LWT - Food Science and Technology 59 (2014) 486e494

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

LWT - Food Science and Technology

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/lwt

Physical quality and in vitro starch digestibility of bread as affected by

addition of extracted malva nut gum
Anchalee Srichamroen*
Department of Agro-Industry, Faculty of Agriculture, Natural Resources and Environment, Naresuan University, Phitsanulok Province 65000, Thailand

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Malva nut gum (MNG) was extracted by alkaline solution. The previous studies showed that the extract
Received 28 June 2012 had viscosity and gelling properties as well as inhibited a-amylase activity in starch solution 1.5e2.0
Received in revised form folds higher than that of original malva nut gum. This research was aimed to investigate the a-amylase
14 April 2014
inhibitory effect of alkaline-extracted MNG in solid food and to determine physical properties of MNG-
Accepted 24 April 2014
containing bread. The scanning electron microscopy of in vitro digestibility with a-amylase of MNG-
Available online 4 May 2014
containing breads showed less porosity and more undigested starch granules remained intact with
the matrix compared to control. This finding was consistent with the reduction of glucose (33e40%) and
Keywords:
Malva nut gum
maltose (23e39%) levels compared to that of control after a-amylase digestion for 180 min in a dialysis
Bread system. The results showed that extracted MNG significantly (p < 0.05) increased loaf volume, and
Digestibility moisture content by 1.5e12%, and 8.2e12.8%, respectively compared to that of control. Addition of
Dialysis extracted MNG in bread formulation significantly reduced moisture loss and firmness of the bread crumb
Scanning electron microscopy after storage for three days.
Ó 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction containing galactomannan compared to wheat bread without gal-

actomannan (Brennan, Blake, Ellis, & Schofield, 1996; Slaughter,
Increased postprandial plasma glucose during 2 h after meal of Ellis, Jackson, & Butterworth, 2002). Other studies used guar gum,
type 2 diabetic subjects (T2D) is associated with the incidence of locust bean gum, and xanthan gum reported increasing the weight
cardiovascular disease (Ceriello, 2005; Heine & Dekker, 2002). A of baked products, improving dough development (Rosell, Rojas, &
clinical goal of treating diabetic subjects is to decrease postprandial Benedito, 2001), increasing gas retention of dough, improving
hyperglycemia and cardiovascular risk factors. Diets play a role in texture of crumb and crust by controlling moisture retention
preventing the rapid rise of plasma glucose levels in the post- (Huttner & Arendt, 2010). However, these results are not consistent
prandial state. Viscous fibers have been well-known to reduce in some studies. Addition of b-glucan in bread formulation
postprandial blood glucose concentrations in humans and animals contributed to a reduced loaf volume and increased crumb firmness
(Anderson, Akanji, & Randles, 2001). It was proposed that the fully compared to control wheat bread (Gaosong & Vasanthan, 2000;
hydrated chains of soluble fibers diminish the contact between Gill, Vasanthan, Ooraikul, & Rossnagel, 2002; Symons & Brennan,
glucose molecules and small intestinal mucosal cells therefore 2004). Addition of hydroxypropylmethylcellulose, a hydrocolloid
reduce the rate of digestion and absorption of carbohydrate that forms thermoreversible gel networks in baked products,
(Blackburn, Redfern, & Jarjis, 1984; Rainbird, Low, & Zebrowska, increased crumb firmness when added at levels higher than 1.5 kg/
1984; Torsdottir, Alpsten, Anderson, & Einansson, 1989). 100 kg starcheflour blend basis (Sabanis & Tzia, 2011).
Addition of hydrocolloid to enhance functional properties of Malva nut fruit (Scaphium scaphigerum (G. Don) Guib. et Planch)
bread has been investigated by increasing number of researchers is native to the South East Asia and China. In Thailand, people have
(Woolnough, Monro, Brennan, & Bird, 2008). These authors re- used the mucilaginous substance of the seeds as traditional medi-
ported a lower rate of in vitro starch digestibility of bread cine for laxative benefits. My laboratory has succeeded in produc-
ing dietary fibers extracted from malva nut seeds. The extract
contains total dietary fiber 80 g/100 g, protein 2 g/100 g, ash 7 g/
100 g (Srichamroen & Chavasit, 2011a). Malva nut gum (MNG)
* Tel.: þ66 55 962746; fax: þ66 55 962703.
E-mail address: [email protected]. extracted with alkaline solution had carboxylic bonds with the

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2014.04.046
0023-6438/Ó 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
 A. Srichamroen / LWT - Food Science and Technology 59 (2014) 486e494 487

reduction of galacturonic acid contents. This is correlated with the center of the loaf. Specific volume was calculated by dividing loaf
increased storage moduli (G0 ) of alkaline-extracted gum with the volume by weight.
value being higher than that of water-extracted MNG. The previous
study also showed the a-amylase inhibitory effect of alkaline- 2.4. Moisture content and water activity
extracted MNG in starch solution (Srichamroen & Chavasit,
2011b). The alkaline-extracted MNG is new to scientific report. It Moisture content of bread crumb was determined by heating
is interesting to investigate the ability of MNG to inhibit a-amylase samples in an oven at 105  C for 12 h. Three bread slices were cut
activity in solid matrix and to determine the effect of extracted from the central loaf and a crumb was taken from the centre of each
MNG on physical properties of bread. slice and torn into small pieces for moisture determination. Water
activity of bread crumb was measured at 25  C using a Novasina
2. Materials and methods AWC200 water activity meter (Axair AG, Pfäffikon, Switzerland).

