FUNCTIONS

SESSION – 1
AIM:
 Introduction
 Venn-Euler Diagrams
 Cartesian Product Of Set

SET
Definition: A set is a well-defined class or collection of objects. By a
well-defined collection we mean that there exists a rule with the
help of which it is possible to tell whether a given object belongs or
does not belong to the given collection. The objects in sets may be
anything, numbers, people, mountains, rivers etc. The objects
constituting the set are called elements or members of the set.

Two ways for the description of a set:

Roster method or Listing method:

In this method a set is described by listing elements, separated by
commas, within braces { }. The set of vowels of English alphabet
may be described as { , , , , }.
The set of even natural numbers can be described as
{2, 4, 6. . . . . . . . . . }. Here the dots stand for ‘and so on’.

Note: The order in which the elements are written in a set makes no
difference. Thus { , , , , } and { , , , , } denote the same set.
Also the repetition of an element has no effect. For example,
{1, 2, 3, 2} is the same set as {1, 2, 3}

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Set-builder method or Rule method:
In this method, a set is described by a characterizing property ( )
of its elements x. In such a case the set is described by
{ : ( )ℎ } or { | ( ) ℎ }, which is read as ‘the set of all
such that ( ) holds’. The symbol ‘|’ or ‘: ’ is read as ‘such that’.
The set E of all even natural numbers can be written as
E = {x | x is natural number and x = 2n for n  N}
or E = {x | x  N, x = 2n, n  N}
or E = {x  N | x = 2n, n  N}
The set A = {0, 1, 4, 9, 16, ….} can be written as A = {x2 | x  Z}

Example:
The set of intelligent students in a class is [AMU 1998]
(a) A null set (b) A singleton set
(c) A finite set (d) Not a well defined collection
Solution:
d) Since, intelligency is not defined for students in a class i.e., Not
a well defined collection.

TYPES OF SETS:

Null set or Empty set:

The set which contains no element at all is called the null set. This
set is sometimes also called the ‘empty set’ or the ‘void set’. It is
denoted by the symbol or {}.
A set which has at least one element is called a non-empty set.
Let A = {x : x2 + 1 = 0 and x is real}

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Since there is no real number which satisfies the equation
+ 1 = 0, therefore the set A is empty set.
Note: If A and B are any two empty sets, then ∈ if ∈ is
satisfied because there is no element x in either A or B to which the
condition may be applied. Thus = . Hence, there is only one
empty set and we denote it by . Therefore, article 'the' is used
before empty set.

Singleton set: A set consisting of a single element is called a

singleton set. The set {5} is a singleton set.

Finite set: A set is called a finite set if it is either void set or its
elements can be listed (counted, labeled) by natural number 1, 2, 3,
… and the process of listing terminates at a certain natural number
n (say).

Cardinal number of a finite set: The number n in the above

definition is called the cardinal number or order of a finite set A and
is denoted by n(A) or O(A).
Infinite set: A set whose elements cannot be listed by the natural
numbers 1, 2, 3, …., n, for any natural number n is called an infinite
set.

Equal set: Two sets A and B are said to be equal if every element of
A is an element of B and also every element of B is an element of A.
We write “ = ” if the sets A and B are equal and “A  B” if the sets
A and B are not equal. Symbolically, A = B if x  A  x  B.

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The statement given in the definition of the equality of two sets is
also known as the axiom of extension.
Example:
If A = {2, 3, 5, 6} and B = {6, 5, 3, 2}. Then A = B, because each
element of A is an element of B and vice-versa.
Power set: If S is any set, then the family of all the subsets of S is
called the power set of S.
The power set of S is denoted by P(S). Symbolically,
P(S) = {T: T  S}. Obviously and S are both elements of P(S).
Example:
Let S = {a, b, c}, then
P(S) = { , {a}, {b}, {c}, {a, b}, {a, c}, {b, c}, {a, b, c}}.
Note: If A= then P(A) has one element ,  n[P(A)]=1
 Power set of a given set is always non-empty.
 If A has n elements, then P(A) has 2n elements.
 P( ) = { } P(P( )) = { ,{ }}
 P[P(P( ))]={ ,{ },{{ }},{ ,{ }}}
Hence n{P[P(P( ))]} = 4.
Example:
Which of the following is the empty set?
(a) {x : x is a real number and x2 – 1 = 0}
(b) {x : x is a real number and x2 + 1 = 0}
(c) {x : x is a real number and x2 – 9 = 0}
(d) {x : x is a real number and x2 = x + 2}

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Solution:
(b) Since x2 + 1 = 0, gives x2 = -1  x = ±
 x is not real but x is real (given)
 No value of x is possible.
Example:
Two finite sets have m and n elements. The total number of subsets
of the first set is 56 more than the total number of subsets of the
second set. The values of m and n are
(a) 7, 6 (b) 6, 3 (c) 5, 1 (d) 8, 7
Solution:
(b) Since 2 − 2 = 56 = 8 × 7 = 2 × 7
 2 (2 − 1) = 2 × 7
 n = 3 and 2m-n = 8 = 23
m–n=3m–3=3m=6
 m = 6, n = 3.

VENN-EULER DIAGRAMS
The combination of rectangles and circles are called Venn-Euler
diagrams or simply Venn-diagrams.

