d m ay be r e pre s e n te d by s e v e r a l d iffe r e n t symb o l s

o r gr o up s o f sy mb o l s a s fo r e x a mpl e t h e s o un d o f s ( c)
, , ,
’

in r a ce a nd er a s e , o r of k in ki ng , gue l l , s h o ck, box

ca ll ,

or th e v o we l s o und whi c h a pp e a rs i n th e w o r d s l a te ,
p y
a ,

gr e a t, f a i l , vei l , th ey, f ete . O r th e sa m e gro up of le tte rs

m ay repre s en t s uch v a ri o us v a lues as ough i n bo ug h ,
thr ough , th o ug ht, co u
g h , h i ccoug h , e n oug h . L e tte rs ar e

fr e q ue n t ly use d ls
, a o, w i th o ut an
y v l a ue , th e so calle d
-

s il e n t l e tte r s ,
l i k e th e e of ba r e, th e c o f s ci ss or s , th e k of

knif e , th e s of i sl a n d , a i s l e, th e w of wr i te, th e g of

f or eign , s over e ign .

I f th es e fac ts held i n mind we shall be un de rs to o d

ar e ,

w he n we s ay th a t E n gl is h i s n o t a ph o n e ti c l a n g ua ge .

I t is o f c o urs e true th at o ur a lph ab e t d o e s r e pr e se nt fo r

u s th e s o unds o f th e l a n g ua ge ; but it r e pr es e nts th e s e

s o un ds in a n imp e rfe c t a n d i n c o ns is te nt w ay A pe r .

fe c tl y ph o ne tic l a n gua ge w o uld be o n e in which e v e ry

s o un d h ad i ts a ppr o pri ate s y mb o l an d n o sy mb o l m o r e ,

th a n its si n gl e val ue Ne e dles s to say ne i th e r th e

.
,

E nglis h l an gua g e n o r any o the r languag e e v e r in pra o

tic al us e h as b e e n th us p e rfe c tly ph o n e tic L a n g uag es .

v ary i n th e de gre e o f c o n sis te n cy an d c o mpleten e s s wi th

 E N GL I S H SO U N DS 115

which th e y de av o r to r epr e s e nt th e ir s o un ds an d th e
en ,

e arli e r p e ri o ds o f E n gli s h w e r e m uc h m o r e s e n s i tiv e i n

thi s r e s p ec t th a n m o d e rn E ngli s h is O f th e m o d e rn .

E urop e an langua ge s I tali an i s th e m o s t pho ne tic Fren ch

, ,

a nd G e rm a n c o m in g b e tw e e n E ngl i s h a n d I ta l ian a t th e

t wo e x t r e m e s B ut e ve n I tali an is n o t c o mpl e te l y p h o
.

n e ti c an d al l w e c a n s a o f t h e e xi s ti n g l a n g ua g e s is
, y
th a t o n e is m o r e ph o n e ti c th an a n o th e r Fo r th e pra o .

tic al us e s to w hich l a n gua g e is us ua lly p u t th e c a rryi ng ,

o f a c o m pl e te an d e x a c t s ys te m o f s o un d r epr ese nta ti o n

w o uld be a n un ne c e s sary b urd e n I t i s n o t imp o r tant

.

tha t e v e ry min ute diffe r e nc e o f s o und sh o uld h av e i ts

o wn p a rti c ul ar s ymb o l s i nc e th e l a n g uag e w o uld be m ad e
,

n o m o r e i n te ll igi ble th e r e by P ra c ti c al utili ty h o we v e r

.
, ,

de m an ds tha t a lang ua ge be ph o ne ti c to a c e rtain de gre e ,

a n d w ith o ut q ue s ti o n it is a gr a ve d e fe c t i n th e E n gl i s h

l an g uage th at th e gap be tw e e n i ts wri tten an d pri nte d

s m bol s th at i s i ts s p e lli n g a nd th e a c tual s o un d s o f th e
y , ,

w o rds o f th e l anguag e is s o gre at ,

In d ee d th e value s of
.

th e l e tter s o f o ur o rdi n a ry a lph ab e t a r e s o v a ri o us an d

un c e r ta i n tha t it b ec o m es n e c e s s a ry t o s e ttl e b efo r e h an d
,

up o n s o m e s che m e o f s o un d r e pre s e n tati o n b e fo re it is

p o ss ible to di s c uss m atte rs wh i c h ha ve to d o w i th s o un d

c h a n ge s pr o n un ci a ti o n a n d s p e ll i n g
1
, , .

8 A P h o ne tic A l p h ab et
. T h e p urp o s e s fo r whi c h
.

a ph o n e tic alph a b e t m a b d vis d r e va rio us T h

y e e e a e .

1 E ngl ish h a s an a d ve r b
p r ep o s iti o n to , a nd a num e r al two
too , a .

W h a t s h al l w e say i n w r iting th a t th e r e a r e t h ree too s , o r th r e e to s , o r

,
’ ’

t h ree two s , i n E ngl is h l

’
I n fa c t t h e re is o f c o urse o nl y o n e o f e ach The
’
. .

i d e a w e w a nt to ex r es s i s t h a t th e r e i s a s in g l e h o ne ti c w o r d -f o rm wh ich
p p
q
h as th r e e logica l val ue s ; but to e x p re s s th i s une uivo cal l y, w e n e e d t o b e
b
a l e t o e x re ss th e
p p h o n e t ic f o r m o f t h e wo r d s m e re l y as s o un d , n o t as

o ne w o r d o r th e o th e r .
1 16 M O DE R N E N GLI S H

scien tific s tud ent o f ph on eti c s m ay el ab ora te s o m e

s c h e m e w h e r e by th e mi n ute s t sh a d es o f di ffe r en c e i n

th e q uali ty a n d s tr e s s o f so un d s sh all be i n di c a te d ; s uch

a s ys te m w o uld be a lm o s t ph o n o gr a ph ic i n i ts e x a c tn es s .

” ”
O r th e ph o n etic re fo rm e r m ay i n v e nt a pra c tical
a lph a b e t w hi c h h e w o uld h a v e ta k e th e pl a c e o f o u r

pr e s e n t a lpha bet i n d aily printin g and w ri tin g T h e .

i d e a l o f th e s c ie ntific s tud e nt i s b e yo nd o ur pr es e n t
purp o s e ; and th e vain h o p e o f th e ph o n e ti c r e fo rme r w e
m ay s e t a side a s be l o n gi n g to th e gr o up o f th o s e visi o n
ar pr o j e c ts th e r e a liz a ti o n o f w hi c h i s n e i the r p o ss ibl e
y ,

n o r d e s i r a ble B ut th e m o d e s t n e e d s o f th e e v e ry d a y
.
-

s tu de n t o f l a n g ua g e d e m a n d a l so s o m e s ys te m o f ph o

n e tic r e pr e s e n ta ti o n o n e th at i s simpl e a n d i n telli gibl e

, ,

a nd a t th e s a m e ti m e c a p a bl e o f r e c o rdi n g th e es s e n ti a l

ch ara c te ris ti c s o f E n gli s h s o un d s I t will be un de rsto o d

.

th at th e a lph a b et w hich i s h e r e pr es e n te d i s fo r thi s

p urpo se ; it i s i nte n de d m e r e ly as an a i d in th e di s c uss i o n
o f pr o n un ci a ti o n o f s p e ll in g a n d o f s o un d s i n g e n e r a l
1
, , .

T h e a lph a b e t m ak e s us e s o far as p o ssibl e o f th e o rd i

, ,

n ar l e tt e rs o f O u r E n gli s h a lph a b e t L o n g v o we l s a r e
y .

in dic ate d by th e circ umfl e x N o s o un d h a s m o re

th an o n e s ymb o l a nd n o sy mb o l h a s m o re tha n o n e
,

va lue T h e n umbe r o f s o un ds a n d c o n se q ue n tly th e

.
,

n umb e r o f s ym b o l s i s fo rty five e igh tee n b e i n g s i m pl e

,
-
,

v o wel s fo ur b e in g diphth o n gs an d tw e n ty thre e b e in g

, ,
-

c o ns o n ant s o un ds A rrange d in alph ab etic o rd er th e y

.
,

a re as f o ll o w s

1 The al p h a b et is ag hsl i
tl y m o d i fi e d fo r m o f th a t reco mmen d e d i n th e

Rep ort of a J o int C o mmi tte e r ep rese nting the A mer ic a n P h ilolog ica l A ss o cia
tio n, a nd the M o d ern L a ngua ge A s s o c i a ti o n o
f A mer i ca , on th e S ubj ec t o
f a

P h onetic E ngl is h A lp ha bet N e w Y o r k, 1 9 0 4

. .
 118 M O DE R N E N G L IS H

L E TT E R . KE Y-worms .

( )
th i n .

( )
th at .

m(o o ) d .

z
() e s t .

a z ur e () r r
() , p l e a s u e , l ei ()
s u e .

r
() ,
i d e s ( )s ,
i h (
e w e, 10 01 57 )
h (o u) s e .

b (o i)l .

t (u) b e .

T h e us e of
m o s t o f the s e symb ols i s s elf e xpl anato ry -

o v e r h a lf b e i n g e x a c tl a s o n e w o uld m o s t re a di ly in
y
fe r fr o m th e ir us e i n th e M o de r n E n gli s h a lph a b e t Of .

th e o th e rs h o w e v e r a fe w w o rds o f e xpl a n a ti o n a r e
, ,

n e e de d .I n th e fir s t pla c e i t sh o uld be n o te d th a t th e ,

s y mb o l s a e i O {1 h a v e wh a t i s k n o wn a s th eir c o n ti
, , , ,

n e n tal v a l ue s th at i s th e v a l ue s w hich th ey h a v e i n al l
, ,

th e E ur o p e an l an g ua g e s e xc e p t E n gl is h an d w h ich i n ,

th e e a rli e r p e ri o d s o f E nglis h th e y h ad a l s o in th a t
l a n gua ge T h e v o we l a h as th e re fo re th e val ue o f th e
.
, ,

v o wel i n f a th er e that o f th e v o wel o f f a te i that o f th e

, ,

s e c o n d v o w e l o f m a chi n e 6 th at o f n ote an d ii tha t o f , ,

f o o d . T h e fiv e d i fl e r e n t s o u n d s w i th w hi c h th e a lph a b e t
Op e n s s eem a bit c o n fusin g at fir st B ut as a s i n a t i s .
, ,

o ur fa mili a r s o un d fo u n d in n umb e rl e s s w o rds lik e c a t

, ,

f a t,
th a t i mm ,a c u l a te i nf a tu a te e tc ,
T h e l o n g v a l ue o,
f .

thi s s o un d app e a rs in w o rds lik e a ir th er e l a i r p a r e , , , ,

 E N GL I S H SO UND S 119

p ea r, e tc . The val ue of a i s th e bro ad s o un d which

a pp e a rs in f a ther p a lm ca l m r eta r d a nd a 1 3 i ts c o r
, , , ,

r es p o n di ng s ho r t s o un d T h e v o we l i nte nde d by th e.

s ymb o l d i s a tr an si ti o n v o w e l b e tw e e n a i n f a th er a nd a t!
in ba r e I t is pro n o un c e d by m a ny A m e ric a n s i n wo rd s
.

like p a th ba th gr a s s ma s ter Fr a n ce gl a nce r af t l a ug h

, , , , , , , ,

c a lf ,th a t is i n wo rd s i n w hic h th e v o w e l c o m e s b e fo re
,

a v o i c e l e s s c o n ti n ua n t f 3 th o r a na sa l fo l l o w e d by a
, , , ,

v oi ce l ess c o nti n uan t I n s o m e c o mm un itie s h o w e ve r

.
, ,

th e v o we l i n th ese w o rds i s pr o n o un ce d fla t li ke is a n d , ,

i n o th e rs i t i s pr o n o un c e d v e ry br o a d lik e a (s e e 11 ,

fo r a fur the r d i s c us si o n o f thi s s o und ) .

T h e sym b o l 1) r epr e s e n ts a n a s aliz e d g a s i n s ing thing , , .

I t i s a s i m pl e s o un d al th o i t is w ritten in o ur c o n ve n
, ,

ti o n al s p e lli ng wi th th e t wo l e tte rs ng ; if th e s e tw o
,

le tte rs w e r e a c tually pr o n o un c e d h o we ve r w e sho uld , ,

h av e a w o rd o f th e ph on e tic fo rm s i n g s thin gs I n -
,
-
.

a w o rd lik e fi nger w hi c h i s pr o n o un c e d fing ger n o t

,
-
,

fi n -
ger w ,e h a v e a n a s ali z e d g (th a t i s 13) fo ll o w e d b y ,

th e re g ula r g T h e diffe re nt s o un ds h e r e des c ri be d

.

s h o ul d be pr ac ti c e d un til th e di s ti n c ti o n s a re p e rfe c tly

c le ar .

T h e s ymb o l 9: is i n v e n te d to e xpre s s th e c o n ti nuant

c o n s o n a n t us ua ll r e pr e s e n te d by ch i n t h r g u l r
y e e a

alph a be t A ph o n e ti c alph a b e t s h o uld h a v e i ts symb o l s

.

c o n sis t o f but s i n gl e l e tte rs a n d it wa s n e c es s a r t h e r

,y e

fo re to i n v e n t o n e fo r th e p urp o s e o f r e pres e ntin g thi s

s o un d T h e fo ur s o un ds o f 0 a r e e a s ily di s ti n g ui s h
.

abl e . O th e r e x a mpl e s O f 6 ar e a we a wf u l a ugh t o ug h t , , ,

a ll , l or d f o r m s to r m d og cl o th
, , T h e c o rre s p o n di n g
, ,
.

s h o rt s o un d 9 d o e s n o t o c c ur fr e q ue n tl
y ; e x a m pl e s ar e

th e firs t s yl l abl e o f a ud a ci ous a u toc r a ti c a ud i tor The O

, , .
1 20 M O D E R N E N GL I S H

o f n o te , boa t, vo te , l oa n , sn ow, h o e , th o (ugh) , to l l, e tc .

,
is a

ve ry c o mm o n s o un d ; th e c o rre sp o n din g s ho rt s o und 0 is , ,

us ua lly f o un d i n di ssyll a bl e s o r p o ly syll a bl e s e x a mpl es

a r e th e firs t s yll abl e o f p oe ti c bo h emi a n r ota tion co , , ,

o er a te
p a l S
,
o th e s e c o n d s ll a bl e o f wi nd o w f ur l o u h
y g , ,

bor r ow T h e c o ntin uan t us ually r e pre s e n te d by s h in th e

.

r e gula r a lpha bet h as a ga in to ha ve a n e w symb o l j ,

.

T h e s ymb o ls 1) a n d 6 b o rr o w e d fr o m th e O l d E n gl i s h
,

a lph a b et r e pres e n t r es p e c tiv e ly th e v o i c e l e s s d e n tal c o n

,

tin uant, as i n th in , th i ck, th i ng, th ough t, e tc .

, an d th e
v o i c ed d ental c o n ti n uan t as i n th ee th ose th eir e tc
, , , , .

T h e two s o un ds r e pre s e n te d by U a nd e a re s imila r b ut ,

sho uld be dis tinguis h e d T h e so un d U o cc ur s o n ly in

.

s tre sse d s yll abl es a s in up but p ul f l o ve a bove d ul l

, , , , , , ,
”
c our a e
g T .h e s o un d a k n o wn a
, s w e a k e i s a n i n t e r e s t ,

in g s o un d o f w ide o cc urre n c e I t is w ha t might be c alle d

.

th e i n diffe re n t o r o b s c ure v o w e l a nd is th e s o un d w hi c h
,

a ll o th e r v o w els te n d to b e c o m e w he n th ey a r e n o t p r o

n o un c e d cl e a rly a n d di s ti n c tly V o we ls a r e e s p e c i ally

.

liable to b ec o me a wh e n th ey ar e n o t s upp o r ted by th e

s tres s T hus th e a r ti c l e th e i s rar e ly pr o n o un c e d fully
.
,

a s Si , u nl ess fo r s o m e sp e ci al r e a s o n i t i s s tro ngly

s tres se d ; us ua lly i t is pr on o un c e d So a s in th e s e n ten c e ,

I s a w th e p r e si d en t y este rd ay B ut o th e r w o rd s in thi s s e n
.

te n c e a r e lik e w is e s ligh tly s tress e d a n d w h en th e s e n ,

ten c e is so m e w h at r a pidly s p o k e n th e vo w e l I th e , ,

s e c o n d a n d third v o w e l o f r e s i d e nt and t h e seco n d

p ,

v o wel o f y ester d ay al l ten d to b e c o m e this o bsc ure v o we l

,
.

Th e ph o n e ti c tran scripti o n o f this s e nte n c e th e r e fo re a s , ,

i t w o uld be s p o k e n in o rdi na ry c o ll o q ui al E ngli s h is a s ,

f o ll o ws : 9 S O 6 9 P re z e d e nt ye s terd e .

Fo r th e p urp o s e o f fur th e r s tudy o f th e alph a b e t and

1 22 M O DE R N E N GL I S H

of h a t two or thre e years ol d w o uld e xci te l augh te r ,

a lth o i t m a d i ff r c o mp a ra tiv e ly li ttl e fr o m th e c o n

y e

te mp o r a ry s tyl e i n i ts o w n tim e m ay h av e b e e n th e
,

h eight o f th e fa shio n and in a n o the r yea r o r two may

,

a g a i n b e c o me th e c o rr e c t o r c o n v e n ti o n al s tyl e Com .

p a r e a ls o th e c o mm on in c li n ati o n o f th e un e duc a ted

a n d un tr a v el e d t o r e ga rd a ll c us to ms a nd h a bi ts which

d iffe r fr o m the ir o wn a s ridic ul o us .

9 S o un d C h a n ge s
. S o unds are th e l e as t s ta ble el e
.

m ent in l an g ua ge T h e w o rd s th e m s e lv e s th e o rd er o f
.
,

th e w o rds th e w ri tte n o r pri n te d f o rm s all th es e th o

, , ,

they a r e s ubj e c t to c o n s ta nt ch a n ge a re r e l ativ e ly fix e d

,

a n d p e rm a n e n t a s c o mp ar e d w i th s o un ds T h e mo st .

s e n s i ti v e p a r t o f l a n g uag e so und s r e s p o n d de l i ca te ly to
,

th e sligh te s t a n d m os t e va n e s c e n t i n fl ue n c e s It is .

pr o ba ble that if c o mpl e te ph o n o graphi c rec o rd s c o uld be

ta ke n o f th e s p ee ch o f a n i n dividual i t w o uld be fo un d ,

th at n o phr as e o r s e n te n c e ph o n etic ally e v e r e x a c tly r e

p e ate d i ts e l f W e m a
y c o m p a r e th e s o u n d m a te ri a l o f-

th e l an g ua g e to a r e s tl e ss e v e r-fluc tua ting o c e a n a lwa ys

, ,

i n its e s s e n ti al s th e s am e but n e ve r tw o m o m e nts th e

,

s a m e i n th e f o rm s a s s um e d by th e e l e m e nts o f w hi c h i t

is c o mp o s ed . I t is o f th e n a ture o f s o un d w h i c h i s th e ,

m e r e p as sin g br e a th o f a m o m e n t th at it s ho uld be ,

diffic ul t to h o ld o r fix s harply in th e m e m o ry ; a n d it is
o nl b c o n s ta n t pr a c ti c e a n d us e th a t we ar e a bl e to
y y
k e e p th e s o unds o f o ur lang uage ev en appro ximate ly th e
same . Fo r w i th all o ur c flo r t w e d o n o t s u c c e e d in
, ,

pre ve nting m any ch ange s D ay by d ay m i n ute by .

,

m i n ute shifti n gs o f o ur s o un d s a r e takin g plac e a nd

, ,

th o m o s t o f th e s e a re to o min ute to a ttra c t a tte nti o n

a t th e tim e i n th e c o ur s e o f y e a r s o f a g e n e ra ti o n o r tw o
, , ,
 E N GL I S H SO UN D S 1 23

the y re s ult i n th e s ub sti tuti o n of

lto g e the r ne w s o un ds
a

fo r th e o l d o ne s J us t as th e light o f d ay at two s uc
.

c e s sive m o m e nt s a pp e a rs to be th e s a m e but i s n o t s i n c e
, ,

it is by th e a c c um ul a ti o n o f m o m e n tary c h an g e s th a t th e
great r e s ul t o f d ay an d nigh t is o b tain e d s o o ur sp ee ch , ,

w hi c h a t a give n m o m e n t w e thi n k w e h o ld firmly i n

o ur gra sp , is c o ns tan tly s lippin g a way a n d a s s umi n g
n e w f o rm s .

So fa r a s h uma n o bs e rv ati o n g oes it is di ffic ult to s e e

,

tha t a nyt hi n g is ga i n e d by th e c o n s ta n t s e ri e s o f c h ang e s

w hich a re affe c ting th e ph o n e tic S ide o f l ang ua g e No .

pr o c e ss o f ben e ficent e vo lutio n o r th e c o ntra ry h a s

, ,

b een at wo rk in th e v a s t m aj o ri ty o f th e c hange s in
E ngli s h s o und n o princ iples o f d e v el o p m e nt r e ve al
,

th e m s elv e s I n thi s r e sp e c t l a n g ua g e di ffe rs fr o m i ts

.

his to ry o n th e s ide o f its i n fle c ti o n s an d v o c a bul a ry .

T h e c h an g e s i n th e E nglis h in fle c tio n al s ys te m h av e r e
s ul te d i n a gr ea te r s im pli c i ty a n d e ffi c i e n cy i n th e s tr uc

ture o f th e E n gl i s h l a n g ua ge ; an d th e d e ve l o pm e nt o f
th e v o c ab ul a ry h as m ad e th e l an g uag e rich e r a nd m o r e
va ri o usly e xpre s s iv e B ut s oun d chan ge s appe a r to
.

hav e tak en pla c e l arge ly wi tho ut any e nd in vi e w m e re ly ,

b ec a use it i s th e n ature o f s o und to be imp e rma n en t an d

variabl e .

M a ny o f th e cha nges which tak e pl a c e in l ang uage

s o unds a r e so s ligh t a n d o f s uc h m o m e n ta r
y i m p o r ta n c e

that th ey n e v e r d e m an d c o n si d e rati o n I t i s n o t es s en
.

ti al to i n te ll igibili ty th a t th e s o un d s o f lan g ua ge S h o uld

al w ay s c o nfo rm t o w h a t w e m a r e g a rd as th e p e rfe c t
y
typ es o f th e s ound s We allo w a c o nside ra ble latitude in
.

th e sp e e ch o f i ndi vidual s fo r w e und e r stan d wh e n w o rds

,

a r e o n l y appr o xim a te l c o rr e c tl pr o n o un c e d T h r i
y y e e s
.
,
1 24 M ODE R N E N GL I SH

th e re fo re , l arge a re a o f n egligibl e v a ri ati o n 1 n th e

a

s o un ds o f s p e e c h W he n a s o un d chan g e h o we ve r i s
.
, ,

p e rs is te nt s o that it affe c ts th e lan g ua ge in gene ra l

, ,

o r th e p a r tic ula r l an g ua g e o f a c o mm un ity i t th e n ,

b e c o m e s ma tte r w o rthy o f Obs e rvati o n an d s o fa r a s , ,

is p o s sibl e o f s cie n tific g e n e rali z a ti o n

, G e n e raliz a
.

ti o n o f this s o rt ba s e d o n th e o b s e rva ti o n o f s o und

,

c h an g e s w hich h a ve pr o c ee d e d i n a r e g ul a r fa shi o n ,

a re k n o w n a s ph o n e tic l a w s I t s h o uld be cl e a rly un

.

d er s to o d h o w e v e r th at ph o n e tic la w s a r e la ws o n ly
, ,

i n th e s en s e th at th e y s tate w ha t ta ke s pla c e no t th at ,

th ey imply a l a wgiv e r w h o m a k e s a l a w w hich t he y

m us t fo llo w L ike th e l a ws of phys ic s th e l aw tha t
.
,

n igh t s uc c e e d s d a y o r th at w ate r w h e n f r o z e n e xp a n d s
, ,

th e la w s o f s o un d s a r e b a s e d e ntire ly u p o n e xp erim e n t
a n d o b se rv ati o n .

So un d la ws a r e the refo re gen e r al h abi ts o r c us to ms ,

a nd a di s c us s i o n o f wh so un d l aw s s h o uld a ri s e w o uld
y
be a d is cus smn o f wh y an d h o w ge n e ral h a bi ts an d c us
to m s a re fo rm ed Imita ti o n i s un d o ubte dly th e m o st
.

p o werful singl e fa c to r in brin gin g a b o ut un ifo rmi ty i n

th e us e o f l an g uage th e re fo r e th e m o s t p o w e rful s i ngl e
,

fa c to r in th e fo rm a ti o n o f li n g ui sti c l a w s T hi s a ppli e s
.

n o t o n ly to s o un ds but t o a ll o th e r a s p e c ts o f l a n g ua g e .

T his imi tati o n m ay be c o n s ci o u s o r un c o ns ci o u s th o ,

it i s u s ually th e latte r C hil dr e n fo r e x a mpl e i mi ta te

.
, ,

th e s o un d s a n d th e w o r d s w hi c h th e y h a bi tually h ea r ,

w i th o ut givin g a ny th ough t to th e m atte r T hey a cc e pt

.

blin dly th e a utho rity o f th e ir e lde rs a n d it is o nly adul t

,

p eo ple wh o h ave le a rn e d to o bs erv e th eir Sp e e c h and to

,

r ea s o n a bo ut it wh o be c om e a w a re o f th e c hange s that
,

a r e t a kin g pl a c e B ut e v e n a m o ng a d ults th e c o n sci o us

.
1 26 M O D E R N E N GL I S H

w i th that us e d in
'

M o de rn E n glis h w e se e that th e re h as ,

bee n an almo s t c o mpl e te di spla ce m e nt T hi s is esp e c ially .

tr ue o f th e v o w e l s w hic h ar e al ways m uch l es s s ta ble

,

th a n t h e c ons o n a nts o ur M o d e rn E nglis h c o n s o n a nts

,

di ffe ri ng On th e wh o le but littl e fr o m their us e fifte en

h un dre d ye ars ago T h e v o wels ho we ve r h av e un de r
.
, ,

go n e great change s W o rd s w hi c h i n O l d E n glish fo r

.
,

e x a mpl e h a d th e v o w e l a by th e Middl e E n gli s h p e ri o d

, ,

h ad ch an g e d thi s v o w e l to 6 a n d M o de rn E n gli s h h as ,

go n e a s tep furthe r and ch ange d th e Middle E n glis h a

i n to 6 T h us O l d E n gli s h s ta n (s tan) b e c a m e Middl e
.
,

E n gli sh s ton (sté n) a n d M o de rn E ngli s h ston e (s tOn)

,
.

Fo ll o w i n g th e s a m e ph o ne tic l aw O l d E n glish ba n (ban) ,

b e c a m e Middle E ngli s h bon (bé n ) M o de rn E n gl ish bon e ,

b
( ) 6 n ; O l d E n glish b at b
( ) at b e c a m e Middl e E n gl i s h bot

bé
( ) t ,M o d e r n E n gli s h b o a t (bOt) O th e r i n s ta n c es o .f th e

o p e r a ti o n O f th e sa m e rul e o r l a w a re th e fo ll o win g
, ,

O LD ENGLI SH . MI DDL E NGLISH

E . MO D N ENGLISH
ER .

s on 9
(3 )11 s o ( )
S 6
wro t (w ré t
) wro te ( )
rOt

f om
(f é m) f oa m (f fim)
bl owen (b l é we n
) blo w ( )
b l O

p p o e
(p é p e) p p o e (p ep )
mo ( )
W 5 rvo e
( )
W 6

v o wels h a ve ch ange d j ust as c ompletely T hus

O th e r .

O l d E n gli s h 6 o m itti n g th e tra n si ti o n s ta g e s h as b e c o m e

, ,

r egul arly ii in M odern E ngli s h as ill us trate d by th e fo l ,

l o wi ng e x ampl e s

1T h e w in wr , as well as th e h in hl , hr , w ere a ll p r o n o unce d in th e O l d

E ngl is h pe r io d .
 E N G LIS H SO UND S 1 27

O LD ENGLISH . D N ENGLISH
MO ER .

mod (m Od ) moo d (m fi d )
bl oma (bl Om a) blo o m (b l fim)
co l
( )
kOl c oo l
( )
kil l
d on (d On ) do ( )
d fi
h rof (h rOf) ro o f ( )
rfif

sco h
(S k Oh ) s hoe (j )
fi

To c o mpl e te th e l ist o f th e lo ng vo we l s O ld E nglish ,

6 h as b e co m e th e M o de rn E n gli s h 1 ; O l d E ngl is h 1
h a s b e c o m e th e M o d e rn E ngli s h diph th o ng a i ; an d O l d
E ngl is h ii h a s be c o m e th e M o de rn E ngl i s h diphtho n g au .

T h es e thr e e gr o up s o f ch ang e s ar e ill ustrated by th e

fo ll o win g w o rd s

O ENGLISH
LD . M D N E NGLISH O ER .

c en
(k é n) keen ( )
ki n

Si
s eo n ( séo n
) s ee
( )
med (m é d ) meed (m i d )
s l é p a n)
s le
p an
( ( p)
s l i

Ppi e
(p i p e ) i
pp e
( a
p ri )
h wit (h wi t ) wh ite (h w a it )
wi d (wi d ) wid e ( w a i d)
28 ( s)
i ice ( a is )

h us ( fis)
h h o use (h a u8
)
ma p m
( p)
h mo uth (m a up
)
hlad (h l fid ) lo ud l
( d)
a u

bru b
( )rfi bro w (b ra n)

If w e s ho uld c o ntinue o ur ex a min ati on o f th e o the r

v owels an d di phth on gs s h or t and lo n g o f th e O l d E ng
, ,

li sh p e ri o d w e S h o uld find tha t ne a rly e v ery o ne o f the m

,

h ad s h ifte d gre a tly fr o m its o rigi n al fo rm th at th e o rigi ,

n al fo r m h a d b e c o m e l o s t an d th at thr o ugh imi ta ti o n a

,
1 28 M O DE R N E N GLISH

ne w fo rm h a d b e c o m e ge n eral an d r egular J ust wh o it .

w a s w h o s ta r ted e a c h Sp e c ific cha nge an d fo r w h a t r ea ,

so n i t i s imp o s s ible to s ay
, I t is n o t pr o ba bl e tha t a t
.

an y p e ri o d o n e c o uld p ut h is h a n d o n a d e fi ni te i n divid

ual o r gro up o f i n d ivid ual s an d say tha t thi s p e r s o n o r

, ,

th at w a s re s p o n s ible fo r a sp e c i fic ch an g e T h e c h an g e s .

a dv a n c e d u n d o ub te dl
y yb m i n ute d e r e es a n d th e m an
g , ,

o f th e O l d E n gli s h o r th e Middle E n gli s h e rI O d w as a t

p
n o tim e c o n s ci o us th a t h i s s p e e c h w a s ch angi n g to s u ch

a n e x te n t t h a t a fe w h un dr e d y ea rs l a te r it w o uld s e e m

to h i s d e sc e n dan ts a lm o s t e n tire ly a di ffe ren t l a ng u a g e

fr o m th e ir o wn T h er e i s n o r ea s o n to b elie v e th at o ur
.

o wn sp ee ch to d a -
is m u ch m o re s tabl e th an w a s tha t o f
y
th e O l d Englis h p eri o d .U n c o ns ci o us ly to o urs elv es w e
a r e b e i n g dri fte d h e r e a n d th e r e o n th o s e c urr e n ts o f

s p ee ch s o un ds w hi c h o ur d es c e n da n ts t w o o r thr e e h un
-

dre d ye ars he n c e wi ll be a ble t o trac e thr o ugh th eir

curv e s a nd m e an d e rin gs an d th us to fo rm ulate a n d ge n
I
,

e ra l i z e i n to ph o n e tic l aws a s n o w w e fo rm ul a te th e
,

chan ge s in th e sp e e c h o f o ur O l d E ngli sh a n c es to rs I n .

s o m e fe w i ns tan c e s h o we ve r w e can tra c e c h an ges a n d

, ,

t e nd e n ci es in o ur c o n te mp o rary S p e e ch a nd thes e d e se rv e ,

a fe w wo rd s o f s p e c ia l c o n s id e r a ti o n B e fo r e p a s s in g o n
.

to th e c o n sid e ra ti o n o f c o n te mp o r a ry i m ita tiv e s o un d

changes it may be intere s tin g to e x ami n e a pas sage o f
,

O l d E n gli s h an d th e s a m e p a s s a ge i n M i ddle E n gli s h i n

th e ir r e s p e c tiv e ph o n e tic f o rm s an d to c o mp a re th e se
,

e arli e r s o un d s o f th e l an g ua g e w i th th o s e o f M o d e rn

E n glish Fo r this p urp o s e w e m ay c ho o s e a p a ss a ge

.

fro m th e Ne w T e s tam e nt givi ng i t firs t i n a n O l d E n g

,

li s h v e rs i o n m a d e be fo r e th e ye ar 1 0 0 0 a c c o mp an i e d by
, ,

a li te ra l tr a ns l a ti o n a nd a ph o n e tic tra n s crip tio n and ,

1 30 M O D E R N E N G LIS H

Th e s a m e p a s s a g e fr o m th e Wycliffe Bibl e is as fo l
l ow s

A nd wh a n ne th ei we re n in a nd h w a ne h e were n in h e
th e h o us , he ax id e h em : h fis , h e a k s id e h e m : “ bwe t
“W h a t tre tid e n ye i n th e tr etid e n ye i n h e w eye ?
”
w e ie ?
A nd th e i we re n s til l e . Fo r and h e were n s til e . Fo r h e
t h e i d i s p utid e n a mo ng h e m in d i s p utid e n e me r) h em i n h e
th e w e i e , wh o of h em s ch ul d e weye, h we o f h e m ful d e b e

b e gr e tte s t .
g r ete s t .

A nd h e s at, a nd c l e p id e a nd he s a t , a nd kl ep id e h e
th e twel ue , a n d s e id e to h e m : twe l ve , a nd s ed e te h e m : if
If y m aon
n w o l e b e t h e e ni m a n we l e b eh e firs te e m e I)
firs te a mo ng yo u, h e s c h a l b e i fi, h e j a l b e h e l a s te ef alle ,

th e l a s te of a ll e , a nd th e and h e mini s te r o f a ll e .

mynys te r o f al le .

A n d h e to o k a c h il d , a n d
~

a nd h e tek a ci ld , a nd s e te

s e tte h ym i n th e myd d il o f mm In h e mid il Of h em . a nd

h em . A nd wh a nn e h e h a d d e
. h wa n e h e h a d e bikl ip id h i m ,
b i clip pi d b ym , he s e id e to h e S ed e te h e m,
h e m,
Wh o e ue r re s s e
yue th o o n h we e ve r r e s eve
p en e f
o f s uc h c hil d re n i n my na me , s ue eil d re n i n mi n ame , h e re
he re s s e
y ue th me . A nd wh o s eve p m e a n d h
. we e ve r r e

e ue r re s s e ue th m e, h e re s s eve p m e, h e r e s eve p n o t me
y
se
yue t h no t me a l o o ne , but a l en e , b ut hi m h a t s e nte me .

h y m th at s e nte me .
1

I t m ay be i n te r e s t of to ad d th e sa m e p ass age i n th e
King J a me s ve rs i o n
3 3 A n d b e i ng i n th e h o uf e , h e a f ke d th e m , Wh a t w a s it
th a t ye e d i ute d a mo ng y o u r s e l ue s by th e wa y .

Fro m T he N e w T es ta ment i n E ngl ish a ccord ing to th e Vers io n by J oh n

1

Wycliyfe a bo ut A D 1 3 8 0 a nd re vis ed by J ohn P ur vey a o ut A D 1 3 8 8

. . b . . .

E d Fo rsh all
. a nd M a d d en, O x for d , 1 8 79 .
 E N GL I S H S O UND S 1 31

34 But th ey h el d th e ir p e a c e , F o r by th e w a y th ey h a d
d il p uted a mo ng th e ms e l ue s wh o s h o ul d be th e gre a te ft
’
.

35 A nd h e fa te d o w n e, a nd c al l e d th e twel ue a nd f a ith
unto th e m, If a ny ma n d e fire to b e firf t, th e f a me fh all be
l a ft o f a l l , a nd f e rua n t o f a ll .

3 6 A nd h e to o k e a c hil d , a nd l e t hi m i n th e mid ft of

th e m ; wh e n h e h a d ta k en h im in h i s a rms , h e l aid un to
th e m ,

W h o l o e ue r c h i l d re n i n my
‘

37 fh a l l r e c e i ue o ne of fuc h
N ame , me ; me , re c e iu
‘ ‘

r e c e iue th a nd wh o l o e uer l b a ll r e c e iue

e th n o t m e, b ut h i m th a t f e nt me .
1

11 . C o nt e m p o r a r y I m i t a t iv e S o un d C h a n ge s .

O ne m o s t fre q ue ntly dis c usse d i n stan c e s o f c on

of th e
t e m p o ra ry s o un d ch a n ge i s tha t w hich c e n te r s a b o u t th e
pro n un ciati o n o f c er ta i n w o rd s c o ntainin g th e v o w e l a !

or a W i th out a tte mp ting to fo llo w th e his to ry of the se

.

s o un d s thro ugh th e w h o l e c o u rs e o f th eir de v el o pm e n t ,

we s h all m e r e ly p o i n t o ut th e fac t tha t th e y h a ve b e e n

c o n s ta n tl y c h a n g in g tha t th e w o rd a th wa s pro n o un c e d
p ,

p eep by o n e gener a ti on p ap by an o the r and p6 1) by s till

, ,

a n o th e r G e n e ra lly th e fe e lin g w hich d e te rmin e d th e

.
,

us e o f o ne s o un d o r th e o th e r see m s to ha v e b e en th at

th e p a rtic ul a r s o un d ch o s e n w a s m o re re fined th an
th e o th e rs ; a nd i t is a c uri o us fa c t that ea ch o f th e three
s o un d s h as a t d ifie re n t tim e s b e e n e l e v a t e d to thi s p o s i

tio n o f e mi n en c e T h us in th e fir s t q ua rte r o f th e n i n e
.

tee nth c e nt ury i n L o n d o n th e pro n un ci a ti o n o f th e

,

v o wel o f wo rd s lik e p a th p a st a sk gl a ss ba th d a n c e , , , , , ,

e tc a s ee l ik e th e v o we l o f h a t e a t e tc
.
, , l engthen e d , , .
, ,

T h e H oly B ible , L o n d o n, 1 6 1 1
1 1 s t e d o f th e K i ng a m es
. ers i o n
. J V .

T h e pr o nunci a ti o n i s a ppr o x ima tel y th e s a me a s t h a t o f M o d e r n E ngl is h .

No tic e th e l a r ge n umb er o f s il e n t l e tters a s c o mp are d wi th th e M i d dl e

E ngli sh an d th e O l d E ngl ish p r o nuncia tio n .
1 32 M O D E R N E N GLI S H

wa s r e ga rde d a s e l e gant and o f c o urse by th o s e to , , ,

w h o m it w as s tra n g e a s a ffe c te d T hi s is w e ll illus trate d

, .

by L e igh H unt s de s cripti o n o f a night watc hman wh o

’
,

w a s a ffe c tin g t h e s p e e ch o f h is be tte r s O f va ri eti e s

“

s ays H un t
a, 1
a m o n g w a tc hm e n we r e m e mb e r s e v e ra l cc
, , .

O n e w a s a d a n dy w a tchm an w h o us e d to ply a t th e to p
o f O x fo rd S tr e e t n e x t th e p a rk
, H e h a d a mi n cin g way .

w i th it pr o n o un c i n g th e a in th e w o rd p a s t a s i t is in
,

h a t m aki n g a little pre pa rato ry h em befo re h e S p o k e

, ,

a nd th e n bri n gi n g o ut h i s a s t ten i n a s tyl e o f ge n te e l

p
”
i n diffe ren c e .

A fe w ye a rs l a te r th e e l e ga n t pro nun ci ati o n o f thi s

,

s o un d in this c o untry b e c a m e e sta bli s he d as a th at is th e , ,

bro a d s o un d o f a in f a th er T hi s wa s un do ubte dly d ue .

,

i n th e m a in to th e in flue n c o f th e s p e e ch o f N e w E ng
,

l an d p arti c ula rly B o s ton w hi c h o win g to its literary

, , ,

p o s iti o n d urin g th e life tim e o f L o ngfello w, E mers on ,

H aw th o rn e L o w e ll a n d th e o the r grea t figure s o f th e

, ,

first fl o we ri n g p e ri o d o f A m e rican lite ratur e was o ften ,

regarde d a s th e s e at o f c ulture i n A m eric a Fr o m .

B o s to n w h e r e it was a n o rmal an d us ual pro h n ciati o n

, ,

th e br o a d s o un d a p as s e d o ve r by imita ti o n to th e sp e e ch
o f o th e r c o mm un i ti e s T h us Rich a rd G ra n t W hi te
.
2
a ,

n ativ e o f N e w Y o rk a n d th e a rbi te r o f ta s te i n h i s d ay ,

“
go e s s o far a s to s ay th at T h e full fre e un c o ns c i o us , ,

u tte ra n c e o f th e br o a d a h s o un d o f a i s th e s ure s t i n di c a

ti o n i n s p e e ch o f s o c i al c ul tu re w hi c h b e g a n a t th e
, ,

T o a c e rtai n e xten t th e e d uc ate d A m e ric an

”
cra dl e .

p ubli c see m e d to agr e e with thi s a sto ni shing dic tum ;

c o n s c i e n ti o us S p e ak e rs if th ey d i d n o t ha ve i t n atur ally
, ,

1
Wa lks Ho me by N i ght . T h e C o mp a nio n, Fe b 6 , 1 8 2 8
. .

2 Wor d s a nd T heir Us es , C h apt e r I I I , p 5 0

.
(Ne w Y o rk ,
1 84 M O DE R N E N G L I S H

o b s e rvati o n o f th e a c tual us e o f th e language a p ar t fro m ,

a ny n o ti o n o f a l aw giv e r wh o e s tabli s h e s thi s o r that a s

th e l a w o f l a nguag e No w if w e o bs e rv e th e a c tual us e
.

o r c us to m o f th e l a n g uag e w e s h all s e e th a t s o m e p e o pl e ,

o r s o m e c o mm un iti e s s ay p e ep a n d o the rs s e p an d
ay p ,

furth e r th at th e q ue s ti o n o f g o o d En glish o r bad E n glish ,

th at i s o f c o rre c tn e s s do e s n o t e n te r he r e unless w e
, , ,

a ss um e a rbi tr a rily th a t o n e m us t be r i gh t a nd th e o th e r

m ust be wr o n g T h e questio n h o w eve r i s n o t o ne o f

.
, ,

ri ght an d w r o n g but me re ly o f two diffe rin g c us to m s

, .

I n c as es o f this s o rt o n e s o wn i n divi d ual pr e fe r e n c e an d

’

ta s te m us t de c ide I f s o m e s p e a k e rs pre fe r p eep a n d

.

o th e rs e
p p th e q u e s
,
ti o n o f th e o n e s id e givi n g u p i n

fa v o r o f th e o th e r m us t de p e n d e ntir ely o n th e w eight o f

a uth o ri t w hi c h th e o n e i s w il li n g to gr a n t to th e o th e r
y .

E ac h m us t de cid e fo r him s e lf w hi ch l a w o r c us to m h e
wi sh e s to fo ll o w .

A no th e r v o w e l s o un d as to which th e q ues ti o n o f
imitati o n th at i s o f ch o ic e b etwe e n diffe ri ng c us to ma ry
, ,

s o u n d s a ri s e s i s th e s o un d o f s h o r t o p e n 0 i n w o rd s lik e
, ,

l og d og f og s ta l k bog
, , , T h e us ua l te n d e n c y i n A m e ri ca
, .

i s to pr o n o un ce th e v o w e l o f these w o rds a s e i e d e g , . .
, ,

fe g s te k be g
, ,I n s o m e c o m m un i tie s h o we ve r a n d by
.
, ,

s o m e S p ea k e rs th e w o rd s a r e pr o n o un c e d w i th a s o un d
,

e x a c tly e qu iv a l e n t t o a a s in wh a t wa tc h qua l i ty fo ll o w
, , , ,

i ng th us th e pr o n un ciati o n o f w o rds lik e n o t (n a t) r o ck ,

( )
r a k h ot
, h
( ) a t c o b ( k a b ) s to
p (,
s ta p ) T h e ir ph o n e tic
, .

fo rm a cc o rdin g to thi s pr o n un ci a ti o n w o uld th e refo re be

d ag fag s tak bag
, ,
O n th e o th e r h an d by i mi ta ti o n o f
, .
,

th e pr o n un c ia ti o n d e g fe g e tc this q uali ty o f th e
, , .
,

s o und p as ses o ve r i n to w o rd s lik e n o t h o t r o ck step , , , ,

w hi ch a re the n pro n o un c e d n e t h e t r e k s te p , , , .
 E N G LIS H SO U ND S 1 35

Stil l he r gr o up o f w o rds m ay be cite d in i ll us tra

an o t

tio n w o rd s l ik e r oof r o o t s oo t h o of h o op an d o th e rs
, , , , , ,
.

By s o m e p erhap s m o s t sp eak e rs th e s e wo rds a re pro

, ,

n o un ce d w i th th e v o we l d a s i n m oo d to o l moon g oos e , , , , ,

e tc . th e ir ph o n e ti c f o r m th e n b e i n g r fif r fit s fit h fif
, , , , ,

h ii p e tc O th e r Sp e a k e rs pro n o un c e the s e w o rd s wi th
’
.
,

a n o p e n S h o r t u s o un d u th e s o und o f th e v o w e l in p ut
-
, , ,

f o o t g oo ,d h o o d s too d a
,
n d m a n
, y o t h e r w o rd s,
A c c o rd .

i ng to thi s pr o n un cia ti o n th e ir ph o n e ti c fo rm w o uld be ,

r uf r ut s ut h uf h up e tc
, , ,
Wh at th e fi n al o utc o me w ill
, ,
.

be in th e c a s e O f these thr ee p ai r s o f s o un d s 315 a n d d e , ,

a nd a ti a n d u d ep e n d s e n tire ly up o n th e e x te n t to
, ,

whi c h imitati o n tak e s pl a c e P e rh aps i n tim e a ll w o rds .

c o n tai n i n g th e a v o w e l b e fo r e a co nti n uan t c o n s o n a n t

-

m ay c o m e to be pro n o un c e d alik e e i the r as a o r 61 ; lik e ,

w i s e all w o rds c o nta inin g th e O vo w e l m ay c o m e to be

,
-

pro n o unc e d a s e n ot h ot got r oe/ c th us b e c o m i n g n e t

, , , , , ,

h e r ge t r e k o r a s a d og f og l og th us b e c o mi n g d ag
, , , , , , , ,

fag l ag ; a n d all w o rd s c o n ta i ni n g th e O O v o w e l m ay
,
-

s e ttl e in th e pr o n un c i a ti o n fi ut f t g o d s t d b
p oo o o o e , , , , ,

c o m in g g e n e r a l a s
p e t f fi t g u d s te d (a pr o n u n
, c i a ti o n , ,

w hi c h is n o w a c o m m o n o ne i n S c o tl an d ) o r o n th e p r o ,

n un c iatio n u s oot h o of r o o t mo o d o o se thus b e co m i n g

, g , , , , ,

s ut h uf r ut m ud u s O r th e l aw o f imi ta ti o n m a
, , g , , .
y
n o t be s tr o n g e n o ugh to brin g a b o ut un i fo rmi ty o f
usag e i n a n o f th e thr e e i n sta n c e s i n whi c h c as e w e
y ,

S h all c o n tin ue a s w e a r e a t pre s e n t s o m e s p e ak e r s us i n g ,

o n e s o un d a n d s o m e S p ea k e r s th e o th e r T his w ill .

be th e m os t lik el y s ta te o f a fiair s s o l o n g as th e diffe re nt

s o un d s ar e fe l t to be e q uall c o rr e t th a t i s l n g
y c s o o as , ,

they ar e a l l u s e d by s p e a k e rs wh o m us t be gr o up e d w ith
th e c l ass o f th e e du c ate d a n d r e fi n e d If h o we ve r fo r .
, ,
1 36 M O D E R N E N GL I SH

s o m e re a s on he r th e pro n un ci a ti o n d ag o r th e p ro
o r ot , ,

nun c ia tio n r uf sh o uld c o m e to be re ga rded a s l e ss e l e

,

g a n t th an d e g and rfif j us t as at pre s ent th e re is a s tro n g

,

te n d e n c y to re gar d th e pr o n un ci ati o n pep a s m o re e l e

gan t th an th e pr o n un c ia ti o n p eep th e lik eliho o d is that ,

d a g an d r uf w o uld be giv e n up en tire ly i n fa v o r o f d e g

‘

an d r u f O f th e thr e e gro up s o f w o rds th e o n e c o us e

.
,

q uently c o n c erni ng which i t i s s afe s t to pro ph e sy is th e

a th g l a ss-a s k d a n ee gr o up b e c a us e th e l a w o f imi ta ti o n
- - -
p ,

h e re is giv en a sp e ci al di re c ti o n by r eas o n o f th e s o m e
wh at S p e ci al fa v o r i n w hich th e o n e s o un d is he ld .

A gro up o f wo rds whi c h a t pre s e n t Sh o w a te n d e ncy

to w ards so un d c h an g e but i n whi c h th e l aw o f imi ta ti o n
,

m e e ts w i th s o m e re s tr ai ning o pp o siti o n i s th at c o ns i stin g ,

o f w o rd s lik e tube d uke d ue T u es d a y n ew a nd o th e r s

, , , , ,
.

M any speak e rs pro n o un c e th es e wo rds w ith th e s o un d o f

ii givin g th us t ub d fik d u tfisd e n u lik e tr ue f r u i t
, , , , , , , ,

d ew r ul e r ud e (afte r 1 an d r th e s o un d is a l ways u n o t
, , ,

i n ) that i s tr u fr ut d fi r fil r u
, , d T his pro nun ci ati o n is
, , , .

m o re gene rally h e ard in wo rds o f m o re th an o ne s yllabl e ,

a s i n d uce r o d uc e d u t t th n i t i s i n m on o s l
p , g e c a , , y .
,

l abl e s Ye t bo th in m o no s yll abl e s an d i n p o l ysyll ables

.

i t m ay be fre q uently Obs e rv e d e ve n i t m ay be p o in te d , ,

o ut i n th e s p e e ch o f p e rs o n s w h o thi nk th ey al ways
,

pro n o unc e th e i ii s o und a s tifib d iuk d ifi tifis d e niu , , , , , ,

ro d i u a mo n g
p s e tc ,
T h e r e i.s p eo pl e w h o a tta ch m uc h
,

imp o r tan c e to tradi tio nal an d d o gm a tic rule s a s tr o n g fe e l ,

i ng th a t th e u pro n un c i a ti o n in t u b d uk e tc i s w ro n g , , .
, ,

o r e v e n v ulga r T h e o n ly righ t pr o n un c i ati o n th e y s ay

.
, ,

i s ti u b d ifik e tc “ ”
B ut is tfib i n c o rre c t ? I f i t is a
, , .

w id e ly o cc urri n g pro n un cia ti o n a s o ur o bs e rv a ti o n a t ,

te s ts th e n i t m us t be o ne O f th e la ws o r c us to m s o f th e
,
1 38 M O DE R N E N G L I S H

bee n fo rg o tte n , th e
pro n un ci ati o n d e f m an age d to cre e p
i n w a s g en e ra lly i m i ta ted a n d th us h as n o w b e c o m e
, ,

th e g e n e ral a n d i n th a t s e n s e th e c o rre c t pr o n un c i ati o n

, ,
.

T h e p r o n unc i a ti o n d if h o w e v e r s till p e rsi s ts a s a s ur

, ,

vival i n th e S p ee c h O f Old fas hi o n e d p e o pl e a n d s i nc e

-
, ,

th ey a r e a l ways s l o w e r i n a rrivi n g a t i mi tati ve i nn o

va ti o n s th an th e e d u c a te d i t p e rs i s ts a ls o i n th e S p e e ch
,

O f th e
“ “
ign o rant a n d un e duc ate d ”
.

T h e re i s at pres e n t s o m e ten d e n cy to di s crimi nate

b e twe en th e us e Of r i s e a s a v e rb a nd a s a n o un ; i n th e
fo r m e r c as e th e w o rd i s pr o n o un c e d r aiz i n th e l atte r , ,

rai s fo ll o wi n g th e an alo gy o f w o rd s l ike use a s n o un

,

i
( ) d s a n d as v e rb i
( )fiz ; d e v i c e
(d i va i S ) d e,
vi z e ( d iva i z
) .

T h i s c ha n ge h o w e v e r i s n o t a t all g e n e ra l and is c hi e fly
, , ,

i n th e h a n d s o f m o re o r l e s s c o n s c i o us a nd a ffe c te d us e r s
o f th e l a n g ua g e T h e s am e i s tr ue O f th e two pr o n un
.

c i a ti o n s o f e i th er a n d n e i th er a s ih e r n ih e r
, a n d ai h ar
, ,

n aih e r . I n al l c o mm unities i n A m e ri c a th e pr o n un c i
a ti o n i h o r n
, ,ih er is by fa r th e m o re g e n e ra l a n d us ual
, ,

th e se c o n d pro n un ci a ti o n b e in g b ut ra r ely n a tura l The .

q ue s ti o n O f c o rre c tn e ss a n d c ho i c e b e tw e en th e two is
a g a i n t o be d e cid e d e n tire l b o n e s pr e fe re n c e O
’
ne
y y .

w h o w is h es h is c usto m s o f s p e e c h to be n o r m a l a n d
i n c o ns pic uo us will gene rally c h o o se to s ay ih or n ih e r ; ,

one wh o pre fe rs a s l ight m ann e ri s m O f s p e ec h w h o ,

a ffe c ts di ffe r e n c e s O f s p e e c h th at w ill d is tin g ui s h h i m

fr o m o th e rs i s a t l ib e rty to c h o os e a ih ar n aih er
, ,
T he .

s i tua ti o n i s s o m e w h a t s i m il a r i n th e i n s tan c e o f th e tw o

pro n un c ia ti o n s O f toma to a s to m eto an d to m ato B o th .

pro n un ciatio n s a r e in go o d n atural use in diff er ent s ec

ti o n s O f th e c o un try th o th e p ro n un c ia ti o n to meto i s
,

by far th e m o re c o m m o n T h e s e c o nd pro n un c i a ti o n
.
,
 E N G L IS H SO U N D S 1 39

to m ato , be c o m es an afie c tation o nly w he n it is as sum e d

by p e rs o n s w h o s e no rm al pro n un ci a tio n is to meto fo r
th e s ake o f di s ti ng ui s h i n g th e ir sp ee ch fro m th a t o f
th e i r e n v ir o n m e nt . I t i s c l e ar th at i t w o uld be a m uch
m o re re a s o n a bl e a n d a dmira bl e e n de av o r fo r a sp ea k e r
to striv e to a dap t h i s s p e ec h a l ways to th e us e o f h i s
e nvir o n m e n t th a n to s e a rc h o ut us a g e s i n S p e e c h th at

w ill s e t h im o ff an d di s tin g ui s h him a s diffe r e nt fro m

h i s e n v ir o n m e n t .

1 2 D i al e c t
. . W h e n thro ugh th e pro c ess O f imi ta
,

tio n th e sp e ec h o f a c e rta in c o m m un i ty a c q uir es ch a r

,

a c te r is tic s p ec uli a r to tha t c o mm un i ty w hic h th us ,

distinguis h th e sp e e c h o f th e c o m m unity fro m th at

o f th e c o un tr a t l a rge o r fr o m o th e r s e c ti o n s o f th e
y ,

c o un try w e ha v e a di al e c t
,
. D i alec t c ha rac te ri s tic s
m a y affe c t b o th th e p o p ul ar a nd th e c ul ti va te d s p e e ch ,

a l th o th ey are a lm os t a l w ay s m uch m o r e s tro n gl y

m arke d i n th e s p e e c h o f th e c o mm o n d a ily i n te r c o urs e
O f th e p e o pl e th a n th ey a r e i n th e s p e e c h o f m o r e
c a r e ful a n d c o n s c i o us S p e a k e rs A lm o s t e v e ry c o m
.

m un ity h a s its l o c al p o p ul a r d ia l e c t a s fo r e x a mpl e

, , ,

th e H o o s ie r di a l e c t o f In di a n a SO s killfully u s ed by
,

Ja m es W hi tco mb R iley i n h is p o e ms ; th e Ne w E n gl an d
dial e c t us e d by L o well in th e B igl ow P ap er s ; th e
,

V irg ini a di al ec t m a d e fa m ilia r to all o f r e c en t yea rs

,

thr o ugh m an y a s to ry O f S o uth e rn li fe W e m a y Sp e a k

.

als o o f d ia l e c t n o t fr o m a g e o gr aph ic a l p o i n t o f vi e w ,

but fro m a ra ci a l a n d li n g ui s ti c p o in t o f vi e w W hen

.

p ers o n s wh o s e n a tiv e to ngue i s d iffe ren t fro m E nglish

s ettl e in an E ngli sh c o mm uni ty they ar e lik ely to de v el op
,

a p ec uli a r kin d O f E n gli s h w hi c h c o n s is ts o f a mix ture

,

O f th eir o wn n a tive to n gue w i th E n gli s h re sulting i n

,
1 40 M O D E R N E N GL I S H

a s p ee ch which i s ne ith e r s tand a rd E n glis h n o r a fo r eign

langua ge but a s o rt O f mix e d p o p ula r dial e c t o f E nglis h
, .

T hus w e h a ve th e n e gr o dial e c t in thi s c o un try th e ,

P e nn syl va n i a G e rm a n di al e c t w hich h o wev e r c on t ai n s

, , ,

s uch a l a rg e pr o p o r ti o n O f G e rm an w o rds a n d is
p ro

n o un c e d S O m u ch in th e G e rm an fa s hi o n th at i t migh t

b e tter be c all e d a di ale c t O f Ge rm an th an Of E n glis h ;

i n c e rtai n r e gi o n s w hich h a ve bee n l arg e ly s ettl e d by
Sc a n di n a vi a n s in Mi n n e s o ta I o wa a n d o the r pl ac e s
, , , ,

th e re h a s a l so gr o wn up a m i x e d p o p ula r S c an di n avi a n
a n d E n gl i s h di a l e c t T h e Iri s h br o gue o r di al e c t i s
.
, ,

fa mili a r to a ll ; a n d i n ci ti es in w hich th e re i s a l arg e

H e bre w e lem e n t a H e bre w dia le c t with m a rk e d i n di
,

vid ual cha ra c te ri s tic s h a s gro wn up No ne o f th es e .

di ale c ts ho we v e r e ithe r o f th e lo c al o r mix e d kind

, , ,

te n d t o s pr e a d b ey o n d th e ir o wn r e sp e c tive c o mm uniti e s .

W he n they ar e us e d in lite rature it i s fo r th e p urp o s e

,

o f givin g l o c a l c o l o r to a s i t ua ti o n or in ch a ra c te r
, ,

s tudi es ,
for t h e p urp o s e o f m akin g th e S p e e ch o f th e
ch a ra c te r h ar mo n iz e with h is s urroun dings T h e use O f .

dia le c t fo r l o c al c o lo r is fo un d a s far b a c k a s C hauc e r ,

a n d i s o f c o ur se v e ry c o mm o n i n l a te r fi c ti o n p o e try , ,

a n d c o m e dy .T he v a l ue o f c o mi c dial e c t ch a r a c te rs o n
th e s ta g e h a s l o n g b ee n k n o w n a nd th ey c a n be fo un d
,

a s fa r b a c k a s Sh a k s p e r e s W e l s hm a n S c o tc hm an a nd
’
, ,

Iri shman i n H e nry V T h e c o mic e ffe ct in al l suc h in

.

s tan c e s a ri s e s fr o m th e vi ol e n t c o n tra s t b e tw e e n w h at

i s r e ga rd e d a s th e s ta n da rd a nd c o rre c t S p e e c h a n d th e
S p e e c h o f th e d ia l e c t c h a ra c te r W e l s hm a n Fren c hm a n
, , ,

vill a g e phil o s o ph e r o r w h o e v e r i t m ay be
, .

T h e lin e m a rk in g th e s e p a ra ti o n o f th e p o pul a r a n d
l o c al d ial e c t fro m th e s tan da rd S p e e c h o f c ultiv ate d
1 42 M O DE R N E N G L IS H

i n w hi c h th e cha n ge s a r e de p en d e n t l e s s upo n th e l aw
o f imi tati o n th an up o n p ur e ly n a tura l a nd ph s ic al
y
c a us e s .T h es e we m ay gr o up un de r th e g e n e ra l h e a d O f
o rg a n ic ch a n g e s .T h e un d e rl yi n g e xpla n a ti o n o f all
th e s e c han g e s o f thi s s e c o n d ki n d i s t o be fo un d in th e
fa c t th a t o ur sp e e c h r es ts up o n v a ryi n g a nd e n tire l y dif
fe re n t pl an e s o f u tte r a n c e So m e ti m es w e sp e a k v e ry
“

s l o wly a n d di s ti n c tly a t o th e rs w e S p e a k ra p i dly a n d

,

w i th l e ss atte n ti o n to th e fo rm o f e a c h in divid ual w o rd ;

c e rtain wo r d s o r gr o up s o f w o rds we s tress whil e o th e rs ,

a r e s p o k e n w i th a l e s s d e gree O f e n e rgy I n g e n e ra l th e
.
,
“

pri n ciple h o lds that th e a m o unt o f e n e rgy w e put fo rth

in th e o p e r a ti o n O f th e o rg a n s O f S p e e c h is i n i n ve rs e ra ti o
t o th e Obvi o us n es s O f th e id e a to be e xpr e s s e d In .

S p e a ki n g a c o n v e n ti o n a l fo rm ul a as fo r e x a mpl e t h e
, , ,

gre etin g H ow d o y o u d o ? w e e nun c iate th e wo rds ve ry

i n di sti n c tly W e d o n o t s ay H au d ui n as ? but p e rh aps
.

H au d e d fi? o r H a u (hi ? o r e v e n th e di a l e c t wr i te rs tell
,

us H o wd y ? I t i s n o t o n ly i n th e S p e e c h O f t h e ign o ra nt
,

a n d u n e duc at e d th a t s u c h r e l a x e d pro n un c i a ti o n s fin d a

pl a ce but in th e Sp e e c h o f e ve ryb o dy So m e littl e pr ae

, .

ti c e i n s e l f o bse rva ti o n is Often r e q ui re d h o w e v e r b e fo re

-
, ,

a s p ea ke r r eal i z e s th e ac t ual ph o n eti c ch a r a c t e r o f h i s l a n

g ua ge W e a r e lik ely to h ave s o m e the o re ti c a l n o ti o n o f

.

a n id e a l p e rfe c t pr o n un c i a ti o n th e c o n vi c ti o n p e rh aps
,

tha t w e s p e a k a s w e w ri te , S O firml y fix e d i n o ur

mi n ds th at w e thi nk w e s ay w h at w e think w e o ugh t to

s a y w h e r e a s w h a t w e a c tua lly s ay i s s o m e th in g q ui te
,

d iff e r en t T h e que s ti o n w h e the r o r n o t it i s right to

.

p e rmit o ur selve s to us e th e se r el ax e d pro n un c iati o n s we

s h all c o n sid e r l ate r In th e m e a nti me we Sh o uld Obs e rv e
.

th at t h e pri n c ipl e h as a l w a ys b e e n i n o p e ra ti o n a n d ,
 E N GLI S H S O U ND S 1 43

th a t it h a s d e eply affec ted b o th th e w ritten a nd s p o ken

fo rm o f o ur l a n gua g e A fe w h is to ri c al ill us trati o n s
.

wil l m a k e thi s p o in t cl e a r .

I n M il to n s P a r a d is e L os t i n a p a s s ag e in w h i c h th e
’
,

p o e t is Sp e ak ing o f D a go n th e fis h god th e re o c c urs th e

,
-
,

c ur io us l o o ki n g w o r d g r un s e l
-

In h is o wn te mp l e , on th e gr u nsel e d ge
-
,

Wh e r e h e fe l l fla t a n d sh ame d h i s wo rs h ip e rs . 1

The m e an in g o f this w o rd w o uld be h ard to gue s s fro m

Milto n s fo r m B ut w h e n w e k n o w tha t i t is Simply
’
.

w o rn d o w n fr o m a c o mp o un d gr oun d s i ll th e a n a l o g
y o f ,

w ind ow s i l l d oo r s i ll give s u s a r e ady c l ue to i ts m e a n i n g

-
,
-
,

e v e n th o a c o m p o u d gr un d s i l l is n o l o n g e r in c ur
n o —

r ent u s e M ilto n s gr uns el is o nly o n e o f m any wo rds

.
’

w i th a s i m il a r h is to ry O ur fo rmul a a t p ar tin g fo r e x
.
,

a m pl e w hi c h w e n o w S p e ll Goo d by o r G oo d bye a n d
,
- -
,

pro n o un c e w ith th e s tres s o n th e se c o n d sylla ble ge d bai

, ,
-
,

o r e v e n w i th o ut a n y v o w e l i n th e fir s t s yll a bl e d bai
’

g
-
, ,

w a s o rigi n ally th e w h o l e phr a s e G o d be wi th y ou T hi s .

,

h o w e v e r was e n tir e ly t o o lo n g fo r a c o n v e ntio nal fo r

,

m ula an d its lite ra l s e n s e be in g lo s t i t gra dually c am e

, , ,

to b e p r o n o un c e d in a n o b s c ure d a n d in dis tin c t w ay .

Fr o m th e v e ry s ta rt it b e c a m e G o d be wi y e T his
’
.

furth e r c o n tra cte d in to G o d bwy e a fo r m w hi c h a pp ea rs ,

in th e d ia l o g O f th e c o m edi e s o f th e e i gh te e n th c e n
tury . H a v in g go n e s o fa r th e o rigin al m e an i n g o f th e,

phra s e b ec am e a lto ge the r l o s t ; th e firs t sylla ble w a s

m is ta ken fo r o ur w o rd g ood a n d th e s e c o n d fo r o ur w o rd
by a n d w e r e a c h th us o ur m o d e rn fo r m g o o d by
, M any -
.

w o rd s o f th e l a n guag e h a v e b e c o m e o b s c ur e d i n fo rm

1 Bo ok 4 60 —4 6 1 .
1 44 M O D E R N E N GLI S H

i n th e s a me w ay . O ur M o de rn E n glish w o rd l or d is d e
'

rive d fro m th e O ld E ngli sh c o mp o und h laf wea r d th e -

,

fir st e l e m e nt o f w hich is E n gli s h l o af (o f bread) th e ,

s e c o n d wa r d (i e u a rdi an ) t h e wh o l e w o rd m e ani n g
g . .
, ,

o rigi n a lly th e g ua rd ia n o f th e lo af o r s uppli e s i n e n

g ,

e ra l . T his w o rd w as o f c o urs e o rigi n ally a d es crip tive , ,

e pi th e t fo r pr o te c to r o r l e a d e r o f th e p e o pl e ; in tim e ,

h o w e v e r th e e l e m e n ts o f th e w o rd c e as e d to be appr e
,

c ia te d s e p a r a te ly a n d S i n c e th e w o rd s to o d fo r a S i n gl e
,

i de a which w a s n o t an alyz e d i n to th e tw o n o ti o n s o f
,
u

br ea d a nd g ua r d i a n it c a m e to be pr o n o un c e d as a S i m
,

p l e w o rd F r o m h
. l a
f w ea r d I t b e c a m e h l af o r d-
th en , ,

w ith th e l o ss o f th e h w hich w as g e n e ra l in a ll w o rd s ,

i n th e i ni tia l p o si ti o n fo ll o we d by a n o th e r c o ns o n an t ,

l a uer d a n d fin a lly l or d
, , By a simila r pro c e s s M o d e rn
,
.
,

E nglish woma n h as b e en de riv e d fr o m O l d E ngli s h wif

ma n th e s e c o n d e l e m ent b e i n g th e g e n e ric na m e fo r
,

h um an b e i n g s a n d th e firs t e l e m e n t wif th e i n dic a ti o n

,

o f s ex The w
. o rd h a vi n g b e c o m e fix e d in th e l an g ua ge

c o n s ci o us nes s o f th e p e o pl e a s th e c o nv e n ti o nal symb o l

fo r th e id e a w o m an i t w as n o l o n ge r felt to be n e c es s a ry
,

t o a n alyz e i t i n to i ts d es crip ti ve p arts a n d it th us c o n ,

tra c te d i nto th e f o rm woma n A lik e c h an g e h a s m a d e .