2.1. Materials 2.5. Crumb firmness

Malva nut seeds harvested during March and April in 2010 were The crumb firmness measurement was performed with a QTS
obtained from local markets in the East of Thailand. Malva nut gum Brookfield Texture Analyser (Middleboro, MA, USA). Three bread
was extracted in the laboratory at Naresuan University slices were cut from the central loaf. The central part of each slice
(Srichamroen & Chavasit, 2011a). Briefly, the seeds were ground was cut into cubes (2  2  2 cm) and subjected to one compression
(0.5 mm mesh size) and dispersed in distilled water at a ratio of test. The sample was compressed to 40% original height at a
1:100 (w/v) and placed in a boiling water bath for 1.5 h. The slurry compression load of 25 kg with a cross-head speed for 60 mm/min.
was then cooled to room temperature, and added with NaOH to a
final concentration of 0.05, 0.1, or 0.2 mol/L, then treated with ab- 2.6. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM)
solute ethanol at a ratio of 1:1 (v/v). Precipitate was removed to
recover MNG. The gum was adjusted to pH 7.4 and dried in hot air Bread crumb was cut into fine pieces with a blade in order to
oven at 60  C. All of extracted MNGs were ground to pass through a create a clean fracture surface to observe in the scanning electron
100 mm sieve before use. microscope (LEO model 1455 VP, LEO Electron Microscopy Ltd.,
All chemicals, pepsin and a-amylase used in this study were of Cambridge, England). Sample was mounted on an aluminum
analytical grade and purchased from Sigma Chemical Co. (St. Louis sample holder (12 mm diameter) with double sided conductive
MO, USA). Dialysis membrane (molecular weight cutoff of 12,000) carbon tape and a line of carbon paint was painted around the base
was obtained from Membrane Filtration Products Inc. (Seguin of the sample to improve conductivity from the top of the seed to
Texas, USA). the taped surface. The sample was then sputter coated with gold
(Sputter Coater Model SC 7620, Quorum Technologies Ltd., UK) and
2.2. Bread preparation placed in the SEM chamber for examination and photographed
using a 10 kV of electron beam-accelerating voltage.
Wheat bread, called control bread, consisted of 60 g wheat flour,
1.5 g dried yeast, 3.5 g soybean oil, 0.5 g salt, 0.5 g sugar, and 34 g 2.7. In vitro digestibility of starch of the breads
water. Because of high water binding capacity of extracted MNG
(Srichamroen & Chavasit, 2011a), water level of MNG-containing To simulate the hydrolysis reaction in human stomach, pepsin
bread formulation had to be adjusted in order to avoid underde- (5.75 units/g starch, Sigma Chemical Co., St. Louis MO, USA) was
veloped gluten network due to increased dietary fiber content. added into 1 mol/L sodium phosphate buffer solution (pH 6.9)
Previous research showed that MNG-containing bread should have which contained fine pieces of bread equivalent to 40 g of wheat
an additional 6 g of water when MNG was used 1.7 g/100 g flour. flour (Symons & Brennan, 2004). The mixture was adjusted to pH
Extracted MNG was boiled to fully hydrate and cooled to room 1.5 (with HCl) at 37  C for 30 min. The pH of mixture was readjusted
temperature prior to be added into the mixture of bread formula- to pH 6.9 (with NaOH) prior to addition of porcine pancreatic a-
tion. Dough was fermented at 40  C and 90% relative humidity for amylase (110 units/g starch, Sigma Chemical Co., St. Louis MO, USA).
2 h in the chamber of incubator (ShelLab model TC2323, Cornelius The mixture was transferred to a dialysis bag against 250 mL of
OR, USA), after which they were kneaded and divided into 210 g deionized water in erlenmeyer flask, and stirred at 37  C in a water
portions and put in a bakery stainless steel tin (19 cm length, 8 cm bath shaker. Dialysate (2 mL of deionized water in erlenmeyer flask)
width, 8 cm height). Breads were baked in an air oven (Kluay Nam was collected after 15, 30, 60, 120, and 180 min in order to deter-
Thai Trading Group Co., Ltd., Bangkok, Thailand) at 170  C for mine glucose and maltose contents.
20 min. After baking, breads were cooled at room temperature for
1 h before analyses. For the study of effect of storage on physical 2.8. Sugar determination
properties of bread, bread loaf was kept in a polypropylene bag at
4  C to prevent mold. After certain time of storage (on days 1, 2 and Glucose and maltose contents in the dialysate were measured by
3) bread loaf in a food-grade polypropylene bag (Goldenpack Co., using HPLC system (Shimadzu, Kyoto, Japan). The dialysate (2 mL)
Chonburi, Thailand) was transferred to room temperature before was filtered through a 0.45 mm filter and a portion (10 mL) of filtrate
further analyses. The reason to choose three days of storage was to was injected into the HPLC column (InertsilÒ NH2 5 mm, dimension
imitate the use of bread in a local hospital store for diabetic 4.6  250 mm). The mobile phase was CH3CN/H2O:75/25 at flow
patients. rate 1.0 mL/min, and 40  C. The HPLC was performed using a
refractive index detector with detection limit of 0.01 mmol/L.
2.3. Loaf volume and specific volume
2.9. Statistical analysis
Loaf volume was determined by rapeseed displacement ac-
cording to AACC approved Method 10-05 (AACC, 2000). Loaf height All experiments were performed in three replications. Results
was determined using calibrated calipers which measured from the were presented as the mean  SE. Statistical analysis was
488 A. Srichamroen / LWT - Food Science and Technology 59 (2014) 486e494