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In venn-diagrams the universal set U is represented by points
within a rectangle and its subsets are represented by points in
closed curves (usually circles) within the rectangle. If a set A is a
subset of a set B, then the circle representing A is drawn inside the
circle representing B. If A and B are not equal but they have some
common elements, then to represent A and B we draw two
intersecting circles. Two disjoints sets are represented by two non-
intersecting circles.

OPERATIONS ON SETS
Union of sets:
Let A and B be two sets. The union of A and B is the set of all
elements which are in set A or in B. We denote the union of A and B
by A⋃B which is usually read as “A union B”. symbolically,
⋃ ={ : ∈ ∈ }.
Note: If A1, A2, ……, An is a finite family of sets, then their union is
denoted by
⋃ or A1⋃A2⋃A3 …… ⋃An. .
Intersection of sets:
Let A and B be two sets. The intersection of A and B is the set of all
those elements that belong to both A and B. The intersection of A
and B is denoted by A  B (read as “A intersection B”)
Thus, A  B = {x: x  A and x  B}.
Clearly, x  A  B  x  A and x  B.

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Note: If A1, A2, A3 ….., An is a finite family of sets, then their
intersection is denoted by ⋂ or A1  A2  A3  …..  An.

Disjoint sets:
Two sets A and B are said to be disjoint, if A  B = . If A  B  ,
then A and B are said to be non-intersecting or non-overlapping
sets.
In other words, if A and B have no element in common, then A and B
are called disjoint sets.
Example: Sets {1, 2}; {3, 4} are disjoint sets.

Difference of sets:
Let A and B be two sets. The difference of A and B written as A – B, is
the set of all those elements of A which do not belong to B.
Thus, A – B = {x : x  A and x  B} or A – B = {x  A : x  B}
Example: Consider the sets A = {1,2,3} and B = {3,4,5},
then A – B = {1,2}; B – A = {4,5}

Complement of a set:
Let U be the universal set and let A be a set such that A  U. Then,
the complement of A with respect to U is denoted by A or Ac or
( ) or U – A and is defined the set of all those elements of U which
are not in A.
Thus, A = {x  U : x  A}.
Clearly, x  A  x  A

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Example: Consider U = {1,2,……, 10} and A = {1,3,5,7,9}.
Then ′ = {2,4,6,8,10}
Example:
Given the sets A = {1,2,3}, B = {3,4}, C = {4,5,6}, then A(BC) is
(a) {3} (b) {1, 2, 3, 4}
(c) {1, 2, 4, 5} (d) {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}
Solution:
(b) BC = {4},  A(BC) = {1,2,3,4}.
Example:
If AB, then AB is equal to
(a) A (b) BA
(c) B (d) None of these
Solution:
(c) Since AB  AB = B.

CARTESIAN PRODUCT OF SETS

Cartesian product of sets: Let A and B be any two non-empty sets.

The set of all ordered pairs (a, b) such that a  A and b  B is called
the cartesian product of the sets A and B and is denoted by A  B.
Thus, A × B = [(a, b) : a  A and b  B]
If A =  or B = , then we define A × B = .
Example: Let A = {a, b, c} and B = {p, q}.
Then A × B = {(a, p), (a, q), (b, p), (b, q), (c, p), (c, q)}
Also B × A = {(p, a), (p, b), (p, c), (q, a), (q, b), (q, c)}

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Important theorems on cartesian product of sets:

Theorem-1: For any three sets A, B, C

(i) A × (B  C) = (A × B)  (A × C) (ii) A × (B  C) = (A ×
B)  (A × C)
Proof: If A and B are any two non-empty sets, then A×B=B×A
A=B
Example:
If A = {0, 1), and B = {1, 0}, then A × B is equal to
(a) {0, 1, 1, 0} (b) {(0, 1), (1, 0)}
(c) {0, 0} (d) {(0,1),(0,0),(1,1),(1,0)}
Solution:
(d) By the definition of cartesian product of sets
Clearly, A × B = {(0, 1), (0, 0), (1, 1), (1, 0)}.
Example:
If A = {2,4,5}, B = {7,8,9} then n(AB) is equal to
(a) 6 (b) 9 (c) 3 (d) 0
Solution:
(b) A × B = {(2,7),(2,8),(2,9),(4,7),(4,8),(4,9),(5,7),(5,8),(5,9)}
n(A × B) = n(A) . n(B) = 3 × 3 = 9.

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Example:
If A = {x: x2 – 5x + 6 = 0}, B = {2,4}, C = {4,5} then A(BC) is
(a) {(2, 4), (3, 4)} (b) {(4, 2), (4, 3)}
(c) {(2, 4), (3, 4), (4, 4)} (d) {(2,2), (3,3), (4,4), (5,5)}
Solution:
(a) Clearly, A = {2,3}, B = {2,4}, C = {4,5} BC = {4}
 A×(BC) = {(2,4), (3,4)}.

RELATION
Definition: Let A and B be two non-empty sets, then every subset of
A × B defines a relation from A to B and every relation from A to B is
a subset of A × B.
Let R  AB and (a, b)  R. Then we say that a is related to b by the
relation R and write it as a R b. If (a,bR, we write it as a R b.
Example: Let A = {1, 2, 5, 8, 9}, B = {1, 3} we set a relation from A to
B as: a R b if a≤b; aA, bB. Then R = {(1, 1)}, (1, 3), (2, 3)} ⊂ A × B

Total number of relations possible:

Let A and B be two non-empty finite sets consisting of m and n
elements respectively. Then A × B consists of mn ordered pairs. So,
total number of subset of A × B is 2mn. Since each subset of A × B
defines relation from A to B, so total number of relations from A to B
is 2mn. Among these 2mn relations the void relation  and the
universal relation A × B are trivial relations from A to B.