M o de rn E ngli s h s ti rr up o ut o f O l d E nglis h s tig r dp -

,

w hich li te r ally m e ant moun ting r op e fr o m s tig m ea n -

,

“
in g to m o un t
”
o f G e rm a n s te igen a n d M o de r n E n
( .
g ,

li s h s ti l e fro m O l d E n gl is h stig ol ) an d r ap E n glis h

,
-
, ,

r op e . M o de r n E ngli s h n ostr i l is d e rive d fro m th e O l d

”
E n gli sh c o mp o un d n os no se h yr i l h o l e th e o rig , ,

i nal c omp o un d m eani n g thus n o s e h o le “ ”

T h e wo rd - .

wi n d ow i s d e riv e d fro m th e two e l e m e n ts win d a n d c age , ,

” ”
e e
y t h
, e wh o l e m ea n i n g w i n d eye th e e e o r h ol e
y
-
,
146 M O D E RN E N G L I S H

n e tic all y G l o s te r ; L e i c e s te r is
pro noun c e d L e ste r ; a nd
C ir e nc e s te r a to w n i n s o uth e rn E ngl a n d i s pr o n o unc e d
, ,

S i s te r
. T h e di s cr e p an cy bet wee n th e s p e lli n g a n d th e
pro nun c i ati o n is m uch m o re m arke d i n pl ac e n a m e s in
E n glan d than it I S I n an y o th e r E ngli s h s p e akin g c o un
-

try ; i t i s s o gr e at in de e d th a t i t O ffe rs f ai r j us tific a ti o n

, ,

fo r th e Old s to ry o f th e tra v e le r w h o o n h i s re turn fr o m

,

a visi t t o E n glan d in sis te d th at th e E ngli s h n a me

C h o lm o n del ey (pro n o un c e d C h uml y) wa s sp ell e d M a r
o ri ba nk s (p ro n o un c e d M a rchb a n k s
j ) .

I n all o bs c ur e d wo rds o f th e k i n d th at w e h a v e b e e n
di sc ussin g th e s am e prin cipl e i s i n vo lved T h e w o rds
, .

w e r e o r igi n ally s p o k en di s ti n c tly a n d in full A S tim e.

w ent o n h o w e ve r a nd th e w o rd s c a m e to be v e ry fa
, ,

milia r to all p e rso n s it wa s fe l t to be u nn e c essary to give

,

t h e m the ir full v a l ue T h e y w e re in te lli gi bl e in an ab

.

br e viate d an d te l e sc o p e d fo rm an d fo ll o w i n g th e n at
,

ura l l a w o f e c o n o m y th e y c a m e t o be u s e d o nl y in thi s
,

a bbre vi at ed form . If w e turn n o w to o ur c o nte mp o r a ry

s p ee ch w e sh all fin d tha t th e s a m e pri n c ipl e h o lds g o o d .

W hen w e S pe ak rapi d ly o r s p e ak ev en i n an o rdin ary c o n

ve r satio n al a nd c o ll o q ui a l to n e w e h a ve an e n tir e ly d if
,

fe ron t ki n d o f utte r a n c e fro m th at w hi c h w e h a v e w h e n

w e s p ea k c arefully a n d f o rm ally as w h en w e s p ea k to a
,

p e rs o n w h o un de rs tands E ngli sh imp e rfe c tly I n th e .

l atte r c a se s ea ch w o rd is giv en a s harp a n d c l e a r e nun c i a

,

ti o n a n d b ears a se p a r ate s tre s s I n th e fo rm e r c as es th e

.
,

w o rds are r un to g e th e r m o re o n ly o n e o r tw o imp o rta n t

w o rd s in a gr o up a re stre ss e d th e re st b e i n g pro n o un c e d
,

m o re o r le ss i n di sti nc tly a n d va guely B ut w hen a w o rd

.

w hich in o th e r i n s ta n c e s o rdin a rily h a s n o s tre s s fo r s o m e ,

r e a son us ually th at o f e m ph asi s o r an tith esi s is given

, ,
 E NG LIS H SO U ND S 1 47

a s tres s th en i t be c o m es c l ear a nd dis ti nc t and us ually

,

h a s a di ffe r e n t ph o n etic fo rm fro m th at w h ic h it h a s wh e n

in un s tr e s s e d p o si ti o n T hus th e s e nte n c e I sa w y o ur
.

s i s ter y e s te r d a y wo uld n o rm ally be pro n o un c e d e S e

,

e r s is te r e s te r d e ; but th e s e n t e n c e I d i d n t s ee y our
’

y y
s i s ter but h e s a w mi n e I n w hi c h we h a ve t w o p ai rs o f
,

a n ti th e ti c a nd c o n se q u e n tl y e m ph a ti c w o rd s I a n d h e
, , , ,

and
y o ur a n d mi n e w o uld be pr o n o u n c e d a i did n t S i
, y u r

S is te r but h i s e m a i n T hi s d ifier e n c e i n th e ph o n e ti c
.

fo rm o f w o rd s i s s o m e ti m es r e c o rd e d in th e Sp elli n g ,

th e pre p o s i ti o n of fo r e x a mpl e us ually pr o n o un c e d U V

, , ,

o r s i mpl e e a s in th e phra s e ti me of d a y
,
ta i m e d e (of , .

f our o c l ock
’
f r o m ,f o u r of c l o c k) b e i n g th e u n s tr e ss e d ,

f o rm o f w hi c h th e a dv e rb of is th e s tre ss e d L ik e wi s e .

th e pr e p os i ti o n to pr o n o un c e d t e a s i n I m g oing to town
’

, , ,

aim gOi te taun is th e u n s tres s e d fo rm c o rr esp o n d in g

,

to th e a dve rbi al s tre s s e d fo rm too (tu ) T o ill u s tr a te .

t his relax e d o r n atur al fo rm o f sp e e ch a fe w c o n n e c te d

s e n ten c e s m a y be q uo te d firs t i n th e c o n ve n ti o n al sp e ll
,

in g th en in th e a c tual pho n e ti c fo rm o f th e a uth o r s c o l

’
,

l o qui al s p ee c h T h e s e nte n c e s are as fo ll o w s :

. Wh a t S ’

th e Fr e n c h fo r I d o n t u n d e rs tan d I want to l e t this

’

Fre n c hm a n k n o w I c an t un d e rs tan d w h a t h e S s ayin g

’ ’
.

I t s rath e r o d d I c a n talk Fre n c h mys e lf but I c an t

’ ’

, ,

un d e rs tan d it wh e n it s s p o k e n Y o u s h o uld tell the m

’
.

’
n o t to sp e ak s o fas t I d o n t bel ie ve they can Sp ea k
.

s l o w ; th e
y ar e t o o e xcita bl e I n o rdi n a r
y c o n v
. e rsa

ti o n al to n e th e ph o n e tic fo rm o f thes e s e n te n c e s wo uld

,

be a s fo ll o ws : h wa ts h e fre n e fe r e d en t und e r s taen d

‘
7

e w an t e l e t h is fr e n cm e n n o 9 k e ent un d e rs tae nd h wat i z

seen) its reeh e r ad 9 k e n tek fre n e m e s el f but 9 k een t
.
, ,

und e r s taend i t h w e n i ts s p ek e n i u fud te l h e m na t te .

1 48 M O D E R N E N GL I S H

s p ik so faes t . 9 dont bil i v h e k een spik sle he er tti

1
iks ai te bel .

P e rh ap s no t al l
sp e ak e rs w o uld us e e x ac tly th e fo rm s
which h a v e be e n p ut d o w n i n thi s ph o n etic tr an s cripti o n
a s r e pres e n ti n g as n e a rl
y , as p o s s ibl e th e u s e o f t h e ,

pre s e nt w rite r W e must allo w fo r v a ria ti o ns a m on g

.

i n divid uals s o m e p e rs o n s n o t o n ly fo ll o w i n g diffe re n t

c u s to m s but al s o by n a tur e S p e aki n g m
,

,
o r e S l o w ly a nd

dis tinc tly than o the rs T h us th e phras e I ca n ta lk

.
,

F r en ch myself might in th e pr onun ciati o n o f s o m e , _

s p e a k e rs ta k e a full e r fo rm o f th e pro n o uns th an th o se

,

giv e n ab o ve be in g pro n o un c ed ai k en te k fre ne m ai sel f

, .

B ut th e m o r e o b s c ure f o rm s o f th e pr o n o un w ill c e r
t ainl y be h e a rd in th e p r o n un ci ati o n O f th e m a j o ri ty o f
s p e a k e rs . A n o th e r p o i nt sh o uld be n o ti ce d which o ur
pho ne tic tran sc rip ti o n do e s n o t tak e in to a c c o un t a n d ,

th a t i s th e m a t te r o f bi n d in g o r l i a i s on to b o rro w a , ,

m
’

t e r f r o m F r e n ch O ur c u s to m
. o f s e p a r a ti n g th e

wo rds o f c o nne c te d di s c o urs e by s p a ci n g is p ure ly c o n

ve ntio n al I t h as gr o wn up l a rg e ly i n m o d e r n ti m e s
.

s i n c e th e i n v e n ti o n o f pr i n ti n g T h e m an us c rip ts o f .

th e e a rli e r pe ri o d s i n O l d E ngli s h fo r e xa mpl e d o n o t

, , ,

u s ua lly s e p a ra te th e i n divid ua l w o rds but r un th e m ,

to g e th e r I n a s tra ight a he ad r un ni n g o r c urs ive s tyle , ,

o f w ri ti n g T hi s m e th o d o f w ri ti n g th o it wo uld s e e m
.
,

s t r a n g e a n d i n c o n v e n i e n t to u s n b w i s i n d e e d m o r e i n ,

a cc o rd w i th o ur a c tual m a nn e r o f sp e a ki n g th a n o ur

pr es en t printe d an d w ritte n us e Fo r in Sp e aking w e .

d o n o t n o rm ally pro n o un c e i n divid ual w o rds but r ath e r ,

phra s es o r bre ath gro ups th e p aus es c o m in g wh ere th ey

-
,

ar e d e ma n d e d by th e l o gic al se n s e a n d n o t b e fo re a nd

1 A d ap te d fr o m R ep ort f
o a J o int Commi tte e , e tc .
, p 4 2
. .
 1 50 M O D E R N E N GLIS H

h ave a n e ntire ly fals e c o n c e p ti o n o f th e n ature o f l an

guage o f th e auth o ri ty o f th e printe d o r w ri tten w o rd
, ,

a n d o f th e s o urc e o f wh a t S h all be r e g a rd e d as s ta n da rd

an d c o rr e c t . T h e y fo rge t th at th e w ri tte n a n d pri nte d

fo rm o f la ng ua ge co m e s a fte r th e s p o k e n fo rm tha t i t is ,

m e rely a m e c h an ic a l i n v e n ti o n d e vi sed to re c all a nd

s ugg e s t th e r e a l a n d l i vi ng langua ge w hic h is th e
,

S p o k e n l a n g uag e . T h e y fo rg e t a l s o th at th e m e c h an ic a l
de vic e o f prin ti n g and w ri ti n g c a n o n ly impe rfec tly an d
i na de qua tely re pre s e nt th e s o un ds O f spe e ch a nd that ,

s p ee ch , to use th e figure a ga in w hich w e ha v e alre a dy

u s e d lik e th e w a v e s o f th e o c e an i s c o n s tan tly ch an g
, ,

in g a n d a s s um i n g a m ulti tude o f n e w f o rms w h e re a s ,

printi n g and wri ti ng ten d to be c o m e m o re a nd m o re

fix e d c o n venti o n al a nd un c ha n gi n g T o m ak e sp ee ch
, ,
.

c o nfo rm to th e prin te d a n d w ritten fo rms o f lan gua ge

i s v e ry m uch a s th o o n e s h o uld tr y to m ak e th e tr ees
o f a fo r e s t gr o w i n c o n fo rm i ty to a n a rti s t s pic tur e o f
’

th e m . B o th sp e e ch a n d tree s ha v e a li fe o f th eir o wn
‘

whi c h is fr e e a nd in de p e n de n t o f m an s a tte mp ts to
’

re duc e th em w e des c rip tiv e fo rm ul a .

T h e s tan d ard s o f c o rre c t S p e e ch m ust be fo un d th e re ,

fo r e n o t in th e printe d o r wri tte n f o rm o f la n gua g e

, ,

but i n th e n o rm al n a tura l c o n ve r s ati o n o f da ily li fe

, .

I t might s e e m tha t ha vi n g ele v ate d th e n a tural sp e e ch

,

to this pl ac e o f dign i ty w e h a v e j ustifi e d a s right

,

a n d c o rre c t a ll pro n un c ia tio ns o f th e c o ll o q uial a n d

un c ultiva te d s p e e c h whi c h h a ve fo ll o we d th e la ws o f

n a tura l d e v e l o pm e nt a nd, th at i f w e m ay s ay te r d z
fo r towa r d s we m ay j us t a s c o rr e c tly s a y fe rerd z fo r
,

f o r wa r d s a n d bae k e r d z f o r ba ckwa r d s
. I t is t r u e th a t

th e v ulg a r pr o n un c i a ti o n o f f o r wa r d s a n d ba ckwa r d s ,
 E N GLI S H S O U ND S 1 51

and a h os t o f o th e r wo rds h as fo ll o wed e x ac tly th e

,

s am e pri n ciples that h a ve resulte d in th e s tan da rd

pro n un ciati o n O f towa r d s and w o rd s o f like kin d ;
but it is n o t true th a t w e a r e at e q ua l libe rty to
c h o o s e e i th e r i n o ur pr o nun ci a ti o n . Fo r th e l a w o f
imi ta ti o n n o w e n te r s to d ete rmi ne w h at S h all be c h os e n
a nd wh at s h all be d i s c a rd e d . T o r e p e a t th e s ta te m e n t
o f a pr e c e din g p a ra gra ph o n e th a t c a nn o t be t o o c l e a rly
,

held in mi nd ph o ne tic la ws a s w ell as al l o th e r la ws o f

, ,

language be c o m e l a ws be c aus e they sum up o r ge n e ral

,

iz e th e c us tom o r usag e wi th res p e c t to a b o dy o f simila r

phen o m ena T h ey ar e n o t l aws b e c aus e th ey e xpre ss
.

th e m an d a te o f so m e p e r s o n o r auth o ri ty e mp o we re d to
de clare wh at s hall be d o n e but they ar e l a w s o r rules
,

be caus e they s ta te w hat a c tually is do n e T he r e i s n o .

i ndividual o r a uto cr ati c p o we r in lan guage but all wo rk ,

to g e th e r v o l un ta rily i n gr o up s . T h e p o p ula r o r un c ul
tivate d s p e e c h h a s its la w s o r r ul e s j us t a s tr uly a s h as
th e s tan da rd o r c orr ec t s p e e c h C o ns c io usly o r nn co n
.

s c i o u sl
y e v e r y S p e a k e r f o ll o w s th e c u s t o m s o r r ul e s o f
h i s o wn S p e c i al gro up fo r him th es e ar e th e l a w s o f h is
lan guage I t h as alre a dy b een s uffici e ntly dem o n s trate d
.

th at th e s e la w s o r rul es a re n o t fix e d o n c e a n d fo r all ,

but ar e c o nstan tly ada pti n g thems e lv e s to e ac h o th e r

a n d c ha n gi n g . N o w w h a t a s p e a k e r o f to d ay is c hi e fly
,
-

c o n c e rn e d to k n o w i s w ha t th e l a w s o r r ul e s o f his o w n

pre sen t d ay S p e e c h o f h is o wn gro up Shall be T o

, , .

d ete rmi n e thi s th e re i s o n ly o ne m e an s a nd that i s ,

Obse rvati o n H e m us t turn an d e x a m in e th e sp eech

.
,

th e livi n g s p e e c h O f th o s e p e rs o n s w i th w h o m h e is
,

thr o wn i n c o n ta c t wi th s uc h a dd e d h e lp as h e m ay ge t
,

fro m b o o k s a nd di c ti o n a ri es i n e x te n d in g th e fi el d o f h is
152 M O D E R N E N GLI S H

Obs e rva ti o n I n c as e o f a d oub tful pro n un ciatio n h e

.
,

m ust d e te rmine wha t gro up o f s p eake rs h e w ill uni te

him s elf with th at is th e c us to m s o f w ha t sp e ak e rs h e
, ,

w ill imitate o r fo ll o w He will o bs e rv e that a t pr e s e nt

.

th e l a w o f th e p o p ula r S p ee ch i s to pr o n o un c e f orwa r d s
a s fe r e r d z a n d e x te ndi n g his o bs e rv atio n h e wi ll p e r
, , ,

c e i ve th a t i t i s n o t th e l a w o f c ul tiv a te d S p e e ch s o t o

pro n o un c e th e w o rd T h e cho ic e o f th e gr o up with

.

whic h h e w ill uni te him s e lf th e n li es in h is o wn h an d s ,

an d o th e r thi n gs b e i n g e q ual w i ll u s ually be i n fa v o r

, ,

o f th e c ul tiv a te d S p e e ch T h e pro n un ci atio n o f th e

.

c ul tiv a te d S p e e ch is fo r h im th e c o rr e c t us e b e caus e h e
ch o o s es i t ; it is th e l a w o f his language .

I t i s o bvi o us fro m w ha t h a s be e n s aid th at n o p ro n un

c i a tio n I S a b so l ute ly a n d i n h e rently righ t an d a n o th e r

wro n g A lth o ugh th e s ta n d ard towa r d s (te r d z ) and th e

.

p o p ul a r f o rwa r d s (fe r erd z ) fo ll o w th e sa m e n atural l a w

a n d li n g ui s tic ally ar e o n th e s a m e l e v e l : i n th e o n e c as e
th e r es ul t h as b e en a cc e pte d by th e gro up o f s p eak e rs to
w hich th e c ul tiv a te d a n d e ducate d p e rs o n wi s h e s to be
l o n g in th e o th e r it h a s n o t I n S O far the refo re th e
,
.
, ,

o n e is c o rr e c t an d th e o th e r i s i n c o rr e c t ; i t n ee d s h o w ,

e v e r o nly th e a cc ep tan c e o f th e p o p ula r fo rm i n to ge n

,

e ra l us e to m ak e it a s c o rr e c t a s th e o the r H i s to ric ally .

i t h as o f c o urs e o fte n h a pp e n e d th at th e r e h a s b e e n a
“

, ,

s hi fti n g b a ck a nd fo r th o f p o p ula r a n d s ta n d a rd fo rm s
,
.

T h us th e wo rd s oun d a pp e a rs w ith o ut th e fin al d i n
,

C ha uc e r :
1
Soun i s n o gh t b ut air y br oke n .

T h is is th e c o rr e c t fo rm histo rically sin c e th e wo rd is

, ,

de rived fro m L a tin sonum th e d b e i ng gratuito usly ,

1 H ouse of F a me 1 76 5 ,
. .
1 54 M O D E R N E N GL I S H

vi d ual th e p enal ty als o fall s up on him If th e illi te rate

, .

p e rso n pro n oun c es f orwa r d s as fe r erd z and kn o ws n o

better be c aus e th e fi eld o f his o bs e rv ati o n h is e x p eri
, ,

enc e , h as n o t m a d e him a c qua i nte d w i th a di ffe r e n t

pr o n unci ati o nh e m us t n e v e rth eles s b ear th e Odi um o f
,

be in g clas sed wi th th e un e d uc ate d w he n h e c o m e s into

c o n ta c t wi th th e e du c a te d H e p ays th e p e n al ty o f his
.

ign o r an c e a n d s o do e s e ve ry o ne els e wh o us e s fo rms o f

,

langua ge w hich h e w o uld n o t use if h i s s e ns i tive ness

to a n d Ob se rv ati o n o f l a n gua ge h ad b e en k ee ne r and
, ,

br o a d e r E ach m ust d e cide fo r hi m s elf w ho m o r wha t

.

gro up of p e rso n s h e will re gard as c ulti vate d and ed u

c a ted , th at i s th e l aw s an d c us to m s o f w h at gro up h e
,

wi sh e s to fo ll ow E ach m ust de c ide fo r hi ms elf a l so

.
, ,

w h a t i n n o v ati o n s h e c a n ri sk I f h e c h o o se un wi s e ly
.
, ,

i f h e fo ll o w a fals e s ta n d ard o f re fin e m e n t an d c ultiv a

ti o n h e m us t b e a r th e c o ns e q ue n c es un til e xp e ri e n c e
,

a n d Obs e rv a ti o n s h a ll S O fa r w id e n h is h o ri z o n a s t o

e n a ble h i m t o fo ll o w th e l a w o f th e gr o up o f which h e

r eallyw i sh es to c o n side r him s e lf a pa rt .

1 4 T h e S t a n d a r d o f P r o n un c i a t i o n
. T h e que sti o n .

o f a s tan d ard pr o n un ci a t i o n h as b ee n to a l a rge e x te n t

a n s w e r e d i n th e di s c u s si o n o f th e pr e c edi n g p a r agra phs .

By th e te rm s tan dard o f pro n un ci ati o n o n e us ually ,

m e an s a fix e d n o rm a n e s ta bl is he d and a c c ep te d fo rm o f
,

th e l ang ua g e whi c h S h a ll se rv e as th e m o de l up o n w hich

,

a ll s p e a k e rs s h all fa shi o n th e ir s p e ech T hi s s tanda rd is .

e le v a ted to the p o s i ti o n o f th e c o rr e c t Sp eech all d evi ,

atio n s fr o m i t b e i n g r e g a rd e d as i n c o rr e c t A gra ve .

diffic ul ty h o wev e r c o n fr o n ts th e s tud e nt a n d this is

, , ,

th e d iffi c ulty O f de te r mi ni n g w h e the r th e re a c tually is a

s tan d a rd O f E n gli s h pr o n un c i a tio n w hich S h a ll s e rv e a s
 1 50
P

E N GL I SH SO U N DS
th e p atte rn an d m o d e l fo r E ngli s h speaking p e o pl e
al l -
,

a n d if s o wh e r e it i s to be fo un d
,
I n th e firs t pl a ce w e
.
,

may sa fely s ay th at th e re i s n o id ea l a n d p e rfe c t i n h e r

e nt fo rm o f th e l an g ua ge to wa rds w hi c h al l sp e a k e rs
,

S h o uld s triv e a s to w a rd s a n ul ti m a te g o a l T h e re i s n o .

o bj ec tive s ys te m o f l an g uag e o u ts i d e o f th e mi n d s a n d

e xp e ri e n c e s o f th e p eo pl e wh o u s e a n d S p e a k th e l an

guage I n se eki ng fo r a stan da rd o f pr o n un c ia ti o n c on

.
,

s e q ue n tl
y m e,
n m ust l o o k to th e m s e lv es a n d th e ir o w n

us e n o t to so m e e x tra h um a n a n d i d e al sys tem to w a rd s

,
-

w h ic h they s h all d uti fully s triv e A ny s ta n d a rd w hi c h

.

i s ch o s e n m us t be m a d e up fro m th e l a w s o f th e ac tua l
s p o k e n use o f s o m e gro up o f Sp e ak e r s b e c a use it is o n ly ,

in ac tua l s p o k en us e th a t la n g ua g e really e xi s ts .

I n th e a tte mp t t o fix up o n s o m e b o dy o f S p o k e n us e
a s th e s ta n d a rd l an g ua g e th e q ues ti o n m ay be ap
,

p r oa c h e d f r o m tw o p o i n t s o f v i e w fir s t th e g e o gr a phic
,
al , ,

a n d se c o n d th e s o c i a l o r e d uc a ti o n a l p o i nt o f vi e w
, , In .

a tte mp ti n g to e s ta bli s h a g e o gra phi c a l s tand ard o f s p o k e n

us e c h o i c e i s m a d e o f th e Sp e e c h o f s o m e o n e r e gi o n o r
,

c o mmun i ty whic h i s to be r egard ed the n a s th e m o d e l

,

fo r a l l o th e r c o m m un iti e s I n o th e r w o rds o n e dia l e c t

.
,

i s c h o s e n a s th e s tan d a rd to whi ch all o th e r di a le c ts

s h all c o nfo rm I n s o m e c o un tri es thi s pri n cipl e i s r e c
.

o gn i z e d in ac tua l pra c tic e T h e s tan d a rd Fre n ch dial e c t

.

i s th e di al e c t o f P a ri s th e s ta nd a rd I ta li an di al e c t is
,

th e di al e c t o f Fl o r en c e o r r ath e r o f T us c any th e pro v

, ,

i nc e in w hic h Flo ren c e is situate d ; an d th e s tan da rd

Sp an i sh di al e c t i s th e C as tilia n th e di al e c t o f M a drid
,
.

T h e s e di al e c ts are s tan d ard fo r th e ir re sp e c tiv e c o un

tri e s h o w e v e r b e c a us e th e p e o ple o f th e s e v a ri o us c o un
, ,

tri e s h a v e v o l un ta ril a cc e pt e d th e m a s th e i r s tan d ard

y ,
1 56 M O D E R N E N GL I S H

no t b ec a us e P arisi an F re n ch or T us can I talia n o r C as til

i a n Sp ani s h h a ve any i n he re n t right to th e e xcl usi o n o f
o th e r d i ale c ts . I t S imply s o h appen s that th e p e o ple o f
th e s e va ri o us c o untri e s i n th e de v e lo pm e n t o f th e ir civ
,

il iz a ti o n have c o m e to l o o k up o n c e r tain c o mm un iti e s a s

,

th e c e n te r o f th e ir n a ti o n a l l ife a nd c ulture T urni n g .

to th e E n gli s h sp e a ki ng c o un tri es h o w e v e r we fin d a n
-
, ,

e nti r e l
y di ffe r e n t s ta te o f a ffa ir s N o o.n e c o mm uni ty is
n o w a cc ep te d a s affo rdi n g th e m o d e l o f s p e e ch t o w hi c h

a l l o th e r s m us t c o nf o rm T h e o r etic ally we might s ay

.

th at L o n d o n a s th e c a pi ta l o f th e n a tiv e h o m e o f th e
,

E n gli sh l ang uage o ught to be rega rde d a s th e ho m e of

,

th e s ta n da rd la ng ua g e A S a n a c tual fa c t h o we ve r th e
.
, ,

S p e e ch o f L o n d o n i s n o t s o r ega rd e d n o t e v e n by th e Bri t
,

i sh th e ms e lv e s T h e E n glis h s p e a kin g p e o ple thro ugh

.
-

o ut th e w o rld d o n o t l o o k up o n L o n d o n a s a ffo rd in g

th e ide a l s p ee ch which i t is th eir d uty to imi ta te a n d

fo ll o w. I n dee d s o di ffe re nt is th e m ann e r o f sp e e ch
,

o f E n glishm en fro m tha t o f A m e ric a n s th at th e f o rm e r

i s O fte n use d i n A m e ric a a s th e m a rk o f a c o m e dy

c h a r a c te r o n th e Sta g e — “
j ust as in E ngl an d th e A m e ri
”
c an a cc e n t i s Similarly u s e d a s a l a ughte r pr o v o king -

de vic e O f c o urs e th e s tage E nglishm an and A m eri can

.

a re us uall y e x a gge r ati o n s but th e n o rm al sp ee ch o f th e

,

t wo c o un tri e s is s uffi c i e ntly dive rg e nt t o be e a sily p e r

c eive d , an d to o d iv e rg e nt to a llo w o ne to s tan d a s a

m o del fo r th e o the r N o A m e ric an s p e ak e r o r w riter

.

e v e r thi n ks i t n ee d ful to a d o p t th e Bri tis h fo rm o f hi s

o wn l an g ua g e a n , y m o r e th an a Bri ti s h s p e a k e r o r w ri te r

thi n ks it n e e d ful to a d o p t th e A m e ric an fo r m

” 1
.

P ra c tic al ly i t w o uld be imp o ssibl e fo r Briti s h E nglish

1 F r e e ma n, S o me I mp ress ions f
o th e Unite d S ta tes , p 5 6 . .
158 M O D E R N E N GL I S H

do es n ot kn o w h o w th e citi zens o f an o th e r s p eak be c ause ,

i t is o nly by a l o ng c o ntin ue d r es i d en c e i n a s tra n g e

-

c o mm unity that a visito r ca n a cq uire a wide a n d e x a c t

k no wle dge o f its m an n er o f S p e e c h A l l we c a n s a y is .

th at s o m e c o mp a rati ve l y fe w w id e ly tra vele d and c o s

x

m o p o li tan S p e a k e rs h a v e a cq uire d a m a n ne r o f s p e e c h
w hi c h i s g e n e ra l e n o ugh n o t to b etray th e imm e di a te
l o c ality o f i ts o rigin th o it m us t always ha ve chara c te r
,

is ti c s i n divid ual e n o ugh to cl ass i t bro adly a s E a s te r n

o r W e s te r n o r S o uth e rn .W ith th e v a s t m aj o rity o f
S p e ak e r s th e l o c a l ch a ra c te ri s ti c s a r e e v e n m o r e m a rk e d .

T h e l o c al ch a ra c te ri s ti c s o f o ne c o mm un i ty m ay e x te n d
o v e r a w id e r a rea th an th o s e o f a n o th e r th e di al e c t c h a r,

a c teris tic s o f V irgi n i a fo r e x a mpl e c o v e ri n g a l e ss e x te n t

, ,

o f te rri to ry th a n th o s e o f th e Middl e We s t ; b ut e a ch ,

n e v e rth e l e ss h a s its l o c a l m e te s a nd b o un ds a n d f o r i ts
, ,

se c ti o n th e y a r e di sti n ctiv e W e ha v e alre ady re mark e d

.

th at th e Sp e e ch o f l a rg e c i ti es e s p e cially ten ds t o b e c o m e
mark e dly lo c al a nd di a l ec tal T h us t o o n e o b s e rv an t o f
.

s uc h m atte rs ,th e S p ee c h o f B o s to n o r Ph il ade lphi a i s

s o o n p e r c e ive d to be n o ti c e a bly diffe r e n t fro m th at o f

th e ir n ea r n eighb o r Ne w Yo rk
,
T h e o re ti c ally o ne might
.

sa t h at i t i s th e d u ty o f th e s p e a k e rs o f e a ch c o mmuni ty
y
to s triv e fo r a c o mm o n a n d un iv e r s a l Sp e e c h ; th at if
“

th e B o s to ni an w ill n o t S p e a k lik e th e C hic a g o a n o r th e

C hic ag o a n like th e B o sto ni an th e n th e y S h o uld c o m e
,

t o g e th e r o n s o m e middl e gr o u n d E ac h r e gi o n th us
.

yi eldin g s o me o f i ts i n dividua l cha rac teri s tic s w e s h o uld ,

a rriv e a t a c o mpr o mi s e a m o n g th e v a ri o us l o c al S p e e ch e s

whi c h w o uld be a un iv e rs al c o s m o p o li tan s p ee c h

,
The .

o bv i o us o b s ta c l e i n th e w a o f this th e o ry i s tha t th e
y
l a ws o f l a ng uage ar e n o t ba se d o n th eo ry but a ri se fro m ,
 E NGL I S H S O U N DS 159

ac tua l us e W h en th e B o s to ni an and C hic ago a n are

.

thr o wn S O i ntim a tely to g e th e r w h e n i n te rc o urs e b e tw e e n

,

the m i s so fre q ue n t a n d l o n g c o n ti n ue d t hat they b e c o m e

-

prac tic ally o ne i n their h abits an d c usto ms then a n d n o t , ,

till th en w ill they s p e a k a s i n gl e s p e e ch

, T h e n th e y
.

will de v e lo p a n e w dia l ec t c o mpre he n siv e e n o ugh in its

l imi ts to in cl ude b o th Chic a go an d B o sto n A s tan dard .

s p e e c h c an n o t be imp o s e d do gm a tic ally ; i t c a nn o t e v en be

c h os e n v o l un ta ri ly I t m ust gro w a s all o th e r c us to m s

.
,

gro w in lang uage gradually a n d n a turally

, A nd unti l .

s o m e s uch ch an g e tak e s pl a c e i n th e c o un tr s a wh o l e
y a ,

un til fro m a gro up o f m o r e o r l e s s c l e a rly d e fi n e d c o m

m uni tie s it b e c o m e s o ne gre at ho m o ge n e o us c o mm uni ty

, ,

SO l o n g w e S h a ll h a ve l o c a l di ffe r e n c es o f s p e e c h a n d

S O l o n g will th e th e o ry o f a u n iv e rs a l sta n da rd S p ee ch

r e main a vain a n d e mp ty dream .

B esides th e lo c al o r ge ogra phic al a sp ec t o f th e q ues ti o n ,

th e m atte r o f th e s tan da rd Sp e e ch m ay be a ppro a ch e d

fro m a s e c o n d p o i nt o f vi e w th e s o c i al o r e d uc a
,

ti o n al. W e have al rea dy p o i nte d o ut that th e S p e e ch

o f diffe r e n t s o ci al gr o up s o r c las s e s diffe r s w id e l T h
y e .

p o pula r o r v ulga r Spee ch i s d i fier e nt fro m th at o f th e

, ,

e d uc a te d p e r so n a n d th e c o ll o q ui al a n d e v e r d p ch -
, y a
y s e e

o f th e l a tte r i s di ffe r e n t fro m h i s c a r e ful an d fo rm a l

s p e e ch . T h e q ue s ti o n o f ch o i c e be tw e e n th e p o p ul a r
and ill i te ra te s p e e c h an d th e s p e e c h o f e duc a te d a n d
c ultivate d p e o pl e pre s ents li ttle diffic ulty P e rh a p s .

e v e ry o n e w ill a gre e w i th o ut q ue s ti o n th a t th e sp ee c h

o f th e uni n fo rm e d a n d un i n s tr uc te d h as n o cl aim to be

re gard e d a s th e standa rd o r c o rr e c t s p e ech and that o n , ,

th e c o n tra ry th e s p e e ch o f th e c ultiv a te d p o r ti o n o f
,

s o c ie ty h a s e v e ry c l ai m to be S O r e ga rde d T h e diffi .
1 60 M O D E R N E N G LI S H

c ulty c o m es notm aki n g th e cho ic e but in pr ep ari ng

in ,

th e w ay fo r th e ch o i c e i n d e te rmi n in g j us t wh o a r e th e
,

c ultiv a te d and e duc a te d and r e fin e d sp e ak e rs w h o m w e

a r e wil lin g t o re g a rd a s a ffo r d in g th e m o d e ls o r l a w s o f

th e c o rr e c t o r s tan d a rd S p e e c h T h e diffic ulty o f d efin

.

i ng e duc ati o n c ul tur e a n d r e fi n e m e n t is o n e tha t h as

, ,

o fte n b e e n felt T h e y a r e q ua li ti e s th at m ay be r e a dily

.

p e rc e i v e d w h e n th ey ar e e x e mplifi ed in ind ivid ual s but

'

O fte n d e fy des c rip tio n a n d an alys i s P e rhap s th e m a in

.

s o urc e o f th e diffic ult l i e s i n th e fa c t th a t th e q uali ti e s

y
m e nti o n e d a re l argely m atte rs o f o pi n i o n th at n o p er ,

s o n is a b s o l ute ly ed uc a te d o r r e fi n e d o r c ul tur e d One

.

w h o m I m ight r e g a rd a s a n e d ucate d a n d r e fi ne d p e rs o n ,

a n o th e r w i th high e r o r at l e a s t diffe re n t s ta n da rds , m i ght

,

re gard as un e duc a te d a s c rude and v ulg a r Eve rythin g

,
.

d e pe n ds up o n th e p o int o f vi e w th e pr e dil e c ti o ns th e
, ,

pre j udi c es th e c us to m a ry h abits an d w ays of thin kin g o f

,

th e p e rs o n w h o a c ts a s j udg e a n d c ri tic T h e b e ari n g o f

.

t his up o n th e q ue sti o n o f th es ta n d a rd o f c o rre c t s p e e c h

is di r e c t W hat s h all I r e ga rd as e duc ate d an d r e fin e d ?
.

W h e re sh all I pl ac e th e li n e b etw e e n th e l o we r and th e

highe r that whic h i s to be a ppr o v e d a nd imitate d a n d
,

th at w h i ch is to b e c o n de m n e d an d r e j e c te d ? T o th e s e
q ue sti o n s the re i s n o gen e r al a ns w e r E ach p e rs o n m us t
.

u t t h e q ue s ti o n s t o him se lf a n d m us t a n s we r th e m
p
for him s e lf H e m us t j udge a n d c h o o s e a c c o rdi ng to
.

h i s o wn light a n d a c c o rdi n g to h is o wn Opp o rtun i ti es

o f e xp e ri e n c e a n d o bs e rv a ti o n I t i s t h e e nd o f e d u
.

c ati o n to enabl e o ne to mak e right d e c i si o n s I n s uc h

m a tte rs and th e wh ol e pr o c e ss o f e duc ati on c anno t be
,

s tate d i n a w o rd I t is o bvi o usly n e c e s s a ry to m ak e

.

th e se de ci si o n s n o t o n ly wi th r e s p e c t t o a fe w gre a t
1 62 M O D E R N E N GLI S H

figure s o r a uth o riti es n o t o nly wi th r e sp e c t to p ublic

,

s p e ak e r s ,
fo r e x a mpl e w h o m o n e h ea rs o nly a t ra re
,

i nterv al s but als o with re sp e c t to o ne s d aily ass o ci

,
’

a te s a nd th e h o urly c us to ms a n d h a bi ts o f fa milia r l i fe .

Th e d e ci si o n s o f th e l a tte r ki n d are n atura lly th e m o re

imp o r tan t o nes but at th e s a m e time th e o n e s c o n c e rn
,

i ng which i t is l e a s t p o ssible t o giv e a g e n e ra l g ui d i ng

r ul e H e re a gain in divi dua l j udgm e nt i s th e o nl y w ay
.

w e ha v e o f d e c idi n g wh o t h e g o o d s p e a k e rs a re a m o n g
th o se w h o m w e m e e t We are n aturally in c line d to
.

re ga rd o ur o w n Judgm e n t in s uch m atte rs a s un iv e r sal

a n d fin al b ut thi s is an as su m p ti o n that i s lik ely to
,

be q ues ti o n e d a s s o o n a s w e try to imp o s e o ur s tan d

a rds a n d d e c is i o n s u p o n o the rs .

T h e a utho ri ty o f di c ti o na ri e s and o th e r pri n te d w o rks

re s ts up o n s o m e wh a t th e sa m e b a sis a s tha t o f p ers on s .

D i c ti o n a ri es an d o th e r g uide bo o k s ar e th e w o rk o f -

fin i te h um an b e in g s a n d th o in g e n e ral th e a uth o r s
, , ,

o f th e n a r e m e n o f e x c e p ti o n al w e i ght a n d a uth o ri ty

bec aus e o f th e ir gr ea te r i n fo rm a ti o n and e xtent o f

o b se rva ti o n th e y a re n e ve rth ele s s fa llibl e a nd limite d
,

in th e ir e xp e ri e n c e C o n s e q ue ntly w h en th e s tat e m e nt
.
,

o f a dic ti o n a ry di ffe rs fr o m o n e s o wn o b se rv a ti o n
’
th e ,

s e n s ible thi n g to d o af te r o n e h as m a d e s ur e th at th e o h
,

s e rva ti o n i s tr ue 1 s to di s r e g a rd th e di c ti o n a ry a lto g e th e r
,
“
a n d to fo ll o w th e e x a m pl e o f a c tua l use M o re o v e r .
,

fr o m th e n atur e o f th e c a se dic ti o na ri e s a re b o un d to
,

b e c o m e antiquate d . B e fo re o n e give s m uch we ight to th e

d e ci s io n o f a dic ti on a ry o ne s ho uld m ak e s ure th at th e
,

di c tio na ry is a re c o rd o f c o nte mp o ra ry us e E arly .

e di ti o n s o f W e b s te r s di c ti o n ary fo r e x a mpl e r e c o rd th e
’ 1
, ,

1 T h e l at er e d it i o ns a r e kn o w n as W e b s te r s ’
I nte r na tiona l D ictio na ry .
 E N GLI SH SO UN D S 1 63
f

pro n un c iati o n d if fo r d e af a s w e ll a s m any o th e r use s ,

that are n o l o ng e r c urr e nt o r h av e b ec o m e q ui te dialec tal .

B ut e ve n th e m o re c o ntem p o r ary di c ti o n a ri es a r e n o t
a l w ays a c e r ta i n g uid e I n th e great pro p o rti o n O f i n
.

s tan c e s th ey O f c o ur s e a r e s i n c e th e q ue s ti o n o f d o ubl e
, , ,

u s e a ri s e s o n ly i n fre q ue n tly O n e s h o uld e x e rc is e c o n .

s id e ra bl e ca uti o n th e re fo re b e fo re o n e d iffe rs fr o m th e
, ,

o p i ni o n o f a r e p utabl e di c ti o n a ry lik e th e N e w E n gli s h

D i c ti o nary th e C e n tury o r th e S ta nda rd an d al l th e

, , ,

m o re c a uti o n w h e n thes e v ario us di c ti o naries a gre e .

O c c a s i o ns are n o t w an tin g h o w e ve r i n w hich re p utabl e , ,

u se is a t v a rian c e w i th th e u ni te d Opi ni o n O f e v e n th e

b e st di c tio na rie s T hus th e w o rd p er emp tory is s tr ess e d

.

by b o th Sta ndard a nd C en tury dic ti o naries o nly o n th e

firs t sylla bl e wh e r e as th e pr o n un ciati o n p er em p tory i s
,
’

c e rtai nly th e m o re u s ual o n e ev e n a m o n g c a re ful s p e a k ,

e rs . B oth dic ti ona ri e s s tr e ss o ctop us o n ly o n th e se c on d

s yll abl e c o n tra r t o th e u s ua l c us to m o f s tr e s s in g it o n
, y
th e fir s t a pr o n un c i a tio n w hi c h i s a ck n o wle dge d as a
,

s e c o n da ry o n e by th e N e w E n glis h D ic ti o n ary Fo r .

culin a r
y th e d i c ti o n a ri e s r e c o rd o n ly t h e pr o n u n c i a ti o n

k iu lin aer i a ltho th e pr o n un c i atio n k u lin eeri i s p e rh ap s

’
,
’

a s fre q ue n tl h e a rd T h e w o rd v i z or i s r e c o rd e d a s
y .

’ ’
vi z or o r vi z o r al tho ugh o ne h e ar s a s O ften p e rha ps
, ,

m o re Often th e pr o n un c i atio n va i z er o r va i z e r I n
,
’ ’
,
.

s o m e i n s tan c es th e di c ti o n a ri e s rec o rd t wo pro n un c i a

ti o n s l e a vin g to th e c h o ic e o f e a ch p e rs o n th e o n e h e
,

pre fe rs to us e T hus w e h av e th e fo rm s ee d ve rta i z m en t

.
,
’

ti z m e n t ;
’
a nd
’
eed ve r s k we l er and s k w el e r ; ske d g ul ,
’
sk e d i ul , ’
E n gla nd j e d iul c e r w o rds i n w hi c h
an d in , .

th e d ic ti o n a ri es a s w ell a s us a ge d is a gr ee a r e n um e r o us .

T h e I n te rn ati o n al (We bs te r s ) D i c tio na ry re c o rds o n ly ’

1 64 M O D E R N E N G LIS H

’
th e pro nunci ati o n o a st s whi c h is th e prefer red fo rm in
’

th e S tan da rd D ic ti o na ry ; but th e C en tury r e c o rd s o nly

oa s zs and th e N e w E n gli s h D ic ti o n ar
‘
’
, y giv e s b o th o a
’
s ts
’
a n d o a szs T h e pr o n un ci ati o n o a szs i s d e cid e dly th e m o re
’
’ ’

c o mm o n On e in A m e ric a its use in E n gla nd is a ls o atte s

te d by th e sc an si o n O f th e fo ll o wing li n e fro m T e nny s o n

My o ne o a si s i n th e d us t a n d d ro uth .

A simil ar un c e rtai n ty Ob tain s in th e pro nun ci ati o n o f

’
l eg en d w hich is s o m e tim es l e j en d a n d s o m eti m es l i j en d
,
’
.

O n e he a rs a ls o tw o pro n un ci a ti o n s fo r p r ogr ess pr Ogres ,

a nd fo r d r a ma dr am e a n d d r eme
’
an d p ro gr e s , T h e re .

i s al so a div e rge n c e O f use in c e r ta i n m o re o r les s r e c e n t

w o rd s a s fo r e x a mpl e va ud evi ll e pr o n o un c e d vO d e vil
’

, , , ,

a u tomo bi l e pr o n o un c e d e to mo bil Or e to
’
o r ve d e vil ;
’
,

m o bi l c oup on pr on o un c e d k u p e n o r kiupe n
’
,
’ ’
.

W eb ste r s Inte rn atio nal a nd th e Ne w E n gli sh D ic ti o n

’

ar
y r e c o rd o n ly th e pro n un cia ti o n s p etr en a n d m etr en

fo r p a tr on a n d ma tr on T h e C e n tury a nd Stan d a rd giv e

.

a se c o n d pr o n un ci ati o n p ectr on an d m eetre n O n th e

, .

o th e r h a n d fo r p a tr on age th e I n te rna ti o n a l a n d th e N e w
,

E ngli s h D icti o n ary give o n ly th e fo rm p ae tre n ej fol ,

l o w e d al s o by th e S tand ard th e C en tury give s a s s e c o n d

pr onun ci atio n p etre n ej Fo r ma tr o na l th e In te rn ati o n al
,
.

gives firs t m aetre n el se c o n d m étr e n el ; th e Ne w E n glis h

,

D i c ti o na ry giv es o n ly th e se c o n d pro n un ci atio n ; a n d th e

C e ntury an d Stand ard give th e s ec o n d a s a pr efe rr e d
pr onun c i a ti o n an d th e I n te rn ati o n al s first a s a s e c o n d ary
,
’

pro n un ciatio n C a n anythi n g m o re c o nfus i n g be im

.

a in e d th an th e a tte mp t to r e a s o n o ut a p ri n cipl e O f
g
ch o ic e fro m th e s ta te m e n ts O f th e dic ti o narie s wi th
res p e c t to th e se fo ur wo rds ?
1 66 M O D E R N E N GLI S H

tr a ted in h r
ot e w o rds fr o m ea rli e r er
-
i n w hich th e s p ell
i ng h as b e e n ch an ge d a c c o rd w ith
pro nun cia ti o n
to th e
s uch a s ba r /
,

e d a r k h a r k e tc
, I n th e w o rd se rg e a n t a n d
, , .
,

i n th e w o rd s h e a r th a nd c l e r k a s pr o n o un ced h a rp kl a rk , ,

th e ea rli e r s p elli n g h a s r e m a i n e d i n s pi te O f th e c h a nge

i n pro n un c i ati o n T h e w o rd p er so n h a s as s um e d tw o
.

o r th o gr a ph ic fo r m s th e o n e c ite d b e i n g th e m o r e o rigin a l
,

fo r m fro m w hich w a s d e v el o p e d in a s p e cializ e d s e n s e

, , ,

th e wo rd p a r s on What h a s h a pp e n e d c o n s e q uently i n
.
, ,

A m e ric an s p e e c h w ith r e s p e c t to th e w o rd s cl e r k and

,

h e a r th i s that in c l er k th e e a rli e r fo rm h a s pe rs i s te d
“

a s th e s ta n da rd use w h e rea s i n th e c a s e o f h ea r th
, ,

th e e a rli e r pr o n un ci a ti o n p e r si s ts pre tty ge n e ra lly i n

th e p o p ula r s p e e c h a nd to s o m e e x te nt in th e c ul ti
vate d s p e e c h a lth o i n th e l a tte r pl a c e i t te n ds to be
,

cro w de d o ut by th e l ate r pro nun ci ati on e x e mplifi e d ,

i n s uch fo rms a s h ea r t d a r k h a r k e tc b e c o mi n g th us, , , .

,

harp .

O n e o r tw o fur th e r mis c e ll a n eo us e x amples o f nuc e r

’
tain us e m ay be giv e n T h e pr on un c iati o n p a r eszs i s
’

th e o n ly o n e re c o gn iz e d by th e I n te rn ati o n a l C e n tury , ,

Stan da rd a nd th e Ne w En gli s h D ic ti ona ri e s

,
B ut i n .

a c tua l s p e e c h t o s o m e e x te n t in th e m e di c al pr o fe ss i o n
,

a n d a lm o s t a lw a s o utsid e i t th e pr o n un c i ati o n h e a rd is
y ,

’
T h N e w E n gli s h D i c ti o n a ry a uth o riz e s o n ly
’

a r e s zs e
p .

’
r ee o n d i te t h e I n te rn a ti o n a l a n d S ta n d ard pre fe r r e
’
O n th e
'
’
e on d zte b ut giv e a s s e c o n d ch o i c e r e e on d t te
’

, , .

’
’

o th e r h a n d th e C e n tury giv e s r eeon d zte as fir st c h o i c e ,

a n d r e eon d zte a s se c o n d
’
A ll th e d i c ti o n a ri e s re c o rd
’

o n ly i n qui r y
’
di sr e ga rdin g c o mpl e te ly th e
fre q u e n tly h ea rd pro n un cia ti o n wi th s tre s s o n th e firs t
sylla ble .
 E N GL IS H SO UN D S 1 67

15 . S p e l l i n g R e fo r m . The
c o n sid e ra ti o n O f th e q ues
ti o n o f s p elli n g r e fo r m righ tly fin ds a pla c e i n a di s c uss i o n
O f E n gli s h s o un ds fo r th e r e a s o n t h a t E n gli s h s p e lli n g
,

is m e r e ly a n o utw a rd a nd v is ibl e m e a n s O f re pre s e n tin g

th e s o unds O f th e l an g uage T h e l a n g uag e i ts e l f e x
.

i s te d i n a ll its e s se n ti al s l o n g b ef o r e i t wa s re d uc e d to a
w ritten o r a printe d fo rm j us t a s to d ay th e i lli te r a te
,

pe r s on w h o k n o ws n o thin g a bo ut r ea ding o r w ri ti n g is
n e ve rthel e ss p o s s e s s e d o f th e p o we r o f la n g u a g e Sp e ll
.

ing o r w ri ti n g is th e r e fo re n o thin g m o re th an a n a t
, ,

te mp t to re duc e to a fix e d a n d p e rm an e n t fo rm ula wh a t
w a s alrea dy p r e e x i s te n t in th e imp e rm a ne n t us e o f
-

s p o k e n s p ee ch . I t h a s a lre ady b e e n p o in te d o ut th at ,

wh ate ve r th e imm e dia t e d e s c rip tiv e o r pic to ri al c h a rac

ter o f w ri tte n l an g u a ge m ay h a ve b ee n i n its o rigin i t ,

h as n o w c o mpl e te ly l o s t its pi c to rial v a lue a n d is m e r ely

a s e t o f c o n v e n ti o n al a nd a rbi tr ary s ign s th e s igni fi
,

c a n c es O f whi c h h a v e to be l e a rn e d a n d h e ld in mi n d b
y
a p ur e a c t O f m e m o ry I n thi s r es p e c t w ri tte n l a n g ua ge
.

is o n e x a c tly th e s a m e l e ve l a s s p o k e n l a n g ua g e In .

th e l a tte r a s a r e s ult O f m a ny s uc c e ss i v e a g es O f c us to m
,

a nd us e , w e h a v e se ttl e d up o n c e rtain s o un d s a n d s e
u e n c es O f s o un d s as c o n v eyi n g c e r ta in id eas T h
q e.

v al ue a n d m ea ni ng O f th e s e s o un ds a n d gr o up s O f
s o und s h a v e t o be l ea r n e d a n e w by e v e ry i n d ivid ua l

w h o a c qui re s c o m m a n d o f th e la n gua ge P a r e n ts by a
.
,

l o ng p eri o d O f disc iplin e a n d in s truc ti o n te a ch their ,

childre n h o w to m ake th e s o unds and wha t id ea s th e

s o un d s s ta n d fo r . N0 c hild h a s th e c o mm a n d O f l an
guag e i n h eren tly a nd by n ature but o nly a s h e l ea rn s it
,

by imi ta tin g th e s p e e c h o f o th e rs I n th e sa m e w ay
.
,

thro ugh a l o ng pr o c es s O f d e v el o pm en t we h a v e c o me ,
1 68 M O D E R N E N G LI S H

to s e ttle up o n c e rta i n w ri tten symb o ls a nd gro up s Of

symb ol s as standi ng fo r c e rtain s o unds an d gro up s O f
s o unds Ev e ry child n o w le a rn s to m ake this a rbitra ry
.

c o nn e c ti o n b e tw e en th e symbo l a n d th e s o un d j us t a s ,

b e fo re h e h ad learne d to mak e a c o n n e c ti o n b etwe e n th e

‘

v a ri o us s o unds a n d th e re sp e c tive id eas which they w e re

us e d to d e s I gn a te N o w h a vi n g se ttl e d up o n a c o nve n
.
,

ti o n al s e t o f visible w ritten s ymbo ls to s ta n d fo r a u dibl e

s p o k en s o un d s th e q u es ti o n O f r e fo rm i n o ur sy s te m O f
,

vi s ibl e w ritte n symb o ls ari se s whe n an en de av o r is ma de

to m a k e mo re p e rfe c t o r c o ns is te n t o ur sy s te m o f sym
b o ls Sp elling re fo rm i n dee d is o nly a na me fo r thi s
.
, ,

e n dea v o r w h e n i t b e c o m e s c o n s ci o us M o re o r l e s s n u
.

c o n s ci o us sp e lli n g re fo rm h a s bee n g o i n g o n e v e r s in ce

th e b e ginn in g o f w ri tte n l a n gua ge b e c aus e fr o m th e ,

ve ry b e gi nn i n g w ri tte n l an gua g e h a s b e e n ch an gi n g i n

o rd e r t o a dapt i ts s y ste m to th e ch ang e s in th e s p o k e n

l a n gua ge W h en fo r e x ampl e in th e Middle E n gli s h

.
, ,

p e ri od th e i ni ti al c o n s o nant in s uch O l d E ngli s h w o rds

,

a s h r zng h l eap a n a n d h r af c eas e d to be pr o n o un c e d

'

-
, , ,

a n d th e w o rds c o n s e qu e n tly w e re S p e ll e d r i ng l ea nd
p a , ,

r oof th a t w a s a s m uc h a s p e lli n g r e fo rm a s a ny th at c a n
,

be a dv o c a te d n o w a day s I t i s s afe to s ay th at e v e ry
.

c h an ge i n sp elli n g th at h a s ta k e n pl a c e i n th e h is to ry o f

th e la n g uag e h a s ta k e n pla c e b e c a us e s o m e o n e th o ught

th e ch an g e a n e c e ss a ry o r a d vis abl e impr o v e me n t i n th e
s yste m O f s p ell i n g T h e m o tiv e unde rlyi ng th e c h a nge
.

m ay n o t al ways hav e b e e n wis e o r w ell c o n sid e red but ,

i t i s c e rta in that c han g es h a ve n e v e r ta ken plac e in a

c o mple te ly haph a z ard an d c a us ele ss w ay .

T h e q ue s ti o n is so m e tim e s a s k e d Wh y i s i t n ece ssa ry

,

fo r u s to t hi k b
n a o ut th e m a tte r o f s p e lli ng a t a ll ?
1 70 M O D E RN E N G LI S H

w ell re fus e to thin k O f a eri al n a vigati o n b e c ause we are

,

alr e ady a bl e to m o v e up o n th e e a r th a n d th e w a te r b
y
e l e c tri c i ty an d s te a m as r e f us e to l o o k to th e futur e O f
,

o ur l a n g ua ge b e c a us e o ur fa th e r s h a v e h a nd e d d o wn to

us the i r f o rm O f th e l a n g ua g e .T h e e n d e a v o r o f e v e ry
o n e tr uly i n te r e s te d i n th e wel fa r e O f h is s p ee ch w ill be

to m a k e that s p e e c h m o re p e rfe c t a n d e fiec tive He .

w ill n o t res t c o n ten t i n a blin d c o n s e rv a ti s m but w ill ,

be al e rt an d q ui c k t o s e e th e v al ue O f su gg e s te d i m
pr o v e m en t T h e m atte r O f th e impro v e m e n t O f E n glis h
.

s p e lli n g i s sp e ci a lly o n e fo r th e pr e s e n t ge n e r ati o n .

E a ch p e ri o d is c o nfr o n te d wi th i ts o wn p a rtic ul ar pro b

l e ms i n l an g uage a nd i t i s o n th e w ay in whi c h e ac h
,

p e ri o d s o lv es its pro bl e m s that th e l an guage O f th e

futur e d e p end s . F o r o ur p e ri o d o n e O f th e pr o bl e m s is
,

c e r ta i n ly t h e q ues ti o n O f s p e lli n g r e f o r m a n d it i s o n e
,

d e s e rvin g o f c ar e f ul c o n s ide ra ti o n a n d O f a fa ir a nd
reas o na ble an s wer O ur da n ger O f e rro r i s n o gre a te r
.
,

p e rha ps is l ess grea t th an it h as b e e n in a ny pre c e d i n g

,

peri o d a n d e q ua bl e j udgm e n t a n d s o un d s c h o l a rs hip a re

,

a s we ll a bl e to c a re fo r th e l a n gua ge o f th e futur e a s

th e y e v e r we re in th e pa s t .

J ust i n wh a t r e s pec t th e a cc e p te d S p e llin g m ay be im

pro ve d an d sim plifie d mus t be de te rmin e d by a s e pa rate
dis c us s i o n o f in dividua l i n s tan c e s an d as i n th e c a se O f
,

th e c ha n g e s i n s o un d s di s c us se d i n pre c e di n g p a ra gr aphs ,

th e fin al ac ce p ta n c e o f th ese c h a n g e d o r impr o v e d o r
r efo r m e d sp elli ngs m ust res t up o n th e de sire o r to use , ,

th e te rm pre vi o usly e mplo ye d th e imi tatio n O f th e i n di

, ,

vi d ual s wh o us e th e w ri tte n an d pri n te d fo rm Of th e

lan g ua g e It s h o uld be re me mbe re d th at th e chi e f O h

.

s ta c l e i n th e p a th o f i m pr o v ed S p e ll in g i s a r es ul t O f
 E N G L IS H S O UN D S 1 71

e x ac tly th e s ame c ause w hi ch h as m ade cha nge an d im

pro v e m en t d e sirabl e Sp elli n g was at firs t fr e e to adap t
.

i ts el f to th e s po k e n fo rm s O f w o rds T h e Simpl e a n d
.

n at ura l r ul e o f sp e ll in g w a s to wr i te a s y o u s p e ak .

C o n sis te nc y in th e S p ell in g O f a n i n di vid ual a nd ge n

e ra l un i fo r m ity a m o ng all wri te rs w e r e n o t r e g ar d e d a s

n ec e s s a ry o r e v e n a s virtue s to wa rds w hi c h o n e s h o uld

,

s tri ve . I n O l d E n gl ish fo r e x a mple no t o nly will th e

, ,

s am e w o rd be S p e ll e d di ffe r e n tly by d i ffe r e n t wri te rs ,

but e v e n th e s am e w ri te r d o e s n o t al w ays use th e s am e

sp elli n g T his free d o m in th e tre a tm e n t o f s p elli n g
.

p e rs is ts do wn thr o ugh th e tim e o f C hauc e r e ve n do wn ,

thro ugh S ha k sp e r e a n d l a te r . O n e n e e d o nly turn to

an e a rl q a rto o r fo l i o e di ti o n O f o n e o f Sh ak s p e re s
’

y u

pl ays an e di tio n in w hic h th e s pell ing h as n o t b e e n n o r

,

maliz e d a n d m o de rn i z e d to s e e th at th e r ul e s O f Eliz a
,

b e th an s p elli n g w e re m uch l ess un i fo rm a nd c o n sis tent

th an th e y a r e i n M o de rn E n gli s h . T O fin d in o ur time
an a tti tud e to wa r ds S p e l li n g p a r a l l e l t o th a t O f Sha k

s p e r e s w e m us t t urn to t h e us e o f th o s e w h o m w e s h o uld
’

n o w c all th e imp e rfe c tl y e d uc a te d th o se wh o s p e ll v e ry

,

m uc h a s th e y fe e l in cl in ed . T h e re a s o n w h y th e S p ell
in g o f Sh aks p e re an d O f th e c o n te mp o ra ry i mp e rfe c tly
e d uc a te d p e r s o n i s o n th e s a m e pl an e i s th a t n e i th e r o f
,

th e se h as ac k n o w l edge d o r i n f a c t is a wa re o f th e i d e al
, ,

O f a p e rfe c tl n s i s te n t an d un i fo rm s s te m O f s p e lli n g
y c o
y .

T hi s is an in ve n ti o n O f c o m p ara tiv e ly m o d e rn tim e s a n d,

it is o nly in m o d e rn tim es th at i t h as b ee n m a d e a re
u i r e m e nt a n d a te st O f th e c o n v e n ti o n ally e d uc a te d
q
p e rso n .

T h e c aus e s w hich h av e o p e ra te d to bring a bo ut this

c h ang e O f a tti tud e t o w a rds sp e ll in g a re m ai nl th e
y e x ~
1 72 M O D E R N E NG LI S H

t e ns i o n Of th e r ea ding p ublic an d th e i nfluen c e o f th e

di c t i o n a ri e s and s p elli n g b o o k s T h e in flue n c e O f print
-
.

i n g a nd O f th e r ul e s o f th e pri ntin g h o u ses up o n E n gli s h

-

s p e lli n g h a s b e e n v e ry gr e a t . I n th e firs t pl a c e th e
,

pri n te r wi th h i s pro fe s si o nal s en se O f th e imp o rtan c e O f

th e m e ch an ic al s i de O f h i s a r t a lw ays s triv e s fo r c o m
,

p l e te c o n s i s te n cy a n d r e g ul a ri t
y . H e m a k e s h i s m a rgin s

a l w a s th e s a m e w id th h i s w o rd s a re a l way s s p ac e d
y ,

e x a c tly s o far a p ar t , h e us e s th e s a m e kin d O f typ e

a l wa ys fo r th e s a m e p urp o se a n d i n c o un tles s wa s h e
, y
e nde av o rs to m ak e h i s w o rk as m e ch a n ic ally un i fo rm

a n d r e g ul a r a s p o s s ible . O bvi o usly o n e O f th e firs t

,

thi n gs to w hich h e w o uld dir e c t a tte n ti o n w o uld be th e

que s ti o n o f a un i fo rm S p e lling ; a nd so we find wi th
th e ri s e O f th e grea t pri n tin g -h ous e s in E ngla nd i n th e
e igh tee n th c e n tury th e o rigin s Of a rigidly un ifo r m
sys te m o f sp ellin g A bout th e s ame ti me r e gularizing
.

te n de n ci e s b eg an to S h o w th e m s e lv es a l s o i n th e m ak
in g O f dic ti o na ri e s a nd s p e lli n g bo o k s th e p urp o s e o f
-
,

w hi c h was to ch o o se fr o m th e v a rio us s p e llin gs an d to

r e c o rd w h at was r ega rde d a s th e o ne s tan da rd a nd c o r
re c t s pe llin g Of w o rd s T his s tan da rd O f c o rre c t Sp ellin g
.

w a s us ually d e riv e d fro m c o n temp o ra ry prin te d bo o k s ,

a nd c o n s e q uen tly th e di c ti o n a ri e s g a v e n o thi n g m o re th a n

th e s ta te m e nt o f th e s p e lli ng r ul e s o f th e prin ti n g h o us e s .

A mo n g th e dic ti o n a ri e s th e m os t i nfl uenti a l w as D r
,
.

J o h n s o n s th e firs t e diti o n o f w hi c h a pp e a re d i n 1 75 5
’
.
,

T his b o o k p urp o r te d to give th e c o rre c t sp ellin g o f a ll

‘

w o rd s a nd i t a nd o th e r l ate r dic tio n a ri e s a fte r i ts m o del

,

ha ve h ad gre a t i n fl uen c e in S pre adin g th e b eli e f that

wo rd s h a ve o nly o n e p e rmis sibl e a nd c o rr e c t S p e lli ng ,

a n d th at th e o ne r e c o rd e d by th e ms e lv e s .
1 74 M O D E R N E N GL I S H

th e s p elli n g impro ve r is c lear He may

s im pl ifie r or .

c h o o s e to fo ll o w th e s p e lli n g o f th e dic ti o n a ri e s a n d th e

pri nte rs w hen h e s ee s n o g o o d re a so n fo r devi atin g fro m

i t ; but wh e n h e c h o o s es to d e vi a te fro m i t h e h as a s ,

gre at righ t a nd i f h i s j udgm en t i s a s s o und a s go o d

, ,

a uth o ri ty fo r d o i n g s o as th e dic ti o n a r h a s f
, y o r
p r e

v en tin g him .

T h e m o s t ra dic al s c h e m e O f sp elli n g re fo rm is th a t
whi c h i s pro p o s e d by th e a dv o c a te s O f a ph o n e tic alph a
be t . T h e y p o in t o ut t o us tha t s p e lli n g o r th e vi si bl e ,

fo r m o f la n g ua g e in g e ne ral is i n te nde d m e re ly as a
,

r e pr es e n ta ti o n O f S p o k e n lan guage a n d that as s uch it ,

s h o uld be u se d w i th s ys te m a tic c o n s i s te n cy a n d e x ac t

n e ss .T h e y S h o w tha t o n th e c o ntr a ry o ur pr e s ent

, ,

s p e ll in g I n s o m e i n st an c e s us e s l e tte r s w hich a re n o t

pr o n o un c e d a t all a s th e fi nal e in l a te th e n o O f tong ue

, , ,

th e l O f wa l k i n o th e r s us e s th e s a m e l ette r w i th
,

di ffe re n t v al ues as th e c in c ent an d ca ll th e a in h a t

, ,

h a te h a l l a nd in s till o the rs us e s differ ent l e tte rs with

,

th e s a m e v a l ue a s s a n d c i n s en t s cen t a n d ce nt a a nd
, , , ,

- ey in h a te a n d th ey ; e a n d co in h e a n d s e e I n s h o rt .
,

th e y p o i n t o ut w h at i s c e rta in ly true th at o ur pre s e n t ,

s p e ll in g fo r o n e r e a s o n a n d a n o th e r h a s b e c o m e a v e ry
, ,

i m pe rfe c t a n d in c o n si s ten t m eans O f re pre sen tin g o ur

pr es e n t so un ds A S a c o rrec tive o f al l thes e e v ils th e
.
,

ph o n e tic refo r m e r s pr o p o s e that an e n tirely n e w alph a

be t be i n ve n te d o ne i n w hi c h e a c h s o un d h as its o wn
,

s ymb o l a n d i n w hich n o symb o l h a s m o r e th an o n e

v alue th at this ne w alphabet re pl ac e th e o l d tra diti o n al

,

a lph ab e t a n d th e n th at e v e ry wo rd be w ritten i n thi s

,

n e w s e t O f s y m b o l s a s i t is pr o n o un c e d T h e a dva n ta ge .