performed by using SPSS version 15.0 for window. Repeated Mea- 3. Results
surement ANOVA was used for sequenced periodical studies, fol-
lowed by StudenteNewmaneKeuls (SNK) test as a post-hoc 3.1. General appearance
analysis to detect any significant differences among the groups. A p-
value < 0.05 was considered statistical significance. For interval MNG-containing breads showed qualitatively large and small
periodical study, one way ANOVA was used followed by SNK at p- open crumb cells more than that of control (Fig. 1). Bread con-
value < 0.05. taining 0.5 g/100 g MNG showed mixtures of big and small gas cells.

Fig. 1. Slices of control and MNG-containing breads. (A) control bread; (B) bread containing 0.5 g/100 g MNG extracted with 0.05 mol/L NaOH; (C) bread containing 1 g/100 g MNG
extracted with 0.05 mol/L NaOH; (D) bread containing 0.5 g/100 g MNG extracted with 0.1 mol/L NaOH; (E) bread containing 1 g/100 g MNG extracted with 0.1 mol/L NaOH; (F)
bread containing 0.5 g/100 g MNG extracted with 0.2 mol/L NaOH; (G) bread containing 1 g/100 g MNG extracted with 0.2 mol/L NaOH.
 A. Srichamroen / LWT - Food Science and Technology 59 (2014) 486e494 489

Table 1 3.3. Moisture content and water activity of baked breads

Physical properties of control and MNG-containing breads.

Bread Height (cm) Loaf volume Specific volume Addition of extracted MNGs in bread formulation significantly
(mL) (mL/g) increased moisture content by 8.2e12.8% of control bread, except
Control 7.73  0.03a 700  2.90g 3.80  0.06b for bread containing 0.5 g/100 g MNG extracted with 0.2 mol/L
MNG extracted with 0.05 mol/L NaOH NaOH which increased moisture content by 3.4% of control
0.5 g/100 g concentration 6.53  0.08d 770  1.15b 4.20  0.06a (Table 2).
1.0 g/100 g concentration 7.03  0.14c 742  1.53d 4.13  0.03a
After 24 h of storage at 4  C, the moisture content of control
MNG extracted with 0.1 mol/L NaOH
0.5 g/100 g concentration 6.60  0.02d 720  2.89e 3.60  0.06c bread was lost by 6%, whereas moisture content of MNG-containing
1.0 g/100 g concentration 7.40  0.05b 710  1.73f 3.56  0.09c breads was lost by 1.6e6.0% (Table 2). The moisture content of
MNG extracted with 0.2 mol/L NaOH control bread on day 2 was 9.4% lower than that of day 0. While the
0.5 g/100 g concentration 6.76  0.06d 785  2.89a 4.20  0.01a
moisture content of all MNG-containing breads on day 2 ranged
1.0 g/100 g concentration 7.06  0.03c 750  2.77c 4.16  0.03a
between 3.0 and 7.3% lower than that of day 0. After 3 days of
Data present as mean  S.E. of three independent replicates. storage, the control had significantly lowest moisture content
aeg
different letters following means within the same column indicate a significant
compared to MNG-containing breads.
difference at the p < 0.05 level.
The water activity of control bread at day 0 was 0.946, while
MNG-containing breads had water activity level ranging from 0.950
to 0.964 (data not shown). After 3 days of storage, the water activity
While 1 g/100 g MNG containing bread showed big gas cells with of control was 0.937. Water activity values of MNG-containing
fewer amounts of small gas cells. breads did not significantly change from day 0 of each formula-
MNG-containing breads had significantly lower height than did tion. These results were in agreement with that of breads con-
control (Table 1). Addition of 0.5 g/100 g MNG in bread formulation taining other hydrocolloids which had little change of water
decreased the height of baked bread by 12e15% of control. While activity between fresh and older crumb (Abu-Ghoush et al., 2008;
the reduction in bread height was 4e9% with the addition of 1 g/ Czuchajowska, Pomeranz, & Jeffers, 1989).
100 g MNGs in bread formulation.
3.4. Crumb firmness

