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SET THEORY
Set : A well defined collection of objects is called a set.
The objects in a set are called its members or elements.
If „A‟ is a set and „x‟ is an element of A, we write, x  A. If x does not belong to A, we write, x  A.
Example: If A is the set of vowels in English alphabet, A = { a, e, i, o, u} Clearly, a  A, b  A, e  A etc.
-: Description of a Set :-
(I) Roster or Braces form : Make a list of the elements, separated by commas and put them within {} braces.
e.g. The set of vowels of English alphabet A = {a, e, i, o, u}
II) Set – Builder form : Also called Algebraic form or Rule method or Property method. This method consists in
listing the properties common to all the elements of the set.
We write, {x : x has properties P} or, {x/x has properties P}
Ex. If „A‟ is the set of all natural numbers less than „6‟, A = {x : x  N, x < 6}
Type of sets
(a) Singleton set : A set consisting of a single element is called a singleton set. e.g., B = {3}
(a) Empty set : A set containing no element at all is called an empty set or a null set or a void set.
It is denoted by { } or  .
e.g. { x : x  R, x2 = –1} =  , since there is no real number whose square is –1.
(c) Finite & Infinite Sets : A set in which the process of counting of elements surely comes to an end, is called a finite
set. A set which is not finite is known as an infinite set.
Example of finite set : Set of even natural numbers less than 100
Example of infinite Set : {x : x  N, x > 10, 000}
Note : Cardinal Number of a Finite set
The number of distinct elements contained in a finite set A is called its Cardinal number. It is denoted by n(A).
e.g., (i) If A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7}; then, n(A) = 6 (ii) If R = {2, 3, 5, 7} ; then, n(R) = 4
(d) Equivalent Sets : Two finite sets A & B are said to be equivalent if n(A) = n (B)
e.g., A = {1, 2, 3} ; B = {a, e, i} Here, n(A) = n(B) = 3 ; Hence, A & B are equivalent sets.
(e) Equal Sets : Two sets A & B are said to be equal, if every element of A is in B and every element of B is in A and
we write, A = B. e.g., A = {1, 2, 3} & B = {3, 1, 2} are equal sets.
Remarks :- (i) Equivalent sets are not always equal but equal sets are always equivalent.
e.g; {1, 2, 3} and {a, b, c} are equivalent but not equal.
(ii) The element of a set may be listed in any order. Thus, {1, 2, 3} = {1, 3, 2} = {2, 3, 1} etc.
(iii) The repetition of elements in a set is meaningless.
e.g., {1, 2, 3, 2, 3, 1, 1, 2, 3, 1, 1, 2, 1, 3, 1, 2} = {1, 2, 3}
(f) Subset : If every element of a set A is also an element of set B, then we say that A is a subset of B. we write A  B
Remarks : (i) The set of all subsets of a given set A is called the power set of A; It is denoted by P(A).
(ii) If A has n elements, P(A) has 2n elements.
i.e., the number of all possible subsets of a set containing n elements is 2n.
Example : Write down the power set of A = {1, 2, 3}
Sol. P(A) = { }, {1}, {2}, {3}, {1, 2}, {1, 3}, {2, 3}, {1, 2, 3}
(g) Super Set : If A  B, we say that B is a super set of A, and we write, B  A
(h) Proper Subset : If A  B and A  B, then A is called a proper subset of B and we write, A  B
Remark : The number of all proper subsets of a set containing n elements is (2n – 1).
Example : The proper subsets of {1, 2, 3} include { }, {1}, {2}, {3}, {1, 2} {1, 3}, {2, 3}
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-: Operations On Sets :-
(I) Union of Sets :- If A and B are two sets, the union of A and B, denoted by A  B, is the set of all elements which
are either in A or in B or in both A and B. A B

Ex. (i) If A = {1, 2, 3} & B = {1, 3, 5, 7}, then A  B = {1, 2, 3, 5, 7}

(II) Intersection of sets : If A and B are two sets, then the intersection of A and B, denoted by A  B, is the set of all
elements which belong to both A and B. A B
Ex. (i) If A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} & B = {3, 7, 9, 4}, then A  B = {3, 4}

Note :- If two sets P & Q have no elements in common, they are called disjoint sets. P Q
i.e. P & Q are said to be disjoint, if P  Q = 

e.g. If P = {1, 3, 5} & Q = {2, 4, 6}; then P & Q are disjoint sets.