O f s uc h a r e fo rm i f i t c o uld be c a rri e d thr o ugh w o uld

,
.
,
 E N G LIS H S O U ND S 1 75

be un de n i ably gre a t O ur Sp e lling w o uld th e n be l o gi

.

c al a nd sy s te m a tic . Fo r e ig n e rs l e a rn i n g E ngli s h wo uld

be r e liev ed O f o n e O f th e chi e f di ffi c ul ti e s whi c h n o w
li e i n th e i r w ay . B o th pra c ti cally a nd th eo r e tic a lly
s uc h a s ys te m o f ph o n e ti c S p e llin g w o uld a ppr oa c h t h e

i d e a l O f th e r e l a ti o n whi c h s h o uld e x is t be twe e n th e

s p o k e n a n d th e w ri tte n w o rd . U n fo r tun ate ly h o w e v e r
, ,

th e re i s n o t th e re m o te s t p o s s ibl e c ha n c e tha t a ny s uc h
ra di c al re fo rm c o uld e ve r be p ut i nto o p era tio n I f o ur .

la nguage we re in th e han ds O f s o me a uto c ra tic p o w e r

wh o by an i mp e ri a l edic t wa s a ble to d e c la re th a t th is
o r th a t S h all h e n c e fo r th be th e l a w O f th e la n g ua g e ,

th e re might be s o m e h o p e fo r th e ph o n e tic r e fo rm e r .

B ut th e E ngli s h l an gua ge is n o t i n th e h a n d s o f a n
i n divi d ual o r e v en in th e h an ds O f a gro up O f i ndi vid
,

ual s . I t is th e m o s t d e m o c ra tic O f al l th e in s tituti o n s

o f a d e m o cr atic p e o pl e W hat th e p eo ple d o and wha t
.

th e p e o pl e w ill is th e l a w o f th e l an gua g e . No w ex
ri en ce h as s h o wn th a t th e w ill O f th e p e o pl e i s i n
p e

al te r a bly Opp o s e d to an
y s uc h w h o l e s ale a n d vi o l e n t

o v e r turn in g o f th e ir tr adi ti o n a l la n g uag e a s th e p h o

n e tic r e fo rm s upp o s e s O ur p r e se n t s y ste m O f S p e ll in g

.

h as c o me to be a s it is s l o w ly and gradually It h as
.

its r o o ts d e e ply fix e d i n th e p a s t . I t is th e fo rm in
whi c h a n a n c i e n t a n d d i gn ifi e d lite ra tur e is r e c o rde d ,

an d o n all S id e s i t is w o r th O f th e d e e p r e sp e c t a n d
y
v ene ra tio n wh ic h w e righ tly p ay to o ur he ri tag e o f
n a ti o n al a n d s o c i al tr adi ti o n . T h e a tte mp t th e r e fo re
, ,

to re pla c e th e a c c ep te d S p e ll in g by a s ys te m O f e n tire ly
n e w m an ufac ture i s n o t o nl
y imp o s s ible
,
b u t i t d oes

vio l e n c e to a s e ntim e n t O f res p e c t a n d a fe e l in g fo r th e

la nguage w hi c h h as a l ways e x i s te d an d w hich Sh o uld
1 76 M O DE R N E N GLI S H

a l way s be c he rished I t is n o t by s uc h re v o l uti onary

.

m e tho ds that th e s p e lling O f th e future is to be ma de

b etter than th e sp ellin g O f to d ay No w a s e v e r i n -
.
,

lan gua ge c han g e s m us t take pla c e slo wly and gra dually
, .

T h e y m us t c o m e b e c a us e th ey m e e t w i th th e a ppr o v a l o f
th e ge n e ra l bo dy O f th e us e rs o f th e l an g uag e n o t b e c a us e ,

th e y s ee m g o o d to s o m e m ak e r O f sys te m s a n d th eo rie s .

A c o mpro mi s e ph o n e ti c r e fo rm is th a t which w o uld

e n dea v o r to e t al o n w i th r pre se n t a lph a b et b t
g g o u u ,

w o uld s o r e c o ns tru c t th e sp elli n g o f w o rds th a t th ey

wo uld be S p e ll e d s y s te m a ti c a lly in th e ph o n e tic way
a s fa r as is p o ss ible wi th th e tradi ti o n a l a lph ab e t T h us .

th e w o rds d oe a n d d ough b e i n g pro n o un c e d al ik e w o uld

,

be spelle d a like b o th p e rh aps d o by anal o gy to s o

, , .

T h e s a m e s p e lli ng c o uld n o t O f c o urse an s we r fo r d oc

a n d d ou h a n d a l s o f o r th e v e rb d o ; th e l a tte r wo uld
g
t he re fo re h a ve to be ch an g e d say t o d o o to c o nfo rm to
, ,

th e S p e llin g to o s ch oo l f o o d e tc
, , If h o we v e r 0 0 w e re
, .
, ,

s e ttl e d U p on a s ha vi ng th e val ue o f th e v o w e l in d o
'

th e n th e w o rd r ul e w o uld h a v e to be s p e ll ed r oo l (lik e
s oo l
p )
,
th r oug h w o uld be s p e ll e d th r o o w h o w o uld be ,

c o me wh oo f r ui t wo uld be c o me f r oot (l ike r oot) an d S O

, ,

o n thro ugh a c o un tl e s s n u mb e r O f s imil a r ch a n g e s No w .

a g ai n
, al th o m an y o f th e s e ch an g e s w o uld d o ub tl e s s

c o n d uc e to s impli city a nd r egula ri ty th e s am e Obj e c ti o n,

ho lds a gain st c a rryi n g o ut a sy s te m atic and c o mpre

h e n sive s che m e O f s p e lli ng r e fo rm a l o n g th e s e li n e s a s
a ga i n s t o n e ba s e d o n th e us e o f a ph o ne tic alph ab e t a n d ,

th at i s tha t th e ch an g e s n e c e s s i ta te d a re to o n um e ro us
, ,

a n d th e vi o l e n c e d o n e to th e n a tur a l c o n s e rv ativ e fe el

i ng fo r th e l a n g uag e is to o gr e at T h e wo rk Of re f o rm
.

m u st pro c e e d m o re S l o wly .
1 78 M O D E R N E N GL I S H

d ebt, w hich C h a uc e r s p elle d a n d pro n oun c e d d et be ,

c a u s e i t i s ul tM a te l y d e ri v e d fr o m L ati n d e be o d e bi tum
, ,

w as giv e n a b by th e R e n as c e n c e s p e llin g r e fo rm e r s ;
this b th o w e h a v e re tai n e d i t in o ur s p e lli n g d e bt
, , ,

h as n e ve r s ucc e e d e d i n m aki n g its wa y in to th e pr o

nun c iatio n a s h a s th e c i n p erf ect O th e r e x a mpl es
.

m ight be ci te d but th e I n s tan c es in whi c h pro n un c i

,

a ti o n h as ad ap te d its e lf to th e S p e lli n g o f w o rds a r e

S O fe w th a t the y S h o w th e f utili ty O f th e e n d e a v o r to

m a k e th e prin c ipl e O f S p eakin g a s yo u w rite o n e o f

g e n e ral a ppli c ati o n.

B ut if th e th e o ri e s f o r th e r e c o n s truc tio n o f E n gli s h

S p e lli n g w hi c h h a v e j u s t b e e n di s c us s e d m us t be pr o

n o un ce d a s imp o s s ible a n d visi o n a ry i t d oe s n o t fo ll o w

,

tha t n o thi n g c an be d o n e f o r th e E n gli sh S p elli n g O f th e

pre se n t a nd O f th e future W e m ay re fus e o ur s upp o rt
.

to r a di c a l a n d r e v o luti o n a ry m o v e m e n ts w i th o ut p as s
i ng to th e o th e r e x tre m e o f ul tra c o n se rva tis m
-
. T h e re
i s a middl e gr o un d b e t we en th e c o mplete r e fo rm O f
E n glis h sp e lli ng an d un q ue stio ni ng a cq ui e sc e n c e i n an d
a c c e p ta n c e O f th a t w hi c h w e h a v e ; a n d i ns te a d o f a t

te mp ti n g th e th o ro re c o n s tr uc ti o n O f o ur s p e lli n g w e ,

m a y m o r e s afely a n d w i th gre ate r h o p e O f s uc c e ss

s triv e fo r th e impro v e m e n t a n d S implifi c atio n o f o ur

presen t sy s te m A ny c h anges which ar e m a d e m ust

.

be d uly c o n side r e d ; the y m ust be tes te d by th e prin

’

c ipl e s w hi c h ha v e g o v e r n e d th e gr o w th O f th e l an g uag e

i n th e p a st beca use i t is o nly by th e s tudy o f the s e

,

hi sto ric al prin c ipl es that w e ac q uire a k n o wl edge o f

l an gua ge a n d ac q uir e s afe rule s O f g uida n c e E a c h .

c h a n g e o r e ac h gr o up O f ch a n ges ,th e r e fo re O ffe rs a

,

s p e ci al pr o bl e m which d e m a n d s s p e ci a l c o n sid e r ati o n .

 E N GL I S H S O UN D S 1 79

O n ly a fe w Of th e m o re imp o rta nt c an be di s c us s e d
h e re .

la rge n umb e r p e rhap s th e m a j o ri ty o f in s tan c e s

A , ,

in wh ic h th e q u e s tio n O f s p e lling a r i se s c o m e un de r th e ,

g en e ra l h e a d O f c h o ic e b e twe e n t wo s p ellin gs b o th o f ,

w h ic h a lre a dy a r e i n c urre nt u se T h e d e te rmi nati on .

O f th e c h o i c e r e s ts O f c o ur s e up o n th e c irc um s t an c e s o f

e a c h c a s e but a g o o d r ule o f g e n e ra l a ppli c a ti o n i s O f

tw o sp e llin g s c h o os e th e s i m
, ,

pl er O th e r things b e i ng .

e q ual th a t i s a l wa s th e s im ple r a n d th e prefe ra bl e O f

, y
t wo sp e l l i ngs w hi c h i s th e sh o r te r o r w hic h is i n c o n ,

fo rmi ty wi th th e m o re ge n e ra l ph o n e ti c prac tic e o f th e

l an guage W hen o n e h as th e c h o ic e b e tw e e n a familia r
.

E n glish s pe llin g an d a s tran g e or un usual s p e llin g th e ,

pre fe r e n c e S h o uld be fo r th e fo rm e r T hus the re is littl e .

j us tifi c a ti o n for th e s p elli n g ga ol whe n w e hav e th e

fo r m j a i l o r fo r th e sp elli n g tr oup e wh e n we h a v e
,

1
tr oop .

In
m akin g S implificati o n s in sp ell i n g h o we ve r it , ,

s h o uld be r e m e m b e re d th a t it i s n ot n e ce s s a ry o r i n d e e d ,

p os s ible to be th o r o ly c o n si s te nt We m ay de cide to
, .

o mi t c e r ta in s ile n t l ette rs but i t d o es n o t fo ll o w th a t w e

,

S h o uld o mi t all s ile n t l e tte r s W e m ay o mit th e u in .

h on o ur w ith o ut o m i ttin g it i n co ur s e thus s p e lli n g th at ,

w o rd like th e n o un cor se T h e o nly s afe guidi ng r ul e i s

.

t o S i mpli fy s p e lli n g w h e n th e re a r e a dva n ta g e s to be

gain e d an d no c o unterbalan cing lo sses C o mpl ete li sts .

1 “E in th e fi rst sce ne o f h is C r itic , Sh e r i d a n us e d th e wor d

a rl y

o r s ; al s o M a l o ne , i n
‘
t roo p in t h e s e n se O f a th e a trica l c o m an O f a c t
p y
h is e d it io n O f Sh a kes ea r e
p p u l i s hbe d i n 1 8 2 1 (V o l i ii , p u
. s e s th e.

wo rd ‘
t ro o p
’
i n th e sa m e s e nse . I must qu o te th e m as my a uth o rity .

P e r h a ps I m ay b e w r o ng , but I pr e fe r ‘
tro o p to tr o up e .
’
H . M .

T r o ll o p e , L if e of M o l i er e , p viii . .
1 80 M O D E R N E NGL I S H

Of the s e p o ssibl e simple Sp ell in gs c anno t be given he re ,

but a fe w O f th e cl ass e s o f wo rds affe c te d may be i n di
1
c a te d .

In
g en e ral they will be fo und to fall un e d r three main
hea ds as fo ll o ws :,

()
I O f tw o p o ss i bl e s p e l li n gs , c h o o s e th e o ne wh i ch f o ll o ws
th e us ua l s p e ll ing o f t h e l a ngua ge .

( ) War i te c e nte r , me ter , mite r, th e ate r, ! e tc .

, l ike fa th e r ,
W inte r, ma nn e r, e tc .

()
b Write c ritici ze , p e na l i e , z l e ga liz e , a nd SO in a ll wo rd s
with th e -iz e s uffix ,
a vo id in g th us t h e t wo f o r ms -i s e a nd -iz e .

A l s o i n th e ro o ts of wo rd s wi th th e t wo s p e ll in
gs S a nd z ,

ch o o s e z as b e i ng th e us ual r
r e p e s e nta tio n f o r th e s o und ;
e x a mpl e s a re ra z e , te a z el vi z o r
, , d e viz e , c o mp ri ze , s urp rl z e ,

a nd so fo rth .

() W
0 r it e e ( i n s t e a d o f se oe) i n wo rd l ik e s , e s th e ti c , e nc
y
c l o p od ia me d i ev al a r c h e o l o gy d i e re s is e tc
, , , , .

d
( ) W r i t e O W i n s t e a d-o f -O u h in
g p l o w .

()
e W r i te i f o r
y i n -
gi p s y
- .

( )
I I O m i t s il e n t l ette rs wh e re ve r us a ge p e rmits i t .

( ) W ri te
a a br i d g me nt , j ud gme nt , a ck no wl e d g me nt, e tc .
,

ins te a d o f a b r id ge me nt, e tc . W rite th e p l u ra l s Of a ll no uns

e n d i ng in O in -O S
, t h at i s , p o ta to s , to m a to s , n eg o s , r p i a n o s ,

c a rgo s , f o l io s , e tc .

b
( ) W rite ax , ad z , d e ve l o p , d o mi c il , e nve l o p , l
gy c e ri n, wo ,

e tc .
, i ns te a d O f ax e, ad ze , d e ve l o p e , e tc .

1 Fo r furth e r d iscussio n, s tud e nts a r e r e fe rr e d to th e lists Of d ou l e b s p ell

i ngs g ive n i n W e ste r , W o r c e ste r , a nd th e S ta n d a r d D ic tio na ries ; al so t o

b
c i r c ul ars o f th e S i m l i fi e d S e ll in B o a r d , wh e re l ists a r e r i nte d o f wo r d s
p p g p
1 11 co m m o n us e w h i c h a re s e ll e d i n tw o o r m o r e w a s A t t e nti o n m a
p y y .

be ca l l e d al s o t o th e l o ng l i sts A m e n d e d S p e ll ings a t t h e end o f th e

Of

C e n tury D ic tio na ry, t o geth e r w ith t h e i ntr o d uc to ry r e ma r ks pr ec e d ing

t h e se lists A l l inte r este d in t h e que st io n o f Engl i sh s p e l l i ng s h o ul d c o m
.

mun i ca te with t h e S i mpl ifi e d S pe l l ing B o a r d 1 M a d is o n A ve nue , Ne w ,

Yo r k C ity, wh o se i nter esti ng p ubl ica tio n s w il l be s e n t fr e e o n a ppl ica tio n .

1 82 M O DE RN E N GL I S H

b e ge ne ra ll y a cc e p te d W ith m a ny p ers o ns , s o me h e s ita

.

ti o n i s f el t w ith r e s p ec t to th e f o r m th r u f o r th r o ugh , r e
c o mme nd e d by th e A me ri c a n E d uc a tio n a l A s s o ci a ti o n , th e
Si mpl ifie d S p elli n g B o ard , a nd vario us o th er b o d ie s The .

s p e l l i n g thr u , h o weve r , i s l o gi c a l
(u a f t e r r h a s th e v a l ue a ,

as in r u l e , r ud e, r un e , r u m in a te , a nd a go o d d e al Of th e
d i s f a vo r with wh i c h i t i s r e gar d e d i s d ue to th e n o ve l ty O f th e
fo rm . B ut th e us e of a ny s p e ll i ng c a n n o t b e mad e c o mp ul

sor
y, a nd a n
y o ne wh o d is a pp ro ve s of th e f o r m th r u h as p e r
fe et r igh t to r e f us e to us e it, a l th o th e s a me l ib e rty of

c h o ic e wh i ch O n e c l a i ms fo r o n e s el f o n e S h o uld a ll o w to o th er s .

In s p e ll i ng r e f o rm , a s in a l l o th e r d evel o p me nts i n l a ngua ge ,

we m us t trus t to a fra nk inte r c h a nge o f o p i nio n a n d a r e a d y

a c c ep t a n c e of th e b e s t f o r th e a c c o mp l i s h m e nt of c h a nge s

th a t S h all be of p e rman ent a nd g e n e alr va l ue .

 VI

E N G L I SH W O R D S

1 . T h e S t ud y of W o rd ss tudy o f w o rds i s in
. The
m any re s p e c ts th e m o s t a ppro a c ha ble s ide o f th e s tudy
O f l an g ua ge T his i s tr ue pa rtly b e c a us e th e w o rd is
.
,

i n a w a y a n i n d e p e n de nt fa c t o f l an guage a n d i s
, ,

th u s m uc h m o r e re adily a ppre c i a te d tha n ar e s o un d s

o r i n fl ec ti o n s B e s ides th e w o rd h as v e ry imme diate
.
,

c o n n e c ti o n s w i th th o ught A h i sto ry o f th e w o rd s o f a
.

l an guag e is al m os t a c o mple te hi s to ry O f th e tho ught

a nd th e c ivil i z a ti o n o f th e p e o pl e w h ich sp e a k s th a t
lan gua ge T h e s tudy O f w o rds is a ls o o f ve ry great
.

i mp o r ta n c e in th e pra c ti c a l affai rs O f e v e ry d ay li fe
-
O ne
.

O f th e m o s t va lua bl e a c c o m pli s hm e n ts a p e r s o n c an h a v e

i s th e a bil ity to e xpres s hi m se l f c l e a rly a n d fo rc ibly i n

l an guage a n d to d o this h e m us t k n o w h o w t o us e w o rds
, ,

m us t k n o w th eir sign ific a n c e s th e i r c o nn o tati o n s a

, nd,

th e i r p o ssib ili ti e s O f c o ur se n o o n e s upp o se s tha t m e re

.

i nfo rm ati o n a bo ut w o rds h o we ve r w ide tha t in fo rm ati o n

,

m ay be wi ll m ak e a g o o d w ri te r o r sp e a k e r ; i t is th e
,

j us t c o mbin ati o n O f th o ught with its appr o pri a te w o rds

th at i s th e re s ul t to be a tta i ne d a n d it is th e pr o p e r
p urp os e O f th e s t udy O f w o rds to pr o vide t h e un c lo th e d
th o ugh t wi th i ts fitti n g ga rb O f e xpres si o n .

A ll w o rd s h a v e e s tablis h e d th e m s elv e s in th e l an gua ge

in o n e O f tw o ways firs t e ith e r by o ri gi n al c re a ti o n tha t
, , ,

is th e a c tua l fo rm a ti o n o f n e w wo rd s o r th e n e w a d apta
,
1 84 M O DE R N E N GL I S H

ti o n of
Old o nes this latte r pr o c e ss b e i ng as m uc h cre ati o n
,

as th e fo r m a ti o n O f n e w w o rds o utrigh t ; o r s e c o nd by ,

bo rr o wi n g fr o m o th e r la n g uage s T he se tw o m e t ho d s O f
.

b uildi n g up th e v o c a b ula ry o f th e E nglish la n guage will

n o w be c o n s id e re d in de ta il .

2 W o rd C r e a t i o n
. T h e q u e s ti o n w h i ch pro ba bly
.

ris e s firs t in th e min d Of th e s tudent O f v o c a b ul a ry is ,

Wh at i s th e ultim ate o rigi n o f th e n ativ e w o rd s o f th e

lan guag e w ith w hi c h w e are s o fa mili ar ? D id s o m e
primiti ve l an guage c r eato r fas hi o n a ll w o rds at o ne fix e d
tim e a n d h a v e w e c o n ti n ue d to us e thi s o ri gin al s to c k
,

s i n c e th e n wi th o ut a ddin g o u r cre ati o n s t o it ? O r d o es

h n f
t e cr e a ti o o w o rds s till c o ti ue a s a n a c tiv e pr o c e s s
n n ?

T O th e s e q ue s ti o n s th e fir st a n s w e r is th at by far th e
greate r numb e r O f w o rds a re i n herite d fr o m c o untl e s s gen
e r ati o ns Of s p e a k e rs Of th e la n g ua g e w h o ha ve pre c e d e d

us . O ur n a tive w o rds are th e re fo re m a i n ly a tradi

ti o n al i n h e rita n c e j us t as o ur o th e r c o mm o n s o cial p o sses
s i o n s a s fo r exa m pl e
, , th e o rga niz a ti o n O f th e fa mily o r
,

th e s ta te ar e tra di ti o n al i n he ri ta n ce s
,
T h e y go b a ck s o
.

far tha t th e ir firs t o rigin is pre hi s to ri c a n d c a n be c o n

s i d er e d a n d e xpl a i n e d o nl y w i th th e ai d O f th e o ry .

T h e e a rli es t a nd m o s t primitiv e th e o r e ti c al s ta g e Of
l an guage a b o ut w hi c h it i s fruitful to re fl e c t i s th e p e ri o d
O f r o o t cr ea ti o n
- T O un de r sta n d this s tag e O f l a n g uag e
.

w e m a y e x am i n e th e p a rall e l to i t in th e la n gua ge o f
c hildre n w h e n th ey a r e firs t l e arn in g to s peak T o .

”
a child s uch a w o rd a s ball may m e an anythi n g wh i c h
h as o n e O f th e ch a ra c te ri sti c s O f a ball fo r e x a mp le th a t
, ,

O f r o un dn e s s T h us h e m ay c all an a ppl e “ ball o r a ”

.
,

r o un d s to ne o r th e m o o n o r anythi n g r o un d T o him th e
, ,
.

w o rd “ ”
ball e xpr es se s th e ro o t idea O f a ny thin g w i th
-
1 86 M O D E R N E N GL I S H

r i s in l an gua ge s in c e i t i s by an i nte rnal de vel o p

c ea t o n ,

m e nt o f i ts o wn res o urc es th at th e l an g uag e i n crea s es

its p o we r a nd v a ri e ty T hi s r e main s to d ay a fre que n t
.
-

m e th o d O f gr o w th in l a n guag e a n d s o m e O f th e m o re
.
,

i m p o rtan t Of thes e c h an ge s whi ch may be gro upe d unde r ,

th e g e n e ra l h e a d O f di ffe r en tia ti o n I n v o c a b ul a ry w ill ,

n o w be c o n sid e red .

3 D i ffe r e n t i a t i o n b y G r a d a t i o n
. A S a m e an s o f .

di ffe r e nti ati n g th e m e an in g O f wo rd s gra dati o n is n o ,

l o n ge r an a c tiv e prin c ipl e in E n gli s h altho th e wo rk ,

i n gs O f it i n e arli e r p e ri o d s a r e s till t o be Obs e rve d i n

m an y M o de rn E n glis h w o rds T h e w ay in w hi c h w o rds .

a r e d i ffe r e n ti a te d i n m e a n in g by gra d a ti o n m a y be b e s t

des crib e d by m ea ns O f an ill ustra ti o n W e ha v e fo r .

,

”
e x a mpl e th e v e rb
,
drive w ith i ts prin ci p al pa r ts ,

” ” ”
T h e fo rm drive may a ls o
”
drive ,
dro v e driv en ,
.

“
be a n o un a s i n th e phra se
, a l o n g driv e S O al s o

dr o v e app e ar s a s a n o un in a dro v e o f c a ttl e a nd

“
th e fir s t thr e e l e tte r s O f driv e n i n a drift O f sn o w .

W e h a v e th e r e fo re i n th es e wo rds a s o r t O f r o o t fo rm
, ,
-

O f wo rd fo r th e g e n e r al i d e a o f drivi n g w hi c h migh t be ,

e xpr es s e d by m e r e ly th e c o n so n an t f ra m ew o rk O f i t as

d r o o r d rf T o diffe r e nti a te thi s g e n e raliz ed r o o t

.

m e a ni n g th e la n guage plac es diffe re n t vo w el s in this

,

c o n s o n a n t fra m e i n th is i n s ta n c e th e v o w e l s a i O a n d i
, , ,
.

G ra d ati o n i s m o s t re a dily Ob s e rv ed in M o d e rn E n gli s h

in th e te n s e fo rm a ti o n o f th e i rr e g ula r o r s tr o n g v e rb s ,
”
s un g
”
as si n g s an g
,
to w hi c h a d d al s o th e n o un
, ,

“ so n g ” “ ride ” “ ro de “ ”
ridd e n to which a dd th e ”
, , ,

”
raid an d ro ad “ “ ri s e ” “ ro s e ” “
ri sen
n o un s , ,

” ” ”
bea r ,
b o re bo rn e to w hich a dd th e n o un bi er
, , ,
”
th a t u p o n w hich a b o dy i s b o rn e a n d b ai rn o n e wh o , ,
 E N GL IS H W OR DS 1 87

is bo rn in th e n atural s en s e and th e n o un s bir th a n d

,

”
burde n .
M a ny o f th e w o rd s o f th e l a n g uage a re th us
h e ld to ge the r in s uc h gra da ti o n gr o up s al l o f th e w o rds ,

o f th e r e s p e c tiv e gro up s ha vi n g th e s a m e g e n e ra l m e a n i n g

but e ac h bei n g a s p e c i fi c a pplic a ti o n o f th a t m e a n i n g .

No t all w o rds h o w e v e r a r e m e m b e r s o f gra da ti o n gr o up s

, , ,

s o me o f th e o lde s t a n d m o s t fa m i li a r w o rd s in th e l a n

guage s uc h a s h o us e “ ”
s t o ne
”
wa te r e tc a pp a r
”
, , , , .
,

e n tl
y s ta n di n g q ui te s e p a r ate a n d i nd e p e n d e nt W o rd s .

o f thi s so rt a r e th e r e fo r e th e o n ly rec o g n iz a bl e s ur vi v
, ,

i ng re pr es e nta tiv e s o f th e o rigin al r o o t wo rd s -

.

4 D i ffe r e n t i a t i o n b y C o m p o s i t i o n
. T h e m e th o d .

o f w o rd fo rm a ti o n o r di fie r e n tia ti o n by c o m p o s i ti o n i s

o n e th a t h a s e x is te d fr o m v e ry e a rl
y ti m es a n d i s s till

a c tiv e ly e mpl o e d i n th e E n gl i s h l an g uag e I t c o n si s ts

y .

n o t in c h an gi n g th e r o o t fo r m o f th e w o rd bu t i n a d d
-
,

i ng s o me thi ng to it in plac i n g s id e by s id e two pre vi

,

o u sl y i nd ep e n d e n t e l em e n ts w hi c h th en fus e i n to a s i n gl e
,

m eani n g diffe re nt fro m th e m e an in g o f e i th e r e l e m en t

,

ta k en si n gly .T h e m o s t o bvi o us kin d o f c o mp os i tio n is

th at i n w hi ch w e h av e th e j ux tap o s i ti o n o f tw o w o rd s
e a c h o f w hi c h ta k e n s e p a ra te ly h a s a d e fi n i te an d clea r
, ,

m e a ni ng W e m ay c all thi s th e c o mp o s i tio n o f full

.

w o rds th e v a ri o us ki n ds o f full w o rds s till c o mp o und e d

,
-

i n E ngli s h b ein g as fo ll o w s

( )
a N o un n o un c o mp o un d s , as i n typ ewr i ter , d o or s i l l , -

s a w -h o r s e , wi n d o w-f r a me, p l e a s ur e -tr i

p , p l e a s ur e gr o un d ,

M a yf a ir , s h o t- un , s i l ver tzp
( h i zz l y b e ar ) , In a ll
’

g t e gr et c .

th e s e i n s t a nc e s w e h a ve t wo i d e a s l o o s e l y a p p ro x im a te d , to
for m a ne w id e a , th e s p ec i fic va l ue of t h e n e w i d e a b e i ng
i n tr us te d to t h e i nf e r e nc e of th e s p e a k er or h e a r er . T h is
m e th o d of c o mp o s i tio n a p p ro a c h e s t h e us e of th e a d e c tivej
1 88 M O DE R N E NG LI SH

b e f o r e th e no un, but d iff ers f ro m it, as c an be s ee n by com

p a r i ng a go l d ri n g a nd a g o l d mi n e or th e s e n te nc e s

T h is c a ne h as a s il ve r ti p a nd T h i s be a r is a s il ve r ti
p .
”

n o un c o mp o und s , a s
( )
b A d j e c tive
"
i n bl a ckbir d , bla ck
ber r y , Br a d wa y, h igh wa y, wh i tewa s h , h o tbed , busybo d y,
p
s h or tcut, qui cks tep , s weetbr ea d , e tc .

() 0 N o un a d e c ti
j ve co mp o und s , i n
as p e nn y
-w s
i e , p o un d
f o o li s h , wa ter ti gh t, gr a s s gr een ,
- -
ma n s h ap ed , p ur s e p ro ud ,
- -

s to n e- co l d c f K i ng R i ch a r d I I I , A c t I , S c 2 , l 5
. . . : Po o r
key -
co l d figure of a h o l y ki ng .

()
d A d ve r b verb c o mp o und s , f o rmi ng n o un s , as in
d ownf a ll, d ownp o ur, o utp ut, up s ta r t, up s h o t, o fi s h o o t, un d er to w,

e tc .

() e V e rb a d ve r b c o mp o und s , f o r mi ng n o un s , i n w o rd s
us uall y o f o nl y v er y c o l l o qui al r “th e ”
c h a a c te r , a s in g by,
o -

a co me - d o wn,
” ”
a br ea k-up , a cut-o fi; a wa lk-o ver ,
”
a d ug-o ut, e tc .

(1) A d j ec tive o r ad v e rb a d e c tive o r a d ve

j rb ,
as i n blue

gr een , un h ea r d of , e ver
- -
yo ung, evergr een , lo ng-wi n d ed , wo r l d ly
wis e, o utr igh t.

(g) A d v e rb ve rb c o m p o und s , fo r mi ng v e rb s , as in un d o ,

o ver d o , un d err a te, ga i n s a y, wi th s ta n d , e tc .

( )
h P r ep o s iti o n c o m p o und s, as in i nto , beca us e, bes i d e
a l o ngsi d e, un to , un ti l , e tc .

()
i P a rti c l e c o mp o un d s , as in n e ver th el es s , a lth o ugh
( ) ,

a l togeth er , n o twi th s ta n d in g, a l wa ys , e tc .

(j ) V e rb s te m
( o r igi n a ll y i mp e r a tive ) n o un, e x p r e s s i ng
th e o b ect o f
j th e a c tio n o f t h e ve r b i d e a , as i n br e a kwa te r ,
br ea kf a s t, d r i vew a y , s ta n dp o i n t, s cap egr a ce, sca r ecr o w , turn
1
key , ca r r ya l l , e tc .

c o m p o und s ,
()
k Ph ra s e
gr o up s of wo rd s wh i c h th r o ugh
l o ng c us to m h av e c o me to b e wr i tte n to ge th e r , as in f a th er

See B ra d l e y, JV
1 I a king of E nglis h , p 1 1 4 T o th is g ro up el o n gs
. . b
vie w-p oi nt, a c o mp o un d s o re c e nt t h a t i t is r e ga r d e d a s o e c ti o na l e b y bj b
ma ny .
1 90 M O DE R N E N G L I S H

n o s tr i l, fr o m O l d
E n gli sh n os “ n o s e-h ol e
pyr e t ,

s ta r bor d fr o m O l d E ngli s h s teor

, bor d ste e r -b o ard , ,

th e b o a rd (c f s e a b o a rd ) o r s id e o f a b o at fr o m w hi c h
.
-
, ,

th e s tee ri n g 1 s d o ne ; hus sy fro m O l d E ngli s h hus , wif ,

“ h o us e w ife ” -
; woma n fro m O ld E n glish wif , ma n ;
”
g o ssi
p fr
, o m O l d E n gli s h g o d s i b li te r a lly g o d fri e n d ,
-
,

us e d firs t o f th e s p o n s o rs a t b ap ti s m th e n o f a n fa mil
y ,

i ar fri e n d o f th e fa m ily th e n by n at ura l tran s i ti o n to its

,

pr e s en t m e an ing o f g o ss ip ; s tir r up fro m O l d E ngli sh ,

s tig
“ m o un tin g r o p e d i a s i n dip se y
”
ra
p , p
-
s ey
(
ch an tey) fro m d eep , s ea ; br i mston e fr o m br in (by ,

“ ”
m etath es is fr o m burn c f G erm br e nn e n) s ton e
.
, .
,

bu r n s t o n e
-
ba r n fr o m O l d E ngli s h ber
,
oer n ber ,
”
b arley oer n , building th e w ho le w o rd m e aning
, , ,

th e re fo re buildin g in w hich b arley was k e pt

, ar

cha r d fro m O l d E n glis h or t yea r d lite rally ga rde n “

, ,

”
y ard th e firs t e l e m e n t b e in g pro b ably th e s am e a s
,

L ati n h or tus I n a wo rd l ik e cup boa r d th e c o mp o und h a s

.

bec o m e o b s c ure d in pr on un c iati o n alth o t h e sp ellin g ,

still k eep s cle a r th e e l e m en ts o f w hi c h it i s c o mp o s e d .

I n m a ny i ns tan c e s p o p ul ar e tym ol o gy h a s e nd e av o re d to
m a k e full c o mp o und s o ut o f w o rds w hich we re o f q uite
diffe r ent e tym o l o gic al o rigin T h us th e w o rd hi ccoug h .
,

pro n o un c e d ki ckup s e e m s really to be de rive d fro m a

,

fo rm h ic ket th e firs t sylla bl e hi ck b ein g alli e d to th e

,

fo rm h a ck a s in “ a h a cki n g c o u
”
gh a n d th e syllable ,

- e t be i n g m e re l a d i m i n u tiv e s uffix T h e S p e lli n g h i c

y .

c o u h a r o se a pp a r e n tly b e c a use th e w o rd w as th o ught

g
to h a v e so m e th in g to d o w i th th e w o rd c o ugh O th e r ,

fa mil ia r i n s tan c e s o f simil a r p o p ul a r e tym o l o gi e s a r e

s a r r ow gr a s s fro m a sp a r agus ; a s h f a l t fr o m a s ha lt
p
-
p ,

th e Fre n ch w o rd c h a use e m ea n i n g a
'

ca us ewa y fr o m ,
 E N G LI S H WO R D S 1 91

high r oad cr a yfis h o r p o pul a rly cr a wfis h from O l d

-
, ,

Fr e n c h cr evi ce M od e r n Fr e n ch ecr evi ss e T h e w o rd

’
.
,

h a ckn eye d a s i n “ a h a ckn e ed h r a se

”
m e a ni n g s o m e
, y p ,

thi ng w o rn d o wn fro m c o n s ta n t us a g e de rive d fr o m th e ,

”
O l d Fr e n c h h a guenee a n a m bli n g h o r se o r m ar e th en
’

, ,

by e x te ns io n a ny h o rse p ut o ut to publi c hir e a nd by

, ,

s ti l l fur th e r e x te n s i o n a n th i n g o v e r w o rk e d i s s o me
y , ,

tim e s e tym o l o giz ed i n to h a ck kn ee d I n a l l th e s e i n -

.

s tan c es m o r e o r l ess u n fam ilia r w o rd s a r e e xpl ai n e d in

te r m s o f o the r w o rd s th e fo rm s o f w hi c h a t l e as t a r e
,

m o re famili a r altho t heir c o nn e c ti o n in m eanin g wi th

,

th e o rigin al w o r d i s o fte n qui te r e m o te .

6 C o m p o s it i o n a l E l e m e nt s
. B es id es th e c o mpo .

s iti o n o f full w o rd s E ngl i s h m a k es fre q u e n t u se o f c e r

-
,

tai n w o rd fo rm s w h ic h tak en s ep ara tely d o n o t h a v e

-

a ny c l e a r a n d f ull m
, ,

e a ni n g but w hi c h are u s e d o n ly a s ,

prefix es a n d s ufii x e s to m ake m o re S p e c ifi c th e meani ng

o f o th e r w o rds T h e s e c o m p o siti o n al e l e m e nts a s th e y
.
,

m ay be call e d m ay p o ss ibly a ll h av e b e e n full w o rds a t

,
-

s o m e r e m o te p e ri o d but if s o thi s full m e a n in g o f m o s t

,

o f th e m h a s be e n l o st m o r e c o mpl e t e l th a n i t h a s i n th e
y
c a se o f th e o b s c ur e c o m p o un ds m e n ti o n e d i n th e p r e
c e di n g s e c ti o n T h e m e th o d by whi c h c o m p o sitio n a l
.

e l e m e n ts a r e u s ed to d iffe r e n ti a te th e m e an in g o f w o rd s

i s to o fa m il ia r to n e e d e x te n de d ill us tra ti o n T h e el e .

m e n t d orn fo r e x a m pl e fo rm s c o m p o un ds lik e ki ngd om

-
, , ,

wi s d o m f r e e d o m e tc
, h oo d fo r m s th e c o m p o un d s
, .
-

knig hth o o d , c h ild h oo d , ma n h oo d , p r i es th o o d e tc ; -s h ip , .

a pp e ars in f r i en d s h ip , ki n s h ip , wor s h ip , f e l l o ws h ip ,
e tc ; .

- er i s v e r
y co mm o n as a s uffi x in n o un s of a gen cy , as

in ba ker , wr i ter , si ng er , d r iver, teeto ta l er , a bs ta in e r , e tc .

Ex am pl es of pre fi x e s ar e a in a r i s e , a l ig h t ; be i n be d e ck,
192 M O DE R N E N GL I S H

ber a te, be sp e a k, e tc It i s to be n o te d that th e fr ee use

.

o f c o mp o s i ti o n al e l e m e n ts to fo rm n e w w o r ds h a s b e e n

v e ry m uch re s tric te d by tra diti o n al us age W i th th e .

s uffix i h w e c an fo rm th e n o un
-
ou th fro m o un t uth
y y g r ,

fr o m tr ue; mi r th fr o m m er (r y) wea l th fr o m wea l h ea lth , ,

fr o m h ea l e tc ; b ut w e ca nno t fo rm g l o omth fro m g l o om

, .
,

o r wr o ngth fr o m wr ong o r i ll th fr o m i l l e tc M o re o ve r ,
, , .

c e rtain c o mp os iti on al e lem e nts ten d to tak e o n a ve ry

S p e cific v a l ue n o t o f c o urs e to th e e x te nt o f b ec o mi n g
,

full w o rd s a lth o th ey a cquire th e p o w e r o f ch angi ng

-
,

th e r o o t w o rd in a ve ry de fin ite w ay T h us th e pre fix .

be h as a cq uire d to a c o n sid e rable e xt e nt th e p o we r o f

givin g a de ro ga to ry or slightly c o nte mp tuo us s en s e to
th e w o rd with w hi ch i t is c o mp o un de d as in bep r a i s e , ,

bef og , be d eck, be d iz en, be d evi l , be l a bo r , be d a ub, besmea r ,

be mi r e, befu d d l e, be c a l m, be d r aggl e , bemus e . T hi s v al ue
’
of be i s illus trate d i n th e fo ll o wi n g s tan z a of Kipli ng s
Cr uis er s

As o ur m o th e r, th e Frigate , bep a inted an d fine,

M ad e pl ay fo r h e r b ul l y, th e Sh ip o f th e Li n e ;
So we , h e r b o l d d a ugh te r s b y i ro n a n d fire,
A c co s t a n d d e s tr o y t o o ur m a s te r s d es ire
’
.

So a sol th e s uffi x r d wh en it is limi ted to p ers ons is

-a
, ,

s d
u e on ly in a d e ro gato ry s e n s e as in c owa r d slugga r d
, , ,

n igg a r d , wiza r d , d ul l a r d , d a sta r d , ba s ta r d , d ota r d , d r unk

ard , bes ide w hich w e ha ve
s uch a s o nl y a fe w n o un s,

blizza r d giz z a r d cus ta r d mus ta r d e tc o f v a ri o us e tym o

, , , , .
,

l o gic a l o rigi n s T h e s uffix i sh als o h as an i nte re stin g

.
-

hi s to ry I n th e e a rli e r p e ri o ds o f th e lan guage it was

.

use d to fo rm a dj e c tive s o f q u ali ty w i th o ut p a rtic ul a r

”
c o n n o tatio n a s i n E ng l is c E n glis h f ol cis c fo l kis h
, , , ,

( i .e t o
. u se
,
th e m o d e r n L a ti n e q uiv a l e n t w o rd
p p
O ,
1 94 M O D E R N E N G LI S H

th e n a me of t h e b ir d , b e c o m e s al s o th e n a m e f o r th e h o is ting
m a c hi ne , th e m o s t n o t a bl e th i ng a b o ut b o th c ra n e s b e i ng th e ir
l o ng l e gs . T h e w o rd h or s e, fir s t th e n a me of th e a ni mal ,

m ay me a n al so a p ie c e of gy mn a s ium a p p a r a tus , o r a ra ck
f o r h a ngi ng o b e c ts
j on, as a c l o th e s -h o r s e T he . no un

key f r o m i ts firs t l i te r a l s ens e p as s e s to n ume r o us me ta

p h o ri c a l s e ns e s , a s , fo r e x a mp l e ,
i ts us e to d e s igna te k
a bo o k
wh i c h give s a n swe rs to p r o b l e m s c o n ta i n e d i n a n o th e r b o o k ;
o r we m a y S p e ak o f a n i mp o r ta nt f a c t a s
“ th e k e y to th e
mys te ry P r i ma r il y th e w o rd m e a nt
”
ch es t o nl y a box
‘

.
,
us u

a lly a box i n wh i ch va l ua bl e s wer e k e p t ; b ut a b o ut th e

Si xte e nth c e ntur y it c am e to b e us e d a l s o o f th e f r a m e wo rk

of th e b r e a s t wh i c h e ncl o s e s th e h e a rt , a fig ur a tive us e w h ic h
is e x e mpl ifie d i n va rl o us c o n s c io us m e ta p h o rs b e fo re i t
s e ttl e s d o wn i n to th e l i tera l m e a ni ng . T h us w e h a ve th e
i n Sh a k s p e r e R i ch a r d I I , A c t I , S c 1 , 11
’
f o l l o win g c o upl e t s . .

1 8 0— 1 8 1
j e wel in te n ti me s b a rr d -up ch e st,
’
A a -

”
Is a bold s p i r it in a l o ya l b re a s t .

S h a ks p e r e
’
s c o n te m p o rary , Sir J o h n D avie s , e l a b o ra t e s th e
s a me figur e i n th e f o ll o wi ng s ta nz a o f h i s N o s ee T e Ip s u m ‘

wi th a f ul l ne s s o f d e ta il wh i c h to a mo d e r n wri te r wo ul d b e .

q uit e i mp o s s ibl e no w th a t th e wo rd ch es t h as a c q uir e d l iter a l

a nd c o mmo np l a c e m e an i ngs
O i gn o ra n t po o r m a n ! wh a t d o s t th o u b e ar e
L o c kt up w i th i n th e c ask e t o f th y b r e st ?
W h a t i e we l s , a nd wh a t ri c h e s h a s t th o u th e re 3

Wh at h e ave nl y tre asure in .so we ak e a ch e st ! 1

T hi s f e el i ng f o r th e figur a tive us e o f ch es t m ay b e f urth e r

ill us t ra te d b y th e us e o f bo x I n a s i mi l a r w a y i n th e f ol l o wi ng
f m s e ve nte e n th c e nt ury wri te r :
“ I h d r
p a s s a ge r o a a y o u s .

l a te l y by a s a fe h a n d , wh e re i n I fin d yo u o p e n to me all th e
” 2
Bo x e s of y o ur Br e a s t .

1 D a vie s , N osc e T e I p s um, e d Gro sart, I , 1 14 . .

2 Ho we l l , Fa mil ia r L etters , e d a c o s , I I , 3 78 . J b .
 E N G LIS H WO R D S 1 95

T h e p a rts o f th e h uma n b o d y ar e us e d ve ry fre que ntl y with

th i s tr a n s f e rre d m e ta ph o r ic a l val ue T h us h ea d m ay b e us e d .

o f th e h e a d o f a n a il , s c r e w , o r p i n ; o f a h e a d o f l e t tuce th e
”
f r o nt o f a n e ngin e , a s ill us tra te d b y h e a d ligh t ; a nd o f -

m a ny o th e r S imil a r o b e c ts j ; we al s o s p e ak of th e l eg of a

t a bl e o r ch air ; th e f oo t o f a mo unta in ; th e h a n d of a wa tc h
or d i a l ; th e eye o f a ne e d l e ; th e n os e of a bo a t or S h ip ; th e
i n C o wp er J o hn
’
ea r , me a ni ng h a nd l e , o f a b o ttl e , as s

G ilp i n
’
s R id e , E a c h b o ttl e h a d a c urli ng e a r
1
; th e m o uth of

a ve s s e l o r a river ; th e bea r d of a h e ad of wh e a t or b a rl ey ;
th e teeth of a s aw ; th e to ngue of a w a go n ; th e ch eek o f
‘

a p e a c h ; th e a r m o f a l e ve r ; th e bo s o m o f th e e arth ; a nd
th e re are m a ny o th e r i ns ta nc e s , l ite ral l y to o nume ro us to
m e ntio n .

()
2 A wo r d m a y b e ch a nge d fr o m a ph ys rc a l s e n s e
c o ncr e te

to a n i ntell e c tua l o r S p i ritua l s e ns e , a s th e a d j e c tive bur n

i ng i n “ a b ur ning d e s ir e,
”
o r co l d i n
“ a c o l d d i s p o s i tio n,
”

o r h ea vy i n a h e a vy h e a rt T h e wo rd s a d h ad o rigi n a l l y a
.

p yh s ic a l m e a n i n g w h ic h p e r s i s t s , h o we ve r , o nl y i n a f e w us e s ,

l i ke s a d -i r o n , o r a s d e s c rip tive o f h e avy , s o ggy c a k e o r b r e ad .

T he ad j e c tive s ullen h as a s o me wh a t S i mil a r h is to ry . I t is

d erive d ul tima te l y f r o m a L a te L ati n s o l a n us , t h ro ugh th e
Fr e nc h , me a nin g “ s i ngl e , so l i ta r
”
T h us C h a uc e r i n h i s
y .

P a r l ement of F o ul es (1 6 0 7) h a s t h e c uc ko o s a y th at i f h e
.
-

c an h a ve h is m a te , th e o th e r bird s m a y b e s ull e n , o r i n
Ch a uc er T h i s m e a ni ng
’
s s p elli ng, sole n a l l t h e ir l ive s
y , .

p e rs i s ts f airl y l a te , a s ma y b e s e e n f ro m its u s e b y D e f o e
“
(E ss a y o n P r o ects , L o n d o n , 1 6 9 7 ,
j p B u t t h ere i s a .

d ire c t Signi fic a tio n o f W o rd s , o r a C a d e n c e i n E xp r e s s i o n ,

wh ic h we c al l s p e a ki ng Se n s e th i s , l ik e T r uth , i s s ull en a nd
th e s a me , e ve r wa s a nd wil l b e so i n wh a t m a n n e r a nd in
”
wh at L a ngua ge s o eve r t is ex p r e s s d . F ro m s i ngl e o r s o l i

1 T h e wo r d ea r , in ea r o f co r n , is e tym o l o gic all y a d iffe r e nt wo r d ,

t h oug h n o w i t i s us uall y th o ugh t of as b e in
g a m et a ph o rica l use o f th e
na me o f p a rt of th e b o d y .
196 M O D E R N E NGLI S H

r
ta y in th e p h ys i c a l s e ns e to th e me aning a l o o f , sullen, in th e
r
s p i it ual o r me nt a l s e ns e , is an e as y tra n s iti o n .

( )
3 A n i nt e ll e ctual wo r d , on th e o th er h a nd , ma y b e us e d
to d e s ign a te a c o n c r e te p e r s o n o r O bj e ct , a s th e wo rd wi t, i n

i ts i ntell e ctua l s e ns e me a n ing b ril li a n ce or i nge n uity , i n i ts

c o n c re te s e n s e , a s i n th e s e nte n c e H e is a gre a t wit , me a n
”

wi tty m a n
”
i ng a . SO tr us t i n i ts i n te l l e c tua l s e ns e i s th e
n am e o f an a b s tr a c t q ua l i ty, in its r
c o n c e te s e ns e it i s th e
n a me O f a g ro u
p of men o rga ni e d z fo r c ertai n u
p p o s e r
s O f
b us i ne s s . D i a l e c tal l y a nd c o l l o q uia l l y , al so th e r
abs t a c t

mi s er y t ak e s in l ik e
’
n o un a c o nc r e te s e ns e s e nte nc e s I ve
mi s e ry i n my b a ck co mp a r e
”
t al s o th e us e Of a in
go a ; p
as bo th a b s tra c t a n d c o nc r e te .

()
4 W o rd s a p pro p ri a te to l iving b e ings ma y b e tr a n s f erre d
to i na nim a te Ob j e cts . T hi s p r o c e s s i s fr e que ntl y e x e mpl ifie d
i n p o e try , wh ere R us kin h a s give n it th e n a m e p a th e ti c

f a l l a cy T h us C o l e ri d ge i n Th e A n ci en t M a r i n er s p e a k s O f
”
.

“ t h e s ill b uck e ts ” a nd R usk in uo tes s uch l i ne s a s “ th e

y , q
I n o rd in ary c o ll o qui al us e we h ave
” 1
c rue l , c r a wl i ng f o a m .

d umb wa i te r,
” ”
s uc h p h r a se s as a a bl i nd a ll e
y , a cr in g
y
ne e d , e tc . T h ese a re , o r we r e o r igi na l l
y , very s tro ng me t a
p h o r s a nd h a d th e e ffe c t O f p e rs o ni fyi ng th e Ob j ec ts to wh i c h
th e y a
pp l iT h ey d iffe r
e d . th us fr o m th e e x a mp l e s giv e n und e r
s uc h a s th e
“ l eg O f a c h a i r , wh ic h i s a p e rf e ctly ma tte r
”

”
O f -f a c t us e o f th e wo rd l eg .

( )
5 W o r d s a p p r o p ri a t e t o o n e gr o up o f s e n s e p e r c e p ti o n s

may b e e x te nd e d i n th e ir us e by a p pl i
y gn th e m to a d iff e r e nt
o u as wh e n we s p e ak O f a l o ud c olor or
“a s we e t
gr p,
vo i c e ” “a d ull so und ,
”
a brigh t m el o d y, e tc .
,

1 M od ern P a inters P a rt I V , C h apte r ! II :

,
T h e fo a m i s n o t cruel ,

n e ith e r d o e s it c ra wl . T he s ta te O f min d wh i ch a tt r i butes t o i t th es e ch ar

a cte rs O f a l i vi ng cr ea t ure IS o ne i n w h i c h th e
i s unh inge d by gr ie f r ea s o n .

A l l vio l e nt f eel in gs h a ve th e s a me e ffec t T h e y p ro d uce in us a fal s e n ess i n

.

a ll o ur i m p ressio n s o f e x te rn al t h i ngs , wh ich I wo ul d ge ne r all y ch a ra c te ri e z

’
as th e P a th eti c F al l a cy .
198 M O DE RN E N GLI S H

()
3 V e rb s b e co me no un s , a s in a br a n d Of go o d s , fr o m
bra nd ing ;
”
th e a ct o f a d r i ve of l o gs th e h elp ( ,
i e . .

th e s e r va n ts ) to give o ne a l ifi a find th e d o mi
n a n t, p ri mo rd ia l b e as t w h o h a d m a d e h i s ki ll a nd f o und it
nd o n , c a n of th e Wi l d ) ;
“ Y e ld th e m p er mi t to
go o d ( L o i
ri c h , J ud i th a n d H o l of er n es ;
eat th e s a c r e d co r n ( A l d ) a

co m bi n e
”
.

N s b e co me ve r b s , in
()
4 o un as to h o us e th e p o o r
ca rp et a r o o m to s to n e a c at to br id ge a s t ea m r
”
to bo a r d a S h ip o r tr a i n .

r o no un s b e c o me
“I n th e ly
()
5 P n o un s , as in s o uth on

th e s h es
wi th yo ung a nd th e f a t h e b e a rs -
re tire fo r th e Sl e e p .

( R o o se ve l t,
H un ti n g th e G r i s ly, p .

e rb s b e co me ve r b s H e d own ed h is
()
6 A d v , as in o p p o
” ‘
”
ne n t th e fir s t ro und ; T h en h e o
j s with h i s h at .

v rb s b e c o me
“N o w I s th e time
( )
7 A d e n o uns , a s a c c e p te d
”
A n o is e w a s h e a rd fro m wi th o ut I h ave j us t c o me f ro m
”
th er e .

( )
8 A d j e c tiv e s b e c o me v e rb s , as in T h e h o use f r o n ts th e
r
st e et A c id s o urs m ilk Wh o wil l br o wn th e to a s t
”
H e ba cked th e h o rs e , e tc .

r e p o s i tio n s b eco m e
()9 P a d e c tive s ,
j as in a th r o ugh
tra i n “ th e un d er d o g “b
y p o d uc t
r i n bys ta nd er ,
bywo r d , e tc , th e p rep o s itio n
. h a s b e e n unite d to a no th e r wo r d
fo rming a cl o s e c o mp o und T h e wo rd by-l a ws i s s o me ti me s
.

mi s take nl y s up p o s e d to b e m a d e up o f th e pr e p o s itio n by +
th e n o un l a w , t h e c o mp o und h a ving th e s e n s e o f s eco nd ar or
y
mino r l a w . h o w eve r , th e el e m e nt by i n
In o rigi n, a by-l a w i s
S c a nd in avi a n wo r d m ea ning “ ”
to wn , a s it a p p e ar s i n p l a c e
na mes l ike Wh i tby, D er by, e tc T h e o ri gi nal me a ning o f th e .

c o mpo un d w a s th e re f o r e
”
to wn l a w , a n d th is , i n d i s tinc tio n
to th e ge n e ra l o r n a ti o n al l a w, r e a d il
y p a s s e d o ve r i nto th e
d e rived mo d e r n m e a n i ng of s eco nd a r
y o r mi no r l a w .

r b s b e c o me
“th e
( ) ad j e c tive s , in
‘

1 0 A d ve as ofi h o rs e
th e th en B i sh o p of L i ch field (N e w m a n , A p o lo i a , p 3 1
g ) .
 E N G LI S H WO R D S
.
199

w a iting f o r th e d o wn m a il to Fa l mo uth (ib id .

,p .

“ o ve r d o wn ti mb e r
o uter d ark ne s s ro ck s a nd
(R o o se

vel t, H un ti ng th e G r i s ly , p .

( )
1 1 V e rb s us ua l l y i n tra n s itive b e c o me tra ns itive , as in
C o r n e l l will row W i s c o ns in ” “ to w a l k a h o rs e “ to
;
wa lk th e
” “to ump f e nc e
”
cf W h itma n
s tr e e ts ; j a ; .
, in
Cap ta i n , m y Cap ta i n : I wa lk th e d e ck my c a p ta i n l i es .

V r a n s itive b e c o m e i n tr a n s i tive , a s i n
( )
1 2 e r b s us ua ll
y t
m
”
I
’ ’
I d on t g b
s in
ut f o,n d o f l a
p y gi n .

T o s o m e s l igh t e xt e nt w e a l s o h ave d iffe r e nti a tio n by

a cc e n t i n M o d e r n E ngl i s h T h us we h a ve th e ve rb s p erf ume ,
’
.

c o mp o un d w ith th e
’
c o rr e s p o nd i ng
’ ’
,
co n tra ct , p r esen t ,
e tc .
,

p e r f ume, c o m p o un d , c o n tr a ct, p r es en t, e tc S o me
’ ’ ’ ’
n o un s .

ti me s th e d i ffe re nc e i n a c c e nt i s a cc o mp a ni e d b y o th er s ligh t
d iffe re n c e s of f o rm a nd
p r o nunc i a t o n , i as in th e a d e c ti
j ve s
h u ma n, h uma n e
’ ’
,
an
’
tic , a ntique ’
.

9 . S l ang c o nside ra ti o n o f creati o n in language

. A ny ,

o r th e difi e r e n tia ti o n in th e m e a n i n g s O f w o rd s m us t ,

ne c e s s a ril t ak e u t h e q u s ti o n O f s l a n g T h e r e is a n
y p e .

in iti al di ffic ul ty ho w eve r in tha t it i s e x tre m e ly hard to

, ,

giv e a s ati sfac to ry de fin itio n o f s lan g T h e m atte r is .

ve ry l a rge ly o ne o f ind ividua l fe elin g Wha t i s r e .

ga rde d as s la ng by o n e p e r s o n is r e garde d as p e rfe c tly

c o rre c t c o l o rles s E n glis h by a n o th e r
,
T h us th e phr a s es .

“o n t h e w r o n g ta ck ” “to o bac k o n o n e ” o r t o giv e

g , ,

o n es e l f a wa
y e tc m a
y, b e r e g a rde d b .
y o n e sp e a k e r
,

me re ly a s go o d vig o r o us c o llo q ui al E n glis h w h e r e as ,

a n o th e r o v e r c a uti o us s p eak e r m a
- r e j e c t th e m as u tte rl
y y
re pr e h e n s i bl e a n d s l a n gy
”
SO als o th e phr a se o ut o f “
.

s igh t a cq uir e d a c e r ta in sl a n g us e w hich fo r a ti m e was

wid e ly c urr e n t ; but c e r ta i nly n o o n e wo uld thin k th a t

L o w ell m e a n t to us e th e phra s e w ith th is v al ue in th e
fo ll o wi n g l in e s fr o m th e Vi si on of S i r L a unf a l
 M O D E R N E N GL I S H

He s c ul p ture d e very s um me r d e ligh t

I n h is h al l s a n d c h a mb e r s o ut o f s i h t
g .

A S imila r ill us trati o n is to be fo un d in th e us e o f “fire

in th e s en s e o f disch arge o r e xp el a s i n to fire a p e rso n
,

o ut o f a r Oo m e x a c tly th e s a m e o cc urs i n Sh a k sp e re
,

wi th o ut a ny o f th e c o n n o ta ti o n O f s la n g i n th e fo llo win g ,

li n e s th e tho ugh t o f w hich is th e pre s en c e o f two spiri ts

, ,

o n e g o o d an d o n e e vil in m an s h e ar t
’
,

Y et th is sh al l I ne e r k no w, b ut l i ve in d o ub t
’
,

T ill m y bad a ngel fire my goo d o n e o ut .

S on nets, cx liv .

Indee d th e feeli ng fo r s lang is o n th e wh o le o f rathe r

m o dern o rigin I n Shak sp ere s d ay and e a rli e r th e l a n
.
’

gua ge w a s fr e e to be as e xpre ssive as it c o uld and in

a ny w ay i n w hich i t c o uld Slan g c a n a ris e o n ly wh en
.

c er tain thin gs a re n o t p ermi tte d for there is al w ays th e ,

fl avo r o f fo rbidd e n fr ui t in slan g I n re adi n g e arly .

a uth o rs c o n s eq ue n tly o n e i s fr e q ue n tly s tru ck by fo rms

, ,

o f e xpr es si o n whi c h w o uld h a v e b e e n s l a n g i f th e c o n

ve n ti o n s o f th e tim e h ad b ee n m o r e ri gi d T h us C hauc e r .

P m of F o ul es l 5 9 5 say s : T h er e be en mo s ter r es
( a r l e e n t )
,
.
,

od wot th a n a a ir e T h e r e a r e m o re s ta rs G o d k n o ws
g , p , , ,
”
th an a p a ir , w hich i s a clo s e p a ra ll e l to th e re c e nt S l a n g
e xpr e s si o n T h e re s m o re th a n o n e p e bble o n th e b e ac h
’
, .

I n th e D igby P l a y s (p 1 4 l 33 8) o c c urs th e e xpre ss i o n

.
, .
,

th ou to m a ke me a kn ig h t th a t wer e on th e n e we w hich
, ,

c ann o t fail to rem i n d o n e o f th e m o dern o n th e Side .

A n Eliz a b e tha n critic Ri c h ard C a r e w w r o te a li ttle

, ,

tr e atis e o n th e e xc e ll e n cy o f t h e E ngli s h to n g ue a b o ut ,

th e ye ar 1 5 9 5 in w hich h e ill us tra te s th e r ic h n ess o f th e

\

E nglish l a ngua ge by s h o win g in h o w m any diffe re nt

w a y s w e c an get rid o f a p e r s o n ; h i s li s t i s a s fo ll o ws ,
2 02 M O D E R N E N GLI S H

1
( ) C o un te r w o rd s l g By c o unte r w o rds are
as s an .

m ean t s uch w o rds as are ch o s en by c o mm o n s o c ial un

d e rs tandi ng to d o s e rvic e fo r a great v ari ety O f us e s
‘

T h e s e w o rd s th us b e c o m e a s o rt o f bl an k c o un te r fo r ‘

c e rtai n ideas to which w e d o n o t then give exac t and

de fin i te e xpre s si o n T h e inv en tio n o f s uch w o rds i s a
.

s o ci al c o n ve n i e n c e ; i t i s n o t a l ways n e c e ss a ry to s tate

pre c is ely what we mean an d it is the refo r e Often c on

,

ven i e n t to h av e a n a cc e p te d c o nv e n ti o na l w o rd to tak e
,

th e pl a c e o f a s p e cific w o rd Such c o un te r w o rds i n

.

pre s en t use are w o rds lik e n i ce (fo r th e pr e ci s e m e an in g

O f w hich s e e th e di c ti o n a ry ) in all s o r ts O f phrase s a s
, ,
” “ ” ”
in a n i c e tim e , a n ic e walk a n ic e pl a c e
, a n ic e ,
” ”
d ay , a n ic e di nn e r e tc ; o r i ts c o n tra s ti n g c o un te r
,
.

w o rd a wf ul a s i n “ a n aw ful j o b
”
a wful w ea th e r
”
, , , ,
”
a n a w ful b o r e e tc, C o un te r w o rds be c a us e o f the ir
.

c o ns tan t us e tend to b e c o m e we ake ne d i n value to be ,

c o m e alm o s t c o l o rl e s s in m e a nin g with th e re sult th at ,

th ey in dic ate me re ly a g e n e ra l a tti tu d e O f mi n d o f th e

s p ea k e r a s fa v o r a bl e o r un fav o ra bl e to th e o bj e c t s sp o k e n

Of . O w in g to thi s ten d e n c y it fr e q uen tly b e c o m e s

,

n e c e ss a ry to re pl ac e Old w o rn o ut c o un t e r w o rd s by n e w
-

on es A t th e t ime o f th e pres e n t w ri ting fo r e x ampl e

. , ,

th e a dj e c tiv e fi er ce is m uch u s e d a s a g e n e ra l s la ng te rm
o f di s a ppr o v al ; a n y thi n g w hi c h i s unpl e a s a nt i s fi er ce .

Wh e th e r o r n o t fier ce w ill b e c o m e a gene rally us e d

c o un te r w o rd lik e ni ce an d a wf ul a nd w ill th us we ak e n
, ,

to a v a gue ge n e ra l m e a ni ng tim e o nly w ill tell ,

The .

li k e lih o o d i s ho we ve r tha t in a Sh o rt tim e it will al to

, ,

gethe r disapp ea r L o o king b a ck o v e r o nly a fe w y ears

. ,

o n e) c a n r e c a ll numb e r s O f c o un te r w o rd s
,
o r phrases , ,

whic h s pra n g up an d w e re us e d fo r a tim e and the n

 E N GL I S H WO R D S 20 3

dropp e d c om ple tely o ut If we e x a m in e th e li te rature .

o f e a rl ie r p e ri o ds w e s h all find th a t e a c h h ad i ts o wn

c o unte r w o rd s T h us in th e e igh te e n th c e ntury th e

.

c o un te r w o rd us e d i n c o m m e n d a to ry s e n s e s e q uiva l e n t

to o ur n i c e wa s th e wo rd e l eg a n t I t w a s us ed in al l th e .

ways in w hi c h n i ce is n o w use d a nd in c e r tai n dire c ti o n s ,

i ts us e wa s m o re e x te n siv e a s i n s uc h phr a ses a s th e “

,
” “
e l e g an t a uth o r o f th e E s s a y o n M an A n e l e gan t e ss ay , ,
”
n o ve l o r p o em
, e tc I t h as p e r si ste d to th e pr e se n t tim e
, .
,

m a inly in th e phras e A n e le gan t tim e , I n th e Eli z a .

‘

b ethan p eri o d th e fa vo ri te c o un te r w o rd e q uivale nt to ,

n i c e an d e l ega n t wa s f a i r Such a pl ay a s Sh a k s p e re s
’
, .

L ove s L a bour s L os t w hich is v e ry c o n te mp o ra ry in its

’ ’
,

dic ti on i s full o f illustra ti o ns ; n o te e s p e cially th e be gi n

,

ni n g o f s c en e o n e i n ac t fo u r T h e va rie ty o f its us e .

m ay p e rh ap s be b e tte r i ll us tra te d by th e fo ll o wi n g p a s
sag e in pr os e tak e n fr o m o n e O f th e wo rk s O f a c o nte m
,

p or a r
y O f S h a k sp e r e

T h e re i s no w b uil d i ng i n A mien s a v e ry f a i r e N unn ery

fo r th e sa me C ar me l ite N unn e s , w h ic h do no w l ive i n
a no th e r N unn e ry th a t i s mo re O b s c ure a nd l e s s d el igh tf ul
f o r th e ir c o nt e mp l a tio n . T h ey re mo ve ro m th a t
s h o r tl
y f
w h ere i n th ey no w live to t h a t wh ic h i s n o w b uil d ing , b ec a us e

it i s a m o r e p r iva te a nd s o l i t a r
y p l a c e f o r th e i r m e d it a ti o n ,

a nd th e s e r vic e o f God . U nto th i s n ew N un n e ry th e r e

b el o nge th a f a ire g rd e n
a f ull of fine s p a c io us w alk e s , b e s e t
with s und r
y p l e a s a nt tr e es I w a s a t t h e m o n
. a s te r y O f th e

C a puc i n s , i n w h o s e c h urc h th e r e were two f a ir e a l ta r s , with

ma ny p ic ture s of Ch ri s t a nd S a i nt F r a n c i s . T h e y h a ve a

f a i re ga rd e n b el o ngi ng to th e ir M o na s te ry , ne ar e to wh i ch
th ey h a ve a C l o is te r , wh e r e in are h a nge d m a ny r e l igi o us

p i c tur e s , e mbl e m e s , a n d p o s i e s t e n d i ng t o m o r ti fic a tio n .