3.2. Loaf volume and specific volume Fresh MNG-containing bread significantly increased crumb
firmness by 13e16% of control (Fig. 2). Although fresh MNG-
Addition of 0.5 g/100 g alkaline-extracted MNGs in bread containing bread had higher firmness than that of control, the
formulation increased loaf volume by 3e12% of control, while increased rate of firmness after storage of MNG-containing bread
incorporation of 1 g/100 g MNG in the bread resulted in 1.5e7% was much lower than that of control. The low rate of increased
increase in loaf volume compared to the control (Table 1). MNG- firmness of MNG-containing breads was associated with decreased
containing breads had significantly higher specific volume loss of moisture content.
compared to that of control, except for bread containing MNGs After 24 h of storage at 4  C, the firmness of control bread was
extracted with 0.1 mol/L NaOH which had the lowest loaf volume increased by three folds, while the firmness of MNG-containing
among MNG-containing breads (Table 1). Specific volume involves breads was increased by 1.05e1.5 folds (Fig. 2). The firmness of
both loaf weight and loaf volume. Weights of MNG-containing control bread on day 2 and day 3 of storage was much increased
breads were not much different, thus loaf volume was a factor more than that of MNG-containing breads. The slope coefficient of
affecting on specific volume. The low specific volume of 0.1 mol/L increased firmness of control bread was 8.2 (r ¼ 0.92). While the
NaOH extracted MNG-containing bread might be explained by the firmness of all MNG-containing breads on day 2 and day 3 of
different peak of spectral FT-IR pattern at 898 and 823 cm1 (CeH storage was gradually increased with slope coefficient ranged be-
and CeC bond, respectively) which was intensely found in 0.1 mol/L tween 2.2 and 3.2 for 0.5 g/100 g MNG-containing breads and 2.7e
NaOH extracted MNG (Srichamroen & Chavasit, 2011a). I could 3.9 for 1 g/100 g MNG-containing MNG breads (r ¼ 0.85e0.95). At
speculate that MNG extracted with 0.1 mol/L NaOH had high water day one and beyond all MNG-containing breads had softer crumb
holding capacity which led to slightly disturb expansion of gluten than did control bread. Specifically, crumb firmness of control was
network and reduced loaf volume. 1.6e2.1 folds higher than that of MNG-containing breads.

Table 2
Moisture contents of control and MNG-containing breads during three day storage.

Bread Moisture content (g/100 g)

Day 0 Day 1 Day 2 Day 3

Control 40.44  0.86b 37.86  0.18e 36.62  0.31c 36.43  0.22c

MNG extracted with 0.05 mol/L NaOH
0.5 g/100 g concentration 43.78  0.41a 42.00  0.17bc 42.48  0.27a 41.93  0.23a
1.0 g/100 g concentration 45.61  0.31a 42.96  0.08a 42.27  0.14a 42.16  0.16a
MNG extracted with 0.1 mol/L NaOH
0.5 g/100 g concentration 43.98  0.56a 41.50  0.28cd 41.25  0.30b 41.52  0.31a
1.0 g/100 g concentration 45.47  0.29a 42.50  0.28ab 41.00  0.23b 41.40  0.26a
MNG extracted with 0.2 mol/L NaOH
0.5 g/100 g concentration 41.81  0.42b 41.10  0.21d 40.61  0.18b 40.11  0.22b
1.0 g/100 g concentration 44.39  0.31a 42.30  0.17ab 41.24  0.14b 41.57  0.29a

Data present as mean  S.E. of three independent replicates.

aee
different letters following means within the same column indicate a significant difference at the p < 0.05 level.
490 A. Srichamroen / LWT - Food Science and Technology 59 (2014) 486e494

Fig. 2. Changes in crumb firmness of control bread and MNG-containing breads during three day storage. Symbols: control; 0.5 g/100 g of 0.05 M NaOH MNG;
0.5 g/100 g of 0.1 M NaOH MNG; 0.5 g/100 g of 0.2 M NaOH MNG; 1 g/100 g of 0.05 M NaOH MNG; 1 g/100 g of 0.1 M NaOH MNG;
1 g/100 g of 0.2 M NaOH MNG. Data present as mean of three independent replicates.

Table 3
Maltose contents in dialysate (mmol/L) of in vitro digestion in a bread e a-amylase-dietary fiber system.