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Domain and range of a relation:
Let R be a relation from a set A to a set B. Then the set of all first
components or coordinates of the ordered pairs belonging to R is
called the domain of R, while the set of all second components or
coordinates of the ordered pairs in R is called the range of R.
Thus, Dom (R) = {a: (a, b)  R} and Range (R) = {b: (a, b)  R}.
It is evident from the definition that the domain of a relation from A
to B is a subset of A and its range is a subset of B.

Relation on a set:
Let A be a non-void set. Then, a relation from A to itself i.e. a subset
of A × A is called a relation on set A.
Example:
Let A = {1, 2, 3}. The total number of distinct relations that can be
defined over A is
(a) 29 (b) 6 (c) 8 (d) None of these
Solution:
(a) n(AA)= n(A).n(A) = 32 = 9
So, the total number of subsets of AA is 29 and a subset of AA
is a relation over the set A.
Example:
Let X = {1,2,3,4,5} and Y = {1,3,5,7,9}. Which of the following is/are
relations from X to Y.
(a) R1 = {(x,y)/y = 2+x, xX, yY}
(b) R2 = {(1,1),(2,1),(3,3),(4,3),(5,5)}
(c) R3 = {(1,1),(1,3),(3,5),(3,7),(5,7)}
(d) R4 = {(1,3),(2,5),(2,4),(7,9)}
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Solution:
(a,b,c) R4 is not a relation from X to Y,
because (7, 9)R4 but (7, 9)X  Y.
Example:
Given two finite sets A and B such that n(A) = 2, n(B) = 3. Then total
number of relations from A to B is
(a) 4 (b) 8 (c) 64 (d) None of these
Solution:
(c) Here n(AB) = 23 = 6
Since every subset of A × B defines a relation from A to B,
number of relation from A to B is equal to number of subsets of
A × B = 26 = 64, which is given in (c).
FUNCTIONS
Definition of Function:
1] Function can be easily defined with the help of the concept of
mapping. Let X and Y be any two non-empty sets. “A function
from X to Y is a rule or correspondence that assigns to each
element of set X, one and only one element of set Y”. Let the
correspondence be ‘f’ then mathematically we write f: X  Y
where y = f(x), ∈ and ∈ . We say that ‘y’ is the image of
‘x’ under f (or x is the pre image of y).
Two things should always be kept in mind:
i] A mapping f: X  Y is said to be a function if each element in
the set X has it’s image in set Y. It is also possible that there are
few elements in set Y which are not the images of any element
in set X.

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ii] Every element in set X should have one and only one image.
That means it is impossible to have more than one image for a
specific element in set X. Functions can not be multi-valued
(A mapping that is multi-valued is called a relation from
X and Y) e.g.
Set Set Set Set
a 1 a 1
b 2 b 2
c 3 c 3
Function Function
Set Set Set Set Y
a 1 a 1
b 2 b 2
c 3 c 3
Not Not

Testing for a function by vertical line test: SUBTOPIC

A relation f: A  B is a function or not it can be checked by a graph
of the relation. If it is possible to draw a vertical line which cuts the
given curve at more than one point then the given relation is not a
function and when this vertical line means line parallel to Y-axis
cuts the curve at only one point then it is a function. Figure (iii) and
(iv) represents a function.
Y Y Y Y

X O X
X X X X X X
O O O
Y (i) Y (ii) Y (iii Y (iv

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Number of functions:
Let X and Y be two finite sets having m and n elements respectively.
Then each element of set X can be associated to any one of n
elements of set Y. So, total number of functions from set X to set Y is
n m.
Value of the function:
If y = f(x) is a function then to find its values at some value of x, say
x = a, we directly substitute x = a in its given rule f(x) and it is
denoted by f(a).
e.g. If f(x)=x2 + 1, then f(1) = 12 + 1 = 2, f(2) = 22 + 1 = 5, f(0) = 02 + 1
= 1etc.

Example:
If A contains 10 elements then total number of functions defined from
A to A is
(a) 10 (b) 210 (c) 1010 (d) 210 – 1
Solution:
(c) According to formula, total number of functions = nn
Here, n = 10. So, total number of functions = 1010.
Example:
| |
If ( ) = , then f(–1) =
| |
(a) 1 (b) – 2 (c) 0 (d) 2
Solution:
| |
(b) f(-1) = = = −2.
| |

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Example:
If f(y) = logy, then f(y) + f is equal to
(a) 2 (b) 1 (c) 0 (d) – 1
Solution:
(c) Given f(y) = logy  f(1/y) = log(1/y), then f(y) + f = logy +
log(1/y) = log1 = 0
Example:
If f(x) = log then is equal to
(a) [f(x)]2 (b) [f(x)]3 (c) 2f(x) (d) 3f(x)
Solution:
(c) f(x) = log

 = log = log = log =

2 log =2 ( )
Example:
If f(x) = cos[ ]x + cos [− ]x then
(a) =2 (b) f(- )=2 (c) f( =1) (d) f = –1
Solution:
(d) f(x) = cos[ ]x + cos[− ]x
f(x) = cos(9x) + cos(–10x) = cos(9x) + cos(10x) =
2cos cos

= 2 cos cos ; = 2  = −1.