(III) Difference of sets : If A and B are two sets, the difference of A and B, written as A B
A – B (or, A ~ B), is the set of all those elements of A which do not belong to B.
Ex. (i) If A = {2, 3, 5, 7, 11} and B = {5, 7, 9, 11, 13},
then A – B = {2, 3} and B – A = {9, 13}
(IV) Symmetric Difference of sets : The symmetric difference of two sets A and B is defined by A B
A Δ B  (A  B)  (B  A)
Ex. (i) If A = {a, b, c, d} & B = {b, d, e, f}, then A – B = {a, c} and B – A = {e, f}
A Δ B = (A – B)  (B – A) = {a, c, e, f}
Ex. (ii) If A = {2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7} & B = {3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13}, then
A – B = {2, 4, 6} A B
B – A = {9, 11, 13} 2, 9,
3, 11,
A Δ B = {2, 4, 6, 9, 11, 13} 4, 5, 7 13
A  B = {2, 3, 4, 5, 6,7, 9, 11, 13} 6
A  B = {3, 5, 7}

(V) Universal Set : A set that contains all the sets in a given content is called the universal set, i.e., It is the super set
of all the sets under consideration. It is denoted by ξ or  .
(IV) Complement of a set : Let  be the universal set & let A be a set such that A   , then  – A is simply
called the complement of A. It is denoted by A' (or, Ac).
Thus, A' = { x : x   , x  A }
Ex. If  {a, b, c, d, e, f} and A = {b, d, e};
then, A' =   A  { a, c, f } A

Remarks :- (i)  '   ; (ii)    (iii) A  A   ; (iv) A  A  
-: Laws of operations :-
(I) (i) A  A = A ; (ii) A    A (iii) A  A  A (iv) A    
(II) De-Morgan‟s Laws : (i) (A  B) = A '  B' (ii) (A  B)'  A'  B'
Important Results
(i) n(A  B) = n(A) + n(B) – n(A  B)
(ii) n(A  B) = n(A) + n(B) ; When A  B = 
(iii) n(A  B  C) = n(A) + n(B) + n(C) – n(A  B) – n(B  C) – n(C  A) + n(A  B  C)
(iv) If A, B and C are disjoint sets then, n(A  B  C) = n(A) + n(B) + n(C)
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Ordered Pair : A pair of two elements a & b listed in a specific order, is called an ordered pair (a, b).
Note : (2, 3)  (3,2) ; while {2, 3} = {3, 2}

Remarks :- (i) If A =  or B =  , we define A x B = 

(ii) In general, A x B  B x A
(iii) n (A x B) = n (A). n(B)
(iv) If either A or B is an infinite set, then A x B is an infinite set.

Ex.:- If A = {0, 2}, B = {-1, 0, 1}; then find (i) A x B (ii) B x A (iii) A x A (iv) B x B
Sol. (i) A x B = {(0, –1), (0, 0), (0, 1), (2, –1), (2, 0), (2, 1)}
(ii) B x A = {(–1, 0), (–1, 2), (0, 0), (0, 2), (1, 0), (1, 2)}
(iii) A x A = {(0, 0), (0, 2), (2, 0), (2, 2)}
(iv) B x B = {(–1, –1), (–1, 0), (–1, 1), (0, –1), (0, 0), (0, 1), (1, –1), (1, 0), (1, 1)}