“A t S a i nt G e rma ns Ch urc h th e re i s a wo nd ro us r ic h al ta r
,
 M O D E R N E N G LI S H

very a b und a n tl
y d e c k e d wi th p r e c i o us o r n a me nts , e s e c i al l
p y
a gil t T a b e r n a c l e T h i s i s th e f a ir es t A l ta r by m a ny d egre e s
.

th a t I s a w i n a l l th e C ity .

T h e t o wn e h o us e w h ic h i s ve ry n e ar e to th e ga te a s yo u
c o me i nto th e c i ty f r o m P i c k e ne y i s ve ry f a i r , b e ing th e e r
s to ri e s h igh , a nd bui l t wi th bri cke , h a vi ng go o d l y a rm e s
i n it .

“T h e bird s th a t I
f a i r es t c a ge Of sa w in al F r a nc e , wa s
at th e S igne O f th e A ve M a ri a i n A mie n s , th e wo rkma ns h ip
wh e r e o f wa s v e ry c uri o us with gil t wyr e s .

A l ittl e on th is s id e P a r is , e ve n a t th e to wn s e nd , th e r e i s
th e f a yr es t G a ll o we s t h a t e ve r I s a w, b uil t up o n a littl e h il
l ock c a ll e d M o unt F al c o n , wh ich c o n s i s te th o f f o ur te e n e f a ir

p ill a r s of f r e e-s to n e th i s ga ll o we s w a s m a d e i n th e t im e O f
:

th e G ui s i a n M a s s a c re , to h a ng t h e A d mir a l o f Fra nc e Ch a til

l io n , wh o w a s a Pro te s ta nt , A nn o D o m .
1

Th e q ue s ti o n of
itude w hi c h w e s hall as s um e
th e a tt

to w a rd s th e us e o f t he s e c o un te r w o rd s is O f c o ns ide ra ble
i n tere st a n d imp o rtan c e I t i s s o m e tim e s s aid that w e
.

s h o uld a v o id us i n g s uch w o rd s o f g e n e r ali z e d m e a n i ng ,

that to d o so i m p o v e ri s h e s th o ught an d th a t w e sh o u ld ,

a l w a s s triv e to us e d e fin i te an d S p e cific w o rd s B ut
y .

s upp o s e th e idea we want to e xpre s s i s n o t definite and

s p e cifi c but vague an d gen e r a l ?
,
Supp o s e w e m e e t a
p e rs o n c a s ually an d i n fri en dly s alutati o n re m a rk th at it
i s a n i c e d ay ? D o e s n o t th e w o rd n i ce e xpre s s the re a ll
th a t i t is n e c essa ry to e xpre ss ? It s h o w s th a t we h a v e
”
i n g e ne ra l ki n dly fe e li n g s to w a rd s th e w e a th e r an d n o
b o dy c ar es p ar ti c ula rly w h e the r it i s b e c a us e o f th e w a rm
n e s s o r c o o l n e s s o r w e tn e s s o r dr y n e s s o f i t In s ho rt .
,

th e r e ar e m an y o c c a s i on s w h e n w e n ee d to e xpr es s i n d e fi

pr inted fr o m t h e e d it io n o f 1 6 1 1 , L ond o n, 1 776 ,

'
Cr ud ities ,
’
1 C o rya t s re

V o l I, p 1 9
. . . T he co n cl ud ing pa r a gra ph is o n p 2 6 . .
206 M O D E RN E N G L I S H

m e taph o ric al us e O f fir e pro ba bly fr o m th e figure Of

,

firing a gun h as alre ady been m en ti one d ; wi th i t may

,

be c o mp a re d th e S imila r us e O f boun ce T h e w o rd p ul l
.

p a sse s in sl ang fro m its lite r a l m eaning to th e m etaph o r

i c al o n e O f in fiue n c e I n th e s am e general gro up b elo ng
‘
.

th e w o rd s g r af t gr af te r w hi ch li te ra lly a pply to th e
, ,

grafting o f s o m e thi n g e xtran e o us to an o rigin al s to c k ,

as a t wig o n a br a n ch but m e ta ph o ric a ll t o th e p e rs o n

, y
w h o ge ts m o r e th an th e l e gitimate i n c o m e fr o m h is p o s i
ti o n. I n a r e c e n t tri a l a m o ti o n t o di s mi s s a sl an d e r
s uit w as m a d e o n th e gr o un d th a t gr af ter was n o t a re c o g

n iz e d w o rd o f th e l an g uage T h e j u dg e wi s ely o v e rr ul e d
.

th e m o ti o n a n d i f h e h a d n o t th e re p o r t g o e s o n to s ay
, , ,

w h at l eg al r e dr e s s w o uld a m an h a v e w h e n c all e d a
mu ckr a ke r o r a m o lly co d d l e b o th o f w hi c h w o rds a re o f
,

m u ch late r v o gue than gr af ter ? I llus tr ati o n s o f thes e

m e taph o ri c al s l ang creati o n s might be in c re as e d in d e fi
n itel
y . E a ch d a
y i n e a c h c o mm un i ty t h e n umb e r i s

a dd e d to . M o st o f s uch i n ve n tio n s h av e a ve ry Sh o rt
e xi s te n c e ; th e t a k e th e p o p ul a r fa n c y fo r a tim e a re
y ,

e xc e s s iv e l u s e d a n d t h en a r e cr o w d e d o ut by s o m e n e w
y ,

n o v el ty . I t S h o uld be Ob s erve d h o w e v e r th at thi s

, ,

m e th od O f w o rd c r e a ti o n by th e in v en ti on O f sl a n g
thro ugh m e taph o r is a n a tur al lin g ui s ti c pr o c e s s th a t
h as g o n e o n fo r a l o n g ti m e th a t to i t th e la n gua g e
,

o w e s m uc h o f i ts e ffe c tiv e n e s s a n d e xpr e s s iv e n e ss a n d ,

th at a s a n atural h elpful li n g ui s tic pr o c e s s o ur a tti tud e ,

t o wa rds i t Sh o uld n o t be to o s c o rn ful I t n e e d s o n ly

.

th e ac c e p ta n c e O f us a ge fo r e xa mple to m ak e a g o o d
, , ,

e xpr e ss iv e w o rd o f th e s l an g w o rd ki ck I n m any in
.
,

s tan c e s w o rd s w hich w e r e o rigi n ally s triki n g a n d pic

tur es que m e taph o rs h a v e b e e n ac c ep te d in to c o n ve n

 E N GLI S H W O RD S 2 07

tio n a l go o d us e a s fo r e x ample th e w o rd sulky th e

, , , ,

n a me O f a v e hicl e fir s t u s e d b e c a us e th e v e hi c l e b ein g
,

o n e se a te d s ugg es te d th e id e a o f s e lfi s hn ess a nd s ulki

-

n es s . Num e ro us o th e r e x a mple s ha v e a l rea dy b e e n

giv e n unde r th e di s c uss io n o f differ enti ati o n by m etapho r .

T h e m ai n re a s o n w h y sl a ng w o rd s d o n o t n o w m a ke
th e i r w ay in to g o o d us e s o fre e ly a s th ey did f o rm e rly ,

is tha t o ur s ta n d a rd s a nd c o n v e n ti o ns in l an g ua g e h av e
b ec o m e m o re fix ed W e ar e inc l in e d to e s tim a te l a n
.

g uage n o t i mm e dia tely fr o m th e p o int o f vie w o f its

p o we r an d v alue i n th e e xpre ss i o n O f tho ught a nd fee l
i ng as wa s th e t e nd e n c y in Sh ak sp e re s d ay but fr o m
’
, ,

th e p o i n t O f v i e w O f i ts a gr ee m e n t o r d is agr e e m e n t with
th e pr e c ed i n g tr ad iti o n a l us e o f th e l an g u age I n what
.

w e c all th e l o we r fo rm s o f s o c i e ty h o we ve r fo r e x , ,

a m pl e a m o n g s tre e t A ra b s an d g a mi ns
, s uc h a thi n g
,

a s th e id e a O f s l a n g d o e s n o t e xi st T o a n o the r p e rs o n
.

th e i r sp e e c h m ay be v e ry s la n gy b e c a us e i t i s c o n tra ry
,

t o th e c us to ms a nd tra ditio n s w hi c h h e h a s a cc e pte d as

e s ta bl is h e d a n d c o rr e c t B ut to th e boy o r m a n o n t h e
.

s tr e e t all l a n gua g e i s u s e d m e r e l f o r th e s ak e o f e x
y
press io n ; to h im th at is its o nly p urp o se a n d j ustific a
ti o n a n d h e c o ns e q ue n tly fe e l s fr e e to c re a te a n d
,

change a s m uc h as h e pl ea ses . I n o th e r w o rd s l a n ,

g uage is m o re lik ely t o be a n atu ral gro win g d e vel o p , ,

i ng m e d ium O f c o m m unic ati o n a m o n g th e un tra i n e d

a n d un c o n v e n ti o n al t h a n i t i s a m o n g th e e d uc a ted a n d

c o n v e n ti o n al .

3
( ) S l a n g a s c a n t phr a seo l o gy . Ev e ry pr o fes s i o n o r ,

ever
y gr o u p o f p e o pl e e n g a g e d i n t h e s a m e a c tiv i ty te nd s ,

t o d e v el o p a v o c a b ul a ry p e c uli a r to i ts e l f w h i c h w e m ay
,

c all a c l a ss o r te c h n i c al o r c a n t v o c a b u l a ry
, , It is th e
.
2 08 M O DE R N E N GLI S H

pro fe ssi o n al j argo n o f th e resp e c tive gro ups o f p e ople .

T h us th e s t o c k m a rk e ts h av e i n v e nte d a gre a t n umb e r

o f pr o fe s si o n a l wo rd s a nd phra s e s s uc h a s bull a n d be a r
,

o n e i s l ong o n a c e r ta i n s to ck wh e n o n e I s w e ll pro vide d

wi th i t a nd s h or t o n i t w h e n o n e i s i nad e qua te ly p ro
,

vid e d ; a d e a l by w hich o n e p e rs o n is S h ut o ut O f a c e r

ta i n c o m bin atio n i s k n o wn a s a f r eez e out ; a n d s o wi th

’

m any o th e r wo rd s a n d phrase s A n o th e r gro up o f p e r

.

s o n s w hi c h h a s d e v e l o p e d a v e ry ri c h c a n t s la n g vo c abu

lary is th e c o ll e g e a n d s ch o o l gro up T h e c o ll e ge boy .

nks o n e x a mi n a ti o n o r ma kes a fl uke o f a r e ci ta ti o n ;

fi u ,

w h e n h e o r h i s pro fe sso r talks va g ue ly a n d b esid e th e

p o i nt h e d r ool s a nd s o o n i nde fin i tely Still o the r
, , .

gro ups whi c h m ak e fre q uent us e O f c an t te rm s a r e

s po r ts m e n O f v a ri o us ki n d s th e r a c e tra ck th e k e n
,
-
,

n e l th e b a s e b all a n d f o o t ba ll fi e ld f o r e xa mpl e e a ch
,
- -
, ,

h avi n g its o w n s p e c ia l v o c abul ary ; and p e rhaps m o r e

th a n a n y o th e r th e flo ati n g p o p ul a tio n o f c r o o k s an d
,

t ra mps . I n th i s l as t gro up w e n e e d o nly m e n ti on s uch

w o rd s a s cr o o k h o bo bum bo oz e e tc to s ugge st h os ts
, , , ,
.
,

o f o th e rs I t sho uld be n o te d tha t th e c a n t v o c a b ul a ry

.

O f o n e gro up i s l a rg el y un i n te ll i gibl e to a n o th e r gr o up ,

t h e c a n t te rm s o f th e s to c k m a rk e ts be i n g u nd e rs to o d
-

o nly by th o s e in th a t bus in e s s I t is Obvi o us th a t

.

th e c an t te rm s o f a pr o fe s si o n o r p f a ny gro up o f p e o pl e
m ay c ea s e to h a v e S la n g v al ue to th e p e o pl e w h o h abitu
a lly use th e m be c o m in g to the m m e re ly th e lite ra l
,

n a m e s fo r th e a c ti vi ti e s o f th e ir pro fe ss i o n a n d th us a

p a rt o f th eir te chn ic al vo c ab ulary W o rd s O f thi s s o rt

.
,

h o weve r s e ld o m p as s bey on d th e limi ts o f their group

,

i nto g e n e ral u se .

4
( ) S l a n g a s pi c tu r e s q ue s o u n d O ft e n a S l an g w o rd
.
21 0 M O D E R N E N GL I S H

th o ught w hich we w ish to xpre ss P e rh ap s we sh o uld

e .

m ake a dis ti n c ti o n be tw ee n s pea kin g and wri tin g al l o w ,

in g o ur s e lv e s s o m e wh a t m o re libe rty in S p eaki ng th an in

w ri ti n g I n n e i th e r i n stan c e h o we ve r c o mpl e te ly s up
, ,
, ,

press in g th e cre ative in s tin c t in lan guage I n an sw e r t o .

”
th e fre q ue n t c h a rg e th a t Sl a n g is v ul g a r w e m ay s a y ,

th a t s l an g in i tse lf i s n o m o r e v ulg a r tha n o th e r Wo rd s

o f th e l a ng ua g e th a t th e r e i s n o thi n g i n h e ren tly vulg a r
,

i n a sl an g w o rd . A w o rd i s v ulg a r o nly wh e n th e id ea
whi c h it expre sse s o r c o nn o te s i s v ulg ar a nd thi s is tr ue
,

O f o th e r w o rd s a s w e ll a s sl a n g B ut th a t s la n g wo rds
.

Ofte n c a rry wi th th e m by s ugg es ti o n o r c o nn o ta ti o n idea s

o r sh a d e s O f th o ugh t that m ay fa i rly be c all e d v ulga r o r ,

a t l e a s t und i n ifie d c a nn o t be d e n i e d T h e r ea s o n fo r
g ,
.

thi s i s that th e sla n g w o rd s O fte n c o m e fro m th e l a n

g ua ge O f a grade o r o f clas s e s o f s o ci e ty th e a c tiviti es O f
whi c h as a w h o l e ar e l o o k e d up o n a s v ulga r o r und igni
fied . O n th e o th e r h a n d c e rtain sl a n g w o r d s m ay c a rry
wi th the m e xa c tly th e o pp o si te c onn o tati o n whe n th ey
a re th e c an t t e rm s (s uch w o rd s a s s ma r t set s wa gg er , ,

swe l l e tc ) c urr e n t a m o ng p e o pl e w h o a r e r e ga rd e d o r
, .
,

w h o re ga rd th e ms elv es a s le a d e rs in m atte r s O f fas hi o n

,

a nd c o n v e nti o n al m ann e rs A s e c o n d s ta te m e n t that

.

Sla n g limi ts v o c a b ul a ry migh t be a cc ep te d if it w e re

t r ue th a t v o c a b ula ry li mits th o ugh t B ut th e true s ta te
.

m e nt is that v o c abula ry is th e expres si o n th e m e a s ur e ,

o f th o ugh t and its e xte n t a n d ch a r a c te r is d e te rmi n e d

,

by th e e x tent a n d v a ri e ty O f th o ught i ts e l f T O s ay that .

s l a n g limi ts v o c a b ul a ry is li te rally to say th at v o c abul ary

limi ts v o c a b ul a ry T h at l o o se a nd la z y thin k ers are in

.

c l in e d to us e o n e w o rd to e xpr ess m a n y s h a d e s o f th o ught

is tr ue no t o n ly i n th e use o f S l a n g w o rd s but o f m any ,

 E N G LI S H WO R DS 21 1

ot her w o rd s l ang ua ge It may be said in general

of th e .
1
,

h o we v e r th at th e c o nti nual us e o f s la ng sin c e m uc h o f

, ,

its e ffe c t d e p e nd s up o n a kin d o f te mp o r ary c o n ve n ti o nal

s ma r tn e s s is a fair in di c a ti o n O f a c h e ap a n d S h all o w
,

mind T h e slan g habi t i s vi c io us be c aus e it c he apen s

.

by c o n s ta nt us e a n a c tiv ity O f l a n g ua g e wh ic h i s n ee d e d ,

but w hi c h to pr o d uc e i ts pro p e r e ffe c t m us t be empl o y e d

, ,

o n ly w h e n i t i s n e e d e d Sl an g i s n e a rly a lways c o n
.

s c i o us i n i ts o rig in a n d i n i ts us e I t i s alm os t a l wa ys .

m o r e e xpre s siv e th an th e S i tua ti o n d e m and s I t i s in .

dee d a kin d o f hyp e re sth e sia i nth e us e o f l a n gua ge I t .

diffe rs thus fro m idio m w hic h is n o rm ally e xpre s s ive , .

T o la ugh in yo ur s lee ve is idi o m b e c a us e it a ri s e s o ut

O f a n atura l si tua ti o n it i s a m e taph o r de rive d fro m th e
pi c ture o f o n e raisin g h i s slee v e t o h is fac e to hi de a
s m il e a m e ta ph o r w hich a r o s e n a tur ally e n o ugh i n e a rly
,

p eri od s w hen s l e ev e s w e re l o n g an d fl o wi ng ; but to “

”
talk thro ugh yo ur h a t i s s la n g n o t o n ly b e c a us e it is ,

n e w but als o b e c a us e i t i s a gro tes q ue e x a gge rati o n O f

,

th e truth .

1 1 W o r d B o r r o w i n g i n E n gl i s h
. T h e bac kgro und .

a n d th e b a s i s O f th e E n gl i s h v o c a b ul a r i s f ur se
y o c o

T e uto n i c o r G e r m an i c by i n h e ri tan c e j us t a s i ts i nfle c

, ,

ti o n al a nd g e n e ra l gra m m ati ca l sy s te m s a r e Fro m th e .

e arl ie s t hi s to rica l ti m e s h o w e v e r th is T e uto nic ba se h as

, ,

b e e n e n ri ch e d by th e b o rro win g O f w o rds fro m o th e r l an

g uages s o m e ti mes m o re ra pidly an d ab undantly tha n a t
,

o th e r s d e p e n de n t up o n th e e x te n t to w hich th e E n gli s h
, ,

1Cf th e va r io us l o os e m ea nings
. of th e w o r d fix ,
s uc h a s to a rra nge , to
m e nd t o se t tl e o r pl a nt fi r ml y , a nd
, e ve n to p un ish , as in I 11 fix h i m
’
.
”

The c o r r ec t i ve fa ul t i s th e d ete r mina tio n a n d d e fi niti o n O f th e

of t h is
th o ug h t s o c l e a rl y t h a t m o re d is cr i mi na tin g t e r ms mus t be us ed to e
p re ss x
q
it a d e ua tel y .
212 M O D E R N E N G LI SH

or th e ir A ngli a n , J utish , a nd Sax o n c s to rs

an e , we re
bro ught i nto c onta c t with o th er p e o ples .

T h e fir st hi sto ric b o rro wi n gs w hich we c a n cl early

tra c e ar e b o rro win g s fr o m L a tin w hile th e A n gl e s J ute s , ,

an d S a x o ns we re s till re side n t o n th e C o n ti n en t .

W o rds o f this s ort ar e th e c o mm o n p os s es s i o n o f a

n um b e r o f G e r m anic l a n g ua g e s Ex a mpl e s are win e .
,

fro m O l d E nglish wi n L a ti n vi num ; manger (a s in fish

,

m o nge r) O l d E n glis h ma nger e L atin ma ngo to buy o r

, , ,

s ell ; p ound O l d E nglish p und L atin p on d o ; wal l O l d

, , ,

E n glish wea ll L atin va l lum s tr eet O l d E n gli s h s tr ee t

, , ,

L a tin str a ta (vi a ) ; a nd a fe w o the rs No t m any w o rds .

w e re tak en o v e r fr o m th e L ati n a t thi s e a rly p e ri o d ,

th o s e tha t w e r e b o rro w e d b ei n g chie fly c o mm e rci al te rms ,

lik e manger p oun d e tc an d military te rms lik e wa ll

, , .
,

a nd s tr eet th e R o m an s tr e e ts o r r o a d s be i n g b uilt prim

,

a ril t o f cili t te t h e p s s a g e o f tr oo ps fr o m o n e p a rt
y a a a

o f th e Empire to a no th e r .

1 2 C e l t i c B o rr o w i n gs
. A fter th e migra tio n to .

E n glan d o f th os e C o nti n e n tal tribe s whi c h la te r c o n sti

tute d th e A n gl o S ax o n p eo pl e th e l a n g uag e an d th e
-
,

p e o pl e w ith which th e y w e r e first bro ught in to c o n tac t

a n d fr o m w hich we s h o uld e xp e c t th e m t o b o rr o w w o rd s

w e r e th e n ative C e ltic l ang ua g e an d th e C elts T h e re .

l ati o n o f th e C e l ts to th e A n gl o Sax o n s was that o f a -

1
s ubd ue d r a c e to i ts c o n q ue r o r s a n d w e sh o uld h a rdly ,

e xp e c t th e re fo r e th a t th e A n gl o Sa x o n s w o uld b o rr o w
, ,
-

v ery a b un dantly fro m th e C el ts T h e tende ncy w o uld be .

I n th e o th e r di re c ti o n fo r th e C e l ts th e we
,
ak e r an d l e ss ,

1 Of Ol d E ngl i sh wielen,
. sl ave-wo ma n , th e fe minin e f o r m O f th e

n a me W ea lh , We l s h , ”
by w h ich t h e A n g Sa
l o -
x o ns na me d t h e ir Cel tic
s e rva n ts .
214 M O DE R N E N GL I S H

It sho uld be re m e mbe re d a l so in e stim ati n g th e C e ltic

, ,

e l e m e nt in E n glish th a t th e s m all n umb e r O f e a rly

,

C e l tic w o rds i n E n gli s h h a s b een i n cre a sed th o n o t ,

to a ny c o n s ide r a ble e x te n t by la te r b o rr o wi ngs fro m ,

Iris h a s fOr e x a mpl e br og ue g a l or e s h a mr o ck s hill el agh

, , , , , ,

s a l e en
p p T or
y , u s
qu e ba
, ug h e t c ; f r o m S c o t
,c h i n s u ch
.
,

w o rd s as cl a n g l en ka i l p i br o c h p l a i d s l og a n wh i skey
, , , , , , ,

a n d fr o m W e l s h in cor a c l e c r o ml e c h
etc .
fl a nn e l a n d a, , ,

fe w o th e rs B ut th e e n tir e n umbe r o f C e ltic w o rds i n

.

E ngl i s h is s urprisin gly sm all .

1 3 L a t i n B o r r o w i n gs o f t h e F i rs t P e r i o d
. A fte r .

th e s e ttl e m e n t o f th e A n gl o Sa x o n s i n E n gl a n d a n d th e
-

e s ta bli s hm e n t o f th e ir s upre ma c y o v e r th e C e l ts th e ,

first gre a t e ve n t imp o r tan t fo r th e d e v e l o pmen t O f th eir

,

civiliz a tio n a n d lan g uage w as th e i n tr o duc ti on Of C hris

,

tia n ity an d o f R o m a n c i viliz ati o n by m e a n s o f th e ,

A ug us ti ni a n m is s i o n in th e l as t de c a de o f th e s ix th c e n
tury . T h e A n gl o Sa x o ns w e r e t hus bro ugh t i n to di r e c t
-

c o n ta c t wi th a civiliz ati o n th at w as h igh e r tha n th eir

o wn ,
a nd by th e s am e pri n c ipl e w hi c h a c c o un ts fo r
th e s ligh t i n fl ue n c e o f C e l tic up o n O l d Engl is h w e ,

sh o uld e xp e c t a s tro n g infl ue n c e O f L ati n up o n O l d

E nglis h T he re i s a bun dant e vide n c e to S ho w th at th e
.

in fl ue n c e o f L ati n was pr o fo un d T h e R o man mis .

s i o n a ri e s w e r e n o t o n ly pre a c he rs th e y w e r e a l s o ,

t e a ch e rs O ne o f th e ir fir s t pro je c ts wa s th e e s tabli sh
.

m ent o f s c h o o l s in w hi c h A n glo Sa x o n childr e n w e re to -

be e duc a te d fo r th e pri e s th o o d T h e te a che rs i n th es e

.

s c h o o ls w e re a t fir s t n a turally R o m a n s o r a t l ea s t n o t ,

A ngl o Sa x o ns ; but i n th e c o u rs e o f c o mp a ratively a

-

s h o rt tim e p e rs o n s O f p ur e A n gl o Sa x o n bir th a tta i n e d -

dis ti n c ti o n a s te a che rs a nd s cho l ars O f th e s e we may .

 E NG L IS H WO RD S 21 5

m enti o n two A ldhe lm b o rn a b o ut 6 5 0 an d dyi n g 111 70 9

, , ,

a p upil O f th e s c h o o l at C a n te rb ury w h o wa s th e a uth o r ,

o f a n umb e r o f L a ti n tr e a ti s e s w hi c h a re s till e x tan t ;

a n d A lc ui n w h o live d fro m a b o ut 73 5 to 8 0 4 a p up i l O f
, ,

th e c a th e dra l s c h o o l e s ta bli s h e d a t Yo rk A l c uin h as .

“
be e n des c ribe d a s th e m o st le arn e d m a n O f h is a ge ” 1
,

a n d w h e n Ch a rl e m a g n e w i s h e d to e s ta bli s h s c h o o ls a t .

h i s o wn c o urt h e i n vi te d A l c ui n to be c o m e m a s te r o f
,

th e m a p o s t w hich h e h eld fr o m 78 2 to 790

,
L a tin .

le a rning wa s al so c ul tiv ate d by o th e r A n gl o S ax o n s a s -

, ,

fo r e x a mple th e V e n e ra bl e B ede (c 6 73
, th e a uth o r .

o f th e E c cl e s i a s ti ca l H i s tor y of th e E ng li s h P e o l e II i
p ( s

to r i a E c c l es i a s ti ca genti s A ngl o r um) ; K i n g A lfre d ( 849

wh o tra n sl a te d m a ny L a ti n w o rk s i nto E n gl i sh ;
a nd E l fri c 9 55 h r f m y r a ti s e s b o th
( 0 . a u t o O a n t e

in L a ti n a nd in E n glis h A n a tura l re s ult o f thi s fa mil

.

iar ity w i th L ati n w a s th e i n c o rp o r ati o n O f a c o n s id e r

a ble n umb e r O f L ati n w o rd s i n to th e E n gli s h vo c a b ul a r
y .

I t h a s b e e n e s tim ate d th a t be fo re th e y ea r 1 0 5 0 n e a rly

fo ur h un dre d w o rd s a r e fo un d in e xtan t O ld E n gl is h
l ite ra ture 2
A s w e S h o uld e xp ec t m a n y O f th e s e w o rd s
.
,

ar e o f e c c l e s i a s tic al c ha r a c te r th e n e w r e l igi o n a n d i ts
,

o rg a n iz a tio n n atur all br i n g in g wi th i t m a ny o f i ts o w n

y
w o rd s W o rds o f th is s o r t w hic h a pp e a r in th e O l d
.

E n glis h p e ri o d an d have p e rsi sted in u s e to d ay ar e ,

bi s h op , L a t . e
p is c o us ;
p a
p o s tl e , L at .
p
a o s to la s ; al ms ,
L at . e l ee mo syn a (w h i c h in turn i s O f G re e k o rigi n) ;
cr e e d , L at . cr e d o ; ca n d el, L at . ca n d ela ; orga n , L at .

org a nu m ; p r i es t, La t p r e s byter . .

A n o th e r l arge gro up is m a de up of wo rds which

1 S e e S a n d ys H is tory of Cla s s ica l S chol a r s h ip , V o l I , p 4 6 0
,
. . .

2 S e e T o ll e r, Outl ines of the H is to ry of the E ngl is h La ngua ge, p 79 ff . .

21 6 M O DE R N E N GL I S H
i

might be c alle d s ci e n tific o r lea rn e d wo rds as for ex , ,

a mpl e n a m e s O f pl an ts a s ced a r L a t ce d r us ; box (bo x

, , , .

tre e ) L a t bux us o r o f m a the m a tic a l divi s i o ns o f Sp a c e

,
.

a nd ti me as c a l en d s
,
L at ca l en d a e ; mi l e L at mi li a
, .
, .
,

n oon L a t no n a (li te r a ll y th e n i nth h o ur o f th e d ay ) ;

, .

meter L at m e tr um
,
T h e M o de rn E ngli s h ti l e whi c h
. .
,

a pp e a rs as O l d E n gli s h tige l e fro m L atin tegul a c a m e , ,

i n to us e in E n gli s h when th e Obj e c t i ts elf w as i ntro

d uc ed by th e L a ti n s .

T h e n umbe r o f w o rds O f fa milia r d aily life w hich

p as s ed fro m th e L ati n i n to O l d E n gli s h w as r el atively
s m all Ex a mple s a r e s uch w o r ds a s butter L at buty
.
, .

ru m; c h e e s e, L a t . ca s eus ; ki tch en , L a t . co
qui na ; mi l l ,
L a t m o li n a
.
; c up , L at . cu
pp a ; ke ttl e, L at. ca ti ll us . A
nu mbe r of th es e w o rd s we r e
pl a in ly tak e n o ve r b e ca us e
o f th e s up e ri o ri ty o f th e m o n a s te ry c o o k s a n d c o o ki n g

o v e r th e n a tiv e j ust as to d ay E ngli s h h as a kin d o f

,
-

kitc h en Fr en ch w hich h as c o m e i nto th e lan gua ge in a

-

S imila r w a y .

O n th e w h o l e h o we v e r th e influe n c e O f L a ti n up o n
, ,

E nglis h in thi s p e ri o d w as chi e fly up o n th e l e arn ed l an

g ua ge B ut e ve n h e re th e i nfl ue n c e was by n o m ea n s
.

r e v o luti o n ary A g o o d m any o f th e a ppro xim ately fo ur

.

h undr e d wo rds o cc urri n g in te x ts b e fo re 1 0 5 0 a r e us e d

m e re ly as gl o ss es o r ar e si ngl e o cc urren c es Obvi o us ly
,

d ue to th e imme di a te n e e d O f a trans lato r to fin d a w o rd

t o e xpr e s s s o m e Obj e c t o r id e a i n h i s o rigin al Ol d .

E n glis h in th e m ai n was v ery c o n s e rva tive i n th e m at

, ,

t e r o f b o rr o w i n g w o rds Even w h en i t c am e to th e .

e xpr e s si o n o f th e a b s tr a c t ide a s o f C hris ti an i ty o r o f

phil o s o phy A ngl o Sa x o n auth o rs e n d e a v o re d to ge t

,
-

a l o n g wi th th e ir o wn na tiv e s to ck o f w o rd s a n d us ua lly
21 8 M O DE R N E N GL I S H

c o n q ue st an d s e ttle m e n t By th e hero i c e fiorts o f Al .

fre d and h is s ucc e s s o rs th e D an e s w e re k ep t o ut Of

W e s s e x fo r a time but th e o the r p arts o f E nglan d e s
, ,

c ia l l th n o r th e rn s o o n s uc c umb e d to th e m a n d wi th
p e y e , ,

th e c o n ques t O f C n ut i n 1 0 1 6 th e w h o le o f Engla n d , ,

pas s e d un de r D a ni s h c on tro l a n d a D an is h king rul e d ,

at th e sa m e tim e b o th D e n ma rk a n d E n gla n d T he .

D a n i s h c o n q ue r o rs o f E ngl a n d r eadily a m alg a ma te d wi th

th e n a tiv e A ngl o Sa x o n p o p ula ti o n -
I n this i n stan c e th e .

A n glo S a x o n civiliz ati o n h a vi n g p a s se d thro ugh s e v e ra l

-
,

c e n turie s O f p eac eful d e v el o pm en t w as th e highe r o n e , ,

an d th e D a n e s c o n s e q ue n tly te n d e d t o g i v e u th i r
p e

l a n g ua g e fo r th e E n glis h l a n g ua g e T h e t wo l a n g uag e s .
,

h o w e ve r we re much alike an d i t is O fte n di ffic ul t to

, ,

tell w he n a w o rd i s p ur e O l d E n gli s h a nd wh e n i t is o f
S c a n din a via n o ri gi n M a n y w o rd s s o far as the ir fo rm
.
,

go e s s uch c o mm o n w o rds fo r e x a mple a s ma n wif e

, , , , ,

f a th e r m ,o th e r f o l k h o
,
u s e e t c migh
, t a s w e ll be o f Sc a n
,
.
,

d inavia n a s o f O l d E n gli s h o rigi n b e c a us e th e y a re th e ,

1
s a m e in b o th l an g ua g e s I n s om e c as es h o w e v e r id e as
.
, ,

o r Obj e c ts O f S c andin a vi a n o rigin h a v e l e ft th e ir i m pr e ss

pl ainly up o n th e n am e s w hich we re b o rro we d to d es ig

n a te t he m A n umb e r O f w o rds w e re tak e n o ve r by th e
.

A n gl o Sa x o n s w hich h a v e n o t p e rsis te d i n th e lang ua g e

-
,

a s fo r e x a mpl e
,
w o rds c o nne c te d w i th th e se a ba r d a
, , ,

c n e a r s oe b di ffe re n t ki n ds O f S hi p s l i d a fl ee t h a
, g , , ,

ro wlo ck e tc T h e Sc andin a vi ans app e a r al s o to h ave

, .

been a c tive l e gal o rga ni z e rs and a n u mbe r o f their l a w ,

te rm s p as se d o ve r to O l d E n gli sh s uc h as th e w o rd l a w ,

i tse lf ; by l a w (fo r th e e tym o lo gy o f by s e e abo ve p

-
, .

th r a l l sl a ve,
th e ve rb cr a ve ; th e s e c o n d e l e
1 S e e J e s pe rs e n, Gro wth a nd S tructure f
o the E ngl ish L a ngua ge , p 6 5 . .
 E N GL IS H WO R D S 21 9

m e nt in ha s-ba n d an d o t he rs . O th e r Sc andi n avi an Wo rds

in E ngli sh are th e n o uns sky skull , , s ki n , skil l , h a ven th e
adj e c tive s m eek l o w s ca n t
, l o ose
, , , od d , wr ong , ill , ug ly ,

r o tten h ap p y s ee m ly ; th e v e rbs
, ,
th r i ve, d ie, c a s t, h i t,
ta ke , c a l l, s ca re, s cr a
p e, ba sk, d r o wn , k, g ap e
r a nsa c

pr o b ably pro n o un s th ey th e ir
th e , , th e m ; a n d th e prep o

s itio n s f r o (to a n d fro ) a nd ti ll .

T h e s e w o rds it w ill be Obs e rve d a re m o s tly o rdi na ry

w o rd s O f c o mm o n d ail y in te rc o urs e a n d i n th i s re s p e c t ,

th e y diffe r w i d e ly fr o m th e L a tin w o rds th at w e r e t a k e n

o v e r i n th e O l d E ngli s h p e ri o d Fro m th e n ature o f th es e
.

S c an din a vi a n b o rr o wi n g s we m ay i n fe r th at th e S c a n
d in a vi an s a n d A ngl o Sa x o n s liv e d to g e the r O n a pl an e o f
-

e q ua lity ; th e ir r el ati o n to e ac h o th e r w as n o t th at o f

l ea rn e d p e ople to a n ign o ra n t lik e th e L ati n to th e A n gl o

,

Sa x o n o r o f an a ri s to c ra tic rulin g c l ass to a c o n q ue r e d

,

a n d ig n o bl e gr o up o f s ubj e c ts li k e th e A n gl o Sa x o n s to
,
-

th e C e l ts A n gl o Sa x o n s a n d S c a n din av i a n s m o r e o v e r
.
-
, ,

li ved to g e th e r pro ba bly w i th o ut m uc h r e ali z ati o n o f a

d iff e ren c e O f n a tio n ality T his be in g t h e c as e w e might
.
,

e xp ec t th a t th e n u m b e r O f A ngl o Sa x o n b o rr o w i n g s fr o m -

th e S c an di n a vi a ns w o uld be m uc h gr e a te r th an it i s .

B ut th e v e ry s i milarity O f th e tw o l an g ua g e s a nd o f th e
t w o p e o pl es pr o b a bly te n d e d t o pre v ent thi s T h e Sc an .

d in avi a n s a pp are n tly g a v e up th e i r l an gua g e wi th o ut

m uc h s truggl e a nd th e A n gl o S ax o n s fe l t l ittl e n e e d o f
,
-

bo rro win g w o rds fro m the ir T e uto ni c ki n sm en hav i ng ,

a lre a d a n e q uiv a l e n t v o ca b ul a r y i n th e ir o wn l a n g ua g e
y .

1 5 B o r r o w i n gs fr o m t h e F r e n c h i n t h e M i d d l e
.

E n gl i s h P e r i o d . T h e w o rd s whi ch E ngli sh bo rro we d

fr o m h e r l angua ge s C eltic L ati n
ot , , , a n d S c an di n avi an ,

b e fo re th e pe ri o d o f Fre n c h influe n c e , w e re c o m p a rative ly

2 20 M O DE R N E N G L I S H

fe w in n umb e r T h ey w e r e n o t o f s uffici ent imp o rtanc e

.

t o cha n g e i n a ny c o n sid e ra bl e d e gr ee th e cha ra c te r o f th e

l anguage or ev en to ad d m uch to its res o urc es E ngli s h
, .

rema i ne d thr o ugh o ut a un ili ngua l tongue a l anguage ,

m ade up largely o r almo s t e xcl usively O f w o rds o f th e

, ,

s a m e li n g ui s tic s to ck A S a res ul t h o w e ve r o f th e
.
, ,

Fre n ch i nfluen c e up o n E n gli sh w e h a v e th e i n tr o d uc ti o n

,

o f a la rg e n u mb e r o f w o rd s o f Fre n ch o rigi n so la rg e ,

a n umb e r th at th e y m o di fy th e g e n e r a l ch a ra c te r a nd

to ne o f th e l a ng uage So n um e r o us an d im p o rta n t a r e
.

th es e Fre n ch i nn o v a ti o n s tha t E n gli s h c h an ges fr o m a

un il in gual to a bili n g ua l to ng ue T h e bas is o f th e .

l an g uage rem ain ed E n glish a s it a lw ays h as thr o ugh al l

,

s ta g e s o f i ts hi s to ry, but th e a ccr e ti o n s to thi s o rigi n a l

E n glish s to ck w e r e o f s uch a chara c te r a s to m a ke E ng

li s h sen s iti v e to t wo l ang uage trad i ti o ns o n e T e uto ni c ,

a n d th e o the r R o ma n c e T his bili n g ual ch a ra c te r o f th e

.

lan gua ge O f th e Middl e E n gli s h p e ri od h as b e en tra n s

'

mi tted to a n d a ugme n ted by late r p e ri o ds O f E n gli s h s o

, , ,

that to d ay o ur lan g ua ge i s m a d e up O f two hi s to ric ally

-

cle a rl y dis ti n g ui s ha ble th o in pra c tic e cl o s ely i n te rwo v e n

,

s tr an ds,
th e R o m a n c e o r L a tin a n d th e E n glis h o r ,

T e uto n ic s tr a nds
, .

T h e c au ses w hi c h br o ught a b o ut th e i ntro duc ti o n O f

Fren ch w o rd s i n to M iddl e E nglish we r e pa r tly p o litic al ,

but m a i nly s o ci al T h e re l ati o n s b e twee n E n gl an d a nd

.

Fr an c e firs t b e c am e p o li tic ally S ignifi c a n t in th e tim e o f

Ed wa rd th e C o nfe s so r w h o w as ki ng o f E n gl an d fro m
,

1 0 43 to 1 0 6 6 . Edward h a d s p en t th e e arly ye ars o f h is

life i n No rmandy in Fran c e and t he re h a d a cquire d ,

Fre n ch symp athi e s a n d Fren c h ta stes W he n h e be

,
.

c a m e ki ng th ese s ympathi es a n d tastes w e re n atur all y

,
2 22 M O D E RN E N G LI S H

b efo re W ha t al l thi s m e an t to E ngl an d c a n ha r d ly be

.

o v e r e s tim a te d ; fo r th e Fre n ch o f th e el e v e n th and

t we l fth c en turi es w e r e und o ub tedl y th e m o s t highly
c ivili z e d n ati o n o f E ur o p e a n d o f this civiliz a ti o n th e
,

E ngli sh th us b e c am e pa rtak e rs a n d s hare rs .

T h e re i s a fr e q ue n t mi sappre h e ns i o n w hich n e ed s to
be c o rr e c ted c o n c e rn i n g th e atti tude which W illi a m th e
,

C o n q ue r o r a ss u me d to w a rds th e E n gli s h la n g ua ge It .

i s o fte n as s um e d tha t W illi a m s a tti tud e to wa rds E n gli s h

’

wa s h o s til e th at h e e n deav o re d to cr us h i t o ut an d to
,

s ub s ti tute N o rm a n Fre n ch i n i ts pl a c e j us t as th e C z a r ,

o f R us s i a h as re c en tly a t te mpte d fo rc ibly to c o mp e l th e

Fi n n s to giv e up th eir na tiv e l a n g ua g e a nd use R us s i a n .

T h e in ves tiga ti o n s o f hi s to ri an s h a ve s h o wn h o we ve r
1
, ,

th a t thi s was n o t W illi a m s p urp o se e i th e r w ith r e sp e c t

’
,

to th e E n gl is h l a ng ua g e o r wi th r e sp e c t to th e p o litic a l
ins tituti o ns o f th e E nglish p e o pl e Willi a m wa s to o .

wi se a s ta tes ma n n o t to m a k e use o f e v e ry thi n g that

w o uld h e lp him a nd i ns te a d o f b e i n g h o s til e to th e
,

E nglish lan gua g e a nd E nglis h c usto ms th e i ndi c ati o n s ,

a re th a t h e ra the r s tro ve to us e th e m i n th e e ffe c tiv e

o rg a niz ati o n o f h is ki n gd o m E ngli s h was n e ve r the re
.
,

fo re a fo rbi dd e n la n gua ge th o n aturally it w a s r e

, ,

garded fo r a l o n g tim e a s an ign o ble lan guage T h e .

s p e e c h o f th e c o u rt a n d th e high e r o ffi c ia l li fe wa s
Fre n c h a n d E n gli s hm e n wh o s o ugh t fav o r a t c o ur t o f
,
'

c o urs e lea rn e d Fr e n ch T he r e w e re th us two s trata in

.

th e s o c i al b o dy each wi th its o w n l a n g ua g e
, E ngli s h .

c o n ti n ue d to be s p o k e n uni n te rrup te dly a fte r th e C o n

F ree m an , T he N or ma n C onque s t ; th e sa me a uth o r s

’
1 Se e es pe c iall y a nd

T h e E ngl is h P e o pl e i n th e ir T h re e H o mes , in S o me I mp ress ions

”
e s sa
y, f
o

the United S ta tes .

 E N GL I S H WO R D S 22 3

q ue st but it te nd e d to b e c o m e w hat w e s ho uld n o w c all

,

th e la ng u ag e o f th e i gn o ra nt a n d un c ul tiv a te d ; i t p e r
s i s te d th e r e fo r e a s a p o p ul a r di al e c t Fre n ch o n th e
.
,

o the r h an d , bec am e th e a c c ep ted s pe e c h o f th e high e r

p olitic al an d s o c i al li fe .

T h e n um be r o f No r ma ns i n E n gl an d a s c o m pa r ed ,

w i th th e n um b e r o f E n glis hm e n m us t al ways ha ve be e n
‘

s m all . T h e r e w e re se v e ra l r e a s o n s h o we v e r wh y th e s e
, ,

No rman s w e re n o t im m e dia te ly a b s o rb e d by th e m o r e
nu m e ro us E n glish I n th e fi rs t pla c e a h i gh e r c iviliz a
.
,

ti o n th o c o n fi n e d to re l a ti ve ly fe w p e o pl e do es n o t
, ,

r ea di ly yie ld to lo we r in fl uen ce s ; i t is c o n s e rva tive an d

s tri v e s to be s e l f p e rp e tua tin g
- Se c o n d Fr e n c h c ul ture
.
,

in E ngla n d was c o n ti n ual ly r e fre s h e d by c o mm un i ca ti o n

w ith th e C o n tin e n t W illiam w as kin g o f E n gl an d but
.
,

a ls o d uk e o f N o rm a n dy an d m a n o f h is n o ble s w h o
, y
he ld p o ss e ss i o ns i n E ngla nd al s o h a d i mp o rtan t rel a ti o n s
wi th Fran c e . T he re w a s thus a c o ntin ual p as sin g b a c k
a n d fo r th o f th e o ffic ia l s o c i e ty be tw e e n E n gl a nd a n d

No rm an dy . I n th e m e antim e ho w e ve r th os e Fr e n ch
, ,

m e n w h o s e p o s s e s s i o n s a n d i n te re s ts w e re al l in E nglan d
w o uld be c o mp e ll e d i n s e l f d e fe ns e to l e a rn E n gli s h
- .

T h e i r wo rkm e n an d th e ir o v e r se e rs th e p eo pl e up o n ,

w h o m a ll th e pra c ti c al a fia ir s o f d a ily l i fe d e p en de d ,

w o uld be E ngli s h ; a n d as th e s e E n gli s h w o uld h a ve

l i ttl e Opp o r tuni ty to le a rn Fre nc h h o we ve r gr eat th e ir
,

i n c li n a ti o n th e o n ly thin g fo r th e l an dl o rd s to d o w as to
,

learn E nglish I n th e y e a r 1 20 4 a n e v en t happen e d

.

w hi c h m a d e c o mm uni c ati o n b e tw e e n Fr en c h a nd E n gli s h

in E n gl an d m o re th a n e v e r fr e q uen t a n d n e c e ss ary .

T h i s w a s th e l o ss o f th e pr o vi nc e o f N o rm an dy in th e
r e ign o f Kin g J o hn an d th e c o ns e q ue nt l o ss o f the ir
,
224 M O DE R N E NGL I S H

Fre nch p o ss e ss i o n s by th e No rm a n n o bles in E nglan d .

Fr o m thi s tim e o n E n glish c o n ti nue d to ga in as th e

n a ti o nal s p e e ch o f th e c o untry . F r e n c h r e m a in e d a s
th e c ul tiv a ted s p e e c h o f th e high e r s o ci a l cla s s e s but ,

i t c a m e to be m o re a n d m o re fe lt a s a n a c c o m pli s hm e n t ,

a n a r ti fici a l a ris to cra ti c c l as s l an g ua g e a s di s tin g ui s h ed

, ,

fr o m th e ge n e ral nati o n a l la n g ua ge o f th e p e o pl e
, As .

s o o n a s thi s h ad c o m e t o p a s s Fr e n ch a s a s p o k e n
,

l an gua ge in E n glan d was do o m ed I t might c o n tin ue to

.

be us e d a s th e la nguag e o f p o lite c o n v e rs a ti o n to s o m e ,
-

e x te n t a s th e l a n g ua g e o f li t e r a tur e an d sch o l a r s h i p ;

but th e la n gua g e w hi c h d o es n o t s e n d i ts ro o ts d o w n
into th e a c tual e v e ry d ay life o f a p e o ple is c o n de mn e d
,
-

to s te rili ty a n d d e a th . Fren c h m anag e d to m a i n tai n it

s e l f a s a c ul tiv a te d l a n g ua g e far i n t o th e fo ur teen th

c entury . R o b e rt o f G l o uc e s te r w ritin g a bo ut 1 3 00
, ,
”
S p e a k s o f E n gli s h a s th e l a n g ua ge o f lo we m en but o f ,
”
Fr e n ch a s th e l an g ua ge o f h ei e m en by high m e n
,

pr o bably m e ani n g m en o f high o ffici a l ra nk T h e Cur s or .

M a n d i a l o ng p oe m w ri tten in th e n o r th o f E n gl a n d
,

i n th e firs t q ua rte r o f th e fo ur te e n th c e n tury d efe nd s ,

E n gli s h o n p a trio ti c gro un ds a s th e righ t lan gua ge fo r

E n glis h men to u se R alp h H igden i n a L atin his to ri c a l
.
,

w o rk c a lle d th e P o ly ch r on i con w ri tte n n e a r th e m iddl e o f

,

th e c e n tu ry s ay s th a t childre n i n s c h o o l we re c o mp e ll e d
,

t o l ea v e th e ir o w n l a ng ua ge (sh o w m g th a t E n glis h w a s
th e n a ti ve lan gua g e o f s c h o o l c h ildr e n i n h i s d ay) a n d
to c o n s tr ue th e ir l ess o n s i n Fr e n ch a s ta te o f a ffa irs
,

whi c h H igd en rega rd s w i th di s fa v o r H igd e n als o s ays

.

th at ge ntle m e n s childre n are t a ugh t Fre n ch fr o m th e

’

ti m e th at th e y ar e r o ck e d i n th e c r a dl e T h e P o ly ekr oni
.

c on was t ra n sl a te d i n to E n glis h by J o h n T r e vis a a b o ut

226 M O D E R N E N GL I S H

me t by an i nte res tin g c o n diti o n o f a ffairs A s w e h av e .

a lr e a d y see n i n tim a te re l ati o n s b et w e en Fra n c e a n d E n

, g
l a nd b e g an i n th e tim e o f Ed wa rd th e C o nfes s o r c n i
o t n ,

ui n g a fte r th e C o n q ue s t i n a m uch m o r e i n fl ue n ti al w a
y
to th e tim e o f th e l o s s o f N o rm a n dy in 1 2 04 Ev e n .

a fte r th e l o s s o f N o rm a n dy h o w e v e r Fre n c h c o n ti n ue d
, ,

to be used i n E n glan d a s a c ultiva te d o r p o li te l an g u ag e ,

a n d i t w a s o nl y a t th e b e gi n n i n g o f th e fo ur te e n th ce n

tury th a t E n gli s h b e ga n to t ak e th e pl a c e o f Fre n c h a ,

te n d e n cy tha t b e c a m e c o m ple te a t th e e n d o f th e c e n
tury . N o w i t i s re ma rk abl e th at i t is n o t un til w e c o m e
to E n gli s h w o rks w ritte n n e a r th e be ginm n g o f th e fo ur
tee n th c e n tury th at we fin d Fren c h w o rds a b un d an tly
us e d . I n th e Or mulum fo r e x a mpl e a p o e m o f a b o ut
, ,

te n th o u s an d l o ng lin e s w ri tte n n ea r th e y e a r 1 2 00 o n ly
, ,

tw e n ty thre e w o rd s o f Fr e n ch o rigi n a r e us e d
- 1
T he .

B r ut o f L aya m o n a p o e m o f m o re th an
, s ho rt

lin es w ri tte n ea rly in th e thirte en th c e ntury c o ntain s

, ,

o nl
y 1 5 0 w o rds o f Fr e n ch o rigin
2
T h e pr o p o r ti o n v a ri es
.

s lightl w i th d iffe r e n t w rite r s o th e r w o rk s c o n te mp o r a ry

y ,

w i th th e Or mul um a n d th e B r ut sh o w m g s o m e a la rge r
a nd o th e r s a s m a ll e r r el a tiv e n um b e r o f F r e n c h w o rd s .

B ut th e n umb e r fo r t w o c e n turi e s a fte r th e C o n q ue s t i s

n e v e r v e ry l a rg e .G ra d ual ly h o we v e r th e u s e o f Fren ch
, ,

w o rds i n Middle E n gli s h te x ts i n cr e a s e s u ntil it re a c h e s

i ts h igh es t p o i n t b e tw e e n 1 3 00 an d 1 4 0 0 o r m o re e x a c tly
,

b e twe e n 1 35 0 a n d 1 400 j us t th e p e ri o d i n whi c h Fre n c h

,

w a s l o s i n g gro un d a s a n ati o n al l a n g ua g e a n d E n gli s h

w a s ga i n i n g gr o un d H o w is thi s to be e x pl a i n e d ?
.

Firs t o f al l by th e fa c t th at when th e high e r cl as s es th e

, ,

1 A l is t o f th e m is g ive n by Kl uge , E nglische S tud ien, XX

I I , 1 79 ff .

2 Fo r a l is t o f t h e m , s e e M o nr o e , i n M o d er n P h ilo logy, I V , 5 5 9 ff .
 E NGL IS H W OR DS 2 27

sp ee ch o f which is natura lly r e fle c ted in th e li te rature o f

th e p e ri o d to o k t o s p e a kin g E ngli s h a l an g uag e fo r
, ,

whi c h t h ey h ad hi th e r to h ad m o re o r l e ss c o nte m p t th e y ,

n a tura ll y c a rri e d o v e r i n to E n gli s h m any w o rd s fro m

th e ir Fre n c h T h e ir E n glis h wa s a s o r t o f G allic iz e d

.

E ngli s h impro v e d an d p o lis hed a s they pr o bably

, ,

th o ught by b ei n g i n te rl a rd e d wi th Fr e n ch w o rd s
,
.

T h e v e ry t e n d e n c y the re fo r e w hich br o ugh t a b o ut th e

, ,
.

e l e va ti o n o f E n gli s h r e s ul te d a l s o in th e i n tr o d uc ti o n o f

n um e r o us Fr e n c h w o rds i n to E n gli s h M o re o ve r w e .
,

n e e d n o t s upp o s e th a t th e E n gli s h the m selve s o f th e

m i ddl e a n d l o w e r c l ass e s w e r e a v e rse to b o rro wi n g

Fr e n c h w o rd s i n thi s p e ri o d Fr e n ch w a s r e c o gn iz e d as
.

a p o l i te l a n g ua g e th e la n gua g e o f c ul ture e d uc ati o n a nd

, , ,

tra ve l e s p ec ia lly a s th e l an gua g e o f lite ra tu re a n d th e

, ,

o c cas i o n a l u s e o f a Fr e n ch w o rd c o n fe rr e d a to uch o f

d s ti c io
i n t n u p o n th e p r o w o s d t j s t as to d ay
e s n h u e i u —
,

”
w e h av e a s o r t o f s o c ie ty Fr e n c h s uc h w o rd s a s d e bu
’

ta nte fi a n cee f oy e r e tc a n d a s o rt o f li te ra ry o r es th e ti c
, , ,
.
,

Fre n c h wo rd s li k e g enr e d en o uemen t te ch ni que w hi ch

’

, , , , .

p e rs o n s o f a s o m e w h a t un rip e c ulture ar e fo n d o f u sin g .

T h e Fr e n c h w h i c h w as th u s c ul tiva t e d a t th e e n d o f
th e fo ur te e nth c e n tu ry w a s n o l o n g e r th e o l d A n gl o
No rm a n Fr e n c h o f th e o rigin al c on q ue ro rs o f E n gla n d .

T ha t h a d i n th e c o urs e o f tim e gr o w n o l d fa s h i o n e d -
,

th o fr o m th is A n gl o No rm an Fre n c h a r e o f c o urs e d e
-

rive d m o s t Fren c h w o rd s take n i n t o E n glish b efo r e 1 35 0 .

T h e n e w a nd th e fa s h i o na bl e Fr e n c h w hi c h w a s c ul ti
va te d i n th e l a s t h a l f o f th e c e n tu ry w a s C e n tra l Fr e n c h ,

th e d ia l e c t o f P a ris th e c h ie f c ity o f th e Fr e nc h a nd th e
, ,

d ial e c t al s o i n w hi c h th e g rea t b o dy o f Fre n c h l i teratur e

w a s w ri tte n W e thus s ee th at th e C o n q ue st i tse l f a n d
.
 M O D E RN E N GL I SH

i ts imme di ate p o li tic al re s ults w ere l e ss influe nti al in

bringin g a b o ut th e in tr oduc ti o n o f Fre n ch w o rds i n to
E ngli s h tha n the se l ate r s o cial c a use s Ind e ed th e in .

fluen c e o f Fr e n ch up o n th e E n gli s h v o c a bul ary did n o t

be c o me pro n o un c e d un til th e C o n q ue s t h ad be c o m e
pra c tic ally fo rgo tte n a nd th e r ac ia l di s tin c tio n be tw een
No rm a n an d E n gli s h o blite rate d T h e r e al e xplan ati o n
.

o f th e i n fl ue n c e o f Fr e n ch up o n E n gli s h i s to be fo un d

wh e re th e i n fl ue n c e o f o n e la n gua ge up o n a n o th e r i s
alm o s t a l w ay s to be fo un d i n th e giv e a n d ta k e o f th e
,

me mb e rs o f o n e s o cia l gro up up o n an o th e r in th e d aily

c o n c e rns o f li fe .

1 7 K i n d s o f W o r d s B o rr o w e d fr o m F r e n c h
. .

In g e n e ral w o rd s o f all kin ds o f all p a rts o f s p ee ch a n d

, , ,

fro m a l l w alk s o f li fe w e r e tak e n o v e r i nto E n gli s h ,

b o th fro m A n gl o No rm an a n d fro m C e n tral Fren ch ,

-

d urin g th e Middl e E n gli s h p e ri o d A s a re s ult o f this .

b o rro win g m an y E n gli s h w o rd s w er e l o s t Fr e n c h wo rds

, ,

lik e mer cy ch a r i ty p ower s o ld i er p ea ce e tc taking th e

, , , , , .
,

pl a c e o f w o rds whi c h in th e O l d E n gli s h p e ri o d w e re

dra wn fro m th e T e uto nic s to ck O r i t o ften h app en e d .

th a t a n O l d E n gli s h w o rd w a s pres e rv e d be s ide a Fr e n ch

w o rd o f s imil a r c o n te n t th e O l d E n glis h w o rd h o w e ve r
‘

, , ,

g e ne rally ta kin g o n a s o m e wha t l e s s dign ifie d m ean in g

tha n th e Fre n ch w o rd a s fo r e x a mpl e Fr e n c h ch a ir
, , ,

b e s ide E ngli sh s too l ; Fren c h ci ty be side E n gli s h town

Fre n ch l a bor b e s id e E n gli s h wo r k S ir W a l te r S c o tt in
.
,

I va n h o e h a s c all e d a tte n ti o n to p air s o f w o rds o f this

,

s o rt s uc h a s Fre n ch be ef mutton ve a l an d p o r k a s c o m
, , , , ,

pa re d with E n gli sh or s heep c a lf a nd swin e H e dra w s

, , , .

th e i nfe re n c e th at th e o x a n d th e o th e r a nim a ls s o l o n g ,

a s th e y w e r e o n ly o bj e c ts o f c a r e an d e xp e n s e w e r e th e ,
2 30 M O D E R N E NG LI S H

of S c a n di navi an rigi n cite d a bo ve an d n ativ e w o rds

o ,

o f T e uto nic o rigi n T h e y a re c o mpl e tely a m alg a m a te d

.

w i th th e r e s t o f th e l an g ua g e a nd h a v e be c o m e th us to
,

a ll i n te n ts a nd p urp o s e s ide n tic a l w i th th e p o p ul a r n a tiv e

e le m e n t . I t i s th e r e fo r e n o t thi s p a rt o f th e b o rr o we d
, ,

Fr e n c h s tra n d i n th e E n glis h v o c ab ul ary th a t is m os t

c h a r a c t e ri s ti c s o fa r a t le a s t a s th e s tyl e o f E n gli s h i s
,

c o n c e rn e d o f th e i n fl ue n c e o f Fr en ch up o n E n gli s h
, .

B es ide s thes e simple c o m m o npl ac e w o r ds ther e is

,

a n o th e r l a rg e gr o u p o f w o rd s o f Fr en ch o rig in w hich is

sp e c i ally s ign ific an t o f th e r e lati o ns whi c h e xi s te d be

t w e e n Fr e n c h a n d E n gli s h i n thi s p e ri o d a gro up o f ,

w o rds w hich c le a rly re fl e c ts th e a tti tud e o f mi n d o f th e

E n glis h o f th e thir te e n th a nd fo urte e n th c e n turi e s b o th
t o wa rds the ir o wn and to wa rds th e Fr e nc h l a n gua g e .

T hi s di ffe r e n c e i s w e ll ill us tra te d by th e li n e s i n

Ch auc e r s P r o l og to Th e Ca nte r bury Ta l es i n which h e
’
,

d e scribes th e vir tue s pra c tis e d by th e k night

h e l o ve d e c h i va l r ye ,

T r o uth e a nd h o no ur , f red o m a n d i
c ur te sye 1
.

O f th e se five n o uns , th e c d an d th e fo urth are E ng

se o n

l is h w o rd s , th e fir s t, th e third a n d th e fifth a r e Fr e n c h
, .

T h e Engli s h w o rd s , tr uth and f r ee d o m, ar e th e n a m e s of

tw o simple m a nly virtues fun dam e n tal vi rtue s in E n g

,

l i sh c h ara c te r T h e Fr e n c h w o rds chiva l ry h on or a n d

.
, , ,

c our te s n a m e vir tues o f a di ffe re n t ki n d c o ur tly vir

y , ,

tue s s uch a s o n ly th o s e w h o a re br e d und e r c e rtai n c o n

,

d i ti o n s c an k n o w a n d pra c tic e H o n o r an d c o urtesy a r e

.

d e te rmine d by a c o de o f c o nd uct a c o de which h a s been ,

m ad e e l as tic eno ugh to p e r m i t a gambli n g deb t b e i ng

1 LI 45 , 46
. .
 E N G LI S H W O R DS 2 31

ca lle d a “d e bt o f h o no r B ut tr uth a n d free d o m a re

.

w o rds w hi c h n e e d n o d e fin i ti o n be c a us e th ey h ave n o ,

d o ub tful meaning ; th ey are n o t n a m e s fo r v a ryin g rul e s

o f c o n d uc t but ar e n a me s fo r p e rm an e n t e s se nti al tra i ts
,

o f c h a r a c te r. I t w o uld be e a sy o f c o urs e to m a k e to o
m uc h o f thi s di sti n c tio n e sp e c ially if w e s ho uld a tte mp t
,

to s h o w th a t F re n c h w o rd s a s is s o m e tim e s s upp o s e d
, ,

w ere g e n erally b o rro we d to d e sig nate th e s h allo w e r a n d

m o re ar tific ial ide as a nd sen ti m en ts A true r sta te m en t .

w o uld be th a t th e Fr en c h e l e m e n t o ften h as th e qualities

o f c o ur tlin e s s a n d gra c e the s e w o rd s th e m s elv e s co ur tl i
, ,

n ess a n d g r a c e b ei n g Fr e n ch w o rds
, a n d th e id e a s fo r ,

w hi c h th e y s ta n d be i ng l a rgely Fr e n ch id e as T o th e .

Fre n c h th e Middl e E n gl is h p eri o d was i n de bte d fo r th o s e

s ta nd a rds o f c o n d uc t w h i c h w e us ually gr o up u n d e r th e

bro ad hea d o f chivalry A n gl o Sax o n s o ciety m ay hav e

.
-

b e e n si m pl e earne s t an d s i n c e re but i t c an h ardly be

, , ,

s ai d to h a v e b e e n light o r gra c e ful T h e ch ara c te ri stic s

.

o f cha r m a n d fa n c y o f p o l i sh an d ligh tness d o n o t a p

, ,

p e a r pro m i nen tl y in E n glis h li te rature an d pro bably d id ,

n o t e x i s t i n a n y c o ns id e r a ble e x te n t i n E n gl is h li fe until ,

a fte r th e p e r io d o f Fr e n ch i nfl ue n c e I t i s th e p o li te .

p a rt o f th e E nglis h vo ca b ul ary tak en o v e r fro m Fr e n ch

,

a t thi s tim e th at c o ns ti tute s th e s triking d iffe r e n c e

,

b etwe e n th e langua ge o f th e Middl e E n gli s h an d th e

O l d E n gli s h p e ri o d T h is i s ill us tra te d by b o rr o w e d
.

w o rd s whi c h h a v e t o d o wi th e atin g a n d table ma nn e rs -

,

as ,fo r e x ample th e w o rd s d in e d i n n er supp er ta bl e

, , , ,

f r O l d E n gl ish boa r d
( o ) p l a te,n a
p ki n f o r
, k p a s ty f e a s t , , , ,

b es ides m any n am es o f e dibl es o f ki tch en ute n sil s an d , ,

o f w a s o f pr ep a ri n g fo o d s uc h as r o a s t br o i l boi l a nd
y , , , ,

o th e r s
. C o s tum e a nd dre s s al s o c h an ge d a nd b e ca me
2 32 M O D E R N E N G L IS H

m uch m o re e lab o ra te in th e Midd l e E nglish p e rio d ,

Fr en ch w o rds h e re a ga i n o ften taking th e pl ac e of E n g

lis h o ne s Ex ample s are c oa t c l oa k gown boot cap
.
, , , , ,

e tc al s o m a ny n ames o f cl o th s
.
, W o rds o f a ddres s .

w e r e t ak e n fr o m th e Fr e n ch s uch a s s i r ma d a m ma s te r
‘
, , , ,

mi s tr ess a s w ell as m any fro m th e high e r ti tl es lik e

, ,

p r in ce , d uke, d uch es s, ma r qui s , b a r on , ca

p ta in , s e rge a nt,

c o l on e l , o
ffi cer , e tc . Na m es of relati on shi p e xc e pt th e ,

imm e diate r elati o n ship s of th e fa mily w e re e x pr es s e d by

,

Fre n c h w o rd s as un cl e , , a unt, n e
p h ew, ni e c e , a nd cousi n ;

but f a th er , br o th er , moth er r e main e d E ngli sh A o , s is ter .

c o mpli sh m en ts w e r e u s ually Fr e n ch b o th i n w o rd a n d ,

fa c t Four o f th e six talen ts m e nti o ne d by C hauc e r in

.

th e f o ll o w ing c o upl e t de s crip tiv e o f th e g all a n t Sq ui r e

i n Th e Ca nter bury Ta l es r e q uir e Fren ch w o rds to n a m e ,

th e m :

H e k o ud e so nge s m ak e wel e nd ite,

a nd

J us te a n d e ek d a unc e a n d weel p urtr eye a nd write l .