√ √

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TERMINOLOGY IN FUNCTIONS
Related quantities:
When two quantities are such that the change in one is
accompanied by the change in other, i.e., if the value of one quantity
depends upon the other, then they are called related quantities. e.g.
the area of a circle (A = r2) depends upon its radius (r) as soon as
the radius of the circle increases (or decreases), its area also
increases (or decreases). In the given example, A and r are related
quantities.

Variable: SUB
A variable is a symbol which can assume any value out of a given set
of values. The quantities, like height, weight, time, temperature,
profit, sales etc, are examples of variables. The variables are usually
denoted by x, y, z, u, v, w, t etc. There are two types of variables
mainly:
(i) Independent variable: A variable which can take any arbitrary
value, is called independent variable.
(ii) Dependent variable: A variable whose value depends upon
the independent variable is called dependent variable. e.g. y = x2 , if
x = 2 then y = 4  so value of y depends on x. y is dependent and x is
independent variable here.

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Constant:
A constant is a symbol which does not change its value, i.e., retains
the same value throughout a set of mathematical operation. These
are generally denoted by a, b, c etc. There are two types of constant.
(i) Absolute constant: A constant which remains the same
throughout a set of mathematical operation is known as absolute
constant. All numerical numbers are absolute constants, i.e. 2, √3,
etc. are absolute constants.
(ii) Arbitrary constant: A constant which remains same in a
particular operation, but changes with the change of reference, is
called arbitrary constant e.g. y = mx + c represents a line. Here m
and c are constants, but they are different for different lines.
Therefore, m and c are arbitrary constants.

TYPES OF FUNCTIONS
Explicit and implicit functions:
A function is said to be explicit if it can be expressed directly in
terms of the independent variable. If the function can not be
expressed directly in terms of the independent variable or
variables, then the function is said to be implicit. e.g. y = sin-1x +
logx is explicit function, while x2 + y2 = xy and x3y2 = (a–x)2 (b–y)2
are implicit functions.

17
Example:
Identify whether the following functions are Explicit or Implicit
form.
(a) x2 – y2 – 2x + y + 1 = 0 (b) (x + y)2 = Cos(x – y)
(c) Ln(x – 2y) = 2x (d) Tan(x – y) = Cot(x – y)
Solution:
(a) We treat the given equation as quadratic equation in x, then we
±√
can express = = ( ) Hence is explicit
functional form.
(b) Cannot be expressed as y = f(x) hence is implicit form.
(c) From the given equation we can express y = ( − ) Hence
Explicit form.
(d) We can write given equation as
Tan(x – y) = Cot(x – y) = Tan( − ( − ))
Hence x – y = nπ + −( − ) ∴ y=x- − = f(x)
The function is explicit form.

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CLASS EXERCISE

1] The number of non–empty subsets of the set {1, 2, 3, 4} is

(a) 15 (b) 14 (c) 16 (d) 17

2] The smallest set A such that A  {1, 2} = {1, 2, 3, 5, 9} is

(a) {2, 3, 5} (b) {3, 5, 9} (c) {1, 2, 5, 9} (d) None of these
3] If A = {1, 2, 4}, B = {2, 4, 5}, C = {2, 5}, then (A – B) × (B – C) is
(a) {(1, 2), (1, 5), (2, 5)} (b) {(1, 4)}
(c) (1, 4) (d) None of these
4] If R is a relation from a finite set A having m elements to a finite
set B having n elements, then the number of relations from A to
B is
(a) 2mn (b) 2mn – 1 (c) 2mn (d) mn

5] A relation R is defined from {2, 3, 4, 5} to {3, 6, 7, 10} by;

xRy  x is relatively prime to y. Then domain of R is

(a) {2, 3, 5} (b) {3, 5} (c) {2, 3, 4} (d) {2, 3, 4, 5}

6] If ( ) = , then [ ( 2 )] equal to

(a) 2 (b) 2 (c) 2 (d) 2

7] If ( ) = , then { (p)}3 is equal to
(a) (3p) (b) 3 (p) (c) 6 (p) (d) 2 (p)

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 ( ) ( )
8] If ( ) = , then ( ) ( )
is equal to

(a) ( − ) (b) ( − ) (c) ( + ) (d) None of these

( )
9] If ( ) = , then is equal to
( )

(a) f(–a) (b) (c) f(a2) (d)

10] If f(x) = x2 – x–2, then is equal to

(a) f(x) (b) –f(x) (c) (d) [f(x)]2

( )

11] Let f = {(1, 1), (2, 3), (0, –1), (–1, –3)} be a function from A to Z
defined by f(x) = ax + b, where a and b are integers. If A = {–1,
0, 1, 2} then determine a and b.