Bread Maltose content in dialysate (mmol/L)

15 min 30 min 60 min 120 min 180 min

a a a a
Control 4.1  0.05 4.3  0.13 4.8  0.10 4.9  0.05 5.3  0.15a
MNG extracted with 0.05 mol/L NaOH
0.5 g/100 g concentration 2.6  0.03b 2.8  0.05b 2.9  0.10c 3.1  0.03d 3.3  0.09c
1.0 g/100 g concentration 2.5  0.07b 2.6  0.03b 2.8  0.07c 3.0  0.01d 3.2  0.07c
MNG extracted with 0.1 mol/L NaOH
0.5 g/100 g concentration 2.6  0.01b 2.7  0.10b 3.0  0.15bc 3.5  0.07bc 3.7  0.05b
1.0 g/100 g concentration 2.5  0.05b 2.7  0.05b 2.9  0.10bc 3.4  0.01c 3.6  0.01b
MNG extracted with 0.2 mol/L NaOH
0.5 g/100 g concentration 2.7  0.07b 2.8  0.05b 3.3  0.13b 3.7  0.18b 4.0  0.05b
1.0 g/100 g concentration 2.5  0.13b 2.7  0.03b 3.0  0.10bc 3.5  0.15bc 3.8  0.18b

Data present as mean  S.E. of three independent replicates.

aed
different letters following means within the same column indicate a significant difference at the p < 0.05 level.

3.5. In vitro digestibility 46% of control (Table 4). Maltose and glucose levels of 1 g/100 g
MNG-containing breads were slightly lower than that of 0.5 g/100 g
Before food reaches the small intestine, enzymatic digestion MNG-containing breads although there was no statistical signifi-
with pepsin and acidic condition in the stomach are factors cance (p > 0.05). At the end of study period (at 180 min), MNG-
effecting the structure of food matrices. To simulate the condition containing breads showed significantly lower amounts of maltose
of gastrointestinal tract, the experimental design was set up to use (by 23e39%) and glucose (by 33e40%) than did control bread.
pepsin and acidic condition for 30 min before applying a-amylase
in a dialysis system. Generally, pepsin cleaves peptide bonds of
3.6. Scanning electron microscopy
proteins to form a range of shorter peptides and amino acids
(Brownlee, 2011), therefore the maltose and glucose levels detected
The scanning electron microscopy of fresh control bread showed
in a dialysis system were derived from a-amylase cleavage.
two types of starch granules, spherical and oval shapes, protruding
After digestion with a-amylase in a dialysis system for 15 min,
from gluten matrix (Fig. 3). In contrast, fresh MNG-containing breads
MNG-containing breads showed significantly reduced amounts of
showed smooth surface with starch granule adhesion in the gluten
maltose by 38% of control (Table 3) and decreased glucose by 37e
matrix. Among MNG-containing breads, breads containing MNG

Table 4
Glucose contents in dialysate (mmol/L) of in vitro digestion in a bread e a-amylase-dietary fiber system.

Bread Glucose content in dialysate (mmol/L)

15 min 30 min 60 min 120 min 180 min

Control 3.6  0.15a 3.8  0.05a 4.1  0.11a 4.3  0.17a 4.6  0.13a
MNG extracted with 0.05 mol/L NaOH
0.5 g/100 g concentration 2.0  0.01bc 2.3  0.03bc 2.5  0.10bc 2.6  0.09bc 2.9  0.07bc
1.0 g/100 g concentration 1.9  0.01c 2.1  0.01c 2.3  0.03c 2.4  0.01c 2.7  0.03c
MNG extracted with 0.1 mol/L NaOH
0.5 g/100 g concentration 2.3  0.13b 2.4  0.06bc 2.7  0.12b 2.9  0.07b 3.0  0.10b
1.0 g/100 g concentration 2.2  0.05bc 2.3  0.01bc 2.5  0.15bc 2.7  0.18bc 2.9  0.03bc
MNG extracted with 0.2 mol/L NaOH
0.5 g/100 g concentration 2.3  0.07b 2.5  0.01b 2.8  0.09b 2.9  0.13b 3.0  0.10b
1.0 g/100 g concentration 2.2  0.15bc 2.3  0.17bc 2.5  0.10bc 2.6  0.11bc 2.8  0.13bc

Data present as mean  S.E. of three independent replicates.

aec
different letters following means within the same column indicate a significant difference at the p < 0.05 level.
 A. Srichamroen / LWT - Food Science and Technology 59 (2014) 486e494 491

Fig. 3. Scanning Electron Micrographs (1000) of control and MNG-containing breads. (A) control bread; (B) bread containing 0.5 g/100 g MNG extracted with 0.05 mol/L NaOH; (C)
bread containing 1 g/100 g MNG extracted with 0.05 mol/L NaOH; (D) bread containing 0.5 g/100 g MNG extracted with 0.1 mol/L NaOH; (E) bread containing 1 g/100 g MNG
extracted with 0.1 mol/L NaOH; (F) bread containing 0.5 g/100 g MNG extracted with 0.2 mol/L NaOH; (G) bread containing 1 g/100 g MNG extracted with 0.2 mol/L NaOH.