1. In a class of 100 students; 45 students read Physics, 52 students read Chemistry and 15 students read both the
subjects . Find the number of students who study neither Physics nor Chemistry.
2. In a class of 50 students, 15 read Physics, 20 Chemistry and 20 read Mathematics .3 read Physics and Chemistry, 6
read Chemistry and Mathematics, and 5 read Physics and Mathematics, 7 read none of the subjects. How many
students read all the three subjects?
3. In a survey of 150 students, it was found that 40 students studied Physics, 60 students studied chemistry and 50
students studied Mathematics, and 15 students studied all the three subjects. 27 students studied Physics and
chemistry, 35 students Chemistry and Mathematics and 25 students Physics and Mathematics. Find the number
who studied only Physics and the number who studied none of these subjects.
4. In a class each student plays either cricket or football. If 50 students play football, 30 students play cricket while 15
students play both, then the number of students in the class is : (a) 50 (b) 80 (c) 65 (d) 20
5. In a group of 63 persons, 24 persons take wheat but not rice, 37 persons take wheat. The number of persons taking
rice but not wheat : (a) 24 (b) 26 (c) 37 (d) none of these
6. In a club of 100 members, 50 members do not play cards, 70 prefer table tennis and 5 do not prefer anything. The
number of members who prefer both is : (a) 20 (b) 45 (c) 25 (d) 10
7. In a group of athletic teams in a school 21 are on the basketball team, 26 on hockey team and 29 on the football
team. If 14 play hockey and basketball, 12 play football and basketball. 15 play hockey and football & 8 play all
three games. Find how many played only football.: (a) 15 (b) 10 (c) 20 (d) 5
8(i). A class of 30 students comprises boys who can play cricket, hockey and/or football.3 boys play only cricket, 3
boys play only hockey and 2 play only football. 4 boys would play all three games, while11 could play footwall &
cricket, and 10 boys could play football and hockey. How many boys played cricket and hockey but not football?
(a) 2 (b) 4 (c) 5 (d) 1
8(ii). How many boys can play at least two games? (a) 10 (b) 18 (c) 16 (d) 22
9. A survey of 500 T.V. watchers produced the following information: 285 watch football, 195 watch hockey, 115
watch basketball, 45 watch football and basketball, 70 watch football and hockey, 50 watch hockey and basketball
and 50 do not watch any of the three games. How many watch all the three games?
(a) 25 (b) 20 (c) 15 (d) 10
10. In a group of 50 people, 35 speak Hindi, 25 speak both English & Hindi, and all the people at least one of the two
languages. How many people speak only English? How many people speak English?
11. Out of 500 car owners investigated, 400 owned Maruti car and 200 owned Hyundai car; 50 owned both cars. Is
this data : (i) Incorrect (ii) Correct (iii) Can not say (iv) None of these
12. If A and B be two sets containing 3 and 6 elements respectively, what can be the minimum number of elements
in A  B ? Find, also the maximum number of elements in A  B ?
13. A = {1, 2, 3}, B = {3, 4} & C = {4, 5, 6}; find (i) A x (B  C) (ii) (A  B) x C
Sol.(i) A = {1, 2, 3} & (B  C) = {4}
 A x (B  C) = {(1, 4), (2, 4), (3, 4)} (ii) A  B = {3} and C = {4, 5, 6}
 (A  B) x C = {(3, 4), (3, 5), (3, 6)}
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Equivalence Relation

Reflexive Transitive
Symmetric

Let „R‟ be a relation in a set „A‟. Then „R‟ is an equivalence relation in „A‟, if
(i) R is reflexive , i.e. for all a R, (a, a) R
(ii) R is symmetric, i.e. (a, b) R (b, a) R, for all a, b A.
(iii) R is transitive, i.e. (a, b) R and (b, c) R (a, c) R, for all a, b, c A.

Illustration (I) : “ Is Equal To” Illustration (V) : “ Is Perpendicular To”

(i) a = a is true, i.e. Reflexive (i) a a is not true, i.e. Not Reflexive
(ii) a = b b = a, i.e. Symmetric (ii) a b b a is true, i.e. Symmetric
(iii) a = b & b = c a = c, i.e. Transitive (iii) a b & b c a c, is Not True,
Hence “Is Equal To” is an Equivalence Relation. Not Transitive.

Illustration (II) : “ Is Parallel To” Illustration (VI) : “ Is The Reciprocal Of”

(i) a a is true, i.e. Reflexive (i) a R a is not true, i.e. Not Reflexive
(ii) a b b a, i.e. Symmetric (ii) a R b b R a is true, i.e. Symmetric
(iii) a b & b c a c, i.e. Transitive (iii) a R b & b R c a R c, is Not True,
Hence “Is Parallel To” is an Equivalence Relation. .e. Not Transitive.
NOTE: ‘R’ means “ Is The Reciprocal Of”

Illustration (VII) : “ Is The Square Of”

Illustration (III) : “ Is Smaller Than”
(i) a R a is not true, i.e. Not Reflexive
(i) a a is not true, i.e. Not Reflexive
(ii) a R b b R a is Not true, i.e. Not Symmetric
(ii) a b b a is not true, i.e. Not Symmetric
(iii) a R b & b R c a R c, is Not True,
(iii) a b & b c a c, is True, i.e. Transitive
i.e. Not Transitive.
NOTE: ‘R’ means “ Is The Square Of”

Illustration (IV) : “ Is Greater Than” Illustration (VIII) : “ Has The Same Father As”
(i) a a is not true, i.e. Not Reflexive (i) a R a is true, i.e. Reflexive
(ii) a b b a is not true, i.e. Not Symmetric (ii) a R b b R a is true, i.e. Symmetric
(iii) a b & b c a c, is True, i.e. Transitive (iii) a R b & b R c a R c, is True, i.e. Transitive.
NOTE: ‘R’ means “Has The Same Father As”