20
 SESSION 2
AIM
 Domain, Co-domain and Range of Function

DOMAIN, CO-DOMAIN AND RANGE OF FUNCTION :

If a function f is defined from a set of A to set B then for f: AB set A

is called the domain of function f and set B is called the co-domain of
function f. The set of all f-images of the elements of A is called the
range of function f.
In other words, we can say Domain = All possible values of x for
which f(x) exists.
Range = For all values of x, all possible values of f(x).
A B
Domain = {a, b, c, d} = A
f p
a Co-domain = {p, q, r, s} = B
b q Range = {p, q, r}
Range
c r
d s
Domain
Co-

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Methods for finding domain and range of function:
(i) Domain
(a) Expression under even root (i.e., square root, fourth root
etc.)  0
(b) Denominator  0.
(c) If domain of y = f(x) and y = g(x) are D1 and D2
respectively then the domain of f(x) ±g(x) or f(x).g(x) is
D1  D2
( )
(d) While domain of is D1  D2 – {g(x) = 0}
( )

(e) Domain of ( ) =  { : ( ) ≥ 0}

(ii) Range:
Range of y = f(x) is collection of all outputs f(x)
corresponding to each real number in the domain.
(a) If domain  finite number of points  range  set of
corresponding f(x) values.
(b) If domain  R or R – [some finite points]. Then express x
in terms of y. From this find y for x to be defined (i.e., find
the values of y for which x exists).
(c) If domain  a finite interval, find the least and greatest
value for range using monotonicity.

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 Important Tips:
 If f(x) is a given function of x and if a is in its domain of definition,
then by f(a) it means the number obtained by replacing x by a in
f(x) or the value assumed by f(x) when x = a.
 Range is always a subset of co-domain.

ALGEBRA OF FUNCTIONS

Let f(x) and g(x) be two real and single-valued functions, with
domains Xf, Xg and ranges Yf and Yg respectively. Let X = Xf  Xg ≠ .
Then, the following operations are defined.
(1) Scalar multiplication of a function:
(c f)(x) = c f(x), where c is a scalar. The new function c f(x) has
the domain Xf.
(2) Addition/subtraction of functions:
(f ± g)(x) = f(x) ± g(x). The new function has the domain X.
(3) Multiplication of functions:
(fg)(x) = (gf)(x) = f(x)g(x). The product function has the
domain X.

23
 (4) Division of functions:
( )
(i) ( )= .
( )

The new function has the domain X, except for the values of x
for which g(x) = 0.
( )
(ii) ( )= .
( )

The new function has the domain X, except for the values of x
for which f(x) = 0.
(5) Equal functions:
Two function f and g are said to be equal functions, if and
only if
(i) Domain of f = domain of g
(ii) Co-domain of f = co-domain of g
(iii) f(x) = g(x) x  their common domain

INTERVALS
If a variable x assumes any real value between two given numbers,
say a and b (a<b) as its value, then x is called a continuous variable.
The set of real numbers which lie between two specific numbers is
called the interval.
There are four types of interval:

24
(1) Open interval: Let a (2) Closed interval: Let a
and b be two real and b be two real
numbers such that a<b, numbers such that a<b,
then the set of all real then the set of all real
numbers lying strictly numbers lying between
between a and b is a and b including a and
called an open interval b is called a closed
and is denoted by [a, b] interval and is denoted
or (a, b). Thus, [a, b] or by [a,b]. Thus, [a,b]
(a, b) = {  : < < ={  : ≤ ≤ }
} [
axb
]
a b
a<x<b Closed interval
( )
a b ax<b
Open interval [ )
a b
Closed open interval

(3) Open-Closed interval: (4) Closed-Open interval:

It is denoted by ]a, b] or It is denoted by [a, b[ or
(a, b] and ]a, b] or [a, b) and
(a, b] = {  : < ≤ [a, b[ or [a, b) =
} {  : ≤ < }
a<xb
( ]
a b
Open closed interval

25
WORKED OUT EXAMPLES:
Example: Domain of the function is
√
(a) (−, −1)(1, ) (b) (−, −1](1, )
(c) (−, −1)[1, ) (d) None of these
Solution:
(a) For domain, x2 – 1 > 0  (x -1)(x+1) > 0
 x < –1 or x > 1  x  (−, −1)(1, ). √3
Example: The domain of the function ( )= (2 − 2 − is )
[BIT Ranchi 1992]
(a) –3  x  √3 (b) –1 – √3  x  –1 + √3
(c) –2  x  2 (d) None of these
Solution: (b) The quantity square root is positive, when –1 – √3  x
 –1 + √3
Example: The domain of the function f(x) = √ − + √4 + +
√4 − is
(a) [–4,) (b) [–4,4] (c) [0,4] (d) [0,1]
Solution: (d) ( ) = √ − + √4 + + √4 − clearly f(x) is
defined if
4 + x  0  x  –4
4–x0x4
x(1 – x)  0  x  0 and x  1
 Domain of f = (−∞, 4[−4, ∞)[0,1] = [0, 1]

26
Example: The domain of definition of the function y(x) given by 2x +
2y = 2 is [IIT Screening 2000]
(a) (0, 1] (b) [0, 1] (c) (−∞, 0] (d) (−∞, 1)
Solution: (d) 2y = 2 – 2x
y is real if 2 –2x  0  2 > 2x  1 > x
 x  (–, 1)

Example: The range of is

(a) (0, 1) (b) (1,) (c) [0, 1] (d) [1,)
Solution: (b) Let =  x2y = 1 + x2  x2 (y - 1) = 1  x2 =

Now since, x2 > 0  0  (y – 1) > 0y>1 y( 1 , )