M any o f th e te rm s o f sp o rt e sp e ci ally h awking and hunt ,

ing w e r e ta k e n fro m th e Fre n ch a nd n aturally a ls o a

, ,

great m any w o rds c o nne c te d wi th th e higher o ffi c ial life ,

a s fo r e x ampl e cr own s ta te r ea l m r oy a l co un tr y n a ti o n
, , , , , , , ,

ower e tc ; w o rds c o n n e c te d wi th w a r a nd mili ta ry

p , .

a ffairs i n g e n e ra l a s a rm s p ea ce ba ttl e a r mor ba nn er

, , , , , ,

s i eg e an d a gr e at m a n y o th e rs ; w o rds p e r ta i n i n g to th e
,

l a w c o urts and th e a dmini stra ti o n o f j us tic e a s fo r e x , ,

a mpl e j ud ge j us ti c e cour t s ui t p l ea p l ea d e tc ; n um e r
, , , , , , , .

o us w o rds o f e ccl e s i a s tic a l m e a ni n g a s s er vi ce s a vi or , , ,

r el i c, c l oi ster , p r e a ch, p r a ye r , c l erg

y, c erl k, e tc . B ut
m o st impo r tant o f a ll , p erhaps , is th e l o ng lis t of w o rds
1 P rolog, ll 9 5 , 9 6 . . E n d ite c o mp os e ; j uste j o us t ; e ek al s o
2 34 M O D E R N E N GL I S H

Fr e n ch and L atinrigin wa s gre atly stre n gthe n e d by th e

o

ge ne ral d rift o f th e R en a sc en c e m o v e me nt th a t re vival o f ,

le ar nin g a nd o f i nte res t in li te rature bo th cla s sic al L a ti n

,

and G r e e k a nd E n gli s h v e r n a c ul a r w hi c h i n its r e s ul ts

, ,

up o n l a n g ua ge w as h a rdly l ess i m p o r ta n t th a n th e p e r i o d
,

o f Fre n c h i n fl ue n c e o f w hich w e ha v e j us t s p o k e n . Th e
e ffe c t o f th e R e n as c e n c e up o n E n gli s h i s i n te r e s ti n g a n d

re m arka ble al s o b e c aus e i t wa s a l m o s t alto ge the r th e

res ult o f c o ns ci o u s e ffo r t I n pr e c e din g p e ri o ds any
.
,

ch anges which affe c te d th e l an guage to o k pl ac e l arge ly

wi th o ut th e c o n s c i o us kn o wl e dge o f t h e p e o pl e wh o
S p o k e th e l ang ua ge W o rd s w e re b o rro we d fro m Sc an
.

d in a vian o r Fr e n c h b e ca us e it w a s c o n v e n i e n t to h a ve
th e Sc a n di navi a n o r F ren ch w o rd s .B ut th e re w as n o
a v o w e d the o r t h a t i t w o uld be a g o o d thi n g t o a d d to
y
th e E n gli sh v o c ab ul a ry by b o rr o w in g fr o m thes e l an
g uage s w o rds be i ng taken a s th e n e e d fo r the m aro s e in
,

th e s o c i a l i n te r c o urs e o f d aily li fe . I n th e R e n a s c e n c e
p e ri o d h o we v e r th e re a ro s e a p e rfe c tly c o n s ci o us m o ve
, ,

m en t o n th e p a rt O f s chol ars a n d a uth o rs to e x ten d th e

, ,

limi ts o f th e E n glis h vo c a b ula ry by dire ct bo rr o win g

fro m o th e r l an g ua g e s T his w a s q uite i n k e e pin g wi th
.

th e g e n e ra l S piri t o f th e R e n a s c e n c e o n e o f its m o s t
,

c ha r a c teri s ti c as p e c ts b e i n g a d e e p a n d g e ne r al i n te re s t in

e s ti o n s o f l an g ua g e F r o m th e ir s t ud y o f th e c l a s s ic al
q u .

h
a ut o s r th e,
R e n as c e n c e sch o l a r s w e r e n a t u ra ll y l e d t o

id r i
th e c o n s e a t o n o f th e m a tte r f s t l e i n li te r a tu r e th e
o y ,

a bili ty O f a l an g ua ge to e xpr e s s a ll t h e v ra i o u s s h d
a e s o f

th o ugh t a n d fee li ng o f th e h u a mi d m n n a n d h r
e a t. T h e

p erfe c t m o de ls o f s tyl e th ey tho ugh t wer e to be fo un d in

su ch ri r
w te s a s C c e o a i r n d V e rgil a n,
d t h o a m o d e rn

v e rna c ular such a s E n glis h c o uld n e v e r h o p e to riv al th e

 E N GL I SH W OR D S 2 35

l i l la n g ua ges the s e l atte r wer e n e ver th el es s th e

c as s c a ,

ideals to wa rds which th e m o de rn la ng uage s w ere to s trive .

A m o d e rn l a ng ua ge c o uld n o t be a s g o o d as L a tin but it ,

o ugh t to s triv e to be a s l ik e a s p o s sibl e to L a ti n T he re

.

a r o s e th us th e ide a o f
“ impro vi n g th e lan g uage of
”
,

“a ug m e nti n g i t o f m aki n g it ri c h e r a n d fulle r an d

”
, ,

m o re c a p abl e o f e xpre ss i n g w hat th e L ati n lan gua ge

c o uld e xpres s S O w e ll .T h e d e sir e to tra n s l ate th e

m o n um e n ts o f c l ass ic al lite rature i n to E n gli sh a l so en

c o ura e d th e b e l ie f tha t E n gl is h Sh o ul d be impro ved
g ,

fo r Obv i o usly th e re c o uld be n o ad e q ua te tran sl a ti o n

i nto E nglis h un til th at la ng uage s h o uld be a t le as t
app ro x i ma te ly a s e xpre s si v e a s th e la n g ua g e fro m w hich

tran s l atio n w a s to be m a de T h e gre at e nd e a v o r th e re

.
,

fo re o f th e R en a s c e nc e re fo rm e rs w a s to e n ri c h th e vo
,

c abul a r an d to m ak e th e l an g ua g e m o re e xpr es s iv e
y .

T h eir id eal was o n e o f art an d th ey c ul ti va te d l a n guag e

,

m ai nly a s a m e dium o f a rti sti c l ite ra ry e xpr e s si o n

, .

A s i s true o f a ll r e fo rm m o ve m e n ts t h e p o s itiv e o r
,

radic al pa rty is s ure to be ge t a re a c ti o n a ry o r c o n s er v

a ti ve p ar t a n d s o in thi s m o v e m en t al s o th e e n ri c h e rs
y ;
o r i m pr o v e rs h ad to c o n te n d w i th th e o pp o s i ti o n O f th e

c o n s e rv ativ e s w h o m a i n ta i n e d th a t E n gli sh s h o uld n o t

,

b o rr o w wo rd s fro m o th e r la nguage s but Sh o uld try to

,

d e ve l o p h e r o w n n ati v e r es o urc e s T h e c o n s e rv atives

.

c o n te n de d that if E n glis h n e e d e d n e w w o rd s th ey s ho uld

be tak e n fr o m th e e a rli e r p e ri o d s o f h e r o w n l a n g ua g e
.

ra th e r th an fr o m fo r e ign lan g ua ge s B o th o f the s e b o die s

.

o f th e o r i s ts i n th e e n d h elp e d to wa rd s th e e n ri c hm e n t

O f t h e l an g ua g e , th e o ne by e x te rnal b o rr o wi ng a nd
imi tati o n th e o ther by in te rn al de vel opm e nt
, .

T h e R e n a s c e n c e i n E n gl a n d is c h a ra c te riz e d by two
2 36 M O D E R N E N GL I S H

e ve n ts bo th o f th e m o f th e gre a tes t i mp o rtan c e in

,

t h e hi s to ry o f th e la n g uage T h e firs t Of th es e is th e
.

r e viva l o f l e arning m e a n ing the re by th e s tudy o f G r e e k

,

a nd L a ti n li te r a ture
; t h e s e c o n d i s th e i n tr o d uc ti o n o f

pr in ti n g T he re wa s v e ry littl e kn o wl edge o f G ree k

.

in E n gla n d d urin g th e O l d a n d th e M i ddl e E ng

lis h p e ri o ds T h e firs t E n gli s hma n to a cq uir e p r o fi
.

c i en c i n G re e k i n th e R e n as c e n c e p e ri o d w a s W illi a m
y
T illy o f Sell i ng n e a r C a n te r bury a B e n e dic ti n e m o n k
, , ,

wh o di e d i n 1 4 9 4 O th e r s w h o s uc c e e d e d h im w e r e h i s
.

n e ph e w T h o m a s L i na cre (1 4 6 0
, W illia m Gro cyn
( 1 4 4 6 a n d W illi am L a ti m er
( d . Si r

T h o m a s M o r e (1 4 80— 1 5 35 ) w a s a l s o a s tude n t o f G re e k ,

a n d th e grea t D utch s c h o l a r Era s m us liv e d fo r s e v e ra l

, ,

y e a rs in E nglan d an d ga v e i n s truc ti o n i n G re e k at th e
,

Un iv e rs i ty o f C am bridg e T O th es e n a m e s m ay als o be
.

a dd e d th a t o f W ill ia m L ily firs t H igh M as te r O f St

,
-
.

P a ul s S ch o o l in L o n d o n a n d a uth o r o f th e L a tin gra m

’
,

m a r whi c h Shak sp e re a s w e ll a s m o s t o f h i s c o nte mp o

,

r ari e s use d as a s c ho o l bo y T h e dir e c t i n flue nc e o f

,
-
.

G ree k up o n E n glis h i n th e R en a s c en c e p e ri o d w as ,

h o w e ve r v e ry S light as c ompa re d w ith th e in flue n c e o f

,

L a tin a n d Fr e n c h T h e s tudy a n d th e kn o wl e dge O f

.

G r e e k w e r e m o re imp o rtan t a s e xpre s s iv e Of a d e e p a n d

e n th us i a s tic i n te r e st i n l ang ua g e m e re ly a s la n gua g e ,

r athe r than a s affe c tin g dire c tly th e fe eli n g fo r an d th e ,

u s e o f th e E n gli s h l an g ua g e
, .

T h e i n tr o duc tio n o f pri nti ng i n to E n gl an d was d ue

t o W illia m C a x to n a n E n gli s hm a n b o rn i n K e nt a b o ut
,

1 41 5 . H e liv e d o n th e C o n ti n e nt a n umb e r o f y e a rs ,

a n d d uri n g h i s r e s id e n c e i n th e L o w C o un tri e s l e a rn e d

th e prin t e r s tra d e O n h is r e turn to E n gl a n d h e s e t up

’
.
 238 M O DE R N E NG LI S H

br o o d tha t I c o ude n o t we l e vnd er stand e it A nd als o .

my lo rd e a bb o t o f w estmyns ter d e d d o sh e we to m e la te
c e rta n e uid e n c e s w r t o n in Old e e n l s s h e fo r t o r e d uc e
y y gy ,

it i n to o ur e n gl ys s h e no w vs i d / a n d c e r ta nl
y y i t w as

wr e to n in Su ch wy s e tha t i t w as m o r e lyk e to d utche

tha n e n gl yssh e ; I c o ud e n o t re d uc e n e bryn ge it to be
vn d e rs to n d e n / A n d cer ta ynl y o ur l a n ga g e n o w v s e d

va rye th fe rre fr o m th a t w h i c h e wa s vs e d and s p o k e n

w h a n I w a s b o rn e / Fo r w e e n gl yss h e m e n / b e n b o rn e
vnd e r th e d o myn a c yo n o f th e m o n e w h ic h e is n e ue r ,

s te d fa s te /b ut e ue r w a ue ryn ge / w e x yn ge o n e se a s o n a n d
1 ”
w a neth d y s c r e a s e th a n o th e r s e as o n .

C a x to n th e n a dd s tha t h is b o o k is n o t tr an sla ted fo r

”
a r ud e upl o n d yssh m a n t o l a b o ur e th e rin but f o r th e ,

c l e rk a n d g e n tl e m a n a nd if th e s e d o n o t un d e rs tan d h is
,

w o rd s l e t th e m go r e a d V e rg il a n d th e o th e r L a ti n
,

w ri te rs a n d th e n th e y s h all li gh tl y un d e rsta n d all

, It .

is pl ai n fro m w h a t h e s ay s h e re tha t C a x to n s s ym pa
’

thie s w e re wi th th e e n rich e rs r a th e r th a n w i th th e c o n
s e r va tives .

AS a ill us trati o n of C ax to n s m e th o d o f
fur th e r
’

L a tin izi n g an d G a lli c iz i n g E n gli s h w e m ay qu o te th e h

fo ll o w i ng e x tr a c t fr o m th e E n ey d o s
/
“Fo r to h e r e O e n e an d d e c l a re th e m a te re o f w h ic h e
p
h er e afte r S h all be m a d e m e n cyo n /I t be h o ue th to p re
s upp o s e t h at T r o ye th e gr e te c apy tal l cy te /
, a n d th e x

c e l l e n te s t o f a ll e th e c yte e s O f th e c o un tre re on Of
gy
A sye w a s c o n s tr uc te a nd e d e fye d by th e rygh t p uys
,

S a un t r en o m e d k n g P r a m us s n o f l a o m edo n
y y o e , ,

1
C m yno mm n b co d o b d;f f
ro o Th
ro a b u d
e r re ar . e c r o s s- a r , se

i th
n e b v p
a o
g e i f u
a ss a d i
e,n msn u ip t
o n nd e l a
y p i nt d
s crb k s a ar r e oo s as

a ki n d of un c t ua t i o n s t a n d in g e i t h er fo r a e r i o d o r a c o m ma I t is n o t,
p , p .

h o we ve r, ve ry c o ns is te n tl y e mpl o ye d .
 E N G LI S H WO R D S 239

d es c e nde d o f th a un c ye n s to c k e o f D ardan us by m any

-

d egree s / wh ich e w a s s o ne o f J ubyte r o f El e c tr a h is

w yf a fte r th e fyc tio ns p o e tyq ue

, /
A n d th e fyrs te o rygy
nall begynnyng e o f th e gen e al o gye O f k yn ge s A nd t h e
s ayd T r o ye wa s e n uyr o n n e d i n fo urm e o f S i e ge/
.

a nd o f

e x c id yo n by A a m e n o n ky n ge i n gr e c e br o th e r O f m e n e
g , ,

laus /wh ic h e was h us bo nd e to h el ayne T he wh ich e .

a a me n o n as s e m bl e d and ac c o mp a n ed w th m n
g y y a
y
e rle s /
,

k ynges d uk e s /
,
a n d gr e te q ua n t te o f o th e r prin c es
y
re ke s i n n um e ra ble h ad d e th m t ra c o n n d
g , e a
gy s
y a

vn y ue rs al l go ue rn aun c e O f a ll e th e x c e rs ite a nd h o o s t
” 1
t o fo r e T r o ye
-
.

T h e w o rd s in this p ass ag e whi c h w o uld lik ely h av e

s ee m e d s tr a n g e to a n unl e a r n e d E n glis h man o f C ax to n s
’

d ay a r e th e fo ll o wi n g : d e c l a r e ; m a te re m atte r ;
m e n c yo n m e n ti o n ; pre s upp o se ; u ap tal l ; th e x ce l l e n
y
tes t th e e x ce ll e n te s t ; r e gyo un re gio n ; c o ns tructe
( f r o m L a ti n c on s tr u c tum ) e d e f ed
y e d ifie d
(f r o m
L a tin a ed ific o I build) ; p uyss a un t ; r e n o m e d
, re 2

n o w n e d ; d e s c e nde d ; th a unc en t h e an c ient ; d

y e
2 :

gre es fyc tio n s p oetyq ue o rygyn al l gen e al o gye

e n uyro n n e d fo urm e fo rm e x c id y o n (fr o m ex ci d ium
2

s i e ge a sse m bl e d ; ac c o m pa n e d ; i
) y q u a n t te
y n

n um e ra bl e ; m agi s tra c yo n m a gistra cy ; vnyuer sal l

o ue rn a un c e ; th e x ce r s i te t h e e x c er s ite (fro m L a ti n
g
ex er ci tus a rm )
, y O f
. th e s e i t i s i n te r e s ti n g to Ob s e rv e

th at o nly tw o ex ci d y on a nd ex c er si te a r e al to g e th e r un
, ,

k n o wn to th e M o de rn E n glis h re ade r an d th at m o s t O f ,

th e res t a r e p e r fe c tly fa mili a r to a ny a d ul t p e r so n o f

a v e r a g e ed uc a ti o n O n e o r t w o a re u s e d i n s o m e wh at
.

u nu s ual s e n s es as fo r e x a mple e d ef y e d in th e s e n se O f
, , ,

1 E neyd os , p p 1 0— 1 1
. .
24 0 M O D E R N E N GL IS H

built (but c f M o de rn E nglish e dific e. but th e

m e ani ngs s e e m s tran g e be c ause o ur M o dern E n gli s h
w o rd s h a v e c e a s e d to be u se d w i th th e s tric t e tymo l o gi
cal v al u e th a t C a x to n giv e s th e m I t is i n te r e sti ng to .

o b s e rv e also th a t C a x to n e n d e a vo rs o fte n t o e xplai n

a n d d e fin e hi s n e w a n d s tra n g e w o rds by c o upli n g th e m

w ith w o rd s Of S imil a r m ea n in g a n d fa mili a r fo rm a s , ,

fo r e x ampl e Op en e a n d d e cl ar e coun tr e g r egg ou fir s t

,
r

or
ygy n a l l be n
gy y gn n e ; of s i eg e a n d f
o ex ci d y on ; ex ce r

s i te a n d bo ost B ut s o m e tim e s a l s o h e p uts two n e w

.

w o rd s to ge th e r t r us tin g p e rh aps th a t th e y will e x

,

pl ain e a ch o th e r as constructe a nd e d ef yed ; p uyss a u nt

‘
1
,

r en ame d ; a ss embl e d a n d a ccom a n e d

g p y
:
.

C a x to n giv e s gre a t cre di t to C h auc e r a s a pi o ne e r in

thi s a tte mp t to e n rich th e E n gli s h l a n gua g e w hich h e
c arrie s o n In th e P ro e m o r P re fac e to h i s e diti o n o f
.
, ,

Th e Ca n ter bury Ta l es h e pr ai s e s C h auc e r i n h f

t e o ll w o ;

i ng te rm s w hi c h i n d ee d c a rry th e m e tho d s o f th e e n rich

,

e r s to th e li mi ts o f ab s urdity :

Fo r to fo re that h e [i e C h auc e r! by l abo ur e mb el

- . .
,

l ish e d o rn ate d and m a de fa ir o ur E n glish in this r e a lm

, ,

w as h ad r ud e S p e e ch and i n c o n gruo us a s ye t i t a pp e a re th ,

by o l d b o o ks w hich at this d ay o ugh t n o t to have pl a c e

,

n e be c o mp a re d a m o n g n e to h is b e a ute o us v o lu m e s an d
, ,

1 T h e for m cons tr ucte is a f o r me d f ro m th e L a tin p ast

a st a r tic ipl e
p p
a r ti c i l e c o ns tr uc tum, t h e p r ese nt f o r m o f w h ic h i s c o ns tr uo, I bui l d o r
p p
I t co ul d be a p pr ecia te d a s a p a st p a r ti cipl e o nl y by th o s e wh o
”
c o n struct .

w er e a wa r e o f th is e tym ol o gy ; fo r th e n o r m al E ngl is h fe e l i ng f o r a p a st

d e m an d e d cd e n d in a d th e w o r d ca me to
r t ici pl e p a rt i cip ia l g n so as
-
p a a ;
be int o g e n e ral use , i t to o k th e p as t p a r tic i pi al fo r m c o ns tructe d
a cce p te d .

I n l egal p h ra s e o l o gy, h o we ver , th e fo r m s i u e (

t a t w i t h o ut th e -c d
) i s s til l
us e d a s a p a st p ar ti ci pl e ,
b
e in g o f th e sa me f o r m a t i o n a s C a x to n s co n
’

s tr uc te .T h e p r e se nt fo r m O f L a ti n cons tr uo a pp ea rs i n E ngl ish constr ue,

t h e p a s t p a r ti c ipl e of W h ic h i s no l o n g e r f e l t to b e c o ns tr uc t but cons true d .
24 2 M O D E R N E N GLI S H

th a t h i s w o rk h ould m ee t w i th th e a ppr o val o f th e

s

kin g H e nry V III a n d h e e xpre ss e s th e p urp o s e o f h is

, ,

r efo rm s a s fo ll o ws : His H igh nes se be n ignely re c ey

uyn ge my b o k e wh i c h e I na m e d T h e G o ue r n o ur in th e
, ,
\

r e d n e th e r o f s o n e r c e ued th at I i n te n d e d to a u
y g p e
y g
m e nt o ur E n gl ys h e to n g ue w he re by m e n s h ul d e as w ell
e xpr e ss e m o r e a b un d a n tl
y th e th n e tha t the
y g y c o n

c e ue d i n th e yr h a r ti s (w h e r e fo r e l an g ua g e w
y a s o r

d e yn e d ) h a uyn ge wo rde s a p t e fo r th e p o ur p o s e a s al s o
, ,

i n te rpre te o ut o f gre k e l a tyn o r a ny o the r to n ge i n to

,

E n gl ys s h e a s s uffic i en tly a s o ut o f a n y o n e o f th e s a id
‘

t o n g ue s i nto a n o th e r H is G r a c e a l s o p e r c eyue d th at
.

thro u gh o u t th e b o ke th e re w a s n o te rm e n e w m ade by
m e o f a l ati n o r fr e nc h e w o rd e but i t i s th e re de c la re d
,

SO l a nl b o n e m e n e o r o th e r to a dilige n t re d e r tha t
p y y y ,

n o s e n te n c e is th e r e by m a d e d e rk e o r h a rd e to be un d e r
” 1
s ta n d e .

A m o n g th e e x a m pl e s o f w h at w e re re gard e d a s
s tra n g e te rm e s in h is d ay but w hich h a v e n o w be
,

c o m e g e n e r all a cc e p te d a s c o mm o n pl a c e w o rd s i n th e
y
lan gua ge Elyo t m e n ti o n s i nd us tr y magn a n imi ty m a tur
, , ,

i ty sobr i e ty a n d te mp e r a n ce
, , T h o ma s Nas h e a fe w
.
,

e a r s l a te r fi nd s m u c h to c ri ti c iz e i n th e v o c a bul a ry o f
y ,

h i s li te r ary e n e m y G a bri e l H a rv e y
,
A m o n g th e w o rd s
.

a n d phr ases us e d by H a r v e y w h i c h s o un d s tra n ge to d ay -

m ay be c ite d th e fo ll o w i n g : ca n i cu l a r ta l es efie ctu a te ; a d

d ou l c e hi s me l o d i c p o limech a ny B ut by far th e gr e a te r
.

n um b e r o f th o s e w o rds m e n ti o n e d by Nas h e are g o o d ,

if s o m e w h at l e arn e d E n gli s h to d ay ; a fe w m a y be
giv e n in m o de rn sp e llin g : ingenui ty ; p uta ti ve op in i on s ;
art fi ci a l i t ; c o r d i a l l i uor ; e rf u n cto r d i s c o ur s e s ; th e
i y q p y
1 C r o fts , T he B oke na me d the Goue rno ur , p l x vi
. .
 E N GL I S H WO R D S 24 3

g r a ci o us la w f
o a mn es ty ; a mi ca bl e en d ; ex ten s ve l i y
e mp l oye d ; n o to r i e ty ; n ego ti a ti on ; mech a n i ci a n . L ik e
C a x t o n, Nas h e i s Opi ni o n that C ha uc e r w as a
of th e
grea t i nn o vato r i n th e us e o f w o rds b ut de cla re s tha t i f ,

C h a uc e r h a d liv e d to h is time h e w o uld h av e di s c a rde d ,

th e h a rs h e r s o r t O f h i s s tra n g e w o rd s T h ey w e re h e .
,

s ay s th e o o z e
,
wh i c h o ue rflo wi ng b arba ri s m e wi th ,

d r a wn e to h e r S c o tti s h No r th r e n c h a n e ll h a d l e ft behi nd ,

h er . A rt l ike y o n g gr a s s e i n th e s pri n g o f C h a uc e r s
,

flo ri s h i ng wa s gl a d to p e e p e vp thro ugh a ny s lime o f

,

c o rrup ti o n to be b eh o ldin g t o s h e c a r d n o t w h o m e fo r
’

” 1
a
pp a rail e tra ua ili n
, g i n th o s e c o l d e c o un tri e s Y et .

N as he hims e lf i s v e ry fo n d o f a l e arn e d w o rd a n d in r e a d ,
’
i ng a ny o f h is o r h i s c o n te mp o ra ry s w o rk s o ne is s ur ,

pri s e d to find h o w m a ny o f th e i r L a tin w o rds ha ve m ade

th e ir w ay i n to a c c e p te d u se T h e re a re to be s ur e m a ny
.
, ,

w o rds whi c h w e r e pr o b a bly n e v e r a g ai n us e d a fte r th e

im m e di ate o c c asi o n w hic h c a l le d th e m i n to b e in g A S .

w e m ight e xp e c t w he n a sc h o l a rly a uth o r s e ts to wo rk

,

w i th th e av o we d i n te n t O f e n ri c hi n g th e l an guag e h e i s ,

s ur e t o be l e d i n to n um e ro us e x tr a va g a n c e s A n d th e .

e xtre m is t s a m o n g th e L a ti nis ts o r e n rich e rs w e r e un , ,

d o ub te dly fa ir g am e fo r s uc h s atire a s that o f T h o m a s

W il s o n in h is Thr ee Or a ti on s of D emosth enes 1 5 70
, , ,

w h e re h e giv e s th e fo llo wi n g high s o un di n g l e tte r p ur -

,

p o r ti n g to h a v e c o m e t o him fr o m a n Old s c h o o l fe ll o w
P o n de ri n g e xp e n di n g a n d r e vo l utin g w i th my s e lf
, ,

o ur i n g e n t aff a bili t an d in g e n i o us c a p a c i ty fo r m un
y y
d a n e affai rs I c an n o t but c el e bra te an d e x to l yo ur m a g
,

n ifice n t d e x te r i t a b o v all o th e r I d o ub t n o t but

y e .

1 Works , ed . M c Ke r r o w , I ,
3 17 . T h e w o rk i n w h i c h t h i s p a ssa ge a
p
p e ar e d w a s fi r s t p r i n te d i n 1 5 9 2 .
2 44 M O DE R N E NG L IS H

y o u w ill dj uv ate s uch p o o r ad n ich il ate o rph ans a s

a

w hil o m c o n d iscipl e s wi th yo u a n d o f antiq ue fa mili a rity

”
i n L in c o l nshire 1
.

A n o th e r s atire o n e x tr a vagan c e in th e us e o f big

w o rds i s to be f o un d i n th e ch a ra c te r O f B o m b us th e ,

s c h o o lm a s te r i n Si r P h ilip S id n e y s m a s k Th e L a d
’
of
, y
M ay . R o mbus a ddre s se s h i s i gn o r an t c o mp ani o n s in
lan g ua g e l ik e th e fo llo win g : W h y yo u br ute n e bu
“
,

l o ns h a v e yo u h a d my c o rp us c ulum s o l o n g a m o n g yo u
, ,

a n d c a n n o t ye t te ll h o w to e di f a n a rg um e n t ? A tt n d
y e

a n d thr o w y o ur e a rs to m e till I h av e e n d o c trin ated

W
,

”
o us c e r ebr o si tie s l
2
y o u r pl u mb e i t h th e ch a r a c te r
o f R o m bu s S h o uld a l s o be c o mp ar e d th e thre e ar tifi

c i al c h a ra c te r s i n S h a k sp e re s L o ve s L a bo ur s L o s t th e
’ ’ ’
,

Sp a n i s h K n igh t D o n A rm a d o wi th a min t o f phr as e s

, ,
”
in h i s bra i n Sir Na th an i e l th e c urate a nd th e p e dantic
, , ,

ch o lma s te r H o l o fe rn e s
s o , .

T h e e x tr a v a g an c es o f th e s e s atiric al ch ar ac te rs e x
pres si n g (a s th ey un do ubte dly d o ) to a c e rtain e x tent
th e m e th o d s o f th e a ugm e n te rs o f E n glis h i t w ill be ,

re adily seen tha t th e c o n s e rv ativ e s a n d o pp o n e n ts o f th e

i n tro duc ti o n o f n e w w o rds h ad an imp o r tant and ne c es
sa ry d uty to p e rfo rm I f th e L ati n i s ts h a d b e e n all o we d
.

full s w a y th e y w o uld pra c ti c ally h a v e tur n e d E n glis h

,

in to a s o rt o f m o ngr el L atin dia le c t Th e c o ns e rvativ e s .

,

o r th e S a x o n i s ts a s w e m ay c al l th e m to di s ti n g ui s h

the m fr o m th e L ati n i s ts th e ref o re h ad c o n s id e ra bl e j us

,

tic e o n th e ir s id e a nd i nd ee d d e fe n d e d th e ir c a us e w i th
,

a bili ty Ye t i t is i n te re s ti n g to s e e tha t e v en th e m o s t
.

c o ns ervativ e o f th e Sax o ni sts ar e driv e n un c o n s ci o usly to

Quo te d I ntr od uction to H o by s Co ur tier, p
’
1 i n R al e igh s
’
. x l iii .

2 h l is c ell a neous Wo rks qf S i d ney, e d Gray, p 2 74 . . .

246 M O DE R N E N GL IS H

sa ys , m us t fol o we thys c o un c il O f A ri s to t le to Sp e ak e ,

a s th e c o m o n p e o pl e d o to thi n k a s w i s e m e n d o
, M any .

E ngli sh w rite rs ha ue n o t d o n e so but us in ge s tra un ge ,

w o rd e s a s l a ti n fren c h a n d I tali a n d o m ak e a ll th inge

, , ,

dark e a n d h arde O n e s I c o mm un e d wi th a m a n whi c h e

.

r e as o n ed th e e ngl ys h e tongue to be e nry c h e d an d e n

c re a s e d th e r e by s ayin e : W h o w l l n o t r a s e th at
, g y p y
fe a s te w h e r e a m an sh a ll dri n k e a t a di n e r b o th e wy ne
, ,

a l e a n d b e e re ?
,
T r ue l y q u o d I th e y be al l g o o d e ue ry
, , ,

o n e ta k e n b b m s e lfe a l o n e but i f o u p utte M al m e s e

y y y , y
a nd s a c k e r e a d w yn e a nd w h te a l e a n d b e e r e a n d al
, y , ,

in o n e p o t yo u S h a ll m ake a d rynk e n e yth er e a sie to

,

”
be kn o w e n n o r ye t h o ls o m fo r th e b o dy A s imila r .

a rgum en t i s m a d e by W i ls o n in h i s A r te of R h e tor i ke ,

So m e s e k e S O fa r f o r o utl a nd ish e E nglish ,

tha t th e y f o rg e t a l to ge th e r th e ir m o th e r s la n gua g e
’

a nd
y e t t h e s e fin e E n glish c l e rks wi ll s a i e th e y s p e k e i n

the ir m o th e r to n g ue , i f a m a n s h o uld ch a rg e th e m fo r
H
’
c o un ter fe ti n
y g th e ki n g s E n gli s h e th a t c o m e th .

l ately o ut o f Fr an c e will talk e Fr e n ch e E n glish e a n d

, ,

n e v e r bl us h a t th e m a tte r A n o the r ch o pp e s i n w i th
.

E n glis h I ta lia nated an d a ppl ie th th e Italian phras e to

,

o ur E n gli s h s p e aki n g I kn o w them that thi nke

R h e to rik e to s ta n d w h O li e up o n d a rk e w o rd e s ; a nd h e
tha t c a n c a tche a n yn k e h o r n e t e rm by th e ta il h y m th e y ,

to be a fin e E n glis hm ana n d g o o d rh e to ric i an

1 ”
c o mp t .

T h e s am e s id e i s tak en by G a s c o ig n e in h i s P os ies ,

p ublish e d in 1 5 75 H e de cla res that h e h as al waye s

.

be n e o f o pin io n tha t i t is n o t unp o ss ible eyth e r in P o em es

o r i n P r o s e t o o w ri te b o th c o m p e n di o us ly a n d p e rfe c tly

i n o ur E n gli s h t o n g ue A n d th e re fo r e a l th o ugh I cha l

.
,

“
1 F r o m L a tin co mp uto M o d e r n E n gl i s h c o unt .
 E NGL I S H W OR DS 247

en ge my selfe t h e n am e o f a n E n gl is h P o e t ye t
n o t un to ,

m ay th e R e a de r fin d e o ute i n m y wrytin gs th a t I h av e ,

m o r e fa ul te d in k e e p in g th e O l d e E nglis h w o rde s (qua m

vi s i a m o bs o l e ta ) th a n i n b o rro w in g o f o the r s uc h Epi
” 1
th e te s a n d A dj e c ti v e s a s s m ell o f th e I nkh o rn e A nd .
,

to q uo te o n e m o r e o f th ese s c h o l a r cri tic s w e fin d P ut -

,

te nh a m i n h i s A r t of P o e s i e
,
j o in in g th e c h o r us
“ W e fin d e i n o ur E n gli s h w rite r s m a n w o rd e s a n d
y
Sp e a c h e s a m e n da bl e ; a n d y e s h all s ee i n s o m e m an y

i nkh o r n e t e r m e s s o i ll a ffe c te d br o ught in by m e n o f ,

l e ar n yng a s pre a c h e rs a n d s c h o o l e m a s te r s z a n d m a n y
,

s tr a un ge te rm e s o f o th e r l a n g ua g e s by s e c re ta ri e s a n d ,

m a r c h a un ts a n d tra va il o urs a n d m a ny da rk e w o rd e s
, ,

a nd n o t u su a l n o r w e ll s o un di ng th o ugh th e y be d ail , y
”
s p o k e n in c o urt .

B ut th e s e c o mpla i n ts a n d c a uti o n i n gs o f th e c o n s e rv
a tiv e s w e re l a rg e l i n v a in T h e r e s u l t O f th c n fli t
y . e o c

b e tw e e n th e L atinis ts a n d th e Sa x o nists wa s a vir tua l

vi c to ry fo r th e L atin i sts T h e w ho l e Situatio n is a dm i
.

r a bl s um m e d u i n th e fo ll o w i n g p a ss a g e fr o m a c o n te m
y p
p o rar
y w r i te r w h o i
,
s r e b utti n g th e a rg um e n t o f th o s e

c o n se rv a tiv es w h o m ai n t a i n e d th a t E n gli s h h a d l o s t its

c r e d it a nd be co m e c o mple tely bankrupt as re s ul t o f

w h o l e s al e b o rr o w i n g

I m e rva il e h o w o ur E ngli s h to ngue h a th c r a c kt it c r e d it ,

th a t i t may no t b o rro w Of t h e L a ti n e a s w e l a s o th e r t o ngue s ;

2
a nd if it h a ve b ro k e n i t i s b ut of l a te , f o r i t i s n o t un kn o we n

to a ll me n , h o w m a ny w o r d e s w e h a ve f e tc h t f ro m th e nc e

1 T h e P o s ies , by C unl iffe , V o l I , p 5

e d it e d E l s e wh e r e h e a d d s th a t
. . .

“
h e h a s r a th e r r e ga r d e t o m a ke o ur n a t ive l a ngua ge c o m me nd a l e in i t b
”
s el fe t h a n ga y w i t h t h e fe a th e r s o f s tr aung e bir d es
, .

2
T h a t i s , i f i t h a s b e c o me b a nkr up t .
24 8 M O D E R N E N G L IS H

wi th in th e s e fe w y ee re s , wh i ch i f th e y s h o ul d be a l l co un te d
i nk -p o t te a r me s , I k no w n o t h o w we S h all S p e a k e a ni e th ing
with o ut bl a c k i ng o ur .
mo uth e s with i nk e : f o r wh a t w o rd c an

b e m o r e p l a i n th a n th i s w o rd (p l a i n) , a nd y e t W h a t c a n c o me
m o r e n e ere to th e L a ti ne
‘
W h a t m o re m a ni fe s t th an (ma ni
f e s t) ? a nd y e t in a m a nne r L a ti n e : wh a t mo r e c o mmun e

th a n ( r a re
) , or l es s e r ar e th a n c o mmun e
( ) ,
a nd
y e t b oth of

th e m c o mmin g of th e L a tin e ?
B ut yo u will s ai e , l o ng us e
h a th ma d e th e s e wo r d e s c ur ra nt : a nd w hy m a y n o t us e d o e

as much f o r th o s e w o rd e s wh i c h w e S h a ll no w d e vi s e Wh y
s h o ul d we no t d oe as muc h f o r th e p o s te ritie as w e h a ve re

c e ive d of th e a nti q ui ti e ? B ut h o w h a rd l ie so e v er y ou

d e al e wi th yo ur e to ngue , h o w b arb ar o us s o e ve r yo u c o unt it ,

h o w l i ttl e s o e ve r yo u e s t e e me it , I d ur s t mys el f e un d e rtak e

(if I w e r e f ur n i s h e d w i th l e a r ni n
g o th e rwi s e
) to wr ite in i t
as c o p l o us li e f o r va rie ti e , as c o mp e nd io us l y f o r b r eviti e , as

c h o ic e l y f o r wo r d s , as p i th i l i e fo r s e n te n c e s , as p l e a s a ntli e
f o r figur e s , a nd e ve rie wai c a s el o q ue ntl ie , as a n i e writer

s h o ul d d o i n a ni e vul ga r to n gue wh a ts o eve r

” 1
.

T o be r th e w o rds o r p e rha p s e ven m o st o f

su e n ot a ll ,

th e m w hich th e e n rich er s a tte mp ted to a d d to th e E ng

,

lish v o c abul ary we re a cc e p te d into gene ral use B ut th e .

prin ciple o f th e ir c o n te n ti o n wa s a c c epte d by al l an d o f ,

c o urs e a gr e a t m an y o f th e ir s p e cifi c re c o mm e n d ati o n s .

I t was fe l t that th e E n gli s h l an g uage to be a fi tti n g m e

d i um f o r th e e xpre s si o n o f all th e th o ugh t O f E ur o p e o f ,

al l th at th e G r e e k th e L a ti n th e I tal ia n a n d th e Fren c h
, , ,

h a d e xpr e s se d n e e d e d to e x te n d i ts reso urc es

,
The .

r e s ul t wa s n o t a w h o l e sale a nd vi o l e nt i m p o rta ti o n o f
fo re ign w o rds but r a th e r a te n d e n cy to w a rds a g e n e r o us
,

1 Fr o m T h e C ivile Conver s a ti on f M S tep hen G ua z z o

o . tra ns la te d by
G P ettie
. o ut o f F r ench quoted by R al e igh , H o by
’
s Cour tier , p p .

x l v- l vix .
25 0 M O D E R N E N GLI S H

G e rm any, andv en G o e th e wh o live d and die d

that e ,

t wo c e n turi e s a ft e r Sh ak s p e r e m us t yie ld to th e gr e at ,

Eliz ab ethan whe n w e c o n side r b o th fro m th e side o f

th e ir c os m o p o li ta n a pp e a l G oe the is th e greate s t p o et
.

o f G e rm a n y but G o e th e is n o t k no w n an d a d m ire d
,

in I taly Fra n c e and E ngl an d as Sha k s p e re i s in

, ,

I taly Fra n c e and G e rm an y

, ,
T h e Fr e n ch i nflue n c e .

o f th e Middl e E n glish p e ri od fo ll o we d by th e c l as s ,

i c al i nfl uen c e o f th e R e n as c en c e p e ri o d b o th w o rkin g ,

up o n th e s o li d a n d c o n s tan t T e uto n i c b a se th es e a re ,

th e gre a t i n fl ue n c e s w hi c h h a v e m ad e th e E n glis h l an
g uage w h at it i s h av e giv e n it a v ari e ty a ric hne s s
, , ,

a nd an a d a p ta bili ty th at e n a bl e d a gr e a t p o e t lik e
Sha k s p e re to us e i t a s th e m e a s ure n o t o nly o f al l ,

E nglis h tho ught but o f th e th o ught o f th e wes te rn

,

w o rld .

1 9 W o r d p a i rs i n E n gl i s h
.
-
B efo r e p a ssi n g o n to .

t h e c o n s i d e rati o n O f l a te r b o rro wi ng s i n E n glish o n e ,

q ue s ti on r el atin g to th e e a rli e r b o rro w in gs fre q uen tly

mis s tate d a n d m is un de rs to o d m u st be giv e n a m o m e nt s ’

a tte n ti o n T hi s is th e qu e s ti o n o f th e us e o f w o rds in
.

p a irs by th e E n gli s h wri te rs o f th e M i ddl e E ngli s h an d

R e n as c en c e p e ri o ds a s in th e fo llo wi ng e x amples fro m
,

th e P ray e r B o o k p r a y a n d be s e e ch ; d i s se mbl e

n o r c l oa k va n ui s h a n d o ver co me ; d ef en d er a nd keep e r ;
q
d ea r th a nd s c a r c i ty,O fte n mi stak e n ly sup
e tc . I t is
p o s e d tha t thi s h abit O f us i n g tw o s yn o nym o us wo rds
fo r o n e ide a a r o s e in th e M iddl e E n gli s h p e ri o d a s a
re s ult o f th e bili ng ual d e vel o pm e nt o f Engli s h at that
ti m e . I t is a ss um e d th at a w ri te r wh en h e us e d a w o rd
“
o f Fr e nc h o rig i n w o uld j o i n w i th i t a n e xpl ai n i n g w o rd

O f s i mil a r m e a n in g O f E n gl i s h o rig in a n d vi ce ver sa a , , ,

 E NGL I S H WO RDS 25 1

wo rd Engli s h o ri gi n wo uld be use d to e xpl ai n a w o rd

of
1
o f Fr e n c h o ri gi n .

A n e x a m in atio n o f a c tua l us a ge h o wev e r d o e s n o t , ,

s upp o r t th e th e o ry s in c e i t is fo un d th a t w o rds o c c ur in
,

p airs w ith o ut refe r e n c e to th eir e tym o l o gic a l o rigin I n .

C h a uc e r s P r o l og fo r e x a mpl e o c c ur S ix te e n w o rd
’
, ,

p airs c o n sis tin g o f o n e Fren c h a n d o n e Engli s h w o rd ,

th irte e n i n w h i c h b o th a r e E n gli sh a n d n i n e i n w hi c h ,

b oth are Fre n c h m akin g a to tal o f twenty t w o in w hic h

,
-

th e th e o ry o f bili ng ua li s m i s n o t ill us tra te d a s o pp o s e d

to S ix te e n in w hi c h i t m ight be ill us tra te d 2
.

B ut th e re a r e o th e r g o o d r ea s o n s b e sid es th is te sti mo ny
o f ac tua l pr ac tic e fo r di s b e l i e vi n g th a t th eir e t m o l o gi ca l
y
o rig in h a d a nythi n g to d o w i th th e c o upl i ng O f w o rd s

to g e th e r i n p airs A n e x am in a tio n o f e arlie r E n gli s h l it

.

e r at ur e b e fo re th e ti m e o f Fr e n ch i n fl ue n c e a nd c o u s e ,

que ntly b e fo re any bili n gual te n de n c ie s c an be s upp o se d

to o p e rate S h o w s th e sa m e c usto m i n th e us e o f s yn o ny
,

m o us w o rd p a irs I n th e B li ckling H omi lies fo r e xam pl e

- .
, ,

w ri tten to w a rd s th e e nd o f th e te nth c e n tury i n th e ,

A l fre d i an tra nslati o n o f B ede s E c cl esi a sti ca l Hi stor y

’
,

a nd e l se wh e r e w e fin d w o rd p ai rs v e ry a bun d an tly
,
-

u s e d b o th w o rd s n e c es s a rily b e i n g E n glis h
, M o re o v e r .
,

it w o uld be e as y to fin d il lus tra ti o n s o f th e s am e d e vi c e

o f e xpre ss i o n i n o th e r l a n gua g e s th a n E n gl i sh fo r e x ,

a m pl e i n th e L a ti n O f C ic e r o in wh i c h th e t he o ry o f
, ,

bil ingualis m c o uld n o t p o ss ibly e n te r I n s ho rt th e r e al .

,

e xpl a n a ti o n o f th e use o f w o rd s in p air s is rh e to ric a l a nd

o r ato ric al r ath e r th a n e t m o l o gi c al

y By th e us e o f tw o .

1 Fo r a typic a l missta te ment of th e question , se e E arl e , P hi lology of

the E ngl ish T ongue 77, 78 .

2
S e e E m er s o n , hf o d er n L a ngua ge N otes , viii, 2 0 2 -2 0 6 .
 25 2 M O D E RN E N G L I S H

w o rds a w rite r
O fte n g ets a rich er c a de n c e a n o r ato ric al ,

a mplific a ti o n o f th e e xpre s s i o n th a t m a s m t h i m m r
y e e o o e

e ffe c ti ve th an th e u s e O f a S i n gl e w o rd w o uld be A .
,

l a ng ua ge ri c h in syn o nyms as fo r e x ample M o d ern

, , ,

E n gli s h i sp e c uli arly li a bl e to an ab us e o f thi s rh e to rica l

,

de vic e ; i t is an e asy o n e an d y o ung w rite r s are m uc h

,

giv e n to th e us e O f tw o pa rall el w o rds wh e re o n e w o uld

a n s we r a s w e ll T his is d ue l e s s to a de s ir e fo r cl e arn e s s
.

th an to that cra vi ng fo r symm e try w hich fi nd s e xpr e s

S i o n I n al l v a ri e ti es O f a n ti th e se s a n d b ala n c e Mr . .

S wi n b urn e s a dj e c tiv es a n d s ub stanti v es h un t in fi e rc e

’

c o upl e s thr o ugh th e rich j un gle o f h i s pr o s e T h e ta s te fo r .

p ai rs o n c e a cq uired like al l th e tas tes O f th e we althy is

, , ,
” 1
h a rd to put O ff A l th o th e o rigin a n d th e us e o f
.

w o rd p ai rs is d ue to s o m e s uc h rh e to ric al o r o ra to ric a l
-

c a us e a s h a s b e e n m e n ti o n ed it s h o uld n o t be o v e r
,

l o o k e d tha t i n th e p e ri o d o f th e Ren a s c e nc e wi th its ,

m o re o r l e ss c o n s ci o us attitude to wa rd s vo c a bula ry ,

th e d o c trin e o f bili n g uali s m i s a li ttl e m o re to th e

p o i nt in explaining th e us e o f w o rd p air s Un do ubte dly -
.

a s tra n g e w o rd was O fte n e xpla i ne d b c o upli n g wi th

y
i t a fa mi l i ar w o rd a nd b o th C a x to n a n d Sir T h o m as
,

Ely o t e xpres sly s ta te that s uch w a s th eir c us to m .

T r a n s l a to r s
w e r e e s p e c ia ll y giv e n t o th e use Of s e v e ra l

w o rds in tr a n s la ti n g a S i n gl e w o r d O f th e ir o ri gi n a l .

L o rd B e rn e rs tran sl ati o n o f Fr o i ss a r t fo r e x ampl e

’
, ,

h as s uch gr o up s a s th e fo llo w i n g : th ey sh o w o p e n , ,

m an ife st and de c l a re to th e re ad e r “ wh a t w e S h o ul d
”
i nq uire de sire and fo llo w ; wi th wh at l a b o rs dan ge rs
, ,
”
a n d p e ril s e tc
,
C a x to n al so i n o rd e r to m ak e s ur e
.
, ,

th at h e is e xpr ess i n g th e m e a n i n g o f his o rigi n al fully ,

R al e igh , I ntr o d uctio n to H o by Courtier , p l viii

’
1 s . .
254 M O D E R N E NG L I S H

d ue to th e influen c e o f C harl e s II wh o havin g a cq uir e d , ,

Fr e n ch ta s tes d uri ng his re s ide n c e in Fra nc e trans fe rre d ,

hi s F re n ch ha bi ts and pre fe re n c e s to th e E n glis h c o ur t o n

h i s r e s to r a i o n to th e E n gli s h thr o ne in 1 6 6 0 I b e ca m e
t t .

a fa s hi o n a bl e c us t o m O f th e tim e to i n te rl a rd o n e s s p e e ch
’

w i th Fr e n ch w o rd s a nd phra s es a c us to m w hic h i s fre ,

q ue n tly s atiriz e d in th e c o m e di es O f th e p e ri o d N e ve r .

th el e s s a g o o d n umb e r O f th e faddis h a n d fa s hi o n abl e

w o rds th us i n tr o d uc e d s e e m e d to be n e e d e d S i n c e th e y ,

ha v e p e rsis te d in th e lan guage an d h a v e n o w b e c o m e ,

e v e ry -d a w rds i n t h v b u l ry Ex a mpl e s ar e w o rds

y o e o c a a .

lik e ca d et cap r i ce ca r ess co quet d ess er t f es too n ga z ette

, , , , , , ,

r i ma ce t u u i t ; I t h u ld b n t d th a t m n y
g g,r o e s
q e
g a
, r s o e o e a

o f th e Fre n ch w o rds i n tr o d uc e d i n thi s p e ri o d h a v e th e

a cc e n t o n th e s e c o n d s ll a bl e fo ll o w i n g th u s th e Fr e n ch
y ,

r ul e o f a cc e nt wh e rea s w o rds o f Fre n c h o rigin in tro

,

d uc ed in th e e a rli e r p e ri o ds h a v e al l c h a n g e d th e a cc e n t
fr o m th e s e co n d to th e fir st sylla bl e foll o w in g th e ,

E n glis h rule a s for e x a mpl e p a l a c e (Fren c h

, , ,

F r ch I g r l i i a s afe r ule
g (
c o ur a e e n n e n e a t s

th at w h e n a w o rd Of Fr e n ch o rigi n b e a r s a n ac c e n t o n
th e s e c o n d sylla bl e th e wo rd is O f la te i ntr o d uc ti o n i nto
,

E nglis h .

I n c o nte mp o ra ry E n glish Fre n ch wo rd s O f s e v e r a l

,

ki n d s ha ve b een b o rr o w e d W e h a v e fo r e x a mple a
.
.
, ,

numbe r O f w o rd s w hi c h c o n s ti tu te w h a t m i gh t be ca ll e d

h o te l Fren ch s uch a s me n u en tr ee c a r af e ch ef d emi

, ,
’

,
~

, ,

f r m a bl e d h bte a l
’

ta ss e , sui te ( o o o s ) t ,
a c a r te e tc , ,
.

A n o th er gr o up c o m e s und e r th e h e a d O f milliner s Fren ch

’
,

wo rd s lik e toi l e tte h a bi t (m e a ni n g d r es s ) ; co iz

, f u re ,

ma ntea u e tc ; a nd a n o th e r migh t be c a ll e d s o ci e ty
,
.

Fr en ch w o rd s lik e d ebut fia n cee nee s oi r ee musica l e e tc

’ ’ ’ ’
.
, , , , , ,
 E N GL I S H W OR DS 255

T h e i n te re s t o f th e Fre n c h i n biles an d mech ani c a l a uto m o

inv en ti o n in ge n eral h as res ul te d i n th e c o mmo n us e o f

a n umbe r O f w o rd s whi c h m ay be c a lle d e n gin e e r s
’

Fr e n c h e g a er ona ut a er os ta t ca i ss on ch a ufieur ga r age

, . .
, , , , , ,

ton n e a u, e tc .

It is in te re s tin g to n o te that th e balan c e b e tween

M o de rn E n gl is h b or ro win gs fro m Fr e n c h an d M o de rn
Fr e n c h b o rr o wi n gs fr o m E n gli s h i n c li ne s r a th e r i n fa v o r
o f th e E n gli sh So m e o f th e E n gli s h w o rds tak e n o v e r
.

i n to Fre nc h in th e l ast tw o c enturi e s ar e th e follo win g

r e d ingote (E n gli s h r i d i ng co a t) j o ck e
y r h u m -
(E n gl i s
,
h ,

r u m) r o sbif (r oa s t-beef on ch e ch i e ni ue
, ) p (p u n ) p q
,
u q ,
-

(p i cn i c
) b ou l i ng r
,
i n ( b owl i n
gg r e en
) c l u b b o h ei
g b
( ggy)
u-
, , ,

d og ca r t tr a mwa y cr i cke t f o o t ba l l boul e d cgue (bul l

-
, , ,
-
,
-

d og ) l a wn tenni s bif teck (be ef s tea k) p a n n equet ( p a n

, , ,

ca ke s a n d wich c h d l e s h a wl ) bl a ck bowl er (to bl a ckba l l)

) , ( , ,
-
,

o cl o ck ( ve o cl ock h i i hi h
( g if ) h m 1
'
’
i
ff fi ) g l f l e ,
to a s t o e , , .

2 2 B o r r o w i n gs fr o m G e r m a n
. E n glis h h a s n e ve r .

s h o w n a s tr o n g te n d e n c y to b o rr o w fr o m G e rm a n a n d ,

th e n um b e r O f G e r m an w o rd s in th e E n gli s h v o c a b ul a ry
o n s e q ue n tl y s m a ll S o m e o f th o s e w h i c h h a v e b e e n
.

tak e n h o we v e r a r e v e ry c ha r a c te ri s ti c w o rd s li k e wa l tz
, , , ,

c a r o us e oo d l e m e e r s c h a u m ; a fe w w o rd s n am i n g O b
p , ,

f d lik r etze l s te i n a dri n k i n g m u

j e c ts o r o o s e
p , ( , g) s a u e r -
,

kr a ut ma nge l wur z e l (th e n a m e O f a v e g e table )

,
-
A .

n u m b e r O f w o rd s n a m in g m i n e ra l s bi s muth bl e n d e coba l t , , , ,

u a r tz sh a l e zin c e tc a r e fr o m G e rm a n ill u s tr ti n g
q , , , . a ,

1
See Ny ro p , G r a mma ir e h is to rique d e la L a ngue F ra nga is e, V o l I , .

pp . 7 5 8
, 4 —8 5 N r
y p o re
. m a r k s , p 8 4 , t h a t th e l a n gua g e wh i c h nu ue s
. q
t io na bl y h a s f ur nis h e d a nd w h i ch c o nti nues to f ur n is h th e l a r g e s t n um e r b
of b o rr o w e d wo r d s t o m o d e r n F r e nc h i s E n gl is h
”
T h e w o r d s a re e s .

“
e i a l l t h o s e c o nne c te d wit h c o m me r c e , m a nufac tur in , s o r t, a n d
p c y g p
fas h i on .
25 6 M O D E R N E N GL I S H

th e fa c t that it was in G e rm any that mine ral o gy first

”
a tta i n e d th e ra nk o f a s c i e n c e 1
T h e w o rd c a r ous e
.
,
”
fro m G e rm a n g a r a us th a t i s all o ut
, w a s ta k e n o v e r
, ,

i n th e e a rly Eliz a b eth an p e ri o d I t de s ign ate d o ri gi nally

.

a d ri n ki n
g c us to m s imil a r to th a t k n o wn as dri nki n g

s u er n agul um w hi c h i s a fte r a m an h ath t urn d v

p , p
th e bo tto m O f th e c up to dr o p it o n h ys n a il e a n d m a ke
,

a p ea rle w i th th a t i s l e ft ; w hich if it slid e a n d h e c a n , ,

n o t m ak s ta n d o n by r e a s o n th er s to o m uch h e m us t
, ,
”
drink e agai ne fo r h is p enan c e 2
.

A fe w w o rds a r e m o r e o r l e s s us e d i n th e ir G e rm an

fo rm th o th e y c a n h a rdly be s aid to h a v e b e e n a do p te d
,

i nto E n gli sh Ex a mpl e s ar e h ei mweh

. ho m es i c k ,

n e ss z ei tg e i s t li te rally tim e spirit tha t i s” “ th e -

, , ,
”
S piri t o f th e a ge we l ts chme r z lite ra lly w o rld pa in
,
-
,

“w e a ri n es s o f th e w o rld ” “ fa th e rl a n d
; va ter l a n d
’
,

h i nter l a n d m e an i n g th e r egi o n o r l a n d b a ck o f a s ea
,

p o rt n e c e ss ary to s upp o rt it In th e ins tan c e O f th e .

phra s e les e maj e s te a Fren ch phr as e i s b o rro w e d to d es

’

igna te w h at h as c o m e t o be r e g a rd e d a s di s tin c tly a

G e rm a n id e a th e G e r m an w o rd fo r it b ei n g maj estats
'

bel eid igung . T h e w o rd kin d erg a r ten c a m e i nto E n gli s h

w ith th e thin g i ts el f which o rigi n ate d in G erm any
, .

O n th e o th e r h a n d th e G e rm a n s like th e Fren ch
, , ,

h av e b o rr o w e d an d c o n ti nue to b o rr o w fr eely fro m

, ,

E n gl is h e sp e c ia lly O f re c en t years T h e w o rds whi c h

,
.

th e y h a v e ta k e n o v e r a r e o f m a ny diffe re n t ki n d s .

M a n y w o rds Of m o r e o r l e ss fa s hi o na bl e ch a ra c te r h a ve
be en bo rr o w e d s ho wi n g th e G e rm a n a dmira tio n fo r
,

E nglish s o ci a l c usto ms and c o n duc t A fe w s uch w o rds .

1 Bra dl ey, M a king f E nglish

o
p 103 ,
. .

2 Nas h e , P ierce P eniles se , e d G r o s a r t , I I , 78

. .
25 8 M O D E RN E N G L I S H

a mpl e p i a no, , p
o er a , f s tud i o, r e s co . W o rds of Sp an
i s h o rigi n a r e d e sp er a d o , ma ta d or , a mbus c a d e, g r a n d e e,
an d a fe w ot he rs
R us si an h a ve c o m e kno ut
. Fr o m ,

s te ver s t a n d v e ry r e c e n tly d uma ( l p ll d

pp e , , a s o S e e

d oum a a n d d o uhma ) vo d ka iko n p ogr om e tc , M o dern , , , .

D utc h h a s giv e n a n umb e r o f n a utic al te rm s e g boem , . .

, ,

d ock hu l l s l o op y a c h t skipp er
, ,
A fe w w o rds h a v e
, ,
.

e n t e r e d M o d e rn E n gli sh fro m th e Sc an dinavi an l an

g uages e g flo e fior d viking tr ol l s aga geys er
, . .
, , , , , , ,

g a n tl e t ski ,
A s a r es u.l t o f th e E n gli s h o cc u p a ti o n O f
I n di a a numbe r O f w o rds o f E a st I n di an o rigin ha ve
,

m ad e th e ir way i n to E n gli s h ; e x a mple s a r e ba n d a nn a ,

c h utn e
y ( a ki n d O f s au c e
) c o wr
y l oo t i n d ig o r aj a h , , , , ,

ru ee e tc F r o m th e A m e ri c an I n di a n s w e h a v e bo r
p ,
.

ro w e d s qua w wigwa m wa mp um toba cco p ota to tobogga n

, , , , , ,

mo cca si n p emmi ca n be s ide s o f c o urs e man y pl ac e

, , , ,

n am e s .Fr o m M al ay h a ve c o m e gingh a m g ong gutta , ,

er c h a l or , o r a ng ou ta ng a muck a n d ke tc hu r m
1
p , y
-
p F o , , .

C hin e se h a v e c o m e te a ma n d a r in gin s eng ; fro m th e , ,

P hilippin e s d a tto ma ni l a f ro m th e P o lyn esi an di al e c ts

, , ,

ta boo ta tto o
, P e rh a ps th e r e is n o p e o pl e w i th which th e
.

E n gli s h h av e c o m e in co nta c t fo r an y l e n gth o f time

th a t h a s n o t a dd e d a w o rd o r tw o to th e l a n g uage .

T h e se w o rds ar e a ll i n te res ti ng a s S h o w i ng th e ki n d s o f
r e lati o n s w hich e xis te d be twe en th e E n gli s h and th e
v a ri o us o th e r p e o pl es B ut rel a tive ly th eir n umb e r .

m us t a l w a ys be s m a ll M o de rn E n gli s h h as n o t fel t th e
.

n e e d o f an v e ry e x te n s iv e b o rr o w in g a n d w i th o n e e x
y ,

c e pti o n t o be n o te d i n th e n e x t p a ra gr a ph h a s m a n ag e d
, ,

t o ge t a l o n g s a ti s fa c to rily o n i ts i n h e ri te d r e so u rc e s .

Fo r e ign w o rds ar e s o m e tim e s ta k e n i n to th e l an g uag e

1 Bra d l ey, M a king of E ng l is h, p 1 0 4 . .
 E N G LI S H WO R D S 25 9

t e mp o r a rily . T h ey
d as l o n g a s th e spec ial cir
are u se

c um s ta n c e s w hi ch c a ll e d th e m i n to pr o mi n e n c e a re
pr es en t but a fte r wa rds they p a s s c ompl e te ly o ut o f us e
, .

T h us d urin g th e Sp a ni s h A m e ri ca n wa r a n u mb e r O f
,
-

w o rd s beca m e fa m ili a r to th e A m e ri c a n p ubli c thro ugh

th e ir us e i n th e n e w s p a p e rs w o rd s lik e p r on un ci a men to
, ,

ma c h e te r e c on cen tr a d o
, a nd d urin g th e B oe r w a r a
n um be r O f So uth A fri c an w o rd s g ai n e d c o n s id e r abl e c ur

r en c a s f r e x a mpl e k o j e
( h i ll ) t k l U i t
y, o , p , r e a ag e r , , ,

l a n d er . B ut s uc h w o rds m igh t be c all e d “ o cc a s i o n a l

wo rd s . T he y d o n o t re sp o n d t o a ny p e rm an e nt n e e d
o f th e p e o ple a n d a fte r th e o c c a s i o n w h ic h bri n g s th e m
,

i nto us e they te n d to di s a pp e ar a lto ge th e r fro m th e

,

la n gua ge .

T h e o n e i n s ta n c e in w h i ch M o d e rn E n gli s h c o n ti n ues
to b o rro w free ly fr o m fo r eign l an g ua ge s i s in i ts s c ie n
tific a n d p s e ud o sc i e n tific v o c ab ul a ry
-
H e re th e g e n e ra l
.

te n d e n cy i s to n a m e all n e w i n ve n ti o n s a n d d is c o v
e ri e s b L a ti n o r G r ee k w o rd s u s ua ll th e fo rm e r e i th e r
y y , ,

s e p a ra te l
y o r i n c o mp o siti o n T h u s L o rd R a l e i gh th e
.
y ,

dis c o v e re r o f th e n e w e le m e n t a rg o n a fe w yea rs ago ,

m a de up th e n a m e fo r it fro m th e tw o G re e k e l e m e nts
a a pr e fix w i th a n e g a t iv e v a l u e lik e E nglis h i n an d
,

o v wor k th e w h o l e m e a n i n g n o t w o rk i n g
'

e
py
f
, , o r i h ,

”
a c tiv e ,
th e s ign i fic an c e o f th e n a m e b e in g fo un d i n th e
fa c t th at a rg o n d o es n o t r e a d ily c o m bi n e wi th o th e r
e l e m e n ts T h e r ec e n tly d is c o v e re d R o e n tge n ra ys h ave
.

al s o br o ugh t to light a n e w s ubs ta n c e r a d ium th e n a m e , ,

O f w h i c h i s tak e n fro m th e L a ti n r a d i um
“ ra t h e
”
y , ,

cha r a c te ris ti c o f th e s ubs tan c e b ein g th e e missi o n O f rays

o f li g h t .So m e O f th e a ppl ic a ti o ns o f sc i en c e to pra c ti c al
p urp ose s h av e c a rri e d wi th the m th e i r c lassi cal te rmin ol
2 60 M O DE RN E N G LI S H

o
gy . T h e w o rd te l ep h on e, fo r x a mpl e is m a d e up o f e ,

“
m
”
t w o G r e e k e l e m e n ts k s f a r, a n d (pan /7
,5 so u n d ”
, , .

W o rds lik e te l egr a m tel egr ap h tel h a r moni c a re simila r

, , ,

c o mpo un ds T h e w o rd p h on ogr ap h i s m ad e up O f G r e e k
.
~

ik
3 s O un d a n d th e r o o t yp a g
,
b m ean i n g to f
w ri te ,

t h e W h o le w o rd th us m e an i n g li te rally s o un d -wri te r .

A utomo bi l e i s a hybrid c o mp o un d th at i s its two e l e , ,

m e nts a re tak e n fr o m di ffe rent lan g ua ges a uto bein g ,

fr o m G r e e k a br o v s e lf a n d mobil e fr o m th e L atin wo rd
’

, ,

”
O f th e s a m e fo rm m e a n i n g , m o vin g th e wh ol e c o m ,

p o un d m e an in g th e re fo re sel f m o vin g O the r w o rds -

.

e n tire ly fro m L a ti n a r e c a r bon fr o m L ati n ca r bo i n sul a

,

ti on fro m i n s ul a te w hich i s a p a s t p a rticiple fr o m th e

,

L a tin v e rb i nsul a r e fo rm e d fro m th e n o un i nsul a

, ,

isla n d (c f is o l ate) c a l cium fr o m L a tin c a l r

.
p
s ec

tr um fr o m th e L ati n w o rd O f th e s a m e f o rm
, .

C o mm e rcia l ter m s a re a l s o O fte n ma d e o f L ati n o r

G re e k w o rd s as fo r e x a mple th e n a m e s O f pr od uc ts
, , ,

like glucose ole o ma rga r i n e cottol ene ; th e to o th p o wd e r

, ,
-

c all ed s oz o d on t fro m G re e k s aga “ ”

I s a v e a n d 686vr , ,

to o th a n d a gr e a t m a ny o th e rs o f lik e fo rm ati o n .

2 4 E t y m o l o gy
. Sin c e th e E n glis h v o c a bul a ry is d e
.

riv e d fr o m s o m an y diffe r e nt s o urc e s i t w ill be rea dily ,

s ee n th at th e s tu dy o f e tym o l o gy w hich is th e s tudy o f ,

t h e o ri gi n and hi s to ry O f w o rds i s o n e o f p e c uli a r imp o r ,

t an c e t o th o s e w h o s e n ative s p e ech i s E ngli s h I t i s n ot .

a l w ays o r i n d e e d g en e ra lly n e c es s a r t o k n o w th e e ty
, y ,

mo l o gy o f a w o rd i n o rde r to us e it c o r re c tly Wo rds .

m e an to d ay e x a c tly th e ide as whic h they c o nvey fro m

-

o n e p e r s o n to a n o th e r a n d a ny fo rcible a tte mp t t o m ak e
,

th e ir pre s e n t us e c o n fo rm to the ir e tym o l o gic al m ea ni n g

i s p e d antic a nd v ain T hus th e w o rd vi ll a in etym ol ogi
.
2 62 M O D E R N E N G LIS H

th e imilarity in fo rm do e s n o t in dic a te any r elati o ns hip

S

in m e a n i n g 1
T hi s m eth o d O f e xpl ai n i ng th e e ty m o l o gi e s
.

O f w o rds by th e ir g e n e ral a pp a r e nt s im i la ri ti e s to o th e r

w o rds w as th e o n e in c o mm o n us e un til th e c o mp a ra
ti ve l y re c e n t r es ul ts O f th e e x ac t s tudy o f l a n g ua ge ,

e s p e ci all ph o n e tic s e n a bl e d s c h o l a r s t o fo r m ul ate th e

y ,

r ul es o f e tym o l o gizi n g in a s y s tem ati c an d s cien tific way .

T h us C h a uc e r i n h i s v e r si o n O f th e li fe o f St C e cilia in
,
.

th e Ca n te r bury Ta l es fo ll o win g th e c usto m of h is p e ri o d

, ,

giv e s a half do z e n di ffe ren t e tym o l o gi es O f th e n am e

C e cili a all O f th e m p ur e g ues s e s a n d a ll O f the m w r o n g
,
.

Shak s p e r e in Cymbe line

,
2
give s a s imil arly fan c iful ,
”
e tym o l o gy O f th e L ati n w o rd m uli er w o m an fr o m , ,

mo ll i s a er .

T wo wri te rs of
m o de rn tim es w h o w ere p a rtic ularly
given to th e vici o us h abit o f c a re les s e tym o lo gizin g a re
C a rlyl e a n d R uskin
3
I n illus tr ati o n o f R us ki n s m e th o d
’
.

w e ma y q uo te th e fo ll o wi n g p as sa g e : “ W h a t d o yo u
thi n k th e b eauti ful w o rd w i fe c o m e s fro m ? I t i s th e
gr e at w o rd in w hich th e E nglish and L ati n lan g ua ge s
c o n q ue r th e Fr e n ch o r G re e k I h o pe th e Fren ch will .

s o m e d ay ge t a w o rd fo r i t i n s te a d o f th e ir f e mme B ut .

wh a t d o yo u thi n k it c o m e s fr o m ? T h e grea t va l ue Of
th e Sa x o n w o rds is th at th ey m e a n s o m e thi n g W ife .

1 T h e word nigga r d is d e r ive d fr o m a ro o t-wo r d fo un d in S ca n d ina vian

!

a nd E ngl is h , m ea n i ng s ca nt
y ,
s tin
gy , p l us th e s uffi x -
ar d, as i n d ulla r d ,
co wa r d , e tc T h is m a ke s th e p o in t O f t h e fol l o w in g h umo r o us us e o f th e
.

w o rd in Higgins o n s C o nte mp or a r ies , p 3 4 6 D r H a ck e tt w a s a nn o ye d by

’
. .

va gra nt b w h o d e l igh t e d i n fil l ing t h e ke y h o l e o f h is b ut wi th gr a vel

oys , .