extracted with 0.05 mol/L NaOH had smooth surfactant with less granules than that of control. Specifically, 1 g/100 g MNG-
starch protruding from the matrix, with a less dense matrix than that containing breads had undigested starch granules remained
of bread containing MNG extracted with 0.1 and 0.2 mol/L NaOH. intact with the matrix more than that of 0.5 g/100 g MNG-
After in vitro digestion for 3.5 h, control bread had much porous containing bread after a-amylase digestion for 180 min (Fig. 4).
appearance with less starch granule in the matrix indicating that a-
amylase had high ability to digest starch granules (Fig. 4). This 4. Discussion
finding is consistent with the highest amount of maltose and
glucose after a-amylase digestion for 180 min in a dialysis system Physical properties of hydrocolloid-containing breads depend
(Tables 3 and 4). MNG-containing breads had less porosity and on the type and level of hydrocolloids added, as well as the level of
more compact appearance with retention of undigested starch water incorporation. Skendi, Biliaderis, Papageorgiou, and
492 A. Srichamroen / LWT - Food Science and Technology 59 (2014) 486e494

Fig. 4. Scanning Electron Micrographs (1000) of control and MNG-containing breads digested with porcine pancreatic a-amylase for 180 min in a dialysis system. (A) control
bread; (B) bread containing 0.5 g/100 g MNG extracted with 0.05 mol/L NaOH; (C) bread containing 1 g/100 g MNG extracted with 0.05 mol/L NaOH; (D) bread containing 0.5 g/
100 g MNG extracted with 0.1 mol/L NaOH; (E) bread containing 1 g/100 g MNG extracted with 0.1 mol/L NaOH; (F) bread containing 0.5 g/100 g MNG extracted with 0.2 mol/L
NaOH; (G) bread containing 1 g/100 g MNG extracted with 0.2 mol/L NaOH.

Izydorczyk (2010) reported that addition of b-glucan in wheat flour and Table 1). These results reflected that extracted MNGs enhanced
led to a decrease in loaf specific volume, in which the extent of incorporation of gases during mixing or increased CO2 retention
decrease depending on b-glucan level. Other reports studying the during proofing. The results were in agreement with other reports
effect of xanthan gum-containing bread showed that adding gum at studying the effect of hydrocolloids on bread properties; an in-
high concentration exhibited too high resistance and consistency crease in batter viscosity improves dough development and gas
batter contributed to a limited gas cell expansion during proofing retention, thereby increasing loaf volume (Sciarini, Ribotta, Leon, &
(Lazaridou, Duta, Papageorgiou, Belc, & Biliaderis, 2007; Peressini, Perez, 2010).
Pin, & Sensidoni, 2011). In the present study, MNG-containing Specific volume of both 0.5 g/100 g and 1 g/100 g MNG-
breads had more open crumb cells led to significantly higher loaf containing breads was not significantly different. These results
volume and loaf specific volume compared to that of control (Fig. 1 indicated that extracted MNGs at 1 g/100 g concentration might
 A. Srichamroen / LWT - Food Science and Technology 59 (2014) 486e494 493