Trick: = =1+ Now since, is always > 0

 > 1 (1. ).
Example: Range of the function ( ) = ;  is
[IIT Screening 2003]
(a) (1,) (b) (1, 11/7) (c) (1, 7/3] (d) (1, 7/5]
Solution: (c) ( ) = 1 +  Range = (1, 7/3]

Example: The domain of the function f (x) = is

√
a) (-, 1) b) (-, 1)  (2, )
c) (-, 1 ]  [2, ) d) (2, )
Solution: (b) For f (x) to be defined, we must have x2 – 3x + 2 = (x -
1) (x – 2 ) > 0

27
 x< 1 or > 2
Domain of f = (-, 1)  (2, ).
Hence (b) is the correct answer.
Example: Find the domain of the function f (x) = ( − 1)( − 2).
Solution:
Clearly, f (x) is real if
(x -1 ) (x – 2 )  0  x  1 or x  2
 x  (-, 1]  [2, ]

 
Hence, domain of f = –, 1]  [2, ]
Example: Find the domain of the function ( )=
√
Solution:
Clearly f (x) is a real number for all x satisfying 9- x2 > 0.
Now, 9- x2 > 0  x2 – 9 < 0  (x - 3) (x + 3) < 0
 -3 < x <3  x  (-3, 3)  
Hence, domain of f = (-3, 3).
Example: The domain of the function f (x) = − √1 − is

a) −1, −  ,1 b) [-1, 1]
√ √

c) −, −  ,+  d) ,1
√ √
Solution:
(d) For f (x) to be defined, we must have − √1 − ≥ 0 or x
≥ √1 − >0
 x2  1 – x2 or x2 ≥
28
 Also, 1- x2 ≥ 0 or x2 ≤ 1. Now, x ≤ − or ≥ − .
√ √
Also, x2 ≤ 1 (x - 1) (x + 1 ) ≤0  − 1 ≤ ≤1
Thus, x > 0, ≥ and x2  1  x  ,1 .
√
Example: If f : x → (highest prime factor of x) ,
(i) If domain of f is {12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17}, then find range of f.
(ii) If S is the set of positive integers such that f(S) = S, then describe
S.
(iii) State a domain of 5 integers for which the range is {3}.
Solution:
Clearly, by definition f(12) = 3, f(13)=13, f(14) = 7, f(15) = 5,
f(16) = 2 and f(17)=17
Hence
(i) Range = {3, 13, 7, 5, 2, 17}
(ii) f(2) = 2; f(3) = 3; f(5) = 5; f(7) = 7 etc…. Hence S = Set of
positive prime numbers
(iii) f(3) = f(6) = f(9) = f(12) = f(18) = 3. Hence required domain
= {3, 6, 9, 12, 18}
Example: Determine weather the following pair of functions given
are equal or not. f(x) = Cos x and ( )
√

Solution: Domain of f is and domain of g is

− {(2 + 1) ; ∈ }
Also, range of f is [-1, 1] and range of g is [0, 1] Hence f(x) and
g(x) are not equal functions.
29
CLASS EXERCISE
1] The natural domain of the real valued function defined by
( )=√ −1+√ +1
(a) 1 < x <  (b) – < x < 
(c) – < x < –1 (d) (–,)–(–1,1)
2] The largest set of real values of x for which
f(x) = ( + 2)(5 − ) − is a real function
√
(a) [1, 2]  (2, 5] (b) (2, 5]
(c) [3, 4] (d) None of these
3] The domain of the function ( ) = 16–x C 2x –1 + 20–3x P 4x –5,
where the symbols have their usual meanings, is the set
(a) {2, 3} (b) {2, 3, 4} (c) {1, 2, 3, 4} (d) {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
4] Range of ( )= is [Roorkee 1983]
(a) [5,9] (b) (−, 5][9, ∞)
(c) (5,9) (d) None of these
5] Find the domain and range of the function f (x) = .

6] The domain of the function ( )= is

√
a) (−∞, −1) b) (1, ∞) c) (–1, 1) d) (−∞, ∞ )
7] Determine a suitable domain of x, for which the following pair
of functions are equal.
√
(a) ( ) = and ( )=
√

30
 SESSION – 3
AIM
 Types of Real functions

REAL FUNCTIONS
If R, be the set of real numbers and A, B are subsets of R, then the
function f: A  B is called a real function or real –valued function.
In this section we will discuss some standard real functions which
will be frequently met with throughout calculus

Polynomial Function:
A function of the form f (x) = a0xn + a1xn-1 + ….. + an-1x + an
where a0, a1, a2………. an are real numbers , a0 ≠ 0 and n N, is called
a polynomial function of degree n.
The domain of a polynomial function is always R.

Rational Function:
( )
A function of the form f (x) = where P(x) and q(x) are
( )
polynomials and q (x) ≠0 is called a rational function. The domain
( )
of ration function ( ) is the set of all real numbers except points
where q (x) = 0.

Constant Function:
Let k be a fixed real number. Then a function f (x) given by f (x) = k
for all x  R is called a constant function.

31
Sometimes we also call it the constant function k.
Clearly, the domain of the constant function f (x) = k is the complete
set of real numbers and the range of f is the singleton set {k}. The
graph of a constant function is a straight line parallel to x – axis as
shown in Fig. and it is above or below x – axis according as k is
positive or negative. If k = 0 , then the straight line coincides with x
– axis.