S uc h c o nd uc t, D r H a ck e tt s ai d ,
. I s h o ul d call , s ir , — wi th no d isr e
sp ect t o th e co l o r e d p o
p ul a ti o n , n ig ga r d l y .

2 S e e C ymbeli ne, A ct ,
V
v, 4 4 6 ; a l s o ,
i v, 1 4 0 , a nd V , v, 4 3 7 V .

3 S e e S a r to r B es a rl a s
,
C h a pt e r V I I , w h e r e C a r l yl e g i ves t h e o ft en
“ ”
r e p e at e d but fal s e e tym o l o gy O f king fr o m ke nning (c unn in g) , ca nning,
“
th e o ne wh o ca n,
”
or is a bl e .
 E N GL I S H WO R D S 26 3

m e ans w e a v e r Y.o u1
m u s t b e e i th e r h o u se -w iv e s or

h o us e -m o ths re m ember that In th e de ep se ns e yo u

,
.
,

m us t ei th e r w e a v e m e n s fo r tun es a nd e mbro ide r the m

’
,
”
o r fe e d up o n th e m a n d bri n g th e m to d e c ay .

T h e a bs ur d i ty O f thi s i s Obv i o us W h ate ve r th e w o rd

.

wif e m ay a t o n e ti m e h av e m e a n t it c e rta in ly d o e s n o t ,

n o w m e an we a ver a n d all O f R us ki n s fin e s e ntim e n t i s

’

bas ed up o n a m an ife st fal s e ho o d T h e grav e de fe c t O f .

a l l s uc h e t m o l o g iz i n g is th at i t t ak e s a c c o un t o n l f
y y o

th e me re surfa c e S i m ila ri ti e s th a t e x i s t b e tw e e n w o rds ,

s i mil a r i ti e s whi c h m ay o r m ay n o t be i n dic a ti o n s O f a

r eal r elati o n shi p but w hich ar e n e ve r syste m atically

,

tes te d o r e x a m in ed T h e w e akn es s O f s uc h e ty mo l o giz

.

i ng is us ua lly t o be f o un d i n th e i n s uffic i e n t k n o wl e dge

a n d Ob s e rv a ti o n o f th e e tym o l o i z er L e gi t im t n d
g a e a .

s o un d e t m o l o gi zi n g i s n o t i n dee d w o rk fo r n o vi c es
y , , .

I t is a s c ien c e th at fo ll o ws a m e th o d ; i t h a s i ts r ul e s
a n d t e s ts a n d i s n o t d e p e n d e nt o n l o n c l e v e r g uess in g
, y
a n d im a in a ti o n Th t s ts O f a r ea s o n abl e e t m o l o g
’

g e e
.
y y
a r e th e s e : (1 ) it m us t be in a cc o rd w i th th e ph o n e ti c

l a ws c o n c ern e d ; (2 ) it m us t a gree w ith c o mmo n s en s e

o n th e S ide O f a n y c han g e in m e a n in g w hi c h th e e t m o l
y
o gy s upp o s es ; a n d (3 ) i n t h e c a s e o f b o rr o w e d w o rd s it ,

m us t agre e w i th pr o ba bility o n th e side O f g e o graph

ic a l a n d e th n o l o gi c al rel a tio ns h ip s T h us if w e find a
.
,

s i mil a ri t e tw e e n a H o tte n to t w o rd a n d an E n gl i s h
y b .

o n e o f C h a uc e r s d a i m b s h o w n th a t E n gl i s h
’

y t u s t e
,

mi ght ha ve b o rro w e d fro m H o tte n to t o r vi ce ver s a , ,

befo r e a n etym o l o gy d e rivi n g o n e fr o m th e o th e r c an

bec o m e e v en pr o babl e U n til o n e h as h ad c o n side rable
.

1 b
P re s um a l y be ca us e wif e a nd we a ve r h a ve i ni tia l w in co m m o n , a nd

th e two so me w h a t s i m il ar s o un d s f a n d v .
2 64 M O D E RN E N G LI S H

pra c tic e in th e pri n cipl e s invo lved th e safe st m e th o d t o ,

fo ll o w in m a tte r s o f e tym o l o gy is to tr us t t o th e auth o r

i ty o f re p uta bl e dic ti o n a ri e s a n d s p e c i al wo rk s o n tha t
s ubj e c t .

A c o n s id e ra ble n umb e r o f w o rd s i t sh o uld be Ob se rv e d , ,

h ave be e n taken o ve r i n to E ngli sh in e x actly th e fo rm s

i n w hic h th e y o c c ur I n the ir o rigin al l an gua g e s The .

pr o ble m O f e tymo l o gy i s he re a ve ry s i m ple o n e sin c e ,

th e w o rd s s uffe r n o c h an g e o f fo rm i n tra n s mi s si o n Ex .

a mpl e s fr o m G e rm a n a nd F ren c h h a v e b ee n c ite d a bo v e .

B ut th e l a n gua g e fr o m w hich s uch dir e c t b o rr o wi n gs

,

h a ve m o s t fre que ntly b een m ade i s L a ti n T h e fo ll o w .

ing is a li st O f a fe w w o rd s i n c o mm o n us e w hi c h h av e
e x a c tly th e sa m e fo r m I n b o th l an gua g es : a n i ma l a ex
p , ,

bonus d ogma (o rigin a lly G r ee k ) ex cur sus ex i t ex tr a

, , , , ,

i i d o d i um omen m
f g
u n u s g en
,
us n ex , o n us
, on x
y, o
p i u , , , ,

p a s tor ,
p au
p er ,
p re mium, s er i e s , s
p eci e s , s
p e c tr u m, te r mi
n us , tr a n si t .

I t w as rem a rk e d ab o v e th at th e m ean in g o f a w o rd in
M o de rn E n gli sh is dep en de n t o n its pr es en t us e a n d ,

n o t o n i ts e t m o l o gy a p o i n t w hich s h o uld n o t be o v e r
y ,

lo ok e d T h e hi s to rical m e an i n gs O f w o rd s an d th e ir
.

c o nte mp o ra ry me a n in gs ar e O ften th e s a m e but wh e n th e

m e an i n g w hi c h Sh ak s pe re or C h auc e r gav e to a w o rd is
diffe re n t fr o m th e m e a nin g whi c h m e n give it to d ay -
,

th e e a rli e r m e a ni n g c an n o t imp o s e i ts e lf o n th e m o de rn
m e an in g P e o ple Often s ay tha t a w o rd ough t to m ean
‘

S O a n d s o b e c a us e i ts e tym o l o gy i s th i s o r th a t
,
T h ey .

fo rg et th at l an gua g e i s n o t d e te rmi n e d by th e o r ies o f _

w h a t o ugh t to be o r w h at might be but by th e c o n d i ,

ti o n s o f its a c tua l us e to d ay T h us Je r e my T ayl o r

.

s p e aks o f h o ly and i nn o c e nt i d i o ts o r pl ai n e as y ,
26 6 M O D E R N E N GL I S H

C e r tai n w o rds ha ve pe rsi ste d in E nglish in o cca si o n al

us es a s fa d ed tra di ti o na l s urviv al s
, T h ey pre s e rve th e
.

o ld e r fo rm s o f th e w o rd s b ut h a v e l o s t th e o ld e r m e an
,

i n g w i th out suppl yin g a d e fin i te n e w m ea ni n g T h us .

w e S p e a k o f a p e rs o n a s “ w adi n g thr o ugh bl o o d

”
or ,

“ wa n ”
di g in h i s o wn bl o o d O n e n e e d o nly vi sua liz e
.

th e pic ture s ugge s te d by th e m o de rn s en s e O f w a de

to s e e h o w ri di c ul o u s th e s e phrases w o uld s e e m i f th e
w o rd we re giv e n its lite ral m e a ni n g B ut th e w o rd wa d e
.

i n th e s e us e s i s o n ly a c o l o rl es s s urviv a l fr o m i ts o lde r
s e n se w h e r e it m e an s m e re ly
“ to go wa lk
”
as i n th e
, , ,

fo ll o wi n g lin e

B e h o l d e h o w h e wa d e p yn h ys o wn e bl O d 1

A n o th e r illus trati o n phrase ti me a nd ti d e T h e

i s th e .

”
w o rd tid e in th e s en se o f o c e an tid e
,
fairly fits it s u se
,

in th e fa mi li a r pr o v e rb in w hich a l o n e th e phras e is
,

u s e d ; but th e id ea Of o c e an tid e is n o t u s ua lly i n th e

min ds Of s p e ak e rs w he n they pro no unc e th e pr o ve rb .

T h e w o rd ti d e in th e phr a s e r e ally h a s n o d e fi n ite m ean

in g a l tho o rigi n ally it h ad th e s a m e m e an in g as ti me
, ,

a s e n s e w hi c h 1s s till pre se rve d in c om p o un ds lik e

Chri s tma s tid e W hi ts un tid e e tc
-
, I n th e pr o ve rb th e re
, .
,

fo re i t is m e r e ly a c o l o rl e s s s urvival lik e wa d e
, O c ca
,
.

s io n al w o rd s o f thi s n a ture a r e us e d i n a n a ffe c te d w ay in

m o de rn litera ry styl e T hus o ne n o w an d the n m e e ts

.

”
th e phra s e ha rk b a ck in th e s en s e return to a s in ,

th e s e n te n c e H e h a rk e d ba c k to th e s ubj e c t O f h is fo r
”
me r di s c o ur s e o r H e w as c o ntin ually h a rki ng b a ck to
,
”
th e e xp e ri e nc e s o f th e pr e c e di n g s um m e r I t i s O fte n .

“
va guely us e d als o in th e s e n s e o f i mi tate a s w hen o n e ,

1 M e d ita tions o n the P a ss io n E arl y E ngl ish T e x t S o cie ty, V o l L !

,
.
, p 17
. .
 E N G LI SH WO RD S 26 7

p oet is id to hark ba c k to ano the r T h e ph ra s e h as

sa .

n e c e s s a rily b ec o m e so m e wha t va g ue and un na t ur a l s i n c e ,

i ts prim ary Signi fic a n c e is lo s t a nd n o n e w d efi n ite m e an ,

i ng h a s b e e n gi v en to it O rigin ally i t wa s a te rm in
.

hunting and wa s us e d O f th e h o un ds re turn in g al ong “

,

th e c o urs e ta k e n w h e n th e s c e n t h a s b e e n l o s t til l it is ,
” 1
fo und a gai n A S l o n g a s thi s li te r a l m e a n in g was
.

c le a r th e fig ur a tiv e s e n se o f th e phra s e w a s i n te ll igibl e

,

but w i th th e l o ss o f li te ra l S ig nifi c a n c e it h as b e c o m e ,

m e re ly a tra di tio nal survival A no th e r phra s e o f th e .

s a m e k in d i s a t th e firs t bl us h a s i n th e s e n te n c e At , ,

th e firs t bl us h i t w o uld s e e m th at th e p o e ts w e r e li ttle

”
c o n c e r n e d wi th th e pr ac ti c al a ffairs O f li fe T h e w o rd .

“bl us h ” h as n o w n o m e an i n g w hi c h c a n m ak e thi s

phra s e se e m r e as o n abl e I ts e a rl ie r a n d pri m a ry m ean

.

i ng h o w e v e r w a s “ lo o k ” “ ”
gla n c e a nd th e phra se
, , , ,

m e an t a t th e firs t gl a n c e W rite rs wh o us e i t n o w a
.

days d o n o t Ofte n ha ve any c le a r se nse o f its m e an in g ,

but affe c t i t m e r e ly b e ca us e th e y h a ve r e a d it in th e
w o rk s O f s o m e o n e e l s e .

25 . P r o p o rti o n of th e E l e m e nt s of th e E n gl i s h
V o c a b ul a r y . A l th o th e
E n gli s h v o c abula ry h as n e v e r
c ea s e d to o p e n i ts d o o rs fo r th e i ntro d uc ti o n o f fo r
e i n w o rd s i t m us t n o t be fo rg o tte n th a t i t h as a l wa s
g , y
r e main e d fun da me ntally an d pr e do mi nati ngly E n gl is h .

T h e n um b e r o f w o rd s o f fo re ign o ri gi n us e d by diffe re n t
w ri te r s n a turally v a ri e s w i th th e s tyl e a n d m a n n e r o f th e
w ri ters ; th e s a m e w ri te r al s o use s s o m etim e s m o re an d
s o m e tim e s fe w e r fo r e ig n w o rd s d e e nd in l rg l up th
p g a e
y o,n e

s ubj e c t m atte r O f h is c o mp os iti o n

- I t h as b e e n e s ti m ate d .

th at th e pr o p o rti o n o f n a tiv e w o r d s to fo re ig n c o untin g ,

1 S N w E ngli h D i ti n y un d
ee e s h k b k c o ar , er ar ac .
2 68 M O DE RN E N G L I S H

e ac h w o rd e v e ry tim e it o c c urs is in Shak spe re 9 0 to 1 0 ; ,

i n th e Ki n g J a m es tra n s la ti o n o f th e B ibl e 9 4 to 6 ; in ,

th e w riti ngs O f D r J o h n s o n 8 0 t o 2 0 o f th e his to rian

.
, ,

Gibb o n 70 to 3 0 ; o f T e nnys o n 8 8 to 1 2
, I n th e n o rm al , .

c o ll o q ui al E n gli s h O f a n a v e r a g e e d uc a te d p e rs o n th e

pro p o rti o n O f wo rd s o f fo re ign o rigin pr o bably n e ve r

ri se s abo v e ten p er c ent T his l o w p e rc entage O f fo r ei gn
.

w o rds d o e s no t m e a n h o w ev e r th at th ey a re in e ffe c tiv e

, ,

a n d un n o tic e a bl e i n s tyl e O f th e n in e ty per c en t o f

.

n ativ e w o rd s a la rg e p a rt is m ad e up O f c o l o rl es s wo rd s
, ,

lik e th e articl es pr ep o s itio ns c o nj un c ti o n s e tc ; a n d

, , , .

o fte n th e w o rd s whi ch r ea lly giv e q ua li ty a nd to n e to a

pas s age in w ri ti n g o r a phra se in s p ee c h a r e j us t thes e

, ,

o c c a s i o n al a n d s o m e wh a t e xc ep ti o n al wo rds o f f o re ign

o rigi n .

By far th e gre ate r p art o f th e b o rr o wed e le m ent in

E n gli sh is de riv e d fro m L ati n a n d G re ek ei the r dire c tly ,

o r thro ugh th e m e di um o f a F re n c h fo rm S o m e id e a O f .

th e e x te n t o f this c l a s sic al e le m e n t i n E n gli s h c an be

fo rme d fro m th e fa c t th at w e h a v e in En gli s h in c o m
m o n us e n o t c o un ti n g th e fe w o cc asi o n a l te c hnic al a nd
,

s ci e n tific te rms w o rd s d e rive d fr o m a b o ut 45 0 L a ti n r o o t

,

fo rms . E ac h o f the s e ro o t fo rms is re pre sen te d in E n g -

lis h by a v aryin g n umb e r o f diffe re nti a te d w o rd s T hus .

”
th e L ati n r o o t p e d m ean in g f fo o t app ea rs a t l e as t in
‘
,

tw e lv e c o mm o n E n gli sh w o rd s d e riv e d fr o m i t : bip e d ,

e x e d i te i m ed e a wn (a fig ur e i n th e g a m e o f c h e s s )
p p
, p ,

e on ,
p ed a l, p e d e s tr a n , i p e d i cel ,
p e d ig r e e ,
p ed iment,
p
1
p i o n e er , qu a d r up ed . O th e r r o o ts a r e re pres ente d by
e v e n m o r e w o rds in E n gli s h T h e r o o t d ue
. fo r
”
e x a mpl e , as i n L a ti n d ucer e to l e a d
,
a pp e a rs in ,

1 Fo r th e e ty mo l o gy o f al l th e se wo r d s , c o nsul t th e d ictio na ry .
2 70 M O D E R N E N GL IS H

est in i c le ar ni n g a n d c o mm e rc e E n glish h as
sc en e , , ,

bo rro we d a va s t n umb er o f w o rds Fro m a p ure a “ .

,

unili ngual to ng ue it h a s c o m e to be a p o lygl o t l ang ua g e

, ,

o ne m ad up o f e l e m e nts fr o m a va ri e ty O f l an g ua g e s
e ,
.

No w i t ha pp en s th at thi s p o lygl o t cha r ac te r O f M ode rn

E n glish c a rries wi th it to s o m e m i n ds th e c o nn ota ti o n
, ,

Of
“ imp uri ty .
”
I f a l an g u ag e m ad e up o f e n tire ly n ativ e
e l e m e n t s is
“ ”
p ure th ey argue th en o n e m a d e up o f
, ,

div e rs e le m e n ts i s imp ure a n d to tha t e x te n t l e ss , , ,

a dmir abl e th a n th e o th e r T hi s fe eli n g fo r th e p uri ty o f

.

th e la ng ua g e is p a r tly b a se d u p o n p atri o tic s e ntim e n t a ,

re v e r en c e fo r th e n ativ e idi o m a s s uc h a fe e lin g p e rhap s ,

prai s e w o rthy in i ts e lf but n o t o n e wh ic h a l o n e s h o uld be

,

a l l o we d to d e te r mi ne al l q ue s ti o n s O f v o c a b ul a ry Of
’

i n finitely m o r e i m p o r tan c e than p a tri o tic s e ntim en t i s

th e m a tte r o f th e e ffe c tiv en e ss O f th e l a n g ua ge i n use .

I t is fro m thi s p o i n t O f vi e w th a t w e s h a ll c o n s id e r bri e fly

th e q ue s ti o n o f p u ri ty .

T h e d e fe n s e us ually m ad e fo r th e p ure o r S a x o n vo , ,

cab ul a ry h a s b e e n b e s t pr es e n te d by H e rb e r t Sp e n c e r ,

in h is e s s ay e n ti tle d Th e P h i l osop hy of S ty l e Sp e n c e r .

a rg ue s fo r th e gre ate r fo rci bl e nes s o f Sax o n E n glis h o r ,

r athe r n o n -L a ti n E n glis h a n d th e r e as o n s w h y h e re

gards th e Sax o n or n ativ e vo c a bul a ry as m o re fo rc ibl e

, ,

th an th e f o re ign a r e fir s t e arl y a s s o ci ati o n th e c h ild s

’
, , , ,

v o c abul a ry b e i ng alm o s t w h o l l y Sa x o n an d s ec o n d , ,

th e bre vi ty O f Sa x o n w o rd s a s c o mp ar e d w i th w o rd s O f
f o re ign o rigin Sp en c e r furth e r add s that w e s h o uld
.

e n d e a v o r to u se c o n cr e te a n d s p e cifi c w o rds w hi c h are ,

us ua lly O f na tiv e o rigin rath e r th a n a b s tr a c t an d ge n

,

e ra l wo rd s w hi c h a r e us ua lly O f fo r e ig n o rigi n
,
T h us h e .
,

s ays we Sh o uld a v o id s uc h s ente n c e s a s th e fo ll o wi n g

,
 E N GL IS H WO RDS 2 71

In pr op o rtio n a s th e m ann ers c us to ms an d a m useme n ts, ,

O f a n a ti o n a r e c r ue l a n d b a rb a r o us th e r e g ul a ti o n s O f ,
”
th e ir p e na l c o de w ill be s e v e re In s tea d o f this we .

s h o uld w r i te : I n pr o p o r ti o n a s m e n d eligh t in ba ttle s ,

b ull figh ts a n d c o mba ts o f gl adi ato rs w ill th ey p uni sh

-
, ,

”
by h a ng i ng b urn i n g a n d th e r a ck
, ,
.

Wi th th e se tw o s e n te nc e s w e m ay c o mpa re a s a mpl e
o f S p e n c e r s o wn s t l e tak e n fr o m th e b o d o f th i s sa m e
’

y , y
e ss a y t h e fo r e i gn w o rd s b e i n g i ta li c iz e d :
,
A s w e d o no t
thi nk i n gen e r a l s but i n p a r ticul a r s — a s w h e n e ve r a n y ,

c l a s s o f thi n gs i s r e er r e d to w e r e r e s e n t i t to o urs e lv e s
f p ,

by c a ll in g to m i n d in d i vi d ua l member s O f it ; it fo ll o ws
th at wh e n a n a bs tr a ct w o rd is us e d th e h e a re r h a s to ,

c h o o s e fr o m h i s s to c k Of i ma g es o n e o r m o r e by whi c h h e
, ,
”
m ay figur e t o hi m s e lf th e g enus men ti on ed .

Mr Sp e n c e r s o wn s tyl e is in la rge m e a sure th e

.
’

a n s we r t o h i s cri tici s m I n th e a b o v e p a s s a g e o f 6 6
.

w o rd s th e r e ar e 1 3 w o rds O f L atin o rigin a pr o p o r tio n

, ,

O f 1 9 % p er c e nt whi c h i s th e pr o p o r ti o n O f fo r e ig n w o rd s
,

in th e w ri ti n gs o f D r J o h ns o n M o reo v e r th e s en tenc e
. .
,

q uo te d is a n a dm i rabl e illus trati o n o f gen er al o r a bs tr act , ,

s ta te m e n t ; i t do e s n o t fo ll o w Mr Sp e n c e r s o wn r ul e O f
’
.

al w a s sp e a k in g i n c o n crete te rm s a s i n deed i t S h o uld

y
n o t S in ce th e p urp o s e O f th e s e n te nc e i s t o m a k e a e n
, g
e r aliz e d s ta te m e n t a n d n o t to giv e a gro up O f c o n c r e te
,

i n s tan c es . A gai n th e w o rd s ar e n o t s uc h a s o ne us uall y

,

fin ds in th e v o c abula ry O f c hildr e n n o r a re they r e m a rk ,

a bl e fo r th e ir br e vi ty O ne w o rd g enus is d is ti n c tly a
.
, ,

l e arn e d wo rd Ye t in s pi te O f th e fac t th a t th e s e n te n c e
.
, ,

w hi c h i s fa irly r e pre s e n ta tiv e O f Mr Sp e n c e r s s tyl e

’
.
,

breaks all th e rul e s w hic h h e hi mself giv e s fo r a g o o d

s t l e i t i s n e v e r th e l e s s a g o o d s e n te n ce I t h a s t h o se
y ,
.
 M O D E R N E N G LI S H

q ualiti es o f cle arn es s d e finite n ess an d Simplici ty w hich

,

a r e g e n e r al ch ar a c te ri s ti c s o f Mr Sp e n c e r s wri ti n g s e v e n
’
.
,

w h e n h e wri te s o n di ffi c ul t a nd s ub tl e m atte r s o f ph il o s o
’

phy I t se rv es i ts p ur po se we ll an d i f S O c an anythin g
.
, ,

m o re be ask e d o f it ? I n s ho rt th e q ue s tion o f th e ,

pro p e r an d e ffe c tive us e o f w o rds i s n o t d ep endent up o n

th e ir l e ng th o r th e ir o rigi n a nd hi s to ry but up o n th e ir ,

imm edi ate c o ntem p o ra ry va l ue an d th e ir v al ue i s always

,

d ete rmi n e d by th e p urp o se w hich th e p e rs o n sp eaking o r

w ri tin g h a s i n mi n d .S o m e tim es i t is e ffe c tiv e to us e
S h o rt w o d s
r — if o n e wish e s to pr o d uc e th e e ffe c t which
sho rt w o rds pro du c e B ut l o n g w o rds al s o h ave their
.

pl ac e an d th e p o e try o f Mil to n S h o ws that they c an be

,

us e d to g o o d e ffe c t . A ll th at w e c a n s ay th e re fo r e a s , ,

to th e ch o ic e o f w o rds i s th at w e S ho uld use th e w o rds

,

w hi c h fit th e th o ugh t w he th e r th e y a r e Sa x o n o r L a ti n
, .

A Sa x o n w o rd b e c a us e it is a Sa x o n w o rd h as n o
, ,

s p e ci a l claims o r s p e c ial p o we rs n o r o n t h e o th e r h a n d
, , ,

h as a L ati n wo rd . A wo rd is j us tifi e d o r is n o t j us tified

, ,

by its e ffe c tiv e n es s i n e xpre s s i n g th e th o ugh t o r fe eli n g

O f th e p e rs o n wh o us e s i t a n d a ny c o n s id e rati o n s b e yo n d
,

this a r e v a in th e o riz i n gs .

T h e re i s o n e gro up o f w o rd s O f p a rti al fo r e ign o rigin

th at is o ften reg a rde d w ith s p ec ial di s fa v o r by th o s e w h o
ar e g o v e r n e d by th e o ri e s O f th e p uri ty o f la n g ua g e .

T hi s i s th e cla s s O f w o rd s k n o wn a s hybrids T h e se .

a re c o mp o un d w o rd s th e e l e m e n ts o f w hich a r e ta k e n
,

fro m tw o di ffe re n t l an g ua ges o n e e l e m e n t fr o m G re ek

, ,

L a tin o r Fr e n c h an d th e o th e r fro m E n glis h

, , A n um .

ber o f s uch c o mp o un d s a r e in c o m m o n us e in E ngli s h ,

s o c o m m o n in fa c t th a t n o o n e i n n a tura l s p e e ch i s

e v e r c o n s c i o us th a t th e y a r e hy brid s T hus th e w o rd
.
2 74 M O D E R N E N GL I S H

of th e use Of - sti by whi c h it is un ite d to w o rds O f L atin ,

E n glis h , or o th e r o rigi n , a s, for e x ampl e w o rds l ik e

,

s ci en ti s t,
fl or i s t, d r u g i s t, d e nti s t, to ba ccon i s t,
g i i
c o ntor t on s t,

b l i i f l k l i i i t l i i b -b
l l i
‘

p u c s t o -
or s t to ur s t typ s e o c u t on s t a s e a s t
, , , , , ,

c a n o e i s t, e tc I t is n o t c o nten d e d th a t a l l th e s e w o rds
.

are in go o d r ep uta bl e us e ; but s o me o f them c e rta inl y

,

a r e a n d th e d e te rm i n a ti o n o f th e q ue s ti o n s w hi c h a r e
,

a n d w h i ch a r e n o t o r w hich S h o uld be a n d w h i ch S h o uld

,

n o t be h a s n o thi n g t o d o w i th th e e l e m e n ts o f w hi c h
,

th e y are c o mp o se d I n sh o rt th e true g uide to th e use

.
,

o f hybrid c o m p o und s i s to be fo un d n o t i n th e hi s to r
y ,

o f th e ir e t m o l o g b u t i n t h ir c tu l v l u n g n r l
y y e a a,
a e I e e a

use . I f a hybrid c o m p o un d e xpre ss es a n id e a ad e

q u a t e l y i t
, i s i n i t se l f a s g o o d a w o rd as any which ,

i s n o t a hybrid S in c e th e s o call e d “ ”
p ure wo rd c a n
-
,

n o t d o a ny m o re I t m ay be th a t c e rtain O f th es e
.

hybrid s ci ted hav e n ot been a cc ep te d into go o d use ,

a m o n g w hich w e m ay p e rh a p s i n c l u d e typ i st ca n o ei s t , ,

e d uc a ti on a l i s t con ve r s a ti on a l i s t a n d o th e rs
,
B ut w h e r e
, .

thi s i s tr ue th e r eas o n is n o t to be fo und i n th e m e re

,

fa c t O f hybridi ty s in c e m any hybrids h av e bee n a c ce p te d

,

i n to go o d us e T h e r e as o n s ar e undo ub te dly v ari o us

.
,

d e p e n d e n t up o n th e s e p a ra te hi sto ry O f e ac h w o rd ; but
w h a t th e s e re a s o n s m ay be i s a m a tte r o f li ttle imp o r
ta n c e c o mp a re d w i th th e fa c t i tsel f o f th e a c c e p ta n c e o r
th e n o n a c c e p tan c e o f th e res p e c tiv e w o rd s i nto n o rm a l
-
,

un q uesti o n e d u se S uch a n a c c e ptan c e i s a ll th e j us ti

.

fic a ti o n whi c h a hybrid c o m p o un d o r a ny o th e r w o rd ,

fo r th at m atte r n ee ds to m a k e i t a r e p uta bl e w o rd ;
,

a n d th e a cc e pta n c e o r r e j e c ti o n o f a w o rd O f w h a te v e r

k in d is a m atte r alm o s t alto ge th e r i nde p e n dent o f its

e ty m o l o gy .
 EN GL I S H WO R DS 2 75

2 7 P r o fit
. a nd Loss in W o r d -b o r r o w i n g . The
q uesti on n aturally ari s e s after a c o n side ra tio n o f th e el e
,

m e n ts o f th e E nglish v o c ab ula ry w h e th e r o r n o t th e ,

la ngua ge h as bee n al to g e the r th e g ai ne r by w o rd bo r -

r o w ing T ha t th e i n tr o d uc ti o n O f fo r eig n w o rd s h as
.

b e e n a dv an ta ge o us in ma ny w ay s i s O f c o urs e nuq ues

ti o n e d .T h e l a n g uage h a s n o t be c o me ba n kr up t a s a
r es ult O f w o rd b o rro wi n g a s m any o f its R en asc e nc e
-
,

c r iti c s fe a r e d i t w o uld Ne w id e as hav e b e e n ap

.

r o ri a te d n e w s t n d a rd s o f thi n k i ng a n d c o n d uc t
p p , a ,

a nd , as th e r ac e h as gro w n in c o s m o p o li tan s pirit ,

i ts vo c ab ul a ry h as k e p t p a c e w i th it A n o th e r g a in .

fro m w o rd b o rro w i ng is to be fo un d in th e v a ri e ty o f th e
-

E n glis h v o c ab ul a ry es p e ci ally its richn e ss in s yno nym s

,
.

T he s e syn o nym s o r appr o xim ately syn o nym o us w o rd s

, ,

fo r l a n guag e d o es n o t O fte n pre se rv e two w o rds o f

e x a c tly th e s am e v a l ue e n a bl e th e di s crimi n a ti n g w rite r
,

t o e xpre s s e x tre m e ly s ub tl e s h a d e s o f th o ugh t a n d

fe e lin g I n ill us tra ti o n O f suc h te r m s w e m ay ci te w o r d
.

p a ir s l ik e th e fo ll o wi n g : s ci en ce kn owl edge ; i nf or ma ,

ti on , wi s d om vi r tue, g oo d n e ss ; ma l e vo l en ce, wi cked n e ss ;

be n evo l en ce, g o o d wi ll ; r eg a l or ro
ya l,k i n l
gy ; i nf a n t,

c hi l d o r ba b ; a d u l ts, e ld er s , e tc So m e ti m es w e h ave
y .

fo ur or five wo rds w i th l
c o se ly r e la te d m e an ings
-
, a s s ti l l ,

p l a ci d ,
qui e t, ca l m , p e a c ef ul ; o r va st, gr e a t, l a rge , big .

Ye t ea c h O f th e s e h a s its o wn s p e ci al us e s A big man .

is no t th e gre at man
s am e a s a .

A n o th e r a dv a n ta g e w hi c h th e E n glis h v o c abul a ry h as
by r e as o n o f i ts l a rge n um be r O f w o rd s o f fo re ign o rig in ,

e s p e c i a lly O f L a tin o r ig in is th a t th e l an g ua g e h as a t i ts
,

dis p o s al two w ide ly d iffe r en t s tyle s O f e xpre ss i o n two ,

plan e s o f u tte ra n c e th e o n e l e a rne d o r e l e vate d th e

, ,
2 76 M O DE R N E N GLI S H

o th e r s imple and p op ula r P e rh aps thi s is n o t to be

.

regard ed a s a n unm i x e d a dvantage P e rh aps i t w o uld .

be b e tte r if th e m o s t le arn e d a nd e l e va te d ide a s s h o uld

be a ll e xpre s se d i n o ur simpl e s t v o c a bula ry C e r tai nly
”

it i s tr ue th at th e le arn e d vo c ab ula ry o f big w o rds is a

d an ge ro u s i n str um en t fo r th e i n exp e ri e n c e d wri ter to
w o rk wi th and O f th e s e d an g e rs w e S h all h av e m o r e to
,

s ay l a te r B ut pro p e rly m a n ag e d th e l e a rne d a nd high

.
,

s o un di ng L atini z e d v o c ab ul a ry s e rv e s a ve ry us ef ul p u r

p o s e Fo r o n e thi ng it enable s th e write r to give

.
,

va ri ety to th e c ad e nc e o f his phra si n g L o ng wo rds .

may v a ry and al tern ate w i th S ho rt o n es a cc o rdin g as ,

th e th o ugh t o r mo o d o f a p a ssa g e ch an ge s C er tain .

e fle c ts o f digni ty a n d s tate li n e s s c a n be a tta in e d in s tyl e

o nly by th e j u dici o us us e o f w o rd s which b th e ir m r e

y e

bulk a n d v ol um e o f s o und are stately a nd dignifi e d and ,

s uc h w o r d s i t g en e rally h a pp e n s ar e o f L a ti n o rigi n
, , .

T h e l an g uag e is like a gre at o rga n and th e v a ri o us ,

clas s e s O f wo rds are like its s to ps T h e m o re s to ps that

.
,

is th e greater th e numb e r o f kinds o f w o rds th e m o re

, ,

v ari e d an d th e rich e r are th e e ffe c ts which can be p ro

d uc ed by th e a r tis t wh o is c ap able o f pl ay i ng up o n th e
l anguage .

A n a uth o r w h o wa s S p e ci ally s ucc e ss ful in his us e

O f th e high s o un din g w o rd -
o f th e r o tun d
, . o ra to ric al ,

s tyl e was Sir T ho m a s B ro wn e H is wri ti ngs h a ve th e

, .

dign ity an d th e s tately el o q ue nc e that o ne as s o ci ate s

w i th th e m o num e n tal cl as sic s tyl e I n illus tra tio n a
.
,

S i n gl e s e nten c e m ay be q uo te d fro m h i s Hy d ri o tap hi a o r ,

Ur n e B ur i a l l th e firs t e di ti o n o f whi c h a pp e a r e d i n
-
,

1 65 8 H e i s di s c uss i n g th e c o mp a ra tiv e a dvan tage s o f

‘

b urn in g a n d o f b uryi n g a s a mean s o f di s p o s i ng o f th e

2 78 M O D E R N E N GL I S H

fo rm of hum o r as c o n s tan t p unnin g Spa ri ngly use d

.
,

h o we v e r th e p o lysyllabl e is n o t w i tho ut a to uch o f

,

q ua in tn e s s and c ha rm C h arle s L a mb is fo n d O f thi s

.

hu m o ro us de vic e ; th o h e a l so is o c c as i o n ally g ui lty o f

a to o a bun d a n t u se O f i t . A s a n in s ta n c e o f h i s m o r e
s uc c e ss f ul m a n n e r w e m a q u o t e th e fo ll o w i n g p a ra
, y
gra ph fro m th e Op en in g o f h is e ss ay o n Th e P r a i s e of
Ch i mn ey S we ep s I like to m ee t a s we e p un de rs ta nd
m e — n o t a gro wn s w e e p e r Old c himn ey s we e p er s a re
-

by n o m e a n s a tt rac tiv e but o n e O f the se te n de r n o vi c e s

-
,

bl o o m i ng thro ugh thei r fi r s t n igritude th e m ate rna l

,

w a s hi ng s n o t q ui te e ffa c e d fr o m th e c h e e k — s uch a s
c o m e fo rth with th e da wn or s o m e w hat e a rli e r w ith
, ,

th eir littl e pr o fe ss i o n a l n o tes s o un di n g lik e th e p eep p eep

-

of a o un g S p a rr o w r lik e r to th e m a ti n l a rk s h o uld
‘

o
y
I pro n o un c e the m i n their aeria l a s c ents n o t s eldo m
,

a nticip a ti n g th e s un ri s e

By re statin g th e ide as o f thi s s e ntenc e i n sh o rt w o rds

o f n a tiv e o rigi n o n e s e e s h o w m u ch th e fl a v o r o f i t i s
,

de p ende n t o n j ust th e wo rds w hi c h L a mb h as c hos en

"
.

I n a s impl e nativ e v o c a b ul a ry o n e w o uld m i ss th e o c

c a si o n al pl a yf ul c o n tras t b e t wee n th e l o fti n e s s o f th e

dic ti o n an d th e l o wlin e s s o f th e s ubj e c t whi ch l en ds it

,

its c hi ef c ha rm .

A n o th e r a dv a nta g e w hi c h th e l an guag e h as I n its l e arn e d

b o rro w e d w o rd s c o n s i s ts in th e fac t th a t it c an th us gi ve
to s c i e ntific Obj e c ts a n d id e a s n a m e s whic h h a v e n o t b e en
tr ad i ti o n a l ly atta c h e d to o th e r Obj e c ts a n d id e as a n d
,

w hich h a v e n o t a cq uire d thr o ugh l o ng u se a gr o up o f

c o nn ota ti o n s an d m e an in gs w hic h th e s c i e n tific w o rd
s h o uld n o t h a v e . T hus th e w o rd z o ol ogy a c o mp o un d
, ,

w o rd o f G re e k o rigin a c c o rd in g to th e m e a n in g O f its
,
 E N GL I SH WO R D S 2 79

l m e n ts might be tran sla te d li te rally a s

e e
“life - l o re a ,

m e an in g whic h i s de ci d e dl y to o wide fo r z o olo gy tha t ,

s c i e n c e b e i n g c o n c e rn e d o n l y w i th th e fo rm s o f a n i ma l

l ife S O a l s o s ta r l o re a s a n a me fo r a s tro n o my is n o t
.
-

a go od n am e s i n c e i t c o nn o te s a gr e a t m a n p o p ula r
, y
n o ti o n s a n d as tr o l o gi c al s up e rs ti ti o n s tha t as tro n o my i s

n o t c o n c e r n e d w i th . T h e w o rd in o cul a te m e a n s a v e ry
de finite pro c e s s o f m o de rn m e di c in e E tymo l o gic ally it
.

c o m es fr o m L a ti n i n th e pre p o s i ti o n co m p o un d e d w ith
,

th e n o un o c ul us “ e e
”
al so
“ bu d o f a pla n t I t s
, y , .

o ri gi n a l m e an i n g i n E n gl i s h w a s to gra ft by b uddi n g ,

fro m w h ic h th e m e a n i ng o f imp a rti ng th e g e rm s o f a

di se a s e fo r th e p urp o s e o f pr e ve n ti ng th e di s e a se i s a
m e ta ph o ri c a l d e r i va ti o n . I n M o de rn E n gli s h h o w e ve r, ,

i n ocul a te i s a w o rd w i th a s i n gl e sp e c ifi c v al ue th e bes t
, ,
.

ki n d O f w o rd th a t sc i e n c e c o uld h a ve A n d s o o fte n it
.

w o uld be e x tre m e ly d iffic ul t to fin d s impl e n a tiv e w o rd s

a s n a m es f or s c ie n tifi c id e a s tha t w o uld n o t c o n n o te e i the r

m o re o r le s s than it wa s n e c e s s ary to e xpress .

B o rr o w e d w o rds bein g wi th o ut th e c o n n o tati o n s whic h

,

c o m e O f l o n g a n d fa mili a r us e c a n o fte n be e m pl o e d fo r
, y
n e w id e a s w i th l e ss d a ng e r o f pr e j udi ce o r m i s un d e r s ta n d

ing th a n th e n ativ e w o rd s O f th e v o c a b ula ry . T h us it i s

”
a n a dva n ta ge to h av e th e w o rd c o n duc t o r to n am e
th e p e rs o n in c o mm a n d o f a tr ain th e c o rr e s p o ndin g
,

“ ”
E n glis h w o rd l e ade r n o t a n s we rin g th e p urp o s e a n d ,

c ap tai n be in g li mite d to th e c o mm an d e r o f a ship So .

a ls o w e m a sp e a k o f a
“ r e n t
”
o f a u n i v e rs i t f
y e g y o r ,

e x a m pl e w h e r e a s th e w o rd
, r ul e r w o uld i mply a kin d
o f a uth o r it n t i n t n d e d M n u f t u r r f m m r
y o e . a a c e s o c o e

c ia l pr o d uc ts h a v e s e e n th e v a l ue o f this us e o f fo re ig n

w o rd s a n d fre q ue n tly a v o i d pr ej udi c e ag ai ns t th eir w are s

,
2 80 M O D E R N E N G LI S H

m e rely by giving s tran ge n a m e s fo r fa mili ar o bj e c ts T h us .

”
th e pro d u c t k n o w n a s c o t to l e n e a s ub s ti tute fo r l a rd ,

m ad e fro m th e c o tto n s e e d m e ans Simpl e c o tto n o il “

, .

O th e r e x a mple s tak e n fr o m th e n a m e s o f fo o d s tufis a r e -

c ite d a bo ve S o m etim e s h o w e v e r th e us e o f a big w o rd

.
, ,

fo r a fa m ilia r id e a o r o bj e c t i s d u e m e re ly to fa l s e m o d e sty
o r a ffe c ta ti o n a s w h e n o n e s p e a k s o f a fee a s a n h on or a
,

r ium o r o f w a g e s a s s a l a r y o r e mo l u men t
, J us t w h e n .

w a g e s r e a c h th e dig n ity o f b ein g pr o p e rly c all ed sa l a ry is

d o ub tle ss a m a tte r o f Opi n i o n ; but e a c h w o rd h a s its
pro p e r pl a c e a nd th e fa ult o f u sin g e ith e r fo r th e o th e r i s
,

e q ually gr e a t I t is h a rdly n e c es s ary to S p ea k o f a b a rb e r

.

”
as a to n s o ri al a r tis t A n d all p e rha ps e xc e pt th e p r o
.

p r i e to r w ill a gr ee th at th e s ign H o r s e s h o e i n g Pa rl o urs

”
-
,

w hi c h fo r m a n y y e a rs a d o rn e d th e wi n do w o f a New
Y o rk bl a cks mi th s sh o p is a li ttle m o r e e l e ga nt tha n th e
’

o c c a s i o n r e q ui r e d .

O n th e o the r h an d i t i s c e rtai n tha t th e l arge L atin ,

e l e m e nt i n th e E n gli s h v o c a b ul a ry i s th e s o urc e o f so m e

d an g e r an d o fte n o f w e a kn es s i n th e us e o f th e E n gli s h
l an g ua ge I n th e first pl a c e the r e is th e d ange r o f l o s i n g
.
,

th e s e ns e o f a n i n tim a te k n o wl e dg e o f th e m e an i n g o f
w o rd s B o rro we d w o rd s O fte n d o n o t h a v e th e fam ili a r
.

a ss o c i a ti o ns th e c e rtai n ty o f e ffe c t a nd th e pre ci s i o n

, ,

a n d e x a c tn ess o f m ean in g w hich n a tiv e w o rds a r e l i k e ly

to h a v e 1
O ften th ey s ee m n o t to be c o m pl e tely a ss i m i
.

1 E n gl ish i n t h is r e s p e c t d o es n o t c o mp a r e fa vo r a bl y w ith G er m an .

T h er e i s n o th in g w h ich ca nn o t be
p ex re s se d in G e r m a n by a n ative w o r d ,
h o m el y , p i c tur e s ue , q a li ke o f l e a r n e d
a pp e ali n g s tr a ig h t t o t h e in t e l l ige nc e

a n d un l e a r ne d T h e ph r a s e o l o gy o f a b st ra ct th o ug h t is c o n c r ete h e r e
.

m m e d fr o m Gre e k o r
[ i
. e ,
i n
. G e r a n ! it i s a l s o o f n at i ve g r o w t h , n o t i p o r t

L a ti n . I nstea d Of
‘
i nca r na t io n , G e r m a n s
’
s pe ak o f F le is ch wer d en or Ver

fl eis chung . I ns te a d of r e l a ti o n ,
’
d e fi ni tio n ,
’
th ey us e Verh d ltnis s ,
So me
"

B es ti mmung; in st e a d B egr ijh of th e ir p h il o s o p h i ca l

’
of co n ce pt, . ex
28 2 M O DE R N E NG L I S H

is o fte n given to th e wo rd e x emp l a ry a s in T heir pun ,

i sh me nt w as s wift a n d e x e mpla ry in c a re ful us e h o w ,

” “
e ver , th e wo rd m e a n s e x e mpli fyi n g furn ishi ng an ,
”
e x a mpl e , So a l so th e w o rd con d ign whi c h s h o uld m e a n ,

“ ese ” “ ”
d rve d ,me ri te d is o ften use d i n va gue se n se s o f
,

” ”
h ea vy , s ev e r e as in,
T h e y vi s i te d him w i th c o n dign
”
p unis hmen t A n e d uc ate d p e rs o n o ne o f th e e dito rs o f a
.
,

l arge c i ty n e w sp a p e r o n c e re m arke d to th e a utho r th at h e

,

“
w as imp e rvi o us to ridi n g bac k wa rd s in tra i n s m e a ni n g
”
,

th at h e wa s n o t un pl e a sa n tl y a ffe c te d by it T h e p o s te r .

o f a la n d i m pr o v e m e n t c o mp an y a dv e r ti s e d th e
-
s al e o f
”
w e ll s i tua te d a nd e l igi bl e pr o p e rti e s
- T h e us e o f p ri mi
.

ti ve i n th e s en s e m e r e ly o f “ e a rly a n d o f un i ver s a l i n
,
”
th e s e n s e o f c o mm o n o r wide spr ead i s o fte n fo un d ,

e ve n in s o m e w h a t s c h o l a rly w ri tin g M o re p opul ar is .

th e us age o f th e m a n w h o “ w i s h es to re l ate a circ um

”
s tan c e tha t o c c u rr e d m ean i n g h e wish es to tell s o m e
,

thi n g th at h a p pe n ed I n h is n ext se nte n c e thi s m an

.

w o uld pr o ba bly s ay th at thi s circ um s ta n c e w a s

phe n o me n al w h e n h e m ean t o nly th at it w a s s tr an ge
,

o r re m a rk a bl e T h e w o rd te mp er a te h a s prac ti c a lly
.

l o st its pr o p e r m e an i n g i n th e phra se stric tly te m

”
p e ra te us ed o f a p e rs on wh o is a to tal abs tai ne r Se v
,
.

e ra l y e a r s ago th e g e n e ral p o st o ffic e s e n t o ut a pl a c a rd

-

fo r d ispl ay in l o c al p o s t o ffice s s ta ting th a t r e gis te re d

-
,

l e tter s r e quire th e n a m e o f th e s en de r to be e n do r se d
o n th e fa c e o f th e e nv e l o p e
1
L i te ra lly to e n d o rs e
’
.
,

a thi n g o n its fa c e is a c o n tr adic ti o n i n te rm s T he .

w o rd i n th e pla c a rd h a d w e ak e ne d to th e m e aning m e re ly
“to w ri te or
“ i n s c ribe ”
.

T h e re is the re fo re al ways this d ang e r o f using m o re

, ,

1 T ucke r , Our Co mmon Sp eech , p 3 0 . .

 E N G LI SH WO R D S 2 83

or le ss unf a m
ili a r wo rds in vague a nd in de fin i te s ens e s
w h en th ey s ho uld h a v e a nd in th e b e s t us e o f th e l a n
,

guag e d o ha ve de fin i te and sp e c i fic s e n se s th e da ng e r o f
, ,

think i ng a n d s p e ak in g i n l o o s e a n d g e ne ra l te rm s i n ste ad
o f in th e e x a c tl
y fi t ti n g te rm s C l.o s ely r e la te d t o thi s is

a n a b us e o f th e la n g ua ge alr e a d
y m e n tio n e d w hi c h th e

yo ung w ri te r is lik e ly to be guilty o f tha t is th e us e o f, ,

w o rds fo r th e m s e l v e s a l o n e . T he r e ar e s o ma ny fin e “

w o rds s o man y l e a rn e d w o rds in th e E ngl is h v o c a b ul ary

, , ,

th at o n e is s o m e ti m e s i n d a n g e r o f b e c o m i n g e n a m o re d
o f w o rds fo r the ir o wn s a k e o f u s i n g th e m b e c aus e th e y
,

s o und well e v en th o th ey m ean n o thi n g o r a re e n

, ,

tir e l y i n appr o pri a te to w h a t o n e is s p e a ki ng o r w ri ti n g

a b o ut . T hi s use o f big w o rds i s g iv en in w o rk s o n
”
c o m p o si ti on th e ir o n ic al n a m e o f fine w ritin g Sty .

lis tic a l l y th e us e o f fine w o rd s i s ba d E n gl i sh b e ca use

i t tak e s w o rds w hi ch h av e th e ir right a nd a pp r O p ri ate
pla c e s an d us e s them w h er e th e y d o no t b el o n g Suc h .

m e tho ds are c o mpa r able to tho se o f a p ainte r w h o s ho uld

tr y to p a in t a p i nk fl o we r by us i n g h i s m os t brilli a n t
cri ms o n c o l o r H e n o t o n ly d o e s n o t pai n t hi s pin k
.

fl o w e r but h e h as n o c o l o r left wh e n h e wi s hes to pr o

,

duc e hi s str on ge s t e ffe c ts . A s h a s b e e n s tate d it is ,

us uall y th e i n e xp e ri e n c e d w ri te r wh o i s li a bl e t o fa ll i n to

thi s e rr o r th e b e s t c o rre c tive o f w hi c h i s to o b s e rv e th e

,

i n e ffec tiven es s o f s uc h E n glis h up o n a ny re a der w h o s e

go o d o pi nio n i s w o r th ha vi n g T o p e rsist in th e use o f
.

”
fin e w o rd s o ut o f the i r pr o p e r pl ac e s i s to c o n vic t
’
o n e s s e lf o f i n s e n s i bili t t o th e e fie c ts pr o d uc e d by l an
y
guage an d o ne w h o is a l ways strivi ng to be fin e s ucc ee ds
,

o nly in bei n g c h e ap tawdr a n d v ulga r

, y , .

T o k n o w wh e n n o t to us e th e big w o rd in E n glis h is ,
2 84 M O D E R N E N GL IS H

th ere f o re , one be s t safegua rds a w rite r c a n hav e

of th e .

In dee d it m ay be s e t do w n as a r ule : N e ve r use a lo n g

'

wo rd w h e n a s h o rte r o ne w ill d o as w e ll T h e o pp o si te .

te n de n cy tha t i s to us e a s m an y a nd a s l o n g w o r ds a s
‘

, ,

o u c a n ha s b e e n we ll d es cri b e d by th e n o v e li s t B a rri e
y ,

”
i n h i s sa tir e o n w h a t h e c alls n e w sp a p e r E ngli s h A .

c an didate is s upp o s ed to be up fo r a n e x a minatio n i n

j o urn ali s m a nd o n e o f th e que s ti o n s a sk e d is h o w to
, ,

tra n s l ate th e fo ll o w i n g s e n te n c e into “ n e w s pa p e r E n

g
li s h T h e h o use w a s s o o n o n fir e ; m u ch symp athy i s
”
e xpr e s s e d wi th th e s uffe re rs T h e an s we r to th e q ue s
.

ti o n i s this : “ I n a m o men t th e e dific e w as en y el o p e d i n

s h o o tin g t o ng ue s o f fl a m e : th e a pp alli ng c a tas tr o ph e h a s
1 ”
plun ge d th e w h o le s treet into th e gl o o m o f n ight .

L o w ell in th e In tr o d uc ti o n to th e Se c o n d Se rie s o f
,

B igl ow P ap ers h as a similar s e t o f phr as e s o n e b e i n g ,

o f th e o l d s tyl e a n d th e o th e r o f th e n e w s tyl e o f n e w s

p ap e r w riti n g
-
T h us th e o l d s tyle ph ras e
.
“ A gre a t ,

”
cr o w d c a m e to s ee be c o m e s in th e ne w s tyle A va st “
, ,

c o n c o ur se was ass e mbl e d to witne s s ” “ M a n fell is.

”

tr a nsl ate d in th e n e w s tyl e i n to In dividual wa s pre

c ipi tate d a nd Se n t fo r th e d o c to r b e c o m es C a lle d
i n to r e quisi ti o n th e s e rvic e s o f th e fa mily physicia n .

Fo r th e p urp o s e s o f s atir e B a rri e a nd L o we ll h av e o f

,

c o urs e given s o m ew h at e x a ggerate d th o n o n e th e les s ,

in str uctiv e e x a mples o f fin e w riti n g B ut “ n e W Sp a

, .

r E n gli s h is m r l u m d r n c an t te rm f o r a te n d
p e e e
y o r o e

e n cy o f E n gli s h s tyl e th a t h as b e e n pres e n t e v e r s i n c e

th e d ay s o f C a x to n T h e E n glish o f n e wspa p e rs is n o t
.

a l wa y s ba d I nd e ed a fair c as e m ay be m a d e fo r th e
.
,

Opi ni o n th at it is m o r e g en e rally g o o d than bad T h e .

1 J M B a rrie ,
. . When a Man ’
s S ingle .
 VII

E NG L I SH G R A M MAR

1 . M o d e rn E n gl i s h G r a mm a r . T h e wo rd gra m
m ar , as it i s de rs to o d by th e s ci entific s tude nt o f
un

l an g uage i s a te rm o f w ide in cl us i on
, T h e gra mm a r .

o f a l a n g ua ge i n th e bro a d e s t s e n se i n cl ud es a di s c us
, ,

sio n o f al l th e fa c ts o f th e l a ng uage s o un d s i n fl e c ti o n s
, , ,

sy n ta x ,e xc e p tin g o n ly v o c a b ul a ry In de e d many s c i
.
,

e n ti fic gra mm ars ne v e r t b o n d th e c o n s id e r ati o n o f

ge e y
s o un d s a n d i nfl e c ti o n s T he re i s h o we v e r a l es s ge n e r a l
.
, ,

a n d m o re p o p ul a r s e n s e o f th e w o rd gr a mm a r whi c h i s ,

th e m ean i n g i nte n ded i n i ts use in th e pre s e nt ch ap te r .

T his is a us e o f th e w o rd which m ak e s i t pra c ti c ally

e q uival e n t i n m ean i ng to c o rr e c t sy n ta x W e say a .

p ers on s p eak s gra m mati c ally when h e uses s uch syn tax
a s i s a c c e p te d as s ta n da rd us e an d h e s p e ak s un ra m
, g
m atic all y whe n h e d o e s vi o le n c e to s tan da rd c us to m .

I n m o d e rn tim e s t h e te nd e n cy o f gramm a r in this

s e n s e h a s b een to wa rd s a n i n cre a si ng ri gi di ty i n th e

gra mm atic a l sys tem T his appli es bo th to w ritte n a nd

.

to s p o k e n E n gli s h I n b o th th e limi ts o f p e rmi s si bl e

.
,

v a ria tio n in usa ge a re n a rr o we r to d ay than they e ve r -

h av e been b e fo re T h e c us to m o f th e l an g ua ge h as
.

te nd e d to e s ta blis h o ne “ s ta n d a rd
”
or
“ c o rre c t fo rm
fo r e a ch gra mm ati cal c ate g o ry a n d th e n to a dher e to
,

this fo rm .T h e di ffe r e n c e b e twe en pr e s e n t a n d ea rli e r

us ag e c a n be s e e n by c o mp ari ng M o de rn E ngli s h wi th
 E N G LI S H GR AM M A R 287

th e E n glis h o f Shaks p e re I n M o de rn E nglis h we h a ve .

,

fo r e x a mple o nly o n e fo rm fo r th e third pl ur al pre sen t

,

o f v e rbs Sh a k sp e r e h o we ve r th o h e ge n e ra lly use d

.
, ,

w h at w e n o w re g a rd as th e s ta nda rd fo rm c o uld al s o fo rm ,

“
plural s i n s a s in Te mp es t V i 1 6 : H is te ars runs
-
, , , ,

”
do wn hi s bea rd H e al s o fo rm e d third pl ural s in en,
.
-

a s i n Mi d s ummer Nigh t s D r ea m II i 5 6
’
-
.
, , ,

A n d th e n th e wh o l e q ui re h o l d th e i r h ips a nd l augh ,
A n d wa x en i n th e i r mi rth .

A nd c i
o c as o na lly we fin d thi rd
plurals l n th Sh a k -
.

s p e re th us h a d fo ur w ays o f fo rmi n g h i s third pl ur al s ,

a n d th e s e v a ri o us fo rms h e w as a t lib er ty to c h o o se

fro m appa r e n tly muc h a s th e n e e d o f th e m o m e n t i m

p o ll e d h im A simila r fre e do m e x is ts with re spe c t to
‘

m a ny o th e r gram m ati c a l c a te go ri e s T h e s e va ri o us .

fo rms ar e g en e rally his to ric al but w h e re l a te r E n glis h ,

h a s c h os e n o n e o f a n umb e r o f hi s to ri ca l fo rms to th e
e x c l us i o n o f th e r e s t e a rl ie r E n gli s h fr e q uen tly e m
,

plo ys s e v e ral d iflere nt fo rm s side by s ide 1

So m e tim es .

th e di s c ard e d e arli e r fo rm o f e xpres s i o n p e r si s ts in

M o de rn E n gli s h but is r ega rd ed a s c hara c te ri stic o f
,

th e p o p ula r o r v ulga r S p e e c h T h us th e d o uble c o m .

ar a tive i s n o w fre q u e n tl h rd i n th p h f t h
p .
y ea e s ee c o e

un e d uc a te d a n d o f c hildr e n ; in S h a ks p e r e a s in M er ,

c h a n t of Ve ni ce I V i 2 51 “ H o w m uc h m o re e lde r
, , , ,

a r t th o u th a n th l o oks i t w as a c o ns tr uc ti o n in a s
y ,

“ ”
go o d s tan di n g a s o ur s o c a ll e d c o rrec t s ingl e c o m -

p a r a ti ve .I n v ulg a r E n gli s h w e a l s o h ave th e v e rb

l e a r n use d trans i tiv ely I n El iz a b e th a n E ngli s h l ea rn

.

1 A tt nti n h
e o b n ll das b v ( pp 8 9 ff ) t t h e l ie u f
ee ca e a o e se e . . o ea r r se o

t h e t wo fo r ms of th e pr o no un th a n a nd you M o d e r n E ngl is h h a ving l i mite d

,

i ts elf, t o its o wn d isa d vant ag e , al mo s t e nt irel y t o th e sec o n d fo r m .

2 88 M O DE RN E N G LI S H

c o uld be
i th e r i ntra n sitive o r tran s i tive a n ill us tratio n
e ,

o f th e l a tte r use b e i n g fo un d i n th e Ki n g J a mes tr an s l a

ti o n o f th e Bibl e P s a lm c xix 6 6 : “ O le a rn me tr ue
, ,

unde r s tandi n g a nd k n o wl e dg e
”
.

I t is i nte re sti n g a ls o to c o mp ar e th e s tan da rd s o f

, ,

s p o k e n E n gli s h o f e a rli e r p e ri o d s w i th th at o f M o de rn

E ngli s h Fo r th is p urp o se th e c o m edi e s o f th e se v en

.

te e n th a n d e a rly e i gh te e n th c e n turi e s c fle r a bun da nt

m ate ri al T h e di al o g in th es e c o m e di e s is v e ry rea l
.

i s bic c o min g a s n e a r to b e in g an a c tual tr ans crip t o f

,

th e sp e e ch a nd m a nn e r s o f i ts ti m e s a s E n gli s h li te
t ure h a s e ve r d o n e P e rh a p s als o n o late r p e ri o d o f
.
, ,

E n glis h lite ra ture h a s e qualed this di alo g in i ts vi

va ci ty i ts e a s e a n d i ts truthful n e s s
, ,
Ye t th e c h a r a c te rs .
,

e ve n w h e n w e us e fo r ill us tr a ti o n o nly s u c h a s r e pr e s en t

e du c a te d a n d c ul tiv a te d p e rs o n s a r e v e ry fr ee i n d ee d i n ,

th e ir treatm e n t o f th e Ki n g s E n gli s h I n th e w o rk s o f
’
.

Sir G e o rge E th e re ge o cc ur s uc h c o ns truc ti o n s a s th e

fo ll o w i n g : T i s th e m I t must be them ; I t ma y be h i m
’

l e t y ou a n d I , a n d l et th ee a n d I h m
’
a ll ll f
’

y o u a e ,
o r
” 1
all y o u w i ll h av e m e I n Fa rq uh ar s B ea ux S tr a te
’
.

g em, A c t II , we ha v e th e fo ll o wi n g Th en I , S ir , tip s
:

m e th e Ve rg er wi th h a lf a cr own . Fr e q ue ntly th e s a m e
a ut h o r use s abbr e vi a ti o n s lik e a n t we o r a n t I fo r ’ ’
,
’ ’
,

th e full fo rms a r e n o t we a nd a m n o t I T h e full fo rm .

fo r I h a ve n ot i s c o n tr a c ted i n to I h a n t A fe w fur th e r
’
.

ill ustra ti on s m ay be ci te d fro m th e c o medie s o f V an

brugh I n a p a s s a ge o f se rio us pro se o n e o f h is pr e f
.
,

w e fin d fo rm s lik e th e fo llo wi n g : they l l I m

’ ’
ac es
2
, , ,

1 The W o rks of S ir G e o rge E th e re g e ,

ed . A . Wil so n V e rity ,
L on d o n,
1 888 .

2 Va nbr ugh , ed . W . C . Wood ,

V ol . I , pp 7— 9 . .
29 0 M O D E R N E N GL I SH

M o de rn E nglish in w hi c h th e s ubj unc tive i s i n livi ng ,

n a t ur al us e i s i n th e c o ndi ti o n c o n tra ry to fa c t
, If I ,

w e r e y o u I s h o uld n t d o i t E l s e whe re a l th o it
’
,
.
,

m ay s till be e mpl o y e d wi th s o m e s ub tl e di s tin c ti o n s o f

th o ugh t th e r e i s a l way s a tr a c e o f c o n s ci o us n e s s in i ts
,

u se ; i t h as m o re o r l e s s li te r ary o r a rchaic o r a ff e c te d

fl av o r I t s e em s like ly th e re fo re w i th th e c o n tin uan c e

.
, ,

o f th e pr e se n t t en d e n c i e s th a t th e s ubj un c tiv e a s a d i s
,

tinc tive in fle c tio n al fo rm w ill dis a pp e a r e xc e p t p erhap s , , ,

i n th e o n e c o n str uc ti o n n o te d Eve n h e re ho we ve r th e
.
, ,

i ndic a tive fo rm is us ed in a s u rpri si ngly l a rge n umbe r o f

i n s tan c e s in go o d m o de rn autho r s A fe w e xa mpl es may .

be ci te d : I f I wa s C a d o ga n I w o uld h a ve a p e e ra g e fo r
,

thi s d ay s w o rk (T h a ck e ra y) ; I t p o u r ed all n ight a s i f

’
,

th e s ky wa s c o min g d o w n (M a tth e w A rn o ld) ; I thi nk

i f I wa s b e ginn i ng aga i n I s h o uld b e gin wi th a s e ri o us
,

s tudy o f P a ra c el su s (L i fe a n d L e tte r s o f D e an C h urch) ;

I sho uld fe e l m o re sympa thy w ith G e rm any if it wa s

o n ly a que s ti o n o f i ts b ei n g w e ld e d t o g e th e r

S uch us a ge s which se e m in d ee d p e r fe c tly n a tural m ay

, ,

m ake on e do ubt whe the r th e s ubj unc tive w ill be abl e to

m ai n tai n i ts e lf e ve n in thi s las t s tr o ngh o ld o f th e c o n di
tio n c o n tra ry to fa c t T h e fee li n g fo r th e n atura l use o f
.

th e s ubj un c tiv e b e i n g th us la rg e ly o b s c ure d o r l o s t o n e ,

fin ds it o c c a si o nally whe re i t is ap pro pri ate by n o te s t

!

e ith e r o f p a s t o r pre s e n t u se a s i n th e fo ll o w i ng :
,
Her
rick dev o ut wo rs hipp e r o f h is p aga n s ain t tho ugh h e
,

we r e h as l eft h a rdly a phr as e w hi c h is n o t s w e e t wi th

,

his o wn d ai n ty c o u ntry m e l od y ( B W e n d e ll Th e .
,

Temp er of th e S evente enth Cen tury p T h e wri te r , .

U n re al C o n d itio n, M od ern P h il o l
”
1 S e e S mith , T h e I nd ic at ive in an

ogy, V , 3 6 1 -3 6 4 (J a nua ry , fo r t h e s e a n d nume ro us o th er e a mp l e s x .

 E N GL I SH GR A M M A R 291

of thi s c d id n o t me an to s ay that Herrick w as

s e n te n e

n o t a wo rs hi p e r o f h is p a ga n s a i n t ; a pp a r e n tly h e use s

th e s ubj unc ti ve h e r e as r es ul t o f th a t c o nfus i o n o f mi nd

w hi c h o fte n a ris e s fro m a v a g ue c o ns c i o us n e s s o f so m e
thin g to be des ire d o r a vo id e d a n d w hi c h o fte n as n o t,

l e ads o ne to c h o o s e th e th i n g to be a v o ide d .

O c c asi o na l v a ria ti o n in th e pr in c ip a l pa rts o f v e rb s is

a l s o to be o b s e rv e d T h e pri n cip al pa rts o f ge t a r e ge t
.
,

ot ot o r tt n N i th r ot n o r o tten i s hi s to ric a ll
g , g , g o e . e e g g y
th e c o rre c t fo rm fo r th e p ast p ar tic iple wh i ch S h o uld be ,

t en B u t t h e v o w e l s o f th e p a s t p a r ti c ipl e a n d o f th e
g e .

p as t te ns e a s fre q ue n tly h app en e d ha v e bee n l e v ele d

, ,

un d e r o n e f o r m a n d i n th e c a s e o f g o t a s p a s t p articipl e ,

th e l ev eli n g h a s b e e n e x te n d e d t o th e en e n di n g The .

fo rm go tten i s o fte n c ri tic i s e d a s a n A m e ric an i s m a n d ,

it i s un d o ub te dl y a m o re g e n e ra l A m e ric a n us e th a n Bri t
i sh . T h e a uth en tic s to ry i s t o ld o f a n A m e ric a n w h o
se n t a t e l e gra m t o a fri e n d s ayi n g th at h e h a d g o tte n

tic k e ts fo r th e the a te r th at ni gh t whi c h th e Bri ti s h ,

o p e r a to r tra n s m i tte d H av e go t te n ti c k e ts fo r th e
”
the a te r to nigh t -
to th e c o n fusi o n o f th e ten w h e n th e y
,

c a m e to o c c up t w s e a ts B ut i t h lr dy b n
y o . a s a e a e e

p o inte d o ut th at th e e n en din g is his to ri c ally c o rre c t

-
.

I t is s upp o rte d m o re o v e r by th e fo rm s f o rg otten be

, , ,

g o t te n i
, ll g o tten
-
e
, tc U
. n l e s s o n e a rbitra rily e l e v a te s

o n e s e c t io n o f E n gli s h u s ag e to th e p o s i ti o n o f s ta n d a rd ,

th e r e s e e m s to be n o r eas o n wh y th e fo r m go tten s h o uld

n o t be all o we d t o e xi st I t i s a s na tural in th a t w o rd as
.

a r e s uc h p a s t p a r ti c ipl e s as d r iven r id d e n , wr i tten e tc , ,

.

T h e re a re s o m e c o n s tr uc ti o n s h o w e v e r in w hich th e
, ,

fo rm got i s th e o nly o ne in c us to ma ry u se W e s ay I ve
.
’

o t to o n e ve r
“ I v
’
e g o tte n to a s th e Bri ti s h
g g , g o ,
2 92 M O DE R N E N GL IS H

cri ti c s o m etim e s a s se rts T he re is o f c o urs e n o re as o n

.

wh y got s h o uld n o t be u s ed a s th e p a s t p ar ti c ipl e o f th e

v e rb whe n th e n atural c us to m o f th e l angua ge c alls fo r
it — a n d th e s a me m ay be s aid o f go tte n .