bind a larger volume of water until breads was not fully expanded. maltose levels in a dialysate during 180 min. In contrast, a control
However, the specific volume of 1 g/100 g MNG-containing breads bread had gradually increased levels of glucose and maltose up to
was significantly higher than that of control. This indicated that 180 min. This finding is consistent with the previous report that
MNG did not tightly bind water until gluten was not properly hy- extracted MNGs interfered a-amylase activity in a starch solution e
drated. The results were opposite to other scientific studies a-amylase e dietary fiber system causing lower glucose content in
showing that b-glucan has high water affinity and limits the dialysate (Srichamroen & Chavasit, 2011b). The results of the pre-
available water within the paste mixture for the development of sent study were in agreement with a study indicated that hydro-
the gluten network, which contributed to reduced height, reduced colloid galactomannan may form a layer around starch granules,
loaf volume and increased crumb firmness (Cleary, Anderson, & which could then shield the starch granules from enzyme attack
Brennan, 2007; Gaosong & Vasanthan, 2000; Gill et al., 2002; (Slaughter et al., 2002). Brennan et al. (1996) also reported a lower
Symons & Brennan, 2004). From the structure point of view, the rate in the in vitro starch digestibility of guar galactomannan-
different characteristic of extracted MNGs may be beneficial for containing bread when incubated with porcine pancreatic a-
application of food product development. amylase compared to that of wheat bread.
After 24 h of storage, the moisture content of 1 g/100 g MNG-
containing bread was significantly higher than that of 0.5 g/100 g 5. Conclusion
MNG-containing bread (Table 2). This difference, however, was not
found on day 2 and day 3 of storage. These results indicate that Alkaline-extracted MNG added in bread formulation signifi-
increased concentration of MNG increased the ability of gum to cantly increased loaf volume and specific volume. This is correlated
hold the free water but molecules were not tightly bound, therefore with increased number of gas cells of the MNG-containing breads.
excess water was lost in long term. Addition of extracted MNGs in bread formulation significantly
Generally, hydrophilic gums tightly bind the free water reduced moisture loss and firmness of bread crumb after storage for
contributing to increased water retention, therefore bread crumb three days. The SEM of in vitro digestibility with a-amylase of MNG-
stays soft longer (Sharadanant & Khan, 2003). Changes in crumb containing breads showed less porosity and more undigested
softness and moisture loss are factors to indicate staling process of starch granules remained intact with the matrix. This finding was
baked products during storage (Shittu, Aminu, & Abulude, 2009). consistent with the low level of glucose and maltose. Specifically,
The ideal moisture level of baked product related to the softness is MNG extracted with 0.05 mol/L NaOH had high potential to inter-
between 35 and 40% (Shah, Shah, & Madamwar, 2006). The present fere a-amylase activity in starch digestion process. The significance
study showed that the rate of increased crumb firmness of MNG- of this study indicates that the durable ability of extracted MNGs to
containing breads was significantly lower than that of control. interfere a-amylase activity in solid matrix was up to 180 min
The moisture contents of MNG-containing breads during three-day regarding the time-experimental design.
storage were higher than the ideal moisture level. Taken these re-
sults together, it indicates that the water binding capacity of
Acknowledgments
extracted MNGs could prevent water loss during bread storage. It
was proposed that viscous fiber has a larger water-holding capacity
The financial support, funding number R2553C194, from Nar-
than starch, thereby affecting decreased starch retrogradation and
esuan University Fund, Thailand is gratefully acknowledged. The
consequently decreased crumb firmness (Purhagen, Sjoo, &
author would like to thank Mrs. Prakaytip Kot-asa, Faculty of Sci-
Eliasson, 2012). The results in this study were in agreement with
ence, Naresuan University for her SEM technical support.
that of Shittu et al. (2009) who reported that moisture loss and
crumb firmness during bread storage were best reduced when 1 g/
100 g xanthan gum was added to bread formulation. References
SEM of fresh control bread had starch granules that were pre-
Abu-Ghoush, M., Herald, T. J., Dowell, F., Xie, F., Aramouni, F. M., & Walker, C. (2008).
dominant within protein matrix (Fig. 3). Addition of extracted Effect of antimicrobial agents and dough conditioners on the shelf-life exten-
MNGs provided a continuous structure of starch granules sion and quality of flat bread, as determined by near-infrared spectroscopy.
International Journal of Food Science and Technology, 43, 365e372.
embedded into the protein matrix. The results were in agreement
American Association of Cereal Chemists (AACC). (2000). Approved methods of the
with that of Brennan et al. (1996) who reported that gal- AACC (10th ed.). St Paul, MN: The Association (Method 44e15A).
actomannan dispersed and mixed intimately with the starch Anderson, J. W., Akanji, A. O., & Randles, K. M. (2001). Treatment of diabetes with
granules and protein matrix to become a continuous structure high-fibre diets. In G. A. Spiller (Ed.), CRC handbook of dietary fibre in human
nutrition (3rd ed.) (pp. 373e400). New York: CRC Press.
appearance. Blackburn, N. A., Redfern, J. S., & Jarjis, H. (1984). The mechanism of action of guar
The SEM of in vitro digestibility with a-amylase of MNG- gum in improving glucose tolerance in man. Clinical Science, 66(3), 329e336.
containing breads showed more undigested starch granules than London.
Brennan, C. S., Blake, D. E., Ellis, P. R., & Schofield, J. D. (1996). Effects of guar gal-
that of control (Fig. 4). In accordance with the results shown in actomannan on wheat bread microstructure and on the in vitro and in vivo
Tables 3 and 4, MNG-containing breads had significantly lower digestibility of starch in bread. Journal of Cereal Science, 24, 151e160.
levels of maltose and glucose than did control. Taken together, Brownlee, I. A. (2011). The physiological roles of dietary fibre. Food Hydrocolloids, 25,
238e250.
these results suggest that extracted MNGs acted as a barrier to Ceriello, A. (2005). Postprandial hyperglycaemia and diabetes complications: is it
prevent a-amylase to contact starch granules. Plasma glucose levels time to treat? Diabetes, 54, 1e7.
rise about 10 min after a meal as a result of the absorption of car- Cleary, L. J., Anderson, R., & Brennan, C. S. (2007). The behaviour and susceptibility
to degradation of high and low molecular weight barley b-glucan in wheat
bohydrates ingested in the meal (Sudhir & Mohan, 2002). Accord- bread during baking and in vitro digestion. Food Chemistry, 102, 889e897.
ing to oral glucose tolerance test pattern, the highest peak of Czuchajowska, Z., Pomeranz, Y., & Jeffers, H. C. (1989). Water activity and moisture
plasma glucose levels after carbohydrate consumption is at 30e content of dough and bread. Cereal Chemistry, 66, 128e132.
Gaosong, I., & Vasanthan, T. (2000). Effect of extrusion cooking on the primary
60 min and gradually reduces to normal plasma level within
structure and water solubility of b-glucan from regular and waxy barley. Cereal
120 min. In order to determine the durable ability of extracted Chemistry, 77, 396e400.
MNGs to interfere a-amylase activity, bread e dietary fiber e a- Gill, S., Vasanthan, T., Ooraikul, B., & Rossnagel, B. (2002). Wheat bread quality as
amylase in a dialysis system was continuously run for 180 min. This influenced by the substitution of waxy and regular barley flours in their native
and extruded forms. Journal of Cereal Science, 36, 219e237.
study showed that the extracted MNGs in bread effectively pre- Heine, R. J., & Dekker, J. M. (2002). Beyond postprandial hyperglycaemia: metabolic
vented starch digestion contributing to less change of glucose and factors associated with cardiovascular disease. Diabetologia, 45, 461e475.
494 A. Srichamroen / LWT - Food Science and Technology 59 (2014) 486e494