Identity Function:

The function defined by I (x) = x for all x  R, is called the identity

function on R.
Clearly, the domain and range of the identity function are both
equal to R. The graph of the identity function is a straight line
passing through the origin and inclined at an angle of 450 with x –
axis.

32
Modulus Function:
, ℎ ≥0
The function defined by ( ) = | | = is called
− , ℎ 0
the modulus function.

The modulus function is also defined as |x| = Max. {x, –x}

The domain of the modulus function is the set R of all real numbers
and the range is the set of all non –negative real numbers. The
graph of the modulus function is as shown in figure.

Example1: The domain of the function ( ) = is

| |
[Roorkee 1998]
(a) R+ (b) R– (c) R0 (d) R
Solution: (b) For domain, |x| - x > 0  |x| > x. This is possible, only
when xR–
Example2: The range of the function ( ) = | is
|

(a) {0, 1} (b){– 1, 1} (c) R (d) R – {-2}

−1, < −2
Solution: (b) ( ) = | =
| 1, > −2
 Range of f(x) is {-1, 1}.

33
The greatest integer Function:

For any real number x, we denote [x], the greatest integer less than
or equal to x. For example [2.45] = 2, [-2.1] = - 3, [1. 75] = 1, [0. 32] =
0 etc.
The function f defined by f (x) = [x] for all x  R, is called the greatest
integer function.
Clearly, the domain of the greatest integer function is the set R of all
real numbers and the range is the set of all integers as it attains only
integral values. The graph of the greatest integer function is shown
in Fig.

Properties of greatest integer function:

i) [x] = x holds if x is integer

ii) [x + I] = [x] + I where I is integer
iii) [x + y]  [x] + [y]
iv) If [ (x) ]  I, then (x)  I.
v) If [ (x) ]  I, then (x) < I + 1.
vi) If [x] > n  x  n + 1, n  integer
vii) If [x] < n  x < n, n  integer

34
viii) [ (x)] > I  (x) I + 1
ix) [ (x)] < I  (x)  I – 1.
x) [- x] = - [x], if x  integer
xi) [- x] = - [x] -1, if x  integer
xii) [x + y] = [x] + [y + x-[x]], for all x, y  R
xiii) [x] + + + + + ……..+ + =[ ],  .

Example: If y=3[x]+1=2[x–3]+5, then find the value of [x + y]

Solution:
3[x] + 1 = 2([x] – 3) + 5 [x] = –2  y = 3(–2) +1 = –5
so [x + y] = [x] + y = –2 –5 = –7

Signum Function:
| | 1, > 0
, ≠0
The function defined by ( ) = or ( ) = 0, = 0 is
0, =0 −1, < 0
called the signum function.
The domain of the signum function is R and the range is the set {-1,
0, 1}. The graph of this function is as shown in fig.

35
CLASS EXERCISE
1] Solve the inequalities
(i) |x + 2| < 5 (ii) |1 – 2x|  1
(iii) |3x| > 1 (iv) |x + 2|  5
2] Solve the following inequalities:
(i) |x –1| + 2|x –2|  8 (ii) 4|x2 –1| + |x2 –4|  6
| |
3] The domain of definition of ( ) = is
| |

a) (–,) – [–1, 1] b) (–,) – [–2, 2]

c) [–1, 1]  ( –,–2)  (2, ) d) None of these
4] The domain of f(x) = |x–2|– |x–5| is
a) R – (2,5) b) R – {0} c) (0, ) d) R
5] The range of f(x) = | − 2| + | − 12| is
a) [2, ) b) (12, ) c) [10, ) d) [14, )
6] The domain of ( ) = [ ] is, where [.] denotes greatest
integer function.
a) R b) Z c) R – Z d) Q–{0}

36
 SESSION – 4
AIM
 Types of Real functions:

TYPES OF REAL FUNCTIONS:

Fractional part function
y = {x}. It indicates fractional part of x. In x = I + f, I = [x] and
f = {x}.
 y = {x} = x – [x], shown as

X {x}
0 x < 1 X
1 x < 2 x–1
2 x < 3 x–2
-1x < 0 x+1
-2  x < - 1 x+2

Properties of fractional part of x

i) {x} = x, if 0  x < 1
ii) {x} = 0, if x  integer
iii) {- x} = 1 – {x}, if x  integer.

37
Example: Solve the equation |2x –1 | = 3[x] + 2{x} for x
Solution: Case 1
<  |2 − 1| = 1 − 2
1– 2x = 3[x] + 2{x}
1– 2x = 3(x – {x}) + 2{x}  {x} = 5x 1
Now 0  {x} < 1  0  5x –1 < 1

 ≤ <  [x] = 0

 x = {x}  x = 5x –1  =

which is the solution ∵ <

Case 2: ≥  |2x –1| = 2x –1

 2x –1 = 3[x] + 2{x}
 2x –1 = 3(x – {x}) + 2{x} {x} = x +1
Now 0  x < 1  0  {x} < 1
 0  x +1 < 1  –1  x < 0

which is not possible since x 

Least integer function:

y = (x) = ⌈ ⌉ indicates the integral part of x which is nearest and

greater integer to x. It is known as ceiling of x.