T h e p as t p a rticipl e o f th e v e rb d r in k is va ri o usl y giv en

a s d r a n k a n d d r un k H is to ri c a lly d r un k i s th e bette r
.

fo rm fo llo wi n g th e cl as s o f begin bega n begun ; si ng

, , , ,

s a ng s ung ; r un r a n r un and o th e r v e rbs

, , , , T h e fo rm .

d r unk h o w e ve r see m s to b e o bj e c te d to be c a us e /
, , i t s ug
ge s ts th e adj e c tiv e use o f th e w o rd I n s pi te o f this th e .
,

w e ight o f u sag e s till fav o rs th e fo rm d r unk a s p as t p arti

c ip l e .A lth o the re i s c o n sid e ra bl e un c e rtai n ty in th e
p o p ula r s p e e ch wi th res pe c t t o th e fo rm s o f a numb e r
o f p as t ten s e s th e p a
, s t o f bl ow b e ing o ften m a de blowed ,

o f begi n b e i n g m a d e begun o f ca tc h b e i n g m a d e c a tch e d

, ,

e tc.
,s uch fo rms ar e n o w c o n side re d as gro ss e rro rs in
th e s ta n d ard o r c o rre c t s p e e ch W h er e fo rmally th e re
.

w a s lib e r ty o f ch o ic e a s fo r e x a mpl e bega n o r begun

, , , ,

fo r th e p as t te n s e o f begin th e c us to m o f s tan da rd,

M o de rn E n glis h h as r e c ogni z ed o n ly o ne c o rre c t fo rm .

A tte n ti o n m ay be c all ed h o we v e r to th e fac t th at th e

, ,

s tric t r ule o f th e gra mm ari ans i s n o t al ways fo ll ow e d in

pra c tic e by goo d S p e ak e rs and w rite rs T h e p a st ten se .

o f th e v e rb l i e i s c o n v e nti o n all y l a y ; b ut th e fo rm l a id

i s als o i n v e ry g e n e ra l us e e sp e ci ally a m o n g p e r s o n s n o t
,

h e ld in re s trai nt by a c ade mic tra di ti o ns A n illus trati o n .

may be cite d : A pp a re ntly th e b e a r l a i d in w ai t b e s ide

th e ga m e trail s al o n g w hich th e d ee r wan d e re d
,

(R o o s e v e lt H
, u n ti ng the G r i s ly p T h e s a m e di
, .

v e rsity o f us e e xi s ts w ith res pe c t to th e past ten se o f

d ive a s d i ved o r d o ve T h e fo r m e r is th e c o n v e n ti o n ally
.

“c o rre c t ” fo rm but th e la tte r fo ll o wi n g th e an al o gy o f

, ,
2 94 M O D E R N E N GLI S H

la ng ua ge , th e e a l b o rati o n of a
mplic ate d s e t o f rul e s
co

fo r th e us e o f s h a l l a nd wi ll might be w o rth while B ut .

i f gra mm a r is as w e a s s um e i t to be th e s tate m e nt o f
, ,

th e us a g e o f th e p eOpl e wh o e mpl o y th e l a n g uage in th e

‘

pra c ti c al a n d effe c tiv e c o mmun ic ati o n o f th o ught a ny ,

th e o r e tic a l d o gm ati z i ngs a s to th e w ay i n w hich th e

w o rds s h a l l a n d wi l l o r an y o th e r s oug h t to be use d
, , ,

w ill be w o r s e tha n us el e s s I f w e o bse rv e th e fa c ts o f th e

.

a c tua l usa g e o f s h a l l a n d wi l l i n s p e e c h w e s h a ll find th e

gr e ate st di ve rsi ty W e sh all fin d that the re i s a body o f

.

c a re ful s p e a k e rs w h o e i th e r thr o ugh p e rs i s te n t in str uc

,

ti o n in fo rm al gra mm a r o r thr o ugh tradi ti o n d e riv e d fr o m

s uc h i n s tr uc ti o n te n d to use the s e w o rds c o ns is te ntl i n
, y
th eir c o n v e nti o na lly r e c o gn iz ed s ta n da rd fo rms I n c er .

ta i n r e s tric te d c o mm u ni ti e s th e s ta n d ard us a ge h as th us
b e c o me to a c o n s ide r a ble e x tent th e na tur al po p ular
c us to m . W i th th e gre at m aj o rity o f sp e ak e rs ho w e ve r , ,

w ith th o se w h o m ust be c o un te d as th e a v e ra ge in telli ,

gen t p o p ula tio n o f th e c o untry th e gr eate st freedo m ,

pre vail s I nde e d o n e may s ay that w h e re a s tro n g a ca

.

d e mic s ta nda rdizin g infl uen c e h as n ot b e e n br o ugh t to

be a r I wi l l is a s ge n e ra ll y us e d fo r th e futur e a s I sh a l l
, .

I n th e fac e o f the s e fa c ts i t wi ll o bvi o us ly n o t d o simply

to dis mi s s I wi ll a s “
vulga r and i n c o rr e c t I t is i n
.

c o rre c t o nly a cc o rdin g to th e s y ste m o f th e o r e ti c al n o t ,

o f pr a c tic a l gr a mm a r a n d th e n o ti o n o f i ts i n c o rr e c tn e ss
, ,

i s th e c o mp a rativ ely re c e n t o utgro w th o f th e m o de rn

gra mm ari an s s trivin g a fte r a rigid r e gul a ti o n o f th e
’

fo rms o f s p e e ch T h e s impl e fac t s e e m s to be that thi s is

.

o n e o f th e i n s ta n c e s i n w hi c h th e c o n v e nti o na l gra mm a r ,

ha vi ng rai sed a s pe c i a l an d n o t unive rsa l us a ge to th e

p o si ti o n o f s tan da rd h as n o t ye t suc c eeded in i mp o s i ng
,
 E N GL I S H G R AM M A R 295

i ts rules up o n th e S pee ch e v e n o f th ose wh o in ge ne ral

fo ll o w th e r ul e s o f c o n ve n ti o n a l o r s ta n da rd gra m m a r .

W he th e r in th e e n d it w ill s uc c e e d in do in g s o it i s n o t ,

e a s y to fo r e s e e A t pre s e n t i t s e e m s j us t a s lik e ly th at
.

c o n v e n ti o n a l gr a mm a r wi ll c h an g e i ts r ul e s a s th a t th e ,

“
gre a t b o dy o f tho se w h o n o w us e th e i n c o rre c t fo rm s ”

w ill cha ng e th e ir pra c ti c e I t is e s p ec ia lly di ffic ul t in .

thi s i n s tan c e to i m p o s e th e s ta n d a rd fo rm s o n c o llo q uia l

s p e e c h be c au s e thr o ugh th e h a bi t o f c o n tra c ti o n th e fe e l
,

ing fo r all dis ti n c ti o n b e tw e e n th e fo rms is la rg e ly o h

T h us I l l y ou ll h e ll m ay as w e ll s ta n d fo r I
’ ’ ’
s c ur e d .
, ,

wi l l e tc as fo r I s h a l l e tc
,
.
, T h e s afe s t g uide th e re fo re i n
, .
, ,

th e us e o f s h a l l a n d wi l l is a s e v e r th e guid e o f prac tic a l , ,

us e . I n pra c tic al us e i t wi ll be o b s e rv e d th at in fo rm al ,

o r li te ra ry o r c a r e ful E n gli s h
, a s o m ew h a t d e fin i te ,

“c ul t ” h a s gr o wn u w i th re s p e c t to th e use o f thes e
p
w o rd s w h ic h i s o fte n m ade by th e fo ll o w e rs o f i t th e , ,

te s t o f ed uc a ti o n e ve n o f re fin e m en t, T h e pra c ti c al a d .

v an tage o f kn o w in g th e rul e s o f thi s c ult e v en th o ,

th e y a re t o a hi gh d e gree a rtifici al i s o bvi o us O n th e ,

.

o th e r h a n d th e o bs e rv a ti o n o f th e w id e spr e a d p o p ul a r
,

u s age S h o uld pr e v e n t o n e fr o m d o gm a ti z i n g to o p o s i

ti vel y o n th e m a tte r o f c o rre c tn ess s h o uld e v e n e u ,

c o ura g e o n e t o a di s agr ee m en t w i th th e s tric t l a w o f

1
th e fo rm al o r li te ra ry us age .

1 T he us ual s ta t e m e nt o f t h e
gra mma r ia ns i s th at Scotch , I rish , a n d
A me r ic a n s h a ve gre at d iffcul ty i n a c uir i n g th e
”
q
fa ul tl e ss use o f s ha ll
a n d will T h is m e a ns , o f c o ur s e , th a t S c o tch , I r ish , a n d A m e r ic a ns a r e in
.

c o r re c t i n th e ir use o f s h a ll a n d will o nl y b e ca use th e y a re me a sur e d by a

B ritis h s t an d a r d . B y t h at s tan d a r d th ere a re b

i n nume r a l e ways i n wh i c h
A m eric a n us age w o ul d b e in c o r r e c t . A ny one i n te re s ted i n th e i ntr i ca cie s
of th e S h all -
a n d -vs il l pu z zl e m ay c o ns ul t th e w o rk of D r G e r al d M oll o y,
.

T he I r is h D efi c ult y : S h a ll a nd Will , L o n d o n, 1 8 9 7, in w h i ch t h e a ut h o r
h as take n t wo h und r e d p a g e s in th e a tt e mp t t o l ay ba re it s su b tl eties .
29 6 M O D E R N E N GL I S H

I n th e n o un ly i n flec tio n al c h anges o f imp o r

th e on

ta n c e a re th o s e a ffe c ti n g plur als o f fo re ig n o rigin H e re .

t h e r e i s m o re o r l e s s te nd e nc y to give th e f o r e ign pl urals

th e fo rm o f E ngl is h w o rds wi th th e re gul a r s es e n d ,
-
,
-

in g o f plur a ls T h us th e pl urals o f i n d ex app en d ix f ocus

.
, , ,

cr i ter i on m ay be e i th e r th e fo r e ig n fo rms i n d ice s a en

, pp ,

d i ces f oci cr i ter i a o r b e tte r th e E n gli s h fo rm s i nd ex es

, , , , ,

en d i x es f o c us e s cr i ter i on s I n s o m e w o rds lik e gy m

a
pp , , .
,

n a s i um ba nd i t ch e r ub th e E n gli s h pl ural s gymn a s iums

, , , ,

ba n d i ts a nd c her ubs ins te a d o f gymn a si a ba n d i tti an d

, , ,

c h er u bi m d ly i h r f r c Biblic l ch r
( us e o n w t e e e n e t o th e a e u

h im ) a r e th e o nly o n e s g e n e ra lly use d

, I n g en e ra l th e .

ten d e n cy t o s ubs ti tute E ng lish fo r fo r e ign pl urals is o n e

-

th a t sh o uld be e n c o ura g e d .

I n th e i n s tan c e o f th e w o rd d a ta a L a ti n pl ur al fr o m ,

a li ttl e u s e d s i n g ul a r d a tum th e s tro n g p o p ul a r te n d ,

e n cy i s to ta k e th e w o rd a s a s i n g ul a r T his te n den cy .

i s h e lp e d by th e fac t th a t th e w o rd h a s n o c o rre sp o n di ng
s i n g ul a r i n g e n e ra l u s e I t is c o n s e q ue n tl y un de r s to o d
.

a s a s i n g ul a r e q uiva l e n t i n m ean i n g to
,
“ i n fo rm atio n ,

a s i n th e s en te n c e T hi s d ata h a s b e e n furn ish e d o n

,

th e un de r s tan din g th at i t w ill n o t be p ublis h ed Al .

th o hi sto ric ally i ne x a c t th e m e a n i n g h a s b e c o m e s o

,

ge ne ra l a m o n g tho s e w h o e mplo y th e w o rd in c o llo quial

s p e e c h th at i t m u s t be re ga rd e d a s an e s tabli s h e d us a g e .

T he re is a simila r te nde n cy t o use th e pl ural p h en omen a

as a s i n g ul a r up o n whi ch a n e w pl ur al p h en omen a s is
, , ,

th e n fo rm e d T hi s te n de n cy i s h eld w e ll in ch e ck h o w
.
,

e ve r by th e l e a rn e d ch a r a c te r o f th e w o rd p h en omen on ;
,

a s i t b e c o m e s m o re p o p ul a r an i n cre a s i n g use o f p h enom

,

1
en a a s a s i n g ul a r m a b e e xp e c te d
y .

1 Fo r e x a m l es o f
p p he no me na as a S i ng ul ar a nd p h eno me na s aspl u ra l , se e

t h e Ne w E nglis h D i cti o na ry un d e r p he no menon . O n th e ge n e ra l t o p ic , s ce

298 M O D E R N E N GL I S H

The c
d pri n ciple r e qui rin g that r ela ted idea s Sh all
s e on

be e xpr e s se d i n cl o se pro ximi ty to e ac h o th e r i s a n e c e s

s a ry r es ul t o f th e imp o r ta n c e o f w o rd o rd e r a n d o f th e
-

l e a din g p a r t w hich lo gic o f situatio n pl ays in M o de rn

E nglish If th e inte rre l ati o ns o f w o rds in a gro up are
.

to be d ete rmi n e d by th e l o gic o f th e id eas w hic h th e y

e xpr e s s n a t ur a lly th o s e id e a s w hi c h a re c l o s e ly r e la te d
,

m ust be bro ught c l o s e to e a c h o th e r i n e xpr e ss i o n sin c e,

th e l o gic al c o nn e c ti o n w o uld o th e r wi se be o b s c ur e d by
th e i ntro duc ti o n o f e xtr a n e o us ide a s . W e thus de m an d
th a t a dj e c tiv e s s ta n d n ea r t he i r n o un s us ually imm e d i
,

a te ly b efo r e th e m ; th a t pr o n o un s s ta n d n e a r th e ir a n te

c e d en ts ; that a dve rb s s tan d c los e to th e ir m o difie d

w o rd s ; a n d th at ve rbs s tan d a s n ea r as p o s s ibl e to th e
s ubj e c ts w hi c h d e te rmin e th e i r n umb e r an d p e rs o n In
.

th e o rde ri n g o f phra s es a n d cl a us e s a l s o th e p a r ts m us t
,

be a rra n g e d i n th e o rd e r o f th e ir l o gic al s e q ue n c e .

“
H um o r o us i ll us tr a ti o n s (fo r e x a mpl e ,
P i an o to re nt by
a l a dy w i th s o lid m a h o g a n y l e gs o f th e r e s ul t o f n o t

h e e di ng thi s rul e abo un d in th e gramm a r s a nd rh e to ric s .

But th e fa c t th a t w e fin d s uc h d e p artur e s fr o m a fix e d
w o rd o rd e r l udi cr o us e v e n w h en th e l o gi c o f th e Si tua
-
,

ti o n m ak es th e m ean in g p e rfe c tly c l ea r a s in th e a b o v e

,

e x a mpl e s h o w s w h at a s tro n g h o ld m e r e pr o xim ity a n d

,

o rd e r o f w o rd s h a v e ac qui re d in M o d e rn E n gl i s h s p e e ch .

T his fe elin g fo r o rd e r o f w o r d s i n s o m e in s tan c e s

_

c o m e s i nto c o n fli ct w ith c e rtain tra diti o n al gramm a tical

rul es A s to ck ill us trati o n o f thi s i s th e s plit in fini
.

I t is o n e o f th e c o n s e rva tive t radi ti o na l r ul e s o f

”
tiv e .

M o de rn E ngli s h gram m ar th at n o th i ng Shall s ta n d be

t we e n th e i n fini tiv e a n d i ts s ign to . B ut i t i s di ffic ul t
t o s ee th e l o gi c a l j us tific ati o n fo r thi s r ul e By o rigi n
.
 E N GLI S H G R A M M A R 29 9

th e s ign to i s pre pos i ti o n a nd th e i nfin itive w hich fo l

a ,

lo w s it is by o rigin a v e rb al n o un whic h in th e in flec , ,

tio nal s ta g e o f th e l a n g ua ge w as i nfl e c te d li ke a ny o th e r
, ,

n o un fo r th e da tive c a s e a fte r i ts pre p o s i ti o n

,
M o re .

o v e r i n th e s i mila r c o n s tr uc ti o n o f th e i nfi nitiv e i n i ng
,
-

a fte r a pr ep o s i ti o n n o q u es ti o n i s e v e r ra i s ed
,
If o n e .

m ay s ay H i s pl a n f or h ea vi ly ta x ing th e p e o pl e di d n o t
”
meet w ith a ppro va l w h y m ay n o t o n e a s well say I t
,

is di ffic ul t to qui ckly conve r t th e s e s e c uri tie s i n to cas h

P a ralle l to th e c o n s tr uc ti o n o f th e spli t i n fin itive i s a
s e n te n c e lik e th e fo ll o w in g i n w hi c h th e a dv e rb now is
,

m ad e pa r t o f th e pre p o si ti onal phra s e : Such a p e ri o di

c al is w ha t I h a v e b e e n s e e k in g d ilige n tly fo r n o w m a n y
”
ea r s I n d e e d th e prin cipl e o f M o d e rn E n gli s h gra m
y .

m ar th a t a m o di fying w o rd s hall s ta n d a s n e a r to th e
m o di fie d w o rd as p o ssi ble o fte n favo r s th e i n s e rti o n o f
an ad ve rb b e twe e n th e i nfi nitiv e a nd i ts s ign Ex a mpl e s
.

of s pli t in fi ni tiv e c a n o f c o ur se be fo un d in th e writ

in g o f g o o d a uth o rs T h e b e s t w rite r s h a v e al ways

.

a va il e d th e m s e lv es o f th e privi l e ge o f pl aci n g a n a dv e rb

befo re th e in fin i tive w hen th e e ffe c ti ve e xp o s i ti o n of

th e i r th o ught re q uir e d i t I n c o nte mp o r ary s p ee c h th e
.

S pl it in fi n i tiv e i s m os t fr e q ue n tly h e a rd i n th e us a ge
o f th o s e s p e a k e r s w h o giv e m uc h a tte n ti o n t o th e p re

c i se de fi n iti o n a n d e xpre s s i o n o f the ir th o ugh t e s p e c i all y ,

lawye rs but w h o ar e n o t to o muc h res tra in e d by th e

,

i n j un c ti o n s o f th e a ca de mi c gr amm a ri an I t i s this l at
.

ter wh o i s m ai nly r e s p o n s ibl e fo r th e rigid pro hi bi ti o n

”
a gai n st th e u s e o f th e s plit i n fin i tiv e L ik e th e r ul e
.

fo r th e us e o f s ha l l a nd wi l l th is is a n o th e r o f th o se
,

tr a ditio n al a nd th e o re tic a l l a w s which h as ac q ui red r e

s p ec t a n d a uth o ri ty m e r e ly b e c a us e i t h as b ee n s o o ften
30 0 M O D E RN E N GL I S H

d o gmatic ally s ta ted By th e tes t o f a c tual us e a nd by

.

th e tes t o f th e fe e li n g fo r th e M o d e rn E n gli s h i di o m ,

th e split in finitive is no t o n ly a n atural but o fte n an ,

a dm ira bl e fo rm o f e xpr e s s i o n
,
1
.

W o rd o rde r so m e tim e s dete rmine s c ase c o ntrary to th e

-

u s ua l r ul e s o f gra mm a r T h us fro m e a rly tim es th e

.

n o mi n ative f o rm o f th e i nte rr o ga tive pr o no un in s te a d ,

o f th e gra mm a tic al o bj e c tiv e h a s b ee n us e d i n s e n te n c es

,

like Wh o d o yo u m ean ? ”
Shaksp e re in Cor i ol a nus , ,

II i 8 w rites : Wh o d oes the wo lf l ove ? whe re t h e co n

, , ,

te x t sh o ws that Wh o is to be tak e n a s th e o bj e c t o f l ove .

Ex a mples ar e fre quent in c o llo q uia l E n gli sh o f al l l a te r

p e ri o ds A cc o rdin g to th e rule s o f c o n vention al gra m
.

m ar th ey a re o f c o urs e s imply “ i nc o rre c t ”

T he y vio .
,

late th e rigid rul e that th e o bj ec t o f a v e rb m ust be in th e

o bj e c tiv e c a se a n d th e o bj e c tive c as e o f wh o is wh om
, B ut .

i s n o thi ng to be s aid for Wh o d o y o u m ean ? T h e j us

”

tific a tio n o f th e c o ns tr uc ti o n s o fa r as i t g oe s is to be
, ,

fo un d in th e e x plan ati on o f i ts o rigi n T h e type fo rm o f .

-

th e E n gli s h se n ten c e as h as b een s tate d fo ll o w s th e

, ,

s ch e m e o f s ubj e ct v erb o bj e c t T h e g en e ral feeling .

th us c o m e s to be th at th e w o rd w hich pr e c e d e s th e v e rb
is th e s ubj e c t w o rd o r at lea s t th e s ubj ec t fo rm an d
, ,

th a t w hich fo ll o ws th e o bj e c t ; a n d i t i s a n i n s tin c tiv e

,

te n d e n cy t o m a k e a l l s e nte n c e s a d ap t th e m s elv e s to thi s

typic a l s truc ture Na tura lly e n o ugh th e r e fo re wh o
.
, , ,

w h e n it c o m e s fir st in i nte rr o ga tiv e s en te nc e s is giv e n ,

th e s ubj e c t f o rm n o t o n ly i n th o se m an y s e nten c e s i n
,

w hich i t is th e gra m m ati c al s ubj e c t a s i n Wh o c alle d ,

1 Fo r a full d is cussi o n, w ith num er o us ex a mpl e s , o f

pl it i nfi nitive , th e s

s e e L o uns u y
r b T h e
,
S ta n d a r d f
o Usa
ge i n E n
gl is h , pp 2 4 0 —2 6 8 ; Ha ll , .

A mer ica n J o ur na l of P h ilology, I II, No 9 , 1 8 82 B o rs t, E ngl is che S tud ien

.
,

XXX VI I , 3 8 6 -3 9 3 .
3 02 M O DE R N E N G LI S H

s um e th e fo rm of p a ro dy ric a ture
or ca ( S ym o n ds ,

E ss a y s Sp e cula ti ve a n d S ugges ti ve II “ I ca n o nl y
, ,

s ugg e s t a r e a s o n fo r th e e e ct be i ng s o m uch gre a te r i n

j
”
my o wn c ase (H ud so n I d le D ays in P a ta go nia p , , .

“h e p o in ts o ut th e n e c e ss i ty o f s t le bei n h
y g f a s

i oned to th e ma tte r ( G G re g o ry S mith

. E l i za beth a n
,

Cr i ti ca l E ssa ys p xlii ) .
“ th e fa c t i s that stri c tly
, ,

s p ea ki n g th e r e is n o s u ch thi n g a s a l a ngua ge be co mi ng
,

”
c o rr up t ( L o u n s b u ry T h,
e S t a n d a r d of U s a e p
g ,
.

th e n e gr o in Ne w E n gl a n d v e ry like ly c o m e s of a fre e
fa th e r a n d gran dfa th e r a n d th e fa c t o f a n eg r o bei ng fre e
,

a g e n e r a ti o n o r tw o b a ck w a s pr e tty s u r e S i gn o f h i s be

l onging to th e m o r e e n e rg e ti c cl a ss o f h is fe ll o w s (Free
m an S o me I mp r essi ons p
, ,
. the r e h a d b e en a s c en e
betw e e n h is fath e r an d him sel f which en d e d in h i s f a ther
‘

d i sin h e r i ti ng him N ew Yor k Ti me s

“ h e r e is s o m e
( ) t
thin g dr o ll in th e n o ti o n o f a Ta x Co mmi s s ioner bei ng
n o t to o p o li te l y b o w e d o ut o f o ffic e ( ibid ) th e .

s h o r tn e s s o f h is l e ft l e pr v nte d hi m r unn i ng i bid )

g e e
( .

o c c as i o n e d b a tter usin l d f
’
y t h e l g a n o s c h o o l e ll o w s -

”
privile ge (J es p e rs e n G r owth a n d S tr uctur e p
, ,
.

th e W a g n e ri tes w h o use d to pra te a b o ut I tali an op er a

”
being d e ad ( N e w Yo r k E ve n i ng P o s t
) .

T h e l o gi c a l o rigin o f th e two fo rm s o f e xpre s s i o n th e ,

o n e w i th th e p o sses s iv e th e o the r w i th th e n o n p o ss e s
,
-

s i ve fo rm o f n o un o r pro n o un i s n o t diffi c ul t t o s ee
,
In .

”
a s e n te n c e lik e I w a s us ed to h im be in g so e x c i ted ,

t h e i n s ti n c tive fe e li n g i s th a t th e pre p o s i ti o n to s h o uld

“ ”
be fo ll o we d by an o bj e c tive c as e him es p e c ially s o
, ,

“ ”
s i n c e th e w o rd w hi c h fo ll o ws him is n o t a s impl e
n o un but th at p e c ul ia r ki n d o f n o un w hich w e call a
,

v e rb al a n o un tha t p o s s e ss es a s m uch th e val ue o f ve rb

,
 E N G LI S H G R AM M A R 3 03

a s o f n o un . The s e n te n c e is th us da pte d to th e
a fo rm
of th e p ara llel sen te nc e It w as , us ua l fo r h im to
be s o
” ” ”
e x c i te d ,
in which b o th him a n d to be a re th e

i n de p ende n t o bj ec ts o f th e pre p os i ti o n O n th e o th e r .

h an d w h en th e p oss es sive fo rm i s us ed I was us e d to

, ,

”
his b ei n g s o e x c ite d th e v e rb al v a l ue o f
, b eing i s in
th e ba c kgro un d a nd as i ts n o un v a l ue i s e mph a siz ed i t
, ,

m us t l o g i c ally b e c o m e th e s ol e o bj e c t o f th e pr e p os iti o n
a n d be pr e c e d e d by a m o di fyi n g a dj e c tiv e pr o n o un On .

lo gic al gro un ds the refo re bo th c o n struc ti o ns are c o r

, ,

”
re c t ; but th e cho ic e o f th e c o n struc tio n w hi c h o n e
prefe rs to us e de p en d s o f c o urs e n ot s o m uch up o n
, ,

l o gi c a s up on th e c o nventi o nali ze d c us to m o f th e l an
g u a g e . A S h a s be e n s tate d th e re i s a s tr o n g ac a d e mi c
,

te n de n cy to re ga rd th e fo rm o f c o ns tr uc tio n wi th th e
o bj e c tiv e as p o p ul a r E n gli sh a n d to e l e va te th e c o n
,

s tr uc ti o n wi th th e p o s s es siv e as th e s o l e s tan dard o r c o r

r e c t fo rm o f th e c o n str uc ti o n T h e e xampl es given .

a b o v e h o we v e r a r e s uffici e n t to i ndi cate t h a t a h a rd a n d

, ,

fa s t r ul e r e q uirin g th e p o sse s siv e b efo re th e i nfinitive in

-in i s n o t d e s c rip ti o n o f th e r ea l fac ts T h e r e a
g a re .

in dee d s o m e instan c e s i n whic h th e p o ssess ive i s n e ve r

fo un d s o m e e ve n w he re it w o uld be imp o ss ible idi o m
, .

T hus whe n th e n o un be fo r e th e v e rb al i s a pl ura l w i th

th e u sua l s e ndi n g th e p o s s ess iv e re la ti o n i s n e v e r in
,

d i ca te d by an ap o stro ph e a fa c t w hi c h s h o w s th at th e r e
,

i s re ally n o fe el in g fo r th e p o s se s sive r e l ati o n pre s e nt in

th e c o ns tr uc ti o n O n e c o uld n o t wri te P r otesta nts i n
’
.

th e fo ll o wi n g : T hi s h as a ri s e n in g o o d m e a s ur e fr o m
P ro te s tants n o t k n o wing th e fo rc e o f th e o l o gi cal te rm s
A r a uth o r i ti es
“
e wm an o l og i a p S
’

( N , p , . o i n h e

l aughed at th e ide a o f th e auth o ri ti es ho ldin g h e r (New

3 04 M O D E R N E N GLIS H

Yor k Times ) “
or f ea ts in I
h ave kn o wn o f th es e fe ats
bei ng p e rfo rm e d s e v eral tim e s ( R o o s e v elt H un ti ng ,

the G r i s ly p , . I n a s e n te n c e like W e h ad n ot
th o ugh t o f th a t bei ng hi s re a l o c c up ati o n a p o ss es siv e ,

fo rm th a t s i s o ut o f th e qu esti o n
’
th e pro n o un m us t be
i n th e c o mm o n o r n o n p o s s essiv e fo rm -
I t seems th en .

tha t o n ly w h e n th e ve rb al is pr e c ede d by a p e rs o n al pr o
n o un o r th e n a m e o f a p e rs o n is th e r e a n tr o n g fe e li n g
y s

th at th e p o s s e s s ive fo rm is n e c e s sa ry T h e h os tili ty .

to wa rds a s en te n c e like th e fo ll o w in g His to ry h as n o ,

”
r e c o rd o f a ci ty ex i sting un de r s uch c irc ums tan c e s is ,

de cidedly le ss th an it i s to wa rds a s e nten c e like N0 ,

”
o ne e v e r h e a rd o f L i n c oln ma kin u ch a s p e e ch B ut
g s .

s entenc e s lik e thi s s e c o n d ar e c o mm on e n o ugh e v en i n

g o o d w ri ters an d th e do gm ati c rul e o f th e gramm ari an
, ,

he re a s e v e r mus t be tak en w ith lib er al allo w an c e

, .

4 C o nc o rd
. T h e tri umph o f th e l o gic o f m eaning
.

o v e r th e s tric t r ul e s o f fo rm al gra mm a r is fre q ue n tly illus

tr ated by th e c o n c o rd o f v e rb an d s ubj e c t i n M o d e rn E ng
li s h A s e nten c e for e xa mpl e lik e T h e w ho l e c ar w e re
.
, ,

”
l aughi n g is go o d E n glis h altho i t c o ntain s a sing u
, ,
”
l ar s ubj e c t a n d a pl ural v e rb By car h o w e v e r o n e
.
, ,
”
o f c o ur s e m e an s all th e p e o pl e in th e c ar a n d thi s ,

ide a h as m o re v al ue i n d etermi n ing th e n umb e r o f th e

ve rb th an th e s i ngula r fo rm o f th e m e re w o rd L ike wi se .

w e may h av e two r e l a te d id eas c o nn e c te d by th e c o or

'

d in ating a nd which s tan d a s th e s ubj e c t o f a s in g ul a r

,

v e rb b e c aus e th ey are tho ught o f as pra c tic ally o ne idea .

A n ill us tra ti o n is Kiplin g s l i n e T h e sh o uti ng and th e

’
,
”
tum ult di e s A cc o rdin g t o s tric t gra mm ar w e s h o uld
.
,

o f c o urs e h a v e d ie but aga i n th e l o gic o f id e as ri s es

s up e ri o r t o th e rul e s o f fo rm a l gra mm a r Th e s am e .
 M O D E R N E N GL I S H

pl ural fo rm T h e gramm ar o f such co ns truc ti o n s i s

.

de te rmi ne d by th e l o gic o f gen e ral situati o n n o t by th e ,

la w s o f fo rmal c o n c o rd .

A n o ther fa milia r ill us trati o n o f th e imp o r ta n c e o f

ge n e ral S i tuati o n as c o mp a re d wi th gra m matic al c onc o rd
i s to be fo un d i n th e c o n s truc ti o n k n o w n as da ngli n g
or
“ un re la te d p a rti c ipl e .
”
T h e s tric t r ul e o f th e gram
m ars an d rheto ric s is that th e p a r ticiple m us t no t be use d
w ith o ut d e fi n ite a n d e xpr e s s e d i ndic ati o n o f th e w o r d
w hi c h i t m o difie s . W i th un skill e d w ri te rs thi s is a s afe ‘

a n d n e c es sa r r u l e s i n c fte n rid i c u l o us bl u nd e r s ar e
y , e o

m a d e by n egle c t to foll o w it T h e l o os e c o nstruc ti o n i s

.

o ften use d a l s o w h e n th e w ri te r h as n o t ta ke n th e tro ubl e

to thi n k o ut cl e a rly w ha t h e h a s to s ay .A se n ten ce lik e

Sta n din g o n th e hil lto p th e v a ll ey s tre tch ed a wa y fo r
mil e s i s bad E n glish n o t m erely bec au s e th e pa rticipl e
,

s ta n di n g h a s n o w o rd to m o di fy but b e c aus e t h e
,

g e n e ra l situa ti o n i s n o t a de q uately e xpr es se d A t th e

. .

s a m e ti m e i t m us t be a ck n o w l e dg e d that a s a rigid r ul e

a dmi tti n g n o e xc e p ti o n s th e pr o hibiti o n a gai n s t th e

,

d a n gli n g p a rti c ipl e is al s o a d o gm a o f th e th e o re ti c al

gra mm ari an which i s c o ntra ry to a c tual pr ac ti c e Se n .

te n c e s lik e th e fo ll o w i n g fr o m C a rlyl e Sp e aki n g in

,

q uite un o ffici al l anguage w hat i s th e n e t p urp o se a n d

,

up sh o t o f w a r c a n be r e a dil y pa ra ll e le d n o t o n ly in
,

c o ll o qui al s p ee ch but al so in th e m o re c o rre c t li te r ary

,

s tyl e. T h e fo ll o wi n g is fr o m R o be rt L o ui s Ste v e ns o n ,

“
w h o m o ne c an h a rdly r e g a rd a s a c arel e s s w rite r : T h en c e ,

l o oking up a n d h o we ve r fa r e ac h fir s tan d s s e p a ra te
,

a g a i n s t th e s ky n o bigg e r th an a n e y e l as h a nd all to g eth e r

,
”
l e n d a fringe d a sp e c t to th e hill s (S i lver a d o S qu a tter s ) .

Such s en ten c e s a r e i n de e d q ui te i n h a rm o n y w i th th e
4 ‘
F0 n a rr o w
p,

A U TO GR A P H or M ILT O N ’ “L Y I D
S C A S, 11 1 6 5—1 9 3
.
.

(For d escrip tion, see A p pendi x)

.
308 M O D E R N E N G LI S H

general te nd en cy o f E ngli sh to wa rds c o ntra c te d an d

e ll ip ti c a l fo r m s o f e xpre ss i o n . S o l o n g a s th e m e an in g
is fully c o nv eye d w e d o n o t usually tro uble o urs e lves
,

m uch abo ut q ues ti o ns o f gra mm a ti c al c o mpleten e s s I t .

is o nly wh en th e m e an i ng is o bs c ure o r w hen s o me n u ,

s uitable gro upi ng o f ide a s i s br o ught a b o ut by th e failure

to f o ll o w th e r ul e s o f gr a mm a r th a t we h av e re c o urs e to
,

th e fo rm al r ule o f gramm a r t o c o rre c t th e e vil I n o th e r .

w o rds gramm atic al c o rre c tn e ss i s in m an i n s tan c e s in

,
y
M o dern E n glish n o t a p ositiv e n o t e v e n a n e c e ss ary
, ,

virtue but m e re ly a s afeguard to pre vent misle adi ng o r

,

inade quate fo rm s o f state m en t .

5 M e a n i n g a n d F un c t i o n
. A ttenti o n h as a lready
.

bee n c alle d to th e e as e and fr equen cy w i th w hich w o rds

o f o n e p ar t o f s p e e ch p as s o v e r i nto a n o th e r T hi s a gain .

i s pa rtly d ue to th e imp o r tan c e o f m eani ng a s di s tin

g u i sh e d f r o m f o rm i n M o d e rn E n glish S i n c e w o rds
. i n

M o dern E nglish us ually s tan d fo r ideas wi th o ut fo rm al ,

re s tric ti o ns as to th e w ay thes e idea s s h all be e xpre ssed ,

th ey ea sily le nd th e m s e lv e s to a gr eat v ari e ty o f us e s .

T h e fun c ti o n o r p a r t o f s p e e ch o f a w o rd c an thus be d e
, ,

te r min e d in M o d e rn E nglish o n ly by th e l o gic o f i ts us e .

T h e w o rds out in then a r e us ually a dv e rbs but in phras e s

, , ,

” ”
lik e th e o ut v o ya ge th e in v o y a ge
,
I n th e th e n c o n
,

ditio n o f my min d (D i c k e n s ) they are plai nly a d j e c

,

ti ve s . Similarly th e wo rd s o i n th e s e nten c e
,
He was ,

”
p o o r but ho nes tly s o c a n h a rdly be di sp o s e d o f as an a d
,

v e rb I ts fun c ti on ra the r i s S imil ar to that o f th e pr o n o un

.
,

a l th o th e w o rd whi c h it h e re s ta n d s i n pl a c e o f is th e ad j e c

tiv e “ ”
p o o r an e quivalen t fo rm o f th e s en ten c e b e ing
,

“ H e w a s p o o r but h o n e s tly p o o r ”
I n s o m e i ns ta n c es
.

th e l o ss o f o ld e r infle c ti o nal fo rm s h as r e s ul te d i n a fee l

31 0 M O D E R N E N G LISH

tim e s ca dv e rbi al o bj e c tiv e s b e c ause this ad

ll e d a ,

ve rbial fun c ti o n w a s e xpr e s s e d i n th e O l d E n gli s h p e ri o d

by i n fl e c ti o n fo r th e a c c usativ e c as e but i n M o de rn
E n gl is h the r e I s no th o ught o f c a s e c onnec ted w ith th e
w o rds a n d th e i r f un c ti o n i s d e te rmi n a ble m e re ly by the i r
,

l o gi c al m e an in g I n o n e i nsta n c e in th e c o n struc ti o n
I amgo in g ho m e w e h a ve th e w o rd h o m e pr e
.
,

” “ ”
,

s e rv e d i n wh a t w a s o rigi na lly a l o c ati v e c a se o f a n o un ;

b ut h e re a l s o th e fe e lin g fo r c as e h a s dis a ppe a red a nd th e ,

w o rd i s to be r e g a rde d s imply a s a n a dve rb .

A n o th e r a dv e rb w hich i n o ri gi n is d e rive d fr o m an
infle c ti o n al fo rm b ut which h as be c o m e e v e n m o re
,

o b s c u re d th a n th o se c i te d is th e a dv e rb the in suc h
,

”
e xpr e s s i o n s a s T h e m o r e th e m e rri e r T h e s o o n e r yo u
d o this th e b ette r i t w ill be fer y o u
,
T h e w o rd the in .

th e infle c tio n al O l d E n gli s h p e ri o d o f th e la n g ua g e wa s ,

i n this c o n s truc ti o n an in s tr um e n ta l c a s e o f th e d e m o n
,

s tra ti ve pr o n o un its fo rm b e i n g py, i n m e a n in g i t w a s

e q uiv al e n t to a pr e p o s i ti o n al phr a s e
“ by thi s o r by “ ”
,
”
th a t . O ur M o de rn E n gli s h T h e m o re th e m e rrie r ,

m ight be p a raphr as ed the re fo re as m o r e by this “

, , ,
”
m e rri e r by th a t i n w hi c h o f c o urs e by thi s a n d “ by
,

a r e a d verbi a l phra s e s m o di f i n g th e a dj e c tiv es

”
th a t y
“m o re an d m e rri e r Fro m thi s a n a lys is it will be
.

s e e n th a t th e w o rd th e i n s uch c o n s truc ti o n s a s th e mo re ,

e tc. s i n c e i t h as th e f un c ti o n o f a n a dv e rb is to be tr e a te d
, ,

a s s uc h e v e n th o i n fo rm i t s e e m s v e ry r e m o te fr o m
,

e ve ry th in g th at w e c o nn e c t w i th th e id e a o f a dv e rb It .

i s n o t p o s sibl e t o di sm i s s th e c o n s truc tio n a s is o fte n ,

“
d o n e m e rely a s a n idi o m i n c ap abl e o f an a lysi s I t is
, , .

a n e a sy but un j us tifia bl e wa y o f e v adi n g gra m m a t ic a l

diffic ulti e s to gr o up th e m to ge the r a s idio m s un de r ,

 E N GL I SH GR A M M A R 31 1

s ta n ding by that te rm p e c ulia r ill o gic al and in e xplic abl e

, ,

c o n s tr uc tio n s w hi c h h a v e fo un d th e i r way i n to th e
l ang uage in so m e myste ri o us m a nn e r beyo n d th e p o w e r
o f man to di s c o v e r Idi o m s o f th is s o r t are n o t fo un d
.

in th e E n gli sh l a n g uag e T h e r e are m any c o n s truc ti o n s

.

w hi c h i t i s di ffi c ul t to ac c o un t fo r o n th e basi s o f th e
trad iti o nal th e o re ti ca l s y s te m s o f gra mm a r but th e r e
, ,

a r e n o c o n s tr uc tio n s w h ic h c a nn o t be a c c o un t e d fo r o n

th e gro un d s o f l o gi c al d e v e lo pm e n t T h e t e rm
.
“ idi o m
i s n e e d e d fo r b e tt e r us es tha n to s e rve as a d e s ignati o n
fo r s o m e thi n g wh i ch d oe s n o t ex is t I t is n e e de d to
.

d e sign a te tho s e m e th o d s o f e xpre ss i o n w hi c h are p e c ul i ar

to o n e l ang uag e a s di s ti n g ui sh e d fr o m a n o the r T h us .

i t i s pr o p e r to S p e a k o f a n E ngli sh a G e rm an o r a, ,

Fr e n c h idi o m T o w ri te o r to sp e ak E n glish idi o mati

.

c a lly m e ans to w rite o r s p e a k i t w ith d ue unde rs tand

i ng o f an d r e g ard fo r th o s e s p e c ific fo rms o f e xpr e s si o n
by virtue o f w hi c h E n glis h i s E n gl is h a s dis tin g ui s h e d
fr o m al l o th e r l an g uag e s .

A n in te re s ti n g d e v el o pm e nt o f M o d e rn E n gli sh gra m
m ar is th e e x te n s i o n o f th e c l a s s o f c o p ul a tiv e v e rbs A .

c o p ul a tiv e v e rb m ay be d e fin e d a s a v e rb o f w e a k e n e d

pre d ic ati o n o r a ss e rtio n I t se rv e s a s a c ol o rl es s li n k

.

w o rd r a th e r th an to m a k e a p os itiv e d e cl a ra ti o n I ts .

c o mm o ne s t an d app a re n tly o ldes t fo rm i s th e v e rb to “

, ,

w h i c h i n its m o s t p o s iti v e s i gn i fi c a n c e e p e ss e s
”
be ,

m e re ly th e n e gativ e a c t o f e xis te n c e C lo sely re la ted to

.

“ to be a r e s uc h w o rd s as
“ to b e c o m e “ to a pp ea r
” ”
, ,

“to s eem ” e tc Syn ta c tic a lly th e s e c o p ul ati ve v e rbs

.
,

ha v e to be p ut i n to a c l ass a par t fro m th e trans i tiv e

ve rb s b e c a us e w he n th e y are fo ll o w e d by a s ubs tan tive
,

w o rd n o un o r pr o n o un thi s w o rd i s in th e n o m ina tive

, , ,
31 2 M O D E RN E N GL I SH

or pre dic a te no mi n a tive c as e an d als o b ec aus e unlike

, ,

th e tra n s i tiv e v e rb s t h e y m ay be fo ll o w e d by a dj e c tive s

, ,

“
k n o w n a s pr e di c a te a dj e c tiv es as in I a m gl ad o r H e
, ,

s e e m s h appy
”
. It i s i n thi s s e c o n d c o n struc ti o n i n ,

c ase s in w hich th e C o p ul ativ e v e rb is fo ll o w e d by th e

pre dic a te a dj e c tiv e th at th e e xtens i o n o f its use h a s
,

o c c urred . T h e fo rm s o f th e v e rb to be hav e r e m ain e d

th e o nly o n es which m ay be fo llo w e d by a n o mi n a tiv e
c as e o f th e pro n o un B ut th e n umbe r o f v e rb s whic h
. ,

m ay be f o ll o w e d by pre dic a te a d j e c tives h a s b ee n l a rgely

“
i n cr ea se d Ex ample s are tur n a s in T h e milk turne d
.
,

s o ur
”
k i “ h l k d “”
I fe el
; l o o , a s n e o o s s a ; f ee l a s in ,

si c k s mel l a s i n it s m ell s s w ee t s oun d as i n

“ th e
, ,

”
sh a s in
“ h ”
h o rns s o un d l o ud fl u , e fl us h e d r e d a n d
a gre a t m a n y o th e rs I n stan c e s o cc ur a b un da ntly i n
.

lite rary E n gli sh J e ffri e s (Th e Op e n A i r ) h a s th e foll o w

.

i ng : T h e re w a s a c o at o f fall e n n ee dl e s un d e r th e firs
a n i n ch thick a nd
, b e ne ath it th e dry e arth touched
wa r m .
”
W ith th e n o v eli s t M e re di th it h as d e v elo p e d
alm o s t i n to a m an n e rism o f s tyl e Al m os t e v e ry p age
.

w ill furm s h illus tra ti o n s o f w hich o n e o r t w o fr o m th e

,

e a rly pa g e s o f h is Vi ttor i a m ay be c ite d : L uigi s bl o o d

’

s ho t u r le I n h i s S i ght s h e l ooke d a d a r k M a d onn a

p p ,

w i th th e s un s hi ning br ig ht g o ld thr o ugh th e e dge s o f th e

”
s um m e r h at . M any o f th e se v e rb s hav e q uite a s m uch
a s s e rti n g v alue a s m o s t i n tra n s i tiv e v e rbs a n d if it w e r e ,

n o t fo r th e pr e dic ativ e a dj e c tiv es w hi c h a cc o m p a ny th e m ,

w e might c l as s i fy th e m S imply a s i n tran s i tiv e v e rbs .

T h a t th e se w o rds w hi c h s tan d afte r th e v e rb s a r e true

adj e c tiv e s a nd n o t a dv e rb s is d e te rmi n e d by o ur fee li n g

fo r th e l o gi c o f th e s ta te m e n ts S e n te n c e s like
.
“ T he
”
flo wer sm ell s s we et o r T h e e arth to uc he d wa rm d o
 31 4 M O DE R N E N G LI S H

no t by i nfle c ti o n s If we w e r e s tric tly l o gi c al we sh o uld

.
,

w ri te th e p a rts o f a f un c ti o n gr o up to g eth e r a s o n e -

w o rd s i n c e i t h a s but a s in gle v a l ue ; o r a t le a s t w e
,

s h o uld c o nn e c t t h em by hyph e n s I h a d n I h ll -
g o e s a
g o , ,
-
,

e tc . A s a m a tte r o f fa c t w e d o thi s i n s o m e i n s ta n c e s ,

but in o th e r s w e d o n o t W e w ri te win do w s ill ” -

,
”
typ e w ri te r o ffic e bo e tc w i th w i th u t h
y o -
r o
, ,
y .
,

h e n s but e x a c tly s imil a r gr o up s a r e n o t un i te d a t a ll

p , ,
” “
a s fo r e x a mpl e a b a n k pr e sid e n t th e c i ty e di to r
”
, , , ,

“ a c a rp e t fa c t ry ” e tc T h e us a ge o f th e pri n te d an d
o , .

w ritte n l an gua g e i n thi s r es p e c t is al to g e th e r i n c o n si s t

e nt . C e rta in c o mp o un d pr e p o s i ti o n s like into besi d e , , ,

e tc . a r e w ri tte n to g e th e r a s o n e w o rd but o th e rs ar e n o t
, ,

o n ly n o t w ri tte n t o g e th e r but m a n o t be w ri tte n t o

y ,

ge the r s uc h a s out of o n to a longsi d e of beca us e of by

, , , , ,

r ea s o n of th e ar tific al di s tin c tio n establi s he d by c o n ve n

ti o n al us a g e T hi s div e rs i ty o f prin te d a n d w ri tte n
.

fo rm s i s h o w e v e r p ur e ly a cc i d e n tal a n d e x te rn al
, , The .

fun c tio n o f o ut of a n d in to a r e i d e n tic al i n th e s e n t e n c e ,

“ H e fe ll o ut o f th e b o a t in to th e wa te r ” e v en th o
,

the y d o d iffe r i n fo r m A fe w fur th e r illus tra ti o ns m ay

.

be c ite d T h e w o rds h ea d o n in
. T h e s hip s s tr uc k h e a d
,

on is a n a dve rbial fun c ti o n gr o up m o difyin g s tr uck -

.

I n th e s e n ten c e T h e s h o r e s w e r e s te e p to a ll a r o un d
,

(C o n rad N o s tr o m o
, C h a p te r I ) s tee
p
,
t o i s a pr e dic ate ,

a dj e c tive T h e v e rb in th e s e n te n c e
. I t i s a ll o v e r wi th ,

m e is th e fun c ti o n gr o up i s o ver w h i c h is m o di fi e d by
-
,

th e adve rb a l l T h e v a l ue o f bur s t op en a s a fun c ti o n

.

gro up is cl e arly bro ught o ut i n th e fo ll o win g s e n ten c e ,

w h e r e th e w o rd s a r e o n c e us e d a s a v e rb an d th e n a s a n
adj e c tiv e T h e c o tto n fiel d s th e m s e lve s w h e n th e b olls
bur s t op en s e e m a lm o s t a s i f w hite n e d by s n o w a n d th e
, ,
 E N G LI S H G R A M M AR 31 5

re d and flo w e rs i nte rs p er sed a m o ng th e bur s t Op e n

w hi te ,
-

”
p o ds mak e th e who l e fi eld b e a utif ul (Ro os e velt In
, ,

S cr i bner 8 M a ga zi ne J a n ua ry
” ’
th e L o uis ia n a C a ne bra k e s , ,

T h e w o rds th i r ty o d d in “ I fo un d thir ty o d d
,

v o lum e s o n th e s he lv e s are a n a dj e c tiv e m o dify in g

,

v o l um es e x a c tly e quival e nt in va l ue to thirty thre e o r

,
-
,

”
thi r ty five e tc
-
I n th e s e n te n ce
,
. I will lo o k i n to it ,

th e v e rb i s t h e gr o up wi l l l ook i n to in T h e ball we n t
”
flyin g thro ugh th e air th e v e rb i s th e gr o up wen t flyi ng ;
,

“
i n H e ra n up a bill
”
th e v e rb i s r a n up Ma ny o th e r .
,

ill ustra ti o n s might be c ite d but th o s e giv e n a re s uffic i e n t

,

to sh o w tha t n o t e ve ry sep a ra te w o rd by i tse l f h as gra m

m a tic a l fun c ti o n in M o de rn E n gli s h gr am m a r but th a t ,

w o rds m us t o fte n be tak e n to ge th e r a s c o n s ti tu ti n g

f unc ti o n gro up s
- I n s uc h c a s e s i t is c o n tra ry to th e
.

idi o m o f th e l a n guage to try to a n alyz e th e gro up s into

th e ir c o n sti tue n t p a r ts s o a s to giv e e v e ry w o rd s tandi ng ,

al o n e a c l e a rl d e fin e d s tr uc tur al v al ue
, y .

S o fa r h as thi s fe e li n g fo r th e fun c tio n gro up d e vel -

o p e d tha t o fte n w e ha v e a ki n d o f gr o up i n fl ec ti o n .

T h us in a phra se lik e “ T h e g o v e rn o r o f C alifo rni a s

’

”
p o li c y th e p o s s e s sive in fle c tio n sho uld s tric tly go wi th
,

g over n or t h e
!
w h o l e phra s e h o w ev e r th e g ove r n or of
, ,

Ca l ifor n i a i s fe lt t o b e l o n g to g e th e r an d to s e rve as a
,

p o sse s sive m o di fi er of p o li cy a n d th e infl e c ti o n is c o ns e

,

q uen tly a ttac he d to th e gro up a s a wh o le T his us e is .

c a p abl e o f a l m o s t i n d e fi n i te e x te n s io n I n gr o up s o f .

tw o o r m o r e w o rds i n na m e s o r ti tl e s as fo r e x a mple , , ,

B e a umon t a nd F l etc her s Wor ks th e Ch i ca go a n d A l ton s

’ ’
,

r o l l i ng s to ck e tc th e p o s s e ss iv e i nfl ec ti o n e n ds th e gr o up
,
.
, .

I n two a pp o si tive n o uns th e p o s s e s siv e i n fl e c ti o n i s added

o nly to th e s e c o n d a s in W e s topp e d at Mr B a rto n
, .
,
316 M O D E R N E N G LI S H

th e cle rgym an s h o us e fo r a drink o f w ate r

’
, In p cpu .

l ar s p ee c h a s e n te n c e lik e T h a t s th e ma n we s a w yes
’

te rd ay s h a t is n o t o nly q uite i nte lligible but is felt to

’

be quite idi o m atic : I t is e q uiv a le nt to T hat is th e h at

o f th e m an w h o m w e s a w y e s te rd ay
”
T his h o we v e r is
.
, ,
”
v e ry fo rm al E n gli s h th e phra s e th e h a t o f th e m a n
,

b e i n g un us ual s p o ke n idi o m o n e w o uld mo re naturally

”
T h at is th e m an s h a t wh o m I n th e s e nte n c e
’
s ay e tc
,
.

a s firs t giv e n th e m a i n s tr uc tura l p a r t o f th e s en te n c e i s

s imply
“ T h at is th e h at
”
th e re s t o f th e s e nte n c e is
fel t t o be m e re ly a p o s se ssiv e m o difie r o f h a t and th e ,

m a rk o f th e p o s s e ss iv e re la ti o n i s c on s e q ue n tly a dd e d
t o th e la s t w ord o f th e gr o up pr e c e di n g th e m o difie d
‘

w o rd .

A n i n s tan c e o f artifici al l o gic a ppli e d to a r e l ate d

c o ns truc ti o n is to be fo un d in th e affe c ted us e o f th e
phra s e s omebod y o r a ny bod y e l s e s T he n o rm al idi o m
’
.

in th e us e of this phra s e giv e s it th e fo rm ci te d I t is a .

fun c ti o n gro up w i th th e v al ue o f a n i n d efin ite pr o n o un

-
,

a n d th e p o ss e ssiv e i nfl e c ti o n i s n atura lly app e n d e d to th e

last el e m en t in th e gro up W i th c ertain the o r etic al

.

a nd c o n sci o u s s p e a k e r s a n d gra mm ari ans h o w e v e r th e

, ,

phras e is given th e fo rm a ny bo d y s e ls e T his i s nei the r

’
.

g ene ral c us to m n o r is it g o o d l o gic T o say H i s op i ni on

.

i s a s good a s a ny bo d y s e l s e o r to s p e ak o f a ny bo d y s e l se
’ ’
,
’

p o li c
y w o uld b e a s u n id i o m a ti c a s t o s a
y t h e
g ove r n or s
’
o l i cy of Ca l if or n ia T h e us e o f th e fo r m a ny bo d y s e l se
p .

is a go o d ill us trati o n o f th e dange r o f pl ac i n g th e

a uth o ri ty o f i n divid ua l a n d th e o r e tic al l o g i c a b o v e th e

a uth o ri ty o f g e n e r a l c us to m i n l an g uag e .

7 M i x e d S y nt a x
. O c c a s i o n al q ue s ti o ns o f gra m
.

m ar a ris e in w hich th e s o urc e o f th e diffi c ul ty li e s in th e

31 8 M O D E R N E NGL I S H

o bj e c tin g to th e l a x us e o f th e a n d wh i ch a n d whom ,

c o ns tr uc ti o n .

A n o th e r ill us trati o n o f mix e d syntax is to be fo un d in

th e c us tom a ry us e o f th e pr e p o s i ti o n to i n to a fte r a ve rb ,

o f r e st a s
“ H av e yo u e v e r b e e n to C hi c a go ? ”
The
,

us ua l pr e p o s i ti o n afte r f o rms o f th e v e rb to be i s a t ,

a fte r v e rb s o f m o ti o n to i n to I n s en te n c e s l ik e th e o ne
, , .

cited h o w e v e r th e v e rb to be 1 s n o t th e m e r e v erb o f
, ,

r e st but h as alm os t a c q uire d th e val ue o f a ve rb o f

,

m o ti o n I n o the r in s tan c e s th e c o n s truc tio n d o es n o t

.

see m q ui te so n a tura l T h e fo ll o win g fr o m a r ec e nt '

’
m agazi n e a rticl e : By o ne o cl o c k I w as ba ck to Mr .

”
R o gers o ffic e w o uld be m o r e c us to m a rily e xpr e ss e d
’
,

”
By o n e o cl o c k I w a s b a ck a t Mr R o ge rs o ffi c e o r
’
.
’
,

”
B y o n e o c l o c k I c am e b ac k to Mr R o g e rs o fli c e
’ ’
. .

T h e phrase have n eve r b ee n i nto it o cc urs i n ,

th e foll o wi n g s e n te n c e (H e n ry J a m e s Tr a n sa tl a nti c ,

S ketch es p 2 3 7) : .
“ T h e ch urch i s lighte d o n ly by a
,

fe w glimm e ri n g t ap e rs a n d a s I h a ve n e ve r b een i n to it
,

”
but at this h o ur I k n o w n o thi n g o f i ts i n te ri o r a s p e c t
,
.

W e might na turally say I h a ve n e ve r b ee n in it o r

“ ”
,

“ I h av “
e n e v e r g o n e i n to it but I h av e n e v e r b e e n
,

”
i n to it s e e ms to be a n unidio m ati c blen din g o f bo th
fo rms o f e xpr e s s i o n .

A n o l d r ule o f th e fo rmal gra mm a r s an d rh eto ric s

w hich is n o w h appil y p as si n g o ut o f e xi s te n c e r a n to
th e e ffe c t th at s e n ten c e s m us t n o t e n d w i th pr e p o s i ti o n s .

T h e r ul e w a s m ad e in fac e o f th e fa c t th a t in a c tual
s p e e ch a n d i n w ri ti n g s en t e n c e s d o e n d w i th pre p o s i

ti o n s an d his to ri c ally fr o m th e O l d E n gli s h p e ri o d

, ,

d o wn al ways ha ve ende d w i th pre p o s iti o ns in c e rtain

,

c o ns truc ti o ns T h e S hi fti n g o f th e pre p o s iti o n to th e

.
 E NGL I S H GR AM M A R 31 9

e nd o f th e s e n te n c e m erely h as th e e ffe c t o f e m
ph a si z ing
i ts a dv e rbi al va lue I n se nte n c es c o n tain i ng a r ela tiv e
.

cl a us e wi th th e r elative pro n o un o mi tte d th e sente n c e ,

c a nn o t e n d o th e r wis e tha n wi th a pre p o si ti on as in ,

W he re i s th e m an yo u ar e to play w ith ? o r T hi s i s”

”
t h e h o us e I wa s b o rn i n B ut th e o l d r ul e i s p e rh ap s
.

to o far g o n e t o r e q uir e m o re tha n a p as si n g n o ti c e A .

r ul e o f S imilar o ri gin whi c h is al so l es s fre q ue ntly m et

,

wi th n o w tha n fo rm e rly re l a te s to th e pr o n o un to be
,

us e d in r e fe rri n g to th e i n de fi n i te o n e T h e o l d r ul e
.

r a n to th e e ffe c t th a t o n e m us t al w ays be r e fe rr e d t o b
y
i ts e lf o r o n e o f its fo rm s By rule th e fo ll o wing sen
.

te n c e w o uld be v e ry e le g ant E n gli s h I f o n e s h o uld

d o th a t o n e w o uld s o o n find tha t o n e s r e p uta ti o n w o uld
’
,

I n n at ur al us a g e h o we v e r one m ay ag) a n d
”
s uffe r , ,
j
.

i s re fe rre d to by he a n d i n th e p o s s e s s iv e by h i s
, , ,
.

A n o th e r ar tifi c i al r ul e m o re h o no r e d in th e br e a ch th an
i n th e o bs e rva n c e is th at whi c h re q uire s th e c o ordi n a te
pa rtic l es s o a s w hen th e s en te n c e i s n e ga tiv e ,

but a s a s w h e n th e s e n te n c e i s a fi r m a ti ve T hus .

w e m us t s ay “ H e is as tall a s I am ”
but “ H e is
,

”
n o t s o t all a s I a m No vali d a rgum en t c a n be fo und
.

fo r this r ul e e i th e r in l o gi c o r i n a c tual us e an d i t s e e m s ,

t o o we i ts e xi s te n c e m e re ly to th at p a s s i o n fo r s ub tl e
a n d d o gm atic ally d e fi n e d di s ti n c ti o n s wh i c h gen e ra ll
y
c h a r a c te riz e s th e th eo r e ti c a l gra mm a rian T h e p r o h i bi
.

tio n ag a in s t th e us e o f l i ke a s c o n j un c ti o n h as a li ttl e
m o re re l ati on to ac tual fa c t T h e w ord m ay b e use d a s
“
v e rb as in I like tenn is o r a s a pr e p o s i ti o n a s i n
, ,

Y o u l o o k l ik e yo ur fath e r o r as a n a dv e rb i n s o m e

wh at a rch ai c o r p o pul a r sp ee ch a s in Y o u ar e n o t lik e

,

t o fin d him h e r e .
”
B ut in s uc h a s en t e n c e a s “ He
3 20 M O D E R N E N GL I S H

l o o ks lik e I did at h is age th e us age is generally “n o w

,

” 1
c o n de m n e d a s v ulgar o r sl o v e nly T h e us e o f l ike a s
.

c o n j un c ti o n a ri s e s fr o m th e e llip s i s o f a fulle r fo rm l ike ,

as , as i n th e ve rs e i n th e P s alms L ike a s a fa th e r
,

pi ti e th h i s childre n e tc I n th e s i mplific a ti o n o f thi s

, .

d o ubl e c o nj un c ti on i t happ en s tha t th e se c o n d hal f i s

,

th e o n e w h i ch h a s m o s t ge n e ra lly p e rs is te d a nd th e o n e
w hi c h th e fo rm al gra mm a ri an wo uld ra is e to th e p o si ti o n
o f s ta n d a rd B ut th e e llip si s o f a s l e avi n g l i ke fo r t h e
.
,

s implifi e d c o n j un c ti o n i s j us t a s n atura l an d j us t a s
,

r e a s o n abl e an d s o w e find it in us e side by side w i th a s

, .

“ T h e us e o f l ike fo r a s ” s a s P r o fe s s o r M a tth w s 2
y , e ,

“ n o t un c o mm o n in th e S o uth e rn State s an d E a s te rn
[
a n d W e s te r n h e mi ght h a v e a dd ed ! h a s th e r e a l w a s , y
be en regarded a s a n i nde fen s ibl e c oll o q ui ali s m ; but in
En gl an d it is h e a rd in th e c o n v ers ati o n o f li te ra ry men
o f high s tan di n g a n d n o w a n d a g ai n i t e ven g e ts i tse l f
,

”
into print in b o o k s o f go o d re pute A c o ll o q uiali s m
.

l ike as c o n j un c ti o n m ay be but i nd e fen sibl e it c e rtai nly

,

is n o t . I t i s firs t o f al l a wid e s pre ad c us to m o f th e

S p e e c h i t h as a ri s e n n a tur ally a n d i n th e s a m e w ay tha t
,

a s h as a nd un l es s o n e s ta r ts fr o m th e a r i o r i p o s i ti o n
, p
th a t t h e r e is o n ly o n e l e gi ti m a te fo rm o f e xpres s i o n fo r
e v e ry id e a i n sp e e c h i t m ak es as s tr o n g a bid fo r fa v o r
,

as th e c o n j un c ti o n a s .

8 B o o k G r a mm a r
. T h e s tudy o f sy s te m a ti c o r
.
,

te ch ni c al o r fo rm al gra mm ar a s it is v a ri o us ly c a lled
, , ,

h a s gro w n tr e m e n d o us l y in m o d e rn tim e s I t is m a d e a .

p a rt of e v e ry e l em en ta ry an d high s ch o o l c o urs e o f in
1
Ne w E n glish D ictio n ary , 8 v like . T h e d ict io na ry a d d s, h oweve r,
. .

“
th a t x
e a m pl es ma y b e fo un d i n m a ny r ece nt w ri te rs o f sta n d in g
”
.

2 A mer i ca ni s ms a nd B ri ti c is ms 16
, p
. .
3 22 M O DE R N E N G L I S H

change whi c h wa s c o ming o ve r E nglish educ ati on at

th a t tim e . F o rm e rly i t h ad b e e n r e ga rd e d as s uffici e n t
s c h o o l m as te r e d uc a ti o n fo r a g e n tl e man i f h e w a s a ble
-

to S ig n h i s n a m e to a d o c u m e n t a n d m a ny a l a dy ,

fa m o us i n E n gl i s h hi s to ry c o uld n o t b o as t e v e n o f thi s
a c c o mplishm e n t . No w h o w e v e r a n e w te s t o f e d uc a
, ,

ti o n o r c ul tiv a ti o n be g an to ass um e pr o mi n e n c e th e ,

te s t o f a bili ty to e xpre s s o n e s s e lf in th e c o n ven ti o n a l

’

o r s tan d a rdiz e d fo rm s o f e xpress i o n bo th i n S p ee ch a n d

,

i n w ri ti n g . T h e te n d e ncy to w a rd s a fix e d s p e lli n g a nd
a fix e d gr amm a r we nt h a n d i n h an d a n d s o fa r h as thi s ,

ten d en c y a dva n c e d tha t to d ay d e vi a ti o n s fro m th e e s

-

ta bl ish e d a nd c o nv e n ti o nal o r th o gra phy a n d gra mm a r

a r e th e m os t c o n v e n i e n t a n d t h e m o s t f re q ue n tly a
p
pli e d ro ugh te s ts i f no t o f c ulture at leas t o f e duc ati o n
, ,

a n d s o c i al p o s i ti o n .

T h e i m p o r ta n c e w hich m o d e rn e duc a ti o n h a s a s sign e d

t o c o n v e nti o na l gra mm a r h a s n a turally r e s ul te d in th e
d e v el o pm e n t o f what We h av e c alle d b o o k gra mm ar .
”

C o rre c t gr a mm a r h avi ng b e e n m ad e o n e o f th e es se n tia ls

o f c o rr e c t c o n d uc t i t w a s n e c e ssa ry t o h a ve b o o k s givi ng

th e r ule s o f c o rre c t gra mm a r T o s upply th is n e e d th o s e

.

s p e a k e rs o f th e la ng uag e wh o w e r e c o n vi n c e d th a t th e y

k n e w w ha t th e c o rr e c t gra mm ar o f th e l an gua ge w a s
h a v e pr o vide d s uc h b o o k s w i th a m azing a bunda n c e .

T h e s e b o o k s a r e o f c o urs e n o thin g m o r e than th e r e c o rd

, ,

o f th e c u s to m a ry u se o f th e l a n gua g e as o bse rv e d by th e

a uth o r s o f th e m fo r th e gr a m m a ri a n h a s n o m o r e p o we r
,

o f le gi s l a ti n g in th e r ul es o f gra mma r th a n th e s c i e n tis t

h a s in th e phy s ic a l la w s o f n a tur e B o th s i mply r e c o rd

.

th e r e s ul ts o f th e ir o bs e rva ti o n T h e h o ld h o we v e r
.
, ,

which th e r e c o rds o f th e pro fes s e d gra mm a ri an h av e a c

 E N GL I S H GR A M M A R 3 23

q uire d o v e r th e a v e rage us e r of th e lan guage is p e c uli a r .