Huttner, E. K., & Arendt, E. K. (2010). Recent advances in gluten-free baking and the Shittu, T. A., Aminu, R. A., & Abulude, E. O. (2009). Functional effects of xanthan
current status of oats: a review. Trends in Food Science & Technology, 21, 303e gums on composite cassava wheat dough and bread. Food Hydrocolloids, 23(8),
312. 2254e2260.
Lazaridou, A., Duta, D., Papageorgiou, M., Belc, N., & Biliaderis, C. G. (2007). Effects of Skendi, A., Biliaderis, C. G., Papageorgiou, M., & Izydorczyk, M. S. (2010). Effects of
hydrocolloids on dough rheology and bread quality parameters in gluten-free two barley b-glucan isolates on wheat flour dough and bread properties. Food
formulation. Journal of Food Engineering, 79, 1033e1047. Chemistry, 119(3), 1159e1167.
Peressini, D., Pin, M., & Sensidoni, A. (2011). Rheology and breadmaking perfor- Slaughter, S. L., Ellis, P. R., Jackson, E. C., & Butterworth, P. J. (2002). The effect of guar
mance of rice-buckwheat batters supplemented with hydrocolloids. Food Hy- galactomannan and water availability during hydrothermal processing on the
drocolloids, 25, 340e349. hydrolysis of starch catalysed by pancreatic a-amylase. Biochimica et Biophysica
Purhagen, J. K., Sjoo, M. E., & Eliasson, A. C. (2012). Fibre-rich additives e the effect Acta, 1571, 55e63.
on staling and their function in free-standing and pan-baked bread. Journal of Srichamroen, A., & Chavasit, V. (2011a). Rheological properties of extracted malva
the Science of Food and Agriculture, 92, 1201e1213. nut gum (Scaphium scaphigerum) in different conditions of solvent. Food Hy-
Rainbird, A. L., Low, A. G., & Zebrowska, T. (1984). Effect of guar gum on glucose and drocolloids, 25(3), 444e450.
water absorption from isolated loops of jejunum in conscious growing pigs. Srichamroen, A., & Chavasit, V. (2011b). In vitro retardation of glucose diffusion with
British Journal of Nutrition, 52(3), 489e498. gum extracted from malva nut seeds produced in Thailand. Food Chemistry, 127,
Rosell, C. M., Rojas, J. A., & Benedito de Barber, C. (2001). Influence of hydrocolloids 455e460.
on dough rheology and bread quality. Food Hydrocolloids, 15, 75e81. Sudhir, R., & Mohan, V. (2002). Postprandial hyperglycaemia in patients with type 2
Sabanis, D., & Tzia, C. (2011). Selected structural characteristics of HPMC-containing diabetes mellitus. Treatments in Endocrinology, 1(2), 106e116.
gluten free bread: a response surface methodology study for optimizing quality. Symons, L. J., & Brennan, C. S. (2004). The influence of (1-3) (1-4)-b -D glucan-rich
International Journal of Food Properties, 14, 417e431. fractions from barley on the physicochemical properties and in vitro reducing
Sciarini, L. S., Ribotta, P. D., Leon, A. E., & Perez, G. T. (2010). Influence of gluten free sugar release of white wheat breads. Journal of Food Science, 69(6), C463eC467.
flours and their mixtures on batter properties and bread quality. Food and Torsdottir, I., Alpsten, M., Anderson, H., & Einansson, S. (1989). Dietary guar gum
Bioprocess Technology, 3, 577e585. effects on postprandial blood glucose, insulin and hydroxyproline in humans.
Shah, A. R., Shah, R. K., & Madamwar, D. (2006). Improvement of the quality of Journal of Nutrition, 119, 1925e1931.
whole wheat bread by supplementation of xylanase from Aspergillus foetidus. Woolnough, J. W., Monro, J. A., Brennan, C. S., & Bird, A. R. (2008). Simulating human
Bioresource Technology, 97, 2047e2053. carbohydrate digestion in vitro: a review of methods and the need for stan-
Sharadanant, R., & Khan, K. (2003). Effect of hydrophilic gums on the quality of dardization. International Journal of Food Science and Technology, 43, 2245e
frozen dough: II bread characteristics. Cereal Chemistry, 80(6), 773e780. 2256.