T h e gr amm a ri a n m e r e ly re c o rds th e s o c ia l h a bits o r c us

to m s o f th e s p e e ch o f h i s c o mm uni ty a n d ye t m a ny p e r ,

s o n s w h o i n o th e r w ay s de te rm in e th e i r s o ci al h a bi ts o r

c us to m s by th e i r o w n o bse rv a ti o n give to th e gr am m ar
,

th e p o w e r o f a fi na l a uth o ri ty T h e r ule s o f p e rs o n al
.

c o n d uc t fo r e x am pl e b e h a vi o r a t ta bl e o r th e fo r ms o f
, , ,

p o lite n e ss ar e l ea rn e d by th e pro c e s s o f s o ci a l i n te r
,

c o urse ; n o o n e o f a n y s o c i a l e xp e ri e n c e g o v e r n s h i s c o n

d uc t by o r d e fe r s to th e auth o ri ty o f th e r ule s o f a ny
, ,

b o o k o f g o o d m ann ers Fo r s uch h e usually h as th e

.

gre ate st c o n te m pt prefe rrin g to follo w th e guid e o f p e r

,

s o n al e xp e ri e n c e a n d o b s e rv a ti o n B ut th e c us to m s o f
.

s p ee c h a re a l s o m e r e ly th e re g ul a riz e d h abits o f th e

s p ee c h o f a c o mmu n i ty W h y th e n s h o uld n o t th e
.
, ,

s p e ak e r d e p e n d a s m uc h up o n th e a uth o r i t
y o f h i s p e r

s o n al e xp e ri e nc e a n d o b s e rva ti o n h e re a s in th e o th e r

s o c ia l re l ati o n s o f life ? I f th e di s c us si o n s o f th e pre c e d

ing p age s h a ve b ee n fo llo w e d it will be e vid en t th a t i t
,

i s th e auth o r s o pi n i o n tha t h e sh o uld G ram m ars a re

’
.

s o m eti m es h e lp ful i n e nabli n g a s p e a k e r o r w ri te r to

br o ade n th e fi eld o f h is p e rs o n al o b se rva ti o n B ut in .

th e en d unl es s h e is will ing to b e c o m e m e r e ly a bli n d

,

fo ll o we r o f pr e ce p t a n d au th o ri ty h is o wn us e m us t ,

res t up o n p e rs o n al o b s e rvatio n an d c h o ic e B o o k gram .

m ar is i na de q ua te a s a guid e ; i t is e v e n a t ti m es fal s e
a n d m i sl e a d i n g T h e b e s t gram m a r e v e r w r i tte n is o nly
.

a Sk e l e to n o f th e s p e e c h o f s o m e p as t p e ri o d T o set .

b o o k gra mm a r up as th e tes t a n d th e s o urce o f a utho rity

i n l an g ua ge i n e vi tably l ea d s to a s ti ff a r tifi c i al a n d n u , ,

e xpre s s iv e us e o f l a n g ua ge T h e r eal guid e to g o o d

.

gra mma r to go o d E nglish in all res p e c ts is to be fo un d

, ,
3 24 M O D E R N E N GL I S H

in th e livi n g s pee ch A n d only h e w h o s e e xp eri enc e

.

a n d o b s e rva ti o n o f th e livi n g s p e e c h ar e suffi c i en tly

br o ad to en able him to e mplo y it w ith p e rfe c t e a se and

c o n fiden c e c an be s aid to have realiz e d th e S piri t th e ,

idio m o f th e langua ge .
326 M O DE RN E N G L I S H

is lik e ly to be go o d E n gli sh but all go o d E n glish is n ot

,

n e c e s s a rily s tan d a rd E n gli s h W h a t th e n i s g o o d E n g

.
, ,

lis h ? T h e p urp o se o f lan g uag e b e in g th e s atis fa c to ry

c o mm un ic a ti o n o f th o ugh t a n d fe eli ng th at is g o o d
,

E n glis h w hic h p e rfo rms this fun c ti o n s atis fa c to rily .

S uc h a d e fin i ti o n o f g o o d E n glish i t w ill be Obs e rv e d

, ,

i s p ure ly utili ta ria n a n d prac ti c a l I t d e fin es g o o d E n g

.

lis h o n ly in th e terms o f i ts a c tivity w itho ut re fe ren c e

,

to a ny th e o re ti ca l a nd a bs trac t c o n c e p ti o n s o f i ts v al ue
o r s ig n ifi c a n c e W he n e v e r tw o mi nds c o me into s ati s
.

fa c to ry c o n ta c t wi th e a ch o th e r thr o ugh th e m e di um o f
,

language we ha ve the n s o fa r a s e ac h i n stanc e tak e n by

, ,

i ts el f i s c o nc e rn e d a g o o d use o f la n gua ge T h e rustic

, .

w i th h is dia l e c t a n d i n h i s o w n h o m o g e ne o us d i ale c t
,

c o mm un i ty r e a liz e s a s m u c h th e p urp o s e o f l an g ua g e a s
,

th e m o s t p o lis h e d S p e ak e r in th e be st s o ci e ty o f th e
city E ach e xpres se s him self s atis fac to rily a nd is un de r
.

s to o d s ati s fa c to rily a n d m o re than this l a ng ua ge a t i ts

,

b e s t c anno t d o O ur de fini tio n o f g o o d E n gli s h i s th e re

.
,

fo r e ve ry s impl e ; a ny E n gli s h th at hi ts th e m a rk
, is
go o d E n gli s h T o hi t th e m ark in th e c en te r it m us t
.
,

e xpr e s s ex a c tly w h at th e s p e a k e r o r write r w i sh e s to

e xpres s , in s uch li n g ui stic t e rm s a s will c o n v ey to th e

h ea re r or r e ade r e x ac tly tho s e impress i o n s w hich it is
i n te nde d that h e s ha ll re c eive
W he n w e c o m e to a nalyz e th e s ituati o n a little m o re
cl osely h o we v e r w e fin d th at the re ar e v a ri o us kin ds o f
, ,

g o o d E n glis h th at th e q ue sti o n o f ba d E ngli s h usu

,

ally a ri s e s wh e n o n e ki nd o f E n gli s h is use d in c ir c um

s tan c e s w hi c h re q uire a diffe re n t kind when o n e h as ,

t ri e d t o h i t th e m a rk w i th th e w r o n g a rr o w T h us
. th e r e

w “
h
is t at o f r m o f E n gli s h w h i c h is k n o n a s p o p ul a r
 C O N CL U SI O N 32 7

E nglis h T hi s is th e s p e e c h o f th o s e w h o us ually
.
,

thr o ugh limite d e xp e ri e n c e a n d e d uc a ti o n a r e un ac ,

u ain te d w ith th e us a g e w hi c h th e c o m m un ity i n g e n e r a l

q
r e ga rds as th e b e tte r s o c ial c us tom S o me ti m es as in .
,

th e p o e t ry o f B urn s i t i s m a d e th e v e hi c l e fo r li te ra ry
,

e xpr e s s i o n U s ua lly h o w e v e r it is a p ure ly c oll o q ui a l

.
, ,

sp ee ch Na turally th e li mits o f p o pula r E n gli s h a r e

.
,

n o t a b s o l ute ly d e fi n ed but a r e l a rg e ly a m a tte r o f o pi n

,

i on . T h e te rm u s uall y c a rri e s wi th i t s o m e unfav o ra bl e

“ ”
c o nn o tatio n s P o p ula r E n glis h i s th e v ulga r E n gli s h
.

o f th e l o w e r c l a s se s o f s o c i e ty B ut j us t w h o th e s e .

l o we r clas ses are j us t th e divi d ing li n e b e tw ee n th e

,

upp e r a nd th e l o we r th e s e a r e m a tte rs h a rd to de te r
,

m ine A p o sitiv e te s t o f c ulture o utsi de th e do gm atic

.
,

o p ini o n o f in di vi d ual s h as n e ve r ye t b e e n di s c o ve r e d
, .

C e rtainly it c an ha rdly be s a id th a t th e p e rs o n w h o h a s
re c e iv e d th e c o n ve n ti o n al e duc a ti o n i s by an d for that ,

r e a so n sol e ly a m o re highly c ultivate d p ers o n than o n e

,

wh o h a s not .

A d kind o f E n gli sh i s c alle d c o ll o q uial E ng

s ec o n
”
li sh . T h is i s th e s p e e c h o f th e c o mmo n pl a c e c o n c e rns
o f da il li fe a nd o f l e ss s e ri o u s c o n v e r sa ti o n s p e h
y a e c ,

fr e e r and l e s s c o n s ci o u s th a n fo rm a l s p ee ch but n o t ,

c a rryi n g w it h i t th e s ugges ti o n o f ill ite ra c w h i c h c h ar

y
a c te r iz e s p o p ul a r s p ee ch T h e d e gr e e o f c o llo q ui al is m
.

w hi c h o n e p erm i ts in o n e s se lf o r in o th e rs d ep e n d s o n
’
, ,

th e s ubj e c t o f c o n v e rsa ti o n o n th e i nti m a c y o f th e a c

,

q u a i n ta n ce s h ip o f t h e p e r s o n s s p ea ki n g a n d i n g e n e ra l ,

o n a ll th e a tte n d an t c ir c um s ta n c e s .

A third ki nd o f E ngli sh is fo rm a l o r lite ra ry E n glis h .

T hi s is th e E n gl is h o f p ubli c Sp e ak in g o f m o r e fo rm al ,

c o n ve rsati o n a n d o f prin te d a nd w ritten li te rature I t

, .
32 8 M O D E R N E N GL I S H

v a ri e s w ide ly in th e degre e o f its fo rm ali ty th e s tyle o f ,

a phil o s o phi c trea ti s e be i n g a ppro pri at e ly m o r e fo rm a l

th an th a t o f a light es s ay T h ere is al s o o n e m a nne r o f

.

s p e a ki n g fo r th e p u lpit and ano th e r fo r th e l ec ture pl at -

fo rm o n e m a nn e r fo r th e j udg e i n c o ur t a nd a n o th e r fo r
,

th e s tump o ra to r T h e lin e o f d e m a rc ati o n b e twe en fo r

.

m al a nd c o ll o q uia l E n gli s h i s n o t s ha rp j us t a s i t is n o t ,

betw e en c o ll o quial and p o p ula r E ngli sh T h e s tyle o f .

s o m e a uth o r s o r p ubli c s p e a k e rs for e x a mpl e is d e

, ,

c id e dl y m o r e c o ll oq ui a l m o re fa mili ar tha n that o f

, ,

o th e rs . W ith al l h o we v e r,w hate v e r th e de gree o f fo r

,

mal ity th e d e p e nd e n c e o f th e lite ra ry s p e e ch up o n th e

,

c o ll o q ui a l s p e e ch o f n a tur a l i n te rc o u rs e is n e c e s s a ry It .

is fro m th e c oll o q ui al s p e e ch th at th e li ter ary S p e e ch h as

i ts vi tali ty If l e ft to i ts e lf its te n de n c y w o uld be to
.
,

d e velo p into a highly S p e ci aliz e d a n d a rtific i a l fo rm o f

e xpr e s s i o n a s p e c i a l h i gh c a s te l a n g ua g e fo r li te r atur e
-

th a t w o uld gr o w l e s s an d l e s s r e a l a nd e xpr ess iv e a s it

d e tac h e d itse lf m o r e and m o re fro m th e c o ll o qui al s p ee c h
i n w hi ch th e c o mm o n h um an c o n c e rn s o f life a nd de a th
fin d th e ir m o s t i n tima te e xpre s si o n I t is p e rh ap s .

b e tte r th e re fo r e to s p e a k o f th es e thre e ki nds o f s p ee c h

, , ,

p o p ul ar c o llo q ui al an d lite ra ry n o t as thr ee di stin c t a n d

, , ,

s e p a rate S p e ci e s but r a the r a s thr ee te n de n ci es o f d e v e l

,

O pm e nt o f w h at is a t b o tt o m on e Sp e e c h a n d th at a ,

p o pul ar Sp e e ch in th e s en se that it c o m es dir e c tly fro m

th e e xp e ri e n c e s o f m e n a n d w o m e n in th e i mm edia te ,

a ffa irs o f li fe L an g ua g e as W a lt Whi t m an says

.
,
“ is ,

s o m e thi n g a ri s i n g o ut o f th e w o rk n ee d s ti e s j o y s aff e c
, , , ,

ti o n s ta s te s o f l o n g ge n e ra ti o n s o f h um a n i ty a nd h a s
, , ,

its b a s e s br o a d a n d l o w cl o s e to th e gro un d
, I ts fi nal .

d e cisi o n s are made by th e m ass es p e o pl e ne ar e st th e ,

33 0 M O D E R N E N GL I S H

di ffe rent set o f circ um stan c es be c o m e s in a de q uately ex

pre ssiv e b e c aus e it s ays m o re o r l ess than th e sp eake r
,

inten d ed an d s o be c o m es bad E n gli sh O n e l earn s th us

, .

th e l es s o n o f th e c o mpl e te re l ativi ty o f th e v alue o f l an

x

gua ge th at the r e is n o s uch thi n g as an abs o lute E n gli sh

, ,

but th at lan gua g e is v a l uabl e o n ly a s i t e ffe c ts th e p ur

p o s e o ne wish e s to attain tha t what is go o d at o n e ti m e
,

m ay be ba d at a n o th e r a nd what is bad at o n e tim e m ay

,

be g o o d a t an o th e r .

B ut s o m e thi n g fur th e r m us t be s aid a b o ut that ten d

e n cy o f E ngli s h w hi c h res ults i n w hat i s k n o wn a s th e

c o n ve ntio na l o r stan d ard E n glish I t is n o t ne c e s s ary

, , .

to dis c uss h e r e w h y m a nkin d s triv e s to fo rm ul a te c us

to ms a n d ha bits in to a fix e d sy ste m T h e fa c t i tself i s .

o bvi o us .T hro ugh this n a tura l i ns tin c t as w e m ay c all ,

it in al l o ur so c i al c us to m s o f d aily m ann e rs o f dr es s
, , , ,

o f m o ra l s o f S p e e ch m o r e o r l e s s r e g ul a riz e d s ys te m s o f
, ,

c o nd uc t gr ow up I n langua g e e ach c o mm u nity

.
, ,

w h e the r it is l a rge o r s m all h as a gene r al und e rs tan d in g

,

th a t thi s o r tha t pr o n un ci ati o n o r thi s o r tha t r ul e o f , ,

gramm ar is th e a cc e pte d s tanda rd o r c o nventi o nal o n e

, , , .

T hi s g e n e ra l un d e rs ta n din g 1 s a rri v e d a t in a p ur e ly vo l
un tary a nd o fte n at firs t un c o n s ci o us w ay
,
N o b o dy , .

i mp o s e s n o b o dy h a s th e p o we r to imp o se any r ules o f

, ,

s tan d a rd s p e e ch o n a c o m m un ity A s we ha v e b efo re .

p o in te d o ut a rul e is m e rely th e s tatem ent o f th e gene ra l

,

c us to m of a c o mm un ity We might c o n se que ntly

.
, ,

sp eak o f th e s tan dard p o p ul ar th e s tandard c o ll o quial , ,

an d th e s tan da rd li te ra ry sp ee ch o f this o r th at ge o
graphi c al c o mm unity Us ually h o w e v e r th e te rm is
.
, ,

un d e r s to o d in a s o m e w h at m o re limi te d se n s e I t is .

us e d to s ignify n o t m e re ly th e c us to m ary us e o f a c o m
 C O N C L U SI O N 3 31

munity, but p e ci ally tha t use whe n i t i s re c o gniz ed an d

es

a ck n o wl e dge d as th e g o o d us e o f th at c o mm un i ty A ny .

us a g e w hi ch is thus give n i ts p ate n t o f re s p e c ta bili ty i s

r e garde d a s s tanda rd us e I t is c us to mary us e rai s e d to

.

th e p o si tio n o f c o n s c i o us l e g al iz e d u se . O f c o urse th e
q ues tio n o f st an dard do e s n o t a ri se un til the re is s om e
‘

c o n fli c t o f s ta nda rds A s in th e c ase o f c ivil l a w n o

.
,

c us to m a r pr a c ti c e is l e g a l i z e d o r s ta n d a rdiz e d u n t il
y , ,

d o ubts are rais e d w ith r esp e c t to i t un til s o m e o n e

,

atte mp ts t o d e p a r t fr o m th e c us to m a ry pr a c ti c e T he n .

it is n e c e ssa ry to c o m e to s o m e a gr ee m e nt a s to w h a t
sh all be r e c o g n i z e d a s th e ac c ep te d pr a c ti c e I n th e
.

c as e o f civil l aw this is d on e ei the r thro ugh th e p ass in g

o f a fo r m a l l a w by s o m e l e gi s l a tiv e b o d o r thr o ugh th e
y ,

de cisi on s h an de d do wn by j udges in p as sing up o n d is

p u te d c ases o f c u sto ma r
y a n d a cc e p te d pr a c ti c e i n th e

de ali n g s o f m e n w ith e a ch o th e r I n m atte r s o f l an guage

.

th e le gal o r s ta n d a rd pra c ti c e c a nn o t be s o e a s ily d e te r

mi n e d . O wi n g to th e fa c t th a t th e re i s n o l e gi sla tive
b o dy in lan gua ge n o sp ec ifie d c o ur t o f app e al th e re is
, ,

o c c a s i o n all la c k o f a gre e m e n t as t o w h a t s h a ll a n d wh a t
y
s ha ll n o t be re c o gni z e d a s th e a c c e p te d us e o f th e

l an gua ge T h e go ve rn m ent o f th e l an gua ge is n o t a s

.

full y a n d as de fin ite ly o rga ni z e d a s is th e g o vern m e n t o f

th e bu s in e s s a n d o th e r o v e r t a c ts o f m e n I n m a ny
.

i n stan c e s o r r athe r in m o s t in s tan c e s th e re i s un animity

, ,

o f Opi n i o n , a n d th e n w e h a v e an un q ues ti o n ed a n d

gen e ral standa rd u s e T h e great b o dy o f E nglis h usage

.

is th us mad e up o f fo rm s o f l a ng ua ge wi th r e sp e c t to
w h ic h th e re i s prac tica lly n o diff e re n c e o f o p ini o n .

So m etim e s h o we v e r d ue to va ri o us c aus e s s uc h as th e
, , ,

c o m i ng to gethe r o f two spe ak e rs fr o m tw o diffe r en t ge o

3 32 M O D E R N E N G LI S H

graphic a l o r so ci al sp e e ch c o mm uni ti es in s tan ce s o cc ur ,

in w hi c h th e r e a ri ses diffe re n c e o f o pin i o n I n o ne c om .

m un ity o r o ne gro up h e d on t o r th es e kin d of p eop l e o r

,
’
, ,

I will fo r th e future w ill be a cc ep te d a s th e c o n ve n

, ,

ti o n al s tan d a rd s p e e ch o f th e c o m m un i ty
, Whe n th ey .

ar e u s e d i n this c o mm u n i ty o r thi s gr o up th e y e xpr es s

‘

th e ir th o ugh t c o m ple te ly a n d c a rry wi th th e m n o c o n ,

n o ta tio n t o th e di s c r e dit o f th e S p e ak e r I n an o th e r .

ge o graphi c a l c o mm un ity o r by c er ta in s p e ak e rs w ithin,

a c o mm un i ty t h es e u sa ge s w ill be c o n d e m n e d a s n o t
,

stan da rd th e re f o re a s n o t s ati sfa c to rily e xpr e s siv e an d

, ,

“ “
c o n s e que n tly as w r o ng o r in c o rre c t ”
W h o shall .

de cide ? No thin g c an d e c id e but th e o bs e rvati o n Of c us

“

to m . W hat is de fen de d a s c usto m a ry use by a c o m m u

nity o r e v e n by a s i n gl e s p e a k e
, r to c a rry th e m atte r to ,
”
i ts fi na l a n alys i s i s s tan d a rd o r c o n ve nti o n al o r righ t
, , , ,

or
“ co rr e c t i n th at c o mm uni ty o r fo r tha t sp e ak e r
'

.
,

T h e q ues tio n o f c o rre ctn ess a n d i n c o rre c tn e s s t ha t i s o f , ,

s ta n da rd c a n o n ly a ri s e w h e n a c o n fli c t o f o pi ni o n a ri ses
, ,

a n d t hi s c o nfli c t c a n o n ly be d e c ide d by s uc h a n e x te n

s i o n o f th e fi eld o f Ob s e rv a ti o n o f c us to m a ry us e o n he
‘
t ,

p a rtic ula r que sti o n a s will de te rmi n e fin a lly what th e

,

tr ue c us to m i s T h at thi s is o fte n a di ffic ult m a tte r is

.

n o t to be d e n i e d ; i t i s h o w e v e r o n l y o n e o f th e m a n y
, ,

w a ys in w hi c h m a n i s drive n to a n Obs e rva ti o n o f his s ur

r o un din g s an d to a c o n tin ual a d apti o n o f h i s c o n d uc t to
the se s urr o un din g s T h e i mp o rta n c e o f s tan da rd s p e e ch
.

fo r th e w e l fa r e o f th e c o m m un i ty S h o uld a l s o be re c o g
n iz e d I t is o nly by th e a c c e p tanc e o f ge ne ral c us to m
.

th a t S p e e ch c a n be m ad e e fie c ti ve a t al l a n d i t is e v e ry ,

s p e ak e r s d uty to f o ll o w th e b e s t c ust o m o f th e s p ee ch
’

a s h e vi e w s i t No t idi o sy n cra sy n o t s in g ul a ri ty S ho uld

.
, ,
334 M O D E R N E N GLI S H

c o nti n ually wide nin g th e bo un ds o f th e c o nventi o nal and

s tanda rd l an guage by adding to i t s o m ethi n g that w as
n ot th ere b e fo r e T h ey m us t d o s o if sp ee ch i s e v e r to
.

ri se abo v e th e dea d l e v e l o f th e c o mm o n pl ac e J usti c e

.

o f p e rc e p ti o n c o n s is ts in k n o wi n g h o w a nd wh e n a n d
”
w h e r e to de vi ate fro m th e b ea ten tra ck .B ut d evi a ti o n
th e re m us t be a n d th e p e rs o n s w h o attai n a n in divid ual
,

s t l e i n th e us e o f l an g ua g e a re t h o s e wh o se iz e th e ir O
y p
rtun iti e s a s th e y pre s en t th e m s e lv e s T t h m th
p o o . e e

prim e a nd n ec ess ary virtue in langua ge is e xp res sive

n e ss, an d a s c o mpl e m en ti n g thi s
, th e re sh o uld c o rr e
,

s p o n d o n th e p a rt o f th e b e arer o r r e a d e r th e w ill i n g n e ss

to r e c e ive th e e xpr e ssi o n a s full y as it w as inten de d .

A ga i n h o w e v e r w e i n si s t o n th e c o n tin ua l a pplic a ti o n
, ,

o f th e te s t o f g o o d E n glis h — i t m us t be s a tisfa c to rily

e xpr e s sive I f i t d o e s n o t j us ti fy i tse lf by a cc o mpli s h

.

i ng its p urp o s e if it sh o cks th e pre j udic e s o r th e tra di

, ,

ti o n s o f th e p e rs o n to w h o m it i s dir e c te d o r i f it be
, ,

uni n te lli gible i f i n any way i t fa ils to s e c ure a s ati s

,

fa c to ry an d un hi nd e r e d trans mi ss i o n o f th e th o ugh t ,

then t o th e e x te n t o f thi s fa il ure i t i s bad E nglish A nd .

i t is bad n o t b e c a us e it h a s fa il e d to satis fy a ny c on
ditio n o f th e o r e t ic a l ide al e x c e llen c e a ny n o ti o ns o f
, ,

s tan d ard but bec au se i n th e a c tua l pra c ti c e o f th e ar t o f

,

language it h as fail e d to pro duc e th e re s ult for whi c h

that art e x is ts .
 A PPE ND I!

T h e O l d E n gl i s h Ch r o n i c l e , L a u d , 6 3 6 .

T h e m a n us crip t pen i n g pa ge is repro

of w hich th e o

d uc ed a b o ve w as w ritte n i n th e e arly p a rt o f th e twelfth

c en tury T hi s is o f c o urse r e la tiv e ly late in th e O l d E n g
.

li sh p e ri o d O wi n g h o we v e r to th e li te rary c o n serva
.
, ,

ti sm o f th e w ri te rs a n d c o m pile rs o f th e Ch r oni c l e th e ,

E n gli s h w hi ch we ha ve h ere di ffe rs little in s tyle o f

han d wri tin g a nd in th e fo r ms o f l anguage fr o m th e
E n gli sh o f th e two c e nturie s pre c e din g T h e tran s .

c r i ti o n o f thi s p a ss age wi th i n te rli n e a r tra n sl a ti o n i s

p , ,

as fo llo w s :

O f B it i n
r th i l nd
a i igh t
e h un d d
s a f m il e s l ng e re O s o

1 Britte n e igl a n d is c h ta h un d m il a l a ng
tw o h und r e d b ro a d h e re ar e th is
1
2 a nd twa h und br a d . A nd h er s ind on pis
i sl a n d five l anguage s E n gl is h B r it is h

3 igl a nd e fi t ge pe o d e , e n gl i s c a nd b r ittis c
W el sh S c o tc h P ic tis h
a nd wil so a nd s c ytti s c a nd py h t i sc a nd

L a ti n First were b
in h a itants of t h is l a nd
2
5 b o cl e d e n . E re s t wer o n buge nd pi s e s l a nd e s
th e B r i t i sh T h e se c ame fro m A r mo r ic a s e t tl e d

6 b r i tte s .
p a c o ma n of ar me n i a 3
a nd ge s ae ta n
s o ut h wa r d B r ita in fi rs t . T h en b ef e ll it th a t th e
7 s ufie we a r d e b rytte ne scr o s t .
p a g a
e l mp h it pact p yh 4

P i c ts ca me fro m th e s o uth fro m S c ith i a ()

21 w i th l o ng s h ip s

c o ma n S c ith i a n mi d l a ngum s c ip um
6
8 ta s su pa n of

no t m a ny t h ey came fi rs t to n o rt h H ibe r ni a
9 na man e gum . A nd pa c o ma n aer o s t on no r ? ! yb e r n ia n

t h ere as ke d t h e I r is h t h ey th e r e m igh t d well B ut

"
1 0 up , a nd pee r h aed on 6
s co tta s ac t h i ti e mo s to n
p r wuni a n . ac

th ey wo ul d n o t t h e m p e r mit fo r th ey sa i d th e I r is h
11 hi n o ld a u h e o m l yf a n, f o rii a n h i c waed o n , p a sc o tta s
 M O D E R N E N GLI S H

y ou may th o c o un s e l t e ac h kn o w
12 we c o w m a go n pe a h h wa tl e re 8
reed g e l ae r o n . We wi ta n
a no th e r i s l a nd h e re to t h e e a st ye may d we l l if
13 o p re e gl a nd h e r be e as to n .
p er g e m a go n e a rd i a n, i
gf
w il l a n y o ne y o u O pp o se s a s s is t

1 4 ge wil l ati . A nd gif h wa c ow witSs te nt, we eo w f ul tumi atS

may c on que r . T h e n fa r e d
15 p as t g e h it m ago n ge ga nga n . D a f e rd o n pa pih ta s a nd ge

ac qui re d n o r th wa r d s so uth wa r d s it h ad
16 f e rd o n pi s l a nd no r pa nwe ar d , a nd s u a nwe ar d
p h it h e f
th e B ri tis h a s b ef o re s ai d f o r th e ms e lve s
1 7 d o n b r itta s , s wa we aer cw e d o n . A nd pa p yh ta s h e o m
O b ta i n e d wives of th e I ris h th e c o n d itio n w o ul d c h o o s e th e ir
18 a b aed o n wi t ac t s c o ttum o n pa ger a d paet h i ge c ur o n h e o r a
r o ya l -kin e ve r wo man Si d e t h ey h e l d so l o ng
19 kyne -
c in n a a o n pa wit h e a l f a .
p ac t h i h e o ld o n s wa l a nge
a fte rwa r d s t h en b e fe ll it a ft e r of y e ar s t h e c o urse

20 A nd pa ge l a mp h i t i mb e ge a r a
s ytl ti a n . r in a, pas t
o f th e I r is h s o me d e a l w e n t f ro m Hi b ern ia to B r i ta in th ere
2 1 s co tta s um d ael ge wa t o f y ber n ia n o n britte ne a n d pe r l a n
l and s o me d e al con qu e re d wa s th e i r l ea d e r Reo da ca ll

22 d es s um d ae! ge e o d o n . A nd we s h e o r a h era to ga re o d a ge
cd t h is o ne th e y a re n a me d D ael r e o d i S ix
23 b a te n . Fro m pa m h eo s i nd ge n e m no d e d ael re o d i . S ix
ty w inter s ere th at C h r ist wa s bo rn G a ins Jul iu s

2 4 ti gum wi ntrum ae r p m pe a r
c i s te we re a c e nn e d , g ai ns rul i us

of th e R o ma ns caesa r with e igh ty sh i

ps so ugh t visite d )
25 ro ma na kas e re mid h und e h ta tigum s c i p um ge s o h te

B r ita i n wa s fi rs t a ffli ct e d w it h g m ri

2 6 b ryte ne .
p er h e we s ae ro s t ge s we n c e d mi d gri mmum
b a ttl e m uch of h is ar my h e l ed a str a y t h en
2 7 ge f e o h te a nd mic el ne h i s h er e s f o r l aed d e . A nd pa h e
1 a nd . T h e ma nuscr ipt h as h e r e , as fr e q ue ntl y ,
an a bb r e vi at io n fo r
“ bo
th e j
c o n un c ti o n .
2 boc led en L i te r a l ly ok -
L a ti n,
”
m e a ni ng th e
L a tin o f th e l ea rne d cl a ss es .
3 a r me nia . T h e ma nus cr ipt r ea d ing must
be a m ista ke fo r A r mo r ic a , p H r e a g a in a s
o n t h e C o ntin e nt
e .
4 oet .
,

q j
f re ue ntl y, th e co n unc t io n past is a r e vi at e d by g iving o nl y th e fi rst l e t bb
t er .
5
la ngum T h e m a nuscr i pt w ri tes la ngu but th e s tro ke o ve r th e
.
,

u i n d icate s a n a re via tio n bb 6 bee d o n T h e m an usc r ipt h a s boed o, t h e

. .

n b e i n g o m i tt e d by m i s ta k e 7 s c otta s T h e S. c o t c h i n t h e e a r l y p e r io d s
.

of E ngl ish h is to ry were th e i nh a ita nt s o f I r el a n d o r H ib e r nia b .

h fi “ q l h o l ite r a l ly h w o rds
3
p ea h wa e re E u i va l.e n t to h o w e ve r ,
a t t e

a re th o wh e th er .
3 38 M O D E R N E N GL I S H

’ ’
C h a uc e r s P a rd o ner s T al e .

( Fro m C am b r i d ge U ni v M S G G 4 2 7, fo l
. . . . . .

T hi s m an uscrip t wa s w ri tte n in th e e a rly p art of th e fif

te e n th c e ntury pr o ba bly w ithi n thirty o r fo rty y e a rs a fte r
,
’
C h a uc e r s d ea th I t w as wri tte n by a profe s si o nal c o py
.

i s t a n d is ill us tra te d by me a n s o f a n u m be r o f dr a w i n gs
re pre senting th e ch arac te rs O f T h e Ca n ter bury Ta l e s .

T h e fo ll o w i n g i s a t ran s c rip ti o n Of a l l e x c e p t th e la s t
f o ur li nes o f th e p ass age c o ntai n e d in o ur r e pro duc ti on
H e re b egynnyth th e P ard o nner h is tal e .

I n fla nd erys wh il h o m d we l l e d e a cu mp a ynye
O f yo nge fo l k th a t h aun te d yn f o l ye ,
A s ryo t, h a s a rd , s te wys , a nd ta ve rnys ,
W h e re as with h a rp y s , l utys a nd g e te r n s
y ,
T h e y d aun c e a nd l
p ye e at d ei s b o th e d a y a n d nygh t ,

A nd e te a n d d ryn k e also o v r h e re mygt ,

y
T h o ur e wh ic h e th e y d o n th e d e uyl s ac r fis
y e
W i th i nn e th a t d e uyl s templ e in c urs e d e w ys e ,
By s uper fluyte a b o mi n a bl e .

H ere o th i s b ee ngr e e te a nd so d a mp na bl e
so

T h a t it i s gre s el y f o r to h e re h e m s wer e .

O ur e b l ys s e d e l o rd i s b o d y th ey to ter e ;
H em t h o ugte th a t J e wi s r e nt e bym no t y n o ugh ,
A nd e ch e o f h em a t o th er
y s s
y n ne l o ugh .

L e tte rs which in th e M S . are in di c ate d by an a bbre vi a

tio n , us uall y str o k e a b o v e o r b el o w th e pla c e in which
a

th e l e tte r s b el o n g a re pri n te d h e re in italics

, T h e c api .

tal I o f th e firs t w o rd is p a r t o f th e d e c o ra ti o n The .

fo ll o w i n g is a li te ra l tra n s l ati o n o f thi s p a s s a ge :

I n Fl a n d ers wh il o m d we l t a co mp a ny
O f yo ung f o l k wh o p ra c tic ed h a unte d ) f o l l ,
( y
 A P PE N D I X 33 9

As ri o t , h as a rd (g a m b l i n g ) ,
b ro th e l s a nd ta ve rns ,

W h ere wi th h a r p s , l ute s a nd
g ui ta s , r
T h ey d a nc e a nd d i c e bo th d a y a nd
l
p ya at nigh t ,

A n d e a t a nd d ri n k , a l s o , o ve r th e ir mig h t ,
T h r o ugh w h i ch th e y d o th e d evil s a c ri fic e

W ith in th e d e vil s te mp l e , in c ur s ed wis e ,

By abo mina bl e s up e rfluity .

T h e ir o a t h s a re s o gr e a t a nd d a mn a bl e
T h a t i t i s gri s l y to h e a r th e m s we a r .

O ur bl e s s ed L o rd s b o d y th ey d i s me mbe r
’
( to te re ) ;
It s ee me d to th e m (H e m th o ugte ) th e J e ws r e nt h im no t

e no ugh ,

A nd e ach o f th e m at th e o th e r s s i n l a ugh e d .

A ph o netic tra ns crip ti o n of th e p a s sa g e is as fo llo ws

I n fia nd e r z h wil o m d wel e d a k ump e ni e

O f yurj e fo lk fia t h ente d in f o l i o ,
A z r io t , h a z a r d , s tewe s a nd ta ver ne s ,
h we r az wip h a r p e s , l ute s a nd ge t e r n e s ,

3 6 d ens a nd p l é at d é s b 6p d e a n d ni h t ,

a nd d ri nk Ovir h e re mih t
’
St a nd al s

u
p r h wic as d 6 n ti e d e vil s ak rifiz e
wi p i n fl a t d e vil s te m p l i n k urs e d wi z a,
” ’

bi s up e rfiuite a b o mina bl e .

d a mp n a bl e ,
’

h e r Gite s b en S6 gr et a n d 36

fia t i t i s gr esli f o r to h er h e m s were .

fir bl i s e d L e rd i s b o d i se to té re
h e m pii h t fi a t j ewi s r e n t h im n o t i nfih ,
a nd er: O f h e m a t Ofie rz s ine l fih .

T h e F i rs t P o li o of Sh a k s p e re .

( M erch a nt of V e n ic e , IV 1 1 19

T h e Firs t Fo li o of Sh aks p e re wa s prin te d in th e yea r

1 6 23 . T h e te x t of th e M er c h a nt of Veni ce in th e Fi rs t
3 40 M O D E R N E N GLI S H

F o li o, w hich w a s th e fir st c o lle c te d e diti o n o f Sh ak

s e r e s play s a nd w hi c h w a s m a d e up m ai nly fr o m e a rli e r
’

p
e di ti o n s o f th e s e p a r ate pl a ys w a s tak e n fr o m a q ua r to ,

e di ti o n p ublish e d i n th e ye a r 1 60 0 O ur p a ss a ge repre .

sen ts c on s e quen tly th e fo rm w hich prin te d li te ra ture

, ,

to o k in th e firs t q ua rte r o f th e s e v e n te e n th c en tury .

So m e o f th e sp e lli n gs ar e n o te w o rthy I n 1 1 22 ba nk . .
,

r ou t r e pr e s e n ts th e o ld e r s p e lli n g o f th e w o rd fo ll o wi n g ,

Fre n ch ba n quer o ute fr o m w hich it w a s b o rro w e d ; o ur

,

m o de rn S p elli n g ba nkr up t w as d ue t o th e des ire to i n di

c ate th e ul tim a te e ty m o l o gy o f th e s e c o n d e l e m e n t fr o m ,

L ati n r ap tus “ bro ke n ”

S ha ks p e r e pr o b ably pr o no un c e d
.
,

n o p i n th e w o rd I n 1 1 2 3 s c a l e a n d soul e a r e sp e lt d if
. .
,

fe r e ntl y b e c a us e th e re wa s a s light diffe re n c e i n pro n un ci a

ti o n gre a t e n o ugh to j us tify th e di ffer i n g o th o gra p h y but
,
'

n o t to o gr e at to m a k e th e p u n se e m fo rc e d I n M o d e rn .

E n glis h s ol e an d s oul are n o t dis tin gui sha bl e in s o und ,

a l th o th e s p elli n g s til l i n dic a te s th a t th e y a r e o f d ifie r

e nt e tym o l o gic a l o rigi n No te th e c umb e rs o m e S p e lli ng

.
,

s uch a s ke ene metta ll a x e be a r e d ogge e tc

, , ,
T h e sp e ll
, ,
.

aksp e r e s d ogg e o ffe rs a n a rgum e n t fo r

’
rn
g d o
g b,e si d e S h ,

th e m o de rn sp e ll i n g eg i n ste a d o f egg O th e r w o rd s o f .

thi s gro up h a v e un d e rg o n e th e ch an g e e a rl i e r begg l egg , ,

o r begg e l egge e tc
, ,
s impli fyi n g to beg leg e tc
.
, I n ste ad , ,
.

o f i n ex ecr a bl e l 1 2 8 m a n y e di to rs r e a d i n e x or a bl e
, .
,
N o te .

th e i n c o n sis ten t us e o f c apital l etters i n th e p as sage .

A ut o gr a p h o f M i l t o n
’
s L y cid as , 11 1 6 5 — 1 9 3
. .

T his p a ss a ge fro m M ilto n s L y ci d a s is re pr o duc e d fro m

’

a f a csimil e o f th e m a n us c rip t o f M ilto n s mi n o r p o e m s

’

pr e s e rv e d i n th e L ibra ry o f T ri ni ty C olle ge C am brid ge , .

342 1
M O D E R N E N LI S H
G
No te th e p e rs is te n c e o f n ume ro us a wk w ard a nd u
’
e c o n o mic al sp e lli n gs i n Mil to n s usa g e e g l 1 wee! , . .
, .
,

w o full ; l 3 s un c k wa trie flo ar e ; l 4 s ta rr ; l 1 0 d e ar
.
, , , .
, .
,
'

\
I 1 2 h ea r e s n uptial l ; l 1 5 s o l l e mn e ; l 2 3 c akes at
.
, , .
,
.
, , .

O n th e o the r h an d n o te h o w Milto n wi th h i s free att

, ,

tude to w a rds s p e lli n g s p e lls ph o ne tic ally w h en h e is s o

,

i nclin ed e g l 1 0 w al kt l 2 5 to uc h t ; l 2 7 stretch t ;
, . .
,
.
, .
, .
,

l 2 8 ble w to rime w ith ne w

.
, , .

I n li n e 2 yo is an a bbre vi atio n fo r y our a s in li ne 6

,
?
, ,
th
,
“
w fo r wi th i n lin e 1 4 S fo r S a i n ts an d li n e 1 7 i n?
, , ,

fo r f r om I n line 7 ye is fo r th e th e symb o l y b e i ng
.
,

us e d i n s te a d o f th e o lde r th o rn p th e O ld E n glis h r e pr , , .

se n tati ve o f th O f c o urs e Milton al w ays pro n o un s

.

this w o rd a s th e n o t a s ye as i s s o m e tim e s do ne by tn L
,

wh o are n o t a ware o f th e fa c t that th e y is m e rely a n

o rth o gra phic s ubs ti tuti o n fo r th e o ld e r p .
 B IB LI O G RAPHY

T hi s
Bibli o graphy give s th e title s o f o nl y o ne o r two
repr es entativ e w o rk s un d e r e ach h e ad T h e bo o ks n ame d .

a r e s uch a s w ill be fo un d m o s t u s e f ul to th e s tud en t

w h os e S p e ci al i n te r e s ts a r e in E ngli s h .

1 ,
G e n e ra l T r e a t i s e s on L a n g u a ge

S tro ng, L o gem a nn a nd Wh e el e r , H is tory of L a ngua ge,

N ew Y o rk , 1 89 1 . T h i s wo r k i s an a d a p ta tio n a nd

tr a nsl a tio n of P a ul
’
P r i ncip ien d er Sp ra ch ges ch i ch te
s .

Swe e t , H e nry , T h e H i s to ry of L a ngua ge , T h e M a c mil

l an CO .
, L o nd o n, J _90 0 . A O ne of th e T e m p l e P r i m e rs ;
a b r ie f b ut a uth o ri ta tive r e vie w o f th e s ub e c t
j .

2 . E n gli s h O ri gi n s and I n s ti t uti o n s

C h a d wi c k, H M unro , Th e Or igi n of th e E ngl i s h Na ti on ,

.

Ca mb ri d ge , C a mb rid ge U nive rs ity P re s s , 1 9 0 7 .

D al e, E .
, N a ti o na l L if e a nd Ch a ra cter i n th e M ir r o r o f
E a r ly E n gl is h L ite r a tur e, C a mb rid ge , C a mb rid ge
U nive rs ity P re s s , 1 9 0 7 .

G um me r e , F B . .
, G er m a n ic Or igin s , N e w Y o rk , 1 89 2 .

3 ,
G e n e r a l H i s t o ri e s of t h e E n gli s h L a n gu a g e :

L o uns bury , T . R .
, H is to ry of th e E ngli sh L a ngua ge, R e
vi se d E d iti o n , N e w Y o rk , 1901 .

E mer s o n , O F . .
, T h e H i s to r y o f th e E ngl is h L a ngua ge,
N ew Yo rk ,
1 89 7 . I n b rie f er fo r m a l so as A B r i ef
H is to ry, e tc .
,
1 9 00 .

T o l l e r, T . N .
, O utl i nes of th e H i s to ry of th e E ngl ish
L a ngua ge , N e w Y o rk , 1 9 00 .

B r a d l e y, H e nry , Th e M a king o f E ngli sh , N e w Y o rk ,

1 9 04 .
 M O DE R N E N GL IS H

J e s p er s e n , O tto , G ro wth a nd S tr uctur e o f th e E ngl is h

L a ngua ge , L e i p z ig , B G T e ub ne r , 1 9 0 5
‘

. . .

W yl d , H C . .
, Th e H i s tor i ca l S tud y f M o th er T
o o ngue , th e
New Y o r k , 1 9 0 6 . T h i s b o o k d e vo te s mo s t o f its S p ac e
to ph o n e ti c s a nd to th e ch a nge s i n th e spo ke n fo rm
o f th e l a n gua ge .

G re e n o ugh a nd K ittre d ge , Wo r d s a nd th ei r Wa ys in
E ngl is h Sp eech , N e w Y o rk ,
1901 . T h i s b o o k tr e a ts
m o s tl y of wo rd s , but i t ill us tra te s i n i ts d is c us s io ns
m a ny of th e ge ne ra l p inc ip l e s r of gr o w th in l a nguage .

4 ,
E n gl i s h G r a mm a rs

S we e t, H e nry , A N ew E ngli s h G r a mma r, two p a rts,

O x fo rd , C l ar e nd o n P r e s s , 1 89 2 , 1 8 9 8 .

M atz ne r , E d ua rd , E ngli s ch e G ra mma tik two vo l ume s ,

'

3d ed .
, T r a n s l a te d i nto E n gli s h fro m
1 8 8 0 — 1 8 85 .

a n e a rli er e d i ti o n b y C J G r e c e , L o n d o n , 1 8 74 . . .

Kal uz a , M a x , H is to r is c h e Gra mma ti k d er E ngl i s ch en

_

Sp r a ch e , two p a r ts , B erl in , E m il F el b e r , 1 9 0 6 — 1 9 0 7 .

Ho r n , W , H i s to r is ch e n eu-engl i s ch e Gr a mma tik, Str a s s

.

b urg, 1 9 08 .

Po uts ma , H , A Gr a mma r of L a te M o d er n E ngl ish , f or

.

th e us e of Co n ti nen ta l , e sp ec i a lly D utch , S tud en ts, two

p a rts , G ro ni nge n, P . N o o r d h o ff , 1 9 04 — 1 9 0 5 . T hi s

g r a m m a r i s w r i tte n i n E ngl i s h a n d i s va l ua b l e to ,

E ngli s h re a d ers f o r its l a rge numb e r o f i l l us tra tio ns

f ro m c o n te mp o r a ry E n gl is h .

A mo ng th e n ume ro us s h o r ter tre ati s e s th e f o ll o wi ng

m ay b e no te d : M o rri s , H is to r i ca l Outli n es of E ng
l is h A cci d ence Wh itn e y ,
E ssen ti a l s of E ng
l i s h Gr a mm a r ; A b bo tt , A S h a kesp ea r ia n G r a mma r;
K e l l ne r, H i s to r i ca l O utl in es of E ngl is h S ynta x ; a nd
f o r a ge n er a l d is c us s io n o f th e m e th o d s a nd ai ms i n th e
te a c h ing o f gr a mma r, s ee C a r pe nte r , B a ke r a nd Sc o tt,
T h e T ea ch i ng of E n gli s h , N e w Y o rk , L o ngma ns,
G re e n a nd CO .
, 1 9 03 .
346 M O D E R N E NGLI S H

ma nn , L o nd o n , J M D e nt . . Co .
, 1 89 9 . T h is i s an

a d a p ta tio n o f th e wo rk of P ro f e s s o r V i cto r e ntitl e d

K lein e P h on eti lq, L ei p z ig , 2 d c d , 1 9 0 1 . .

S ke a t , W W , A P r i m er of C la ssi ca l
. . a nd E ng l is h
P h i l o l ogy , O x fo rd , C l a re nd o n P re ss , 1 9 05 . T h is
b o o k tre a ts of :
E ngli s h fro m th e p o i nt o f vi e w
s o und s

o f th e r e l a ti o ns h i p o f E ngli s h to o th e r l a ngua ge s a nd

f ro m th e p o i n t o f vi e w o f E ngl i s h e tymo l o gy The .

va io us ge n
r e r a l h is to i e s a nd g r ra mma rs of th e E ng
l i s h l a ngua ge a ll tr e at of E ngl i sh s o und s mo r e or

A ttentio n may b e c a l l ed e s p e c i al l y to
l e ss f ul l y .

H C W yl d s H isto r i ca l S tud y of th e M oth er T o ngue,

’
. .

mentio ned ab o ve .
35 0 I ND E ! O F S UB J E C T S

E d w a rd , s o n o f Al fr e d , 2 8 H orsa, 2 0
F
E d wa rd th e C o nfe sso r, 2 8 , 220- 22 1 H owel l , 1 9 4
E gb er t, 2 2 H unt, L e igh , 1 32
E ly o t, Si r T h o ma s, 241 -2 42 , 2 5 2 Hybr id s, 2 72- 2 74
E ngl ish , co mp a re d w ith Ger man , 5 3 Hy ph enatio n, 1 89
54 ; as a g ra mm l
a e ss to g e ,
r n u
”

5 9 - 62 ; in M i d d l e E ngl i sh p e rio d , I d i om, 31 0—31 1

74- 75 ; a s b il ing ua l l a ng uage , 220 I m itati on , 1 2 4—139
E rasmus , 236 I nd ia n, A merica n, word s borro we d

E sp e ra nt o , 40 fro m , 2 5 8
E th er ege, Sir Ge o rge, 9 0, 2 88 I nd ian, E a s t, wor d s b o rro we d f ro m,
E ty mo l o gy , 2 6 0 - 2 6 7 25 8
B
E x ete r o ok , 26 I nd o-E urop ea n fa mil y o f l anguages ,
44- 47
Fine writi ng , 2 83—2 85 I nfiectio n , n a ture o f , 5 6— 5 9 ; i n O l d
Fo re ign p l ura l s , 2 9 6 E ng l ish p erio d , 6 2—74 ; i n M id d le
Fo rma l g ra mmar , 32 0—3 2 4 E ng l is h p e rio d , 74—83 in th e M o d
Fo x , Geo rge , 9 2 e r n E ng lis h p er io d , 83- 9 8 , 2 89 - 2 9 6 ;

Free ma n , E H , 36 , no te , 2 2 2 , no te
. . s ub s ti tutio n i n , 80- 94 ; p ro fi t a nd

Fre nch w ord s in E ng l i sh , 2 1 9 —233 ; l oss i n inflec tio n a l d e vel o p men t, 9 4

l ate borr o wing s, 2 5 3—2 5 5 9 8 ; sy nth es is and a nal y s is, 9 4- 9 6
Functio n, h ow d e te rm in e d in m o d ern c h a n ge s in mo d ern d 2 89 —2 9 7
p eri o , .

E ngl i sh , 308—3 1 3 I nkh orn ter ms , 2 42- 248

Func tio nal ch a nge d iff ere ntia tio n o f
,
Ita l ian , word s borro wed f ro m, 2 5 7—2 5 8
vo c a bul a ry b y mea n s o f , 1 9 7- 1 9 9
Fu c
n ti o n gro up ,s 3 1 3 —316 J p n u f E ngl i h in
a a , se o s ,
38
J hn n D
o so ,
r., 285
Gal l o mania , 31 Juni n m n u c ipt 2 6
a a s r ,

G s
a co i n
g ,e G eo rg ,e 2 46 —247 J ut 20 2 1
es , -

Ge nd er, 6 4 a n d no te
Ge rma n, E ng li sh b orro wings fro m, Kipl ing , R .
, 192
2 55 - 2 5 7
Gl a nik , 40 La mb, C h ar l e s , 2 78
Go eth e , 2 49 L a ng uage , h is to ry o f, 3 f unc tio n o f ,
G o o d E ngl i s h , 7 5—77, 32 5 - 334 4 a s soc ial c usto m, 5 —7 of a d e m

Gra d a tio n 1 8 6- 1 87 o cracy , 7— 8 d eg e nera tio n a n d

Gramma r d efi n e d , 2 8 6 ; c o nserva ti ve p g
r o re s s i n , 6 —7 l a ng uag e a nd
i 8 ; l o gic i n , 3 04 e d uca tio n, 8— 9 litera ry a n d sp ok e n
2 - 289
te nd e c y
n n , 7
b
30 8 ; o o k gra mm a r, 32 0- 324 l angua ge , 1 0 —1 4, 149 - 1 5 4, 32 7— 32 8 ;
univers al a nd a rtifi c i a l , 3 7—4 3
”
Grand s ty l e , 2 76 - 2 78 cl a s

G reek . 1 3—1 4, 46 , 236 s i fica ti o n o f, 44- 48 ; sy nth e ti c a nd

G ri mm J
ac ob, 50
,
a na l y tic , 9 4- 9 6 l a ws of, 1 2 3- 1 2 5
Gr imm s L a w , 5 0—5 3, 9 9
’
L a r y n x , 1 02 — 1 0 4
Gro cy n, Wi ll iam , 236 L a ti mer, W i ll ia m, 2 36
Latin , wo rd s borrowed fro m, 2 12 , 21 4
H a rd a c nut, 2 8 21 7
H arvey , G a briel , 8 7, n ote , 2 42 L atinists , 2 44
H enge st , 20 L aw i n l a ng ua ge , 5 0- 5 1 1 2 3—1 2 5, 1 5 1
H igd e n, R al ph , 2 2 4 - 334
Ho l mes, 0 W , 1 0 0
. . L ay a mo n, 22 6
 I N DE X O F S U BJ E C T S 35 1

L iaiso n, 1 48- 1 49 P ur ity in vo cab ul ary , 34, 26 9 - 2 74

Li ly , W i llia m, 2 36 P utten h a m, 247
Lina cre, Th o ma s, 236
Li terary E nglish , 32 7—328 Q uak e r s , us e o f th e e ,
92 -93

Lowell , J
R , 1 3 9 , 1 99 , 2 84
. .

Rena sc e nce , 233- 2 38

M al ay , word s fro m, 2 5 8 Reso n ance ch a mb er , 1 04- 1 05
M eta ph o r, d ifferen tiation of meaning R il ey , J .W , 1 39
.

by , 1 9 3- 19 7 R o bert o f Gl ouc es ter , 224

M il ton, 1 43, 1 6 5 , 340- 342 Ro ma ns in B
ri ta in , 1 6 —1 8 ; R oma n

M ix e d sy ntax , 31 6 - 32 0 wa l l s , 1 7 ; d e pa rt ure o f , 1 8—1 9

M o liere , 1 4 J
R usk in, oh n, 1 9 6 , 2 6 2 —2 6 3
M o re , S ir T h o m as 236 ,
R ussia n, word s fro m, 2 5 8
M uta tion pl ura l s , 6 6—6 7
Sa x oni sts, 2 44
N a sal twa ng , 1 06 Sax ons , 20- 2 1
Na sh e , T h o ma s , 2 42 Sa x o n sh o re , 1 9
N ew s pa p er E ngli sh , 2 84 Sc a nd inavian word s i n E ngl ish , 21 7
N or ma n C o nq uest, 28—35 origi n o f 219
N orma ns, 29 ; l o s s o f N o rm and y , Sci entifi c vocab ul ary , 2 5 9 —2 6 0, 2 78
30 ; influenc e o f C o nq ue st, 34—35 ; 2 79
e ff e c t up on voca b ul ary , 2 2 1 - 2 22 Sco tt, Sir Wal ter, 2 28- 229
S eco nd sh i fting o f c o nso nants , 5 4
0 d ifferen t pronunc ia tio ns o f, 1 34
, Sh all a nd wi l l , 29 3 - 2 9 5
O bsc ure c o mp o und s , 1 42 - 148 , 1 89 —19 1 Sh ak sp ere , 1 3 , 9 0, 1 40 , 1 6 1 , 1 9 4, 200 ,
O l d E nglis h , use o f th e term, 2 2 2 44, 249 , 2 87, 3 39 - 340
Orga nic sound ch a nges , 1 41 - 1 5 4 S id ney , Sir P h il i p , 244
O rmul um , 226 Sl a ng , 1 9 9 - 2 1 1
So cia l c usto m , s peec h as, 6 —7, 1 24- 1 2 5 ,
P arl iament, fir st op ene d with E ngl ish 1 54 - 332
s pe ech , 3 3 So und s , th e stud y o f,
9 9 -1 00 ; pro
P aris , un iversity o f, 3 1 d uc ti on o f, 1 01 - 1 0 6 ; vo ice d a nd
P a th etic fal l acy , 1 96 vo ic el ess, 1 06- 1 07 ; vowe l a nd c o n
Penn sy lva nia Ger ma n , 140 1 0 7—1 0 9 ; a l ph ab et a n d
“

s ona nt,

P e rio d s o f Engl ish , 3 5 , 5 4—5 5 sound s , 1 1 3—1 1 5 ; ch a ng es o f, 1 22

Pettie , G , 2 48 a nd n o te
. 1 39
Ph il ipp ines , E n gl ish in, 3 8 a n d no te ; S p anish , wor d s from , 2 5 8
w ord s b orro we d fro m , 2 5 8 Spee ch a nd r ace , 1 5
P h o n etic s, d e fine d , 1 01 ; p h oneti c al S pell ing reform , 1 6 7- 1 82
p h a b e t a n d tr a n sc r i p ti o n ,
1 1 5- 1 22
,
S pencer , H erb ert, 2 70
1 74- 1 76 ; p h o n e tic l a ws , 1 2 3- 12 4 Sp l it i n fi niti ve , 2 98 -
3 00
Pid gin E ngl is h , 3 8 S ta n d a r d E n gl i sh ,
1 5 4-
1 66, 32 5- 3 32

Pol y sy ll ab ic h umo r, 2 77- 2 78 Subj unctive , use o f, 2 9 0

P o pul a r E ngl is h , 76 , 1 5 0 - 1 5 4 , 32 7 S ub s titutio n, 80- 9 4
B
Pray e r o ok , 2 5 0 S uffi x es , d evel o pment o f mea ni ng i n,
Printing , i nfl ue nce o f on sp el l ing , 1 72 1 9 2- 1 9 3
Pro nunc ia tio n, s ta nd ard o f, 1 5 4- 1 66 S winb urne, co upl e ts i n h i s pr o s e , 2 5 2
Pr o portio nal e l e men ts of th e E ngl ish
vo cab ul ary , 2 6 7—2 69 T al k ing th ro ugh th e n os e, 1 06
Pro vi nc ial is m i n speec h , 1 41 T enny son , A l fre d , 1 64
35 2 IND E! O F S U BJ E C T S

Teutonic l ang ua ge s , 48- 5 0 Vo rt ig e r n, 20

T il ly , Wil l ia m ,
236 Vo we l s , c l a ss i fication of , 1 1 1-1 12
T re visa , J oh n , 224- 225
Weak e 1 20 ,
”

Wh ite R G 1 32
,
. .
,

d iff erent p ro nunciations

11 , of, 1 36- 1 37 Will iam th e Conqueror, 2 6 , 2 8- 2 9 ;
Urquh art, Sir T h oma s, 40 22 1 —222
Wil so n T h o ma s 2 43
, ,

Wo rd a cc e nt 5 0 1 99
-
, ,

Va n b rugh , 90 Wo rd -pa irs i n E ngl ish 2 50 2 5 3 ,

-

V e rce ll i B ook , 26 Wo rd s s tud y of 1 83 1 84 ; c rea tion

, ,
-

V erg il , 2 34 o f, 1 84—1 86 ; mea n ing s 1 86 - 2 1 1 ; o f,

V oc ab ul a ry , el e me nt o f E ngli sh , 2 67 b o rrow i ng o f , 2 1 1 —2 6 0 ; p ro t an d fi
2 68 ; p urity o f , 2 69 - 2 72 l o ss i n b o rro wi ng, 2 75 8 5 ord er
-2 3

V i l
o i c e d a n d vo ce ss
e s o un d s ,
1 06- 10
7 o f, 2 97- 30 1
V ol a puk , 40 Worl d E ngl ish , 3 6-40
35 4 IN D E X O F WO R D S

c old , 54 d ewer a d o , 2 58 f ema l e 5 8 ,

c o l l is , d esser t, 2 5 4
52 f estoon 25 4 ,

co l o ne l, d i d o es, 2 09
232 fia n cee 227 254 , ,

c o mp o und , 19 9 d ie, 2 1 9 fi e r ce 2 02 ,

c o nd i g n , d ine , 231
‘
282
‘
j if ocl o ck 255 ,

constr uc t, 2 40 , note d i nner , 23 1 finger 32 ,

conto r tio n i st, 2 74 d ip sey, 1 90 finish 2 5 7 ,

c ontr a c t, 19 d o, 5 4 f ior d 2 58 ,

co nve r s a ti o na li s t, 2 74 d o ck, 2 5 8 fir e 200 ,

coque t, 254 d og , 32 , 1 34- 1 35 fix 21 1 no te

, ,

cor a cl e, 21 4 d og-c a r t, 2 5 5 fizz 1 85,

c or nus , 51 d ogma , 2 6 4 fla nnel 21 4 ,

c o tto l e n e 2 60 D onca ste r , 1 8 fl oe , 2 5 8

,

co ur a
g e, 2 33 , 2 5 4 d oubt, 2 29 flor ist 274 ,

c our se 2 2 9
, d o wn, 2 1 3 fl o w e r 2 29 ,

cour t, 232 d r if ten, 2 5 7 flub 2 0 9 ,

cour tesy, 230 d r oo l , 20 8 flunk 2 08 ,

c our tli n ess , 2 31 d r o wn, 2 1 9 f ocus 2 9 6 ,

cousin, 232 d r uggist, 2 74 fo lklo r is t, 2 74

co wa r d , 233 d r ui d , 2 13 f oot 5 1 ,

c owr
y, 2 5 7 d ry, 2 1 3 _
f oo tba ll 2 5 5 ,

cr a ve , 2 1 8 d sch unge l , 25 7 f o ur -i n h a nd -
, 2 57
cr a yfish , 1 9 1 d uch ess , 232 f oyer 2 2 7 ,

cr eed , 2 1 5 d uke , 2 32 f r esco 2 5 8 ,

cr i cke t, 2 5 5 d uma , 2 5 8 fro ,

21 9
cr ite r io n , 29 6 f r ui t 2 29 ,

cr o ml ec h , 2 1 4 ea r , 195 f ungus 264 ,

cr o o k, 2 08 e a se , 229
e d u ca ti o n a l i s t, 2 74 a l o r e, 2 14
cr oque t, 2 5 7 g
c rown , 2 32 e i th er , n e i th er , 1 38 ga ntl et, 2 5 8
cr y, 229 e lega n t, 20 3 gao l , 1 79
culi n a r y, 1 63 e ligi bl e , 2 82 g ap e,
2 1 9
cup ,
2 16 e l o cuti o nis t, 2 74 ga r age , 2 5 5
c up boa r d , 19 0 e nd or se , 2 82 ga r wa s, 2 56
e ngi ne, 22 9 z
ga ette , 2 5 4
d a n ce, 2 32 E ngla nd , 2 1 , 22 , note g enius, 2 64
d a ta , 2 96 E ngli sh , 2 2 , n o te g enr e , 22 7
g en tl ema n, 2 5 7
'

d a tto , 2 58 en tr ee , 2 5 4

d ea d , 5 4 essa y, 2 57 g ey s er ,
2 58
d e af , 5 4, 1 37—1 38 ex cur sus, 2 64 i
g gn er l y, 2 61
d ea l , 5 4 ex emp l a r y, 2 82 gi ngh a m, 2 5 8
d ea th , 3 2 E x e ter , 1 8 gins eng, 2 58
d ebt, 1 78 , 229 e x i t, 2 6 4 g l en, 2 1 4
d e but, 2 5 4 e x tr a , 2 64 Gl oucester , 1 8
d ebuta nte , 227 g lucose , 2 60
d ece m, 5 1 goa l, 2 5 7
’

f a ce , 2 29
d emi ta sse, 2 5 4 f a ir
g o lf , 2 5 7
2 0 3— 2 04
,

d enou e men t, 2 2 7 f a th er 5 1 232

'

on , 2 5 8
, , g g
d e ns , d en tis, 5 1 f ea st, 2 31 g o o d -b
y, 1 43-
144
d entist, 274 f el l, 5 1 gossip , 1 90
I ND E X o r WO R D S 35 5

ma ch e te, 2 59
ma cki ntosh , 2 5 7
ma d a m, 2 32
M a gd a len , 1 45
ma gna nimity, 2 42
m a i d se r va n t, 5 8
maj estd ts-bel e i d igung, 25 6
ma nd a r in, 2 5 8
ma nge l wur z el , 2 5 5
ma ni l a , 2 5 8
ma ns er va nt, 5 8
ma n tea u, 2 5 4
ma r qui s, 2 32
ma ster , 232
ma ta d or , 2 5 8
ma tr o n , 1 64
ma ttock, 2 1 3
ma tur i ty, 2 42
me nu, 2 5 4
m er cy , 2 28
meter , 2 1 6
mil e , 2 1 6
mi ll , 2 1 6
mischi ef , 2 65
mistr ess, 2 32
moccasi n, 2 5 8
moll ycod d l e , 20 6
monger , 2 1 2
monist, 2 73
mo r gue, 32
mosey, 209
moth er , 2 32
move , 2 29
muckr a ker , 2 06
musi c a l e, 2 54
mutton, 22 8

n ap ki n , 2 31
n a tion , 2 32
'

n ee , 254
n i ec e ,
2 32
n ep h e w, 23 2
ni ce, 202
n on c omp os mentis, 209
35 6 I ND E X O F WO RDS

p la nk, 2 09 sa d , 19 5
p ogr om, 2 5 8 sa ga , 2 58
p onch e , 2 5 5 s a nd wi ch , 255
p o od l e , 255 sap 54
,

p op , 1 85 sa uer kr a ut, 2 55
o a si s , 1 64 p o r k, 2 2 8 sa vi or , 2 32
o bli vi ous, 2 81 p or ter , 2 5 7 sca nt, 2 19
o c top us , 1 63 p or tr a y, 2 32 s ca r e , 2 19
odd , 2 19 s ch a
p o ta to , 2 5 8 f ; 54
O d i um, 2 64 p ound , 2 1 2 sch e ck, 257
o le o ma r
ga r in e, 2 60 p o wer , 2 2 8 , 232 sch e d u l e , 1 63
o me n , 2 64 sch i e ben
p r a yer , 2 32 , 54
o nus , 2 64 p r ea ch , 2 32 fi 54
s ch t

on x ,
y 2 64 p r e d i ca ment, 2 81 sch l af en , 54
op er a , 2 58 p r emium, 2 64 s chl ip s, 25 7
op ium, 2 6 4 p r es en t, 1 99 s ch m a ck, 257
o ra n
gouta ng , 2 5 8 p r e tz el , 2 5 5 s ci en tist, 2 74
o r ch a r d , 1 9 0 p r i es t, 21 5 s cr ap e , 21 9
or a n, 215 p r i nce, 232 seemly, 219
g
oust, 229 164 s e ig e , 232
p r ogr ess,
o ver , 54 p r o n un ci a m ento, 259 s er g e a n t, 2 32
ox , 2 28 p ubl i cist, 2 74 se r i es , 26 4
p ug, 1 9 7 s ervi c e , 2 32
p un ch , 25 7 sh a l e , 255
a la ce 2 54 sh a l l a nd wi ll , 2 93- 2 95
p
a nn e u e t, 22 5 sh a mr o ck, 2 14
p g
p a r esis, 1 66 qua r t z ,
255 sh eep , 5 4 , 2 28

sh il l el a gh , 2 1 4
p ass, 2 2 9
a s to r , 2 6 4 r a ci a l ,
2 73 s h ip , 5 4
p
'

r a di um, 2 5 9 s h o r t, 2 08
p a str y, 2 31
r a g la n , 2 57 sh o ve , 5 4
p a te r , 5 1
si l ve r tip , 1 88
p a th , 1 3 1 - 1 3 4
j
r a a h, 2 58
r a ns a ck, 21 9 si mm e r , 1 85
p a tr on , 1 6 4
p au p er , 2 6 4 r ea l m, 2 32 si r , 2 32

p e a c e , 2 28 , 2 32 r e con ce n tr a d o , 2 59 si s te r , 232
r e cond i te , 166 sit,
p ea ch , 20 5 54
r ed i ngo te , si tua te, 2 40 ,
p e ck, 2 2 9 2 5 5 , 2 57 n o te .

p e l lis, 5 1 r ega l , 2 73 sizz l e , 1 85

p e mmi ca n , 2 58 r eko r d , 25 7 ske d a d d l e , 2 09
p er e mp to r y, 1 6 3 r e li c, 232 s ki , 258
p erf e ct, 1 77 rhu m, 2 5 5 s ki d o o , 2 09
p erf ume, 1 9 9 r i nd , 153 ski l l , 2 19
p h enomen a , 2 96 r i tz en, 54 s kin, 2 19
r i ve r ,
p i a n o, 2 5 8 2 29 s kip p e r , 2 58
p ibr o ch , 2 1 4 r oa s t, 231 skul l , 2 19
p iquenique, 2 5 5 r obber , 2 57 sk ,
y 21 9
p l a i d , 2 14 r osbi f , 2 55 s la ng, 2 57
p la te, 231 r o tten , 219
p l ea , 2 32 r oya l , 2 32
p l e a d , 2 32 r ap p e e , 2 58