38
Thus, (2.3203) = 3, (0.23) = 1 (-8.0725) =-8, (-0.6) =0
In general, n < x ≤ n + 1 (n  integer) i.e., (x) = n + 1
[x] = n or (x) = n + 1 = ⌈ ⌉

Here, f(x) = (x) = ⌈ ⌉ can be expressed graphically as

X ⌈ ⌉=(x)
-1< x  0 0
0<x1 1
1<x2 2
2<x3 3
-2< x  -1 -1

Properties of least integer function

i) (X) = x = ⌈ ⌉ holds, if x is integer

ii) [x + I] = P(x + I) = (x) + I, I  integer.

39
Reciprocal Function:

The function that associates each non- zero real number x to its
reciprocal is called the reciprocal function.
The domain and range of the reciprocal function are both equal to R
– {0} i.e. the set of all non – zero real numbers. the graph is as
shown in fig.

Logarithmic Function:

If ‘a’ is a positive real number not equal to 1, then the function that
associates every positive real number to loga x i.e. f (x) = loga x is
called the logarithmic function. The domain of the logarithmic
function is the set of all positive real numbers and the range is the
set R of all real numbers. Graph of this function is shown in Fig.

40
Exponential Function:

If a is positive real number not equal to 1, then the function which

associates every real number x to ax i.e. f (x) = ax is called the
exponential function.
Clearly, the domain of the exponential function is R and the range is
the set of all positive real numbers. The graph of the exponential
function is as shown in fig.

Square Root Function:

The function that associates every positive real number x to + √ is

called the square root function, i.e., f (x) = + √
Since negative real numbers do not have real square roots. So, f (x)
is not defined when x is a negative real numbers. Therefore, domain
of f is the set of all non- negative real numbers =[0, ). Clearly,
range (f) = { +√ |x[0,)}= [0, ).
The graph of f (x) = + √ is shown in fig.

41
WORKED OUT EXAMPLES_01
( )
Example: Find the domain of definition of ( ) =
[IIT 2001]
(a) (-3, ) (b) {-1, -2}
(c) (–3, ) – {–1,–2} (d) (-,)
( ) ( )
Solution: (c) Here ( ) = =( exists if,
)( )

Numerator x + > 0 x > -3 …... (i)

and denominator (x+1) (x+2) ≠0  x ≠ -1, -2 …… (ii)
Thus, from (i) and (ii); we have domain of f(x) is (-3, )–{–1,–2}.
Example: The domain of the function log( − 6 + 6) is
[Roorkee 1999]
(a) (-, ) (b) −, 3 − √3  3 + √3, 
(c) (−, 1][5, ) (d) [0, )
Solution: (c) The function ( )= log( − 6 + 6) is defined
when log(x2 – 6x + 6)  0
 x2 – 6x + 6  1  (x – 5)(x-1)  0
This inequality hold if x1or x5. Hence, the domain of the
function will be (−∞, 1][5, ∞).
Example: Domain of definition of the function f(x) = +
log ( − ), is [AIEEE 2003]
(a) (1, 2) (b) (–1, 0)  (1, 2)
(c) (1, 2)  (2, ∞) (d) (–1, 0)  (1, 2)  (2, )

42
Sol: (d) ( ) = + log ( − )

So, 4 – x2 ≠ 0  ≠ ±√ 4  ≠ ±2
and x3 – x > 0
 x(x2 – 1) > 0  x > 0, |x| > 1 – + – +

–1 0 1
 D = (-1, 0)  (1, ) – {2}
D = (-1, 0)  (1, 2) (2, )
Example: The domain of the function f(x) = log3+x (x2 - 1) is
(a) (-3, -1)  (1, ) (b) [-3, -1)  [1, )
(c) (-3, -2)  (-2, -1)  (1,)(d) [-3, -2)  (-2, -1)  [1,]
Solution: (c) f (x) is to be defined when x2 – 1 > 0
 x2 > 1,  x < -1 or x > 1 and 3 + x > 0
 x > -3 and x ≠ -2
 Dr = (-3, -2)  (-2, -1)  (1, ).
Example: The range of the function f (x) = loge (3x2 –4x +5) is
a) −∞, b) ,∞

c) − log , log d) None of these

Solution: (b)f(x) is defined, if 3x2 – 4x + 5 > 0
 3 − + > 0 3 − +  0 which is true for
all real x
 Domain (f) = (-,)
Let y = loge (3x2 – 4x + 5)  ey = 3x2 – 4x + 5.
 3x2 – 4x + (5 - ey) = 0

43
 For x to be real, 16 – 12 (5 - ey)0  12 ey  44  ey 

 y  loge  Range of y = log , .

Example: Find the domain of the function ( )= +

( )
√ +2
Solution: Let g (x) = and h (x) = √ + 2.
( )
Then, f (x) = g (x) + h (x).
Therefore, Domain (f) = Domain (g) Domain (h)
Now, g (x) = exists, if 1 – x > 0 and 1 – x ≠1
( )

i.e. x < 1 and x ≠ 0. So, domain (g) = (-, 1) – {0}.

Clearly, h (x) = √ + 2 exists , if x + 2 0, i.e. x - 2
So, domain (h) =[-2, )
Hence, domain (f) = (-, 1) – {0}  [-2, ) = [-2, )  (0, 1)
Example: Find the domain of the definition of the function
f (x) = log4 (log (log (18 − − 77)))
Solution: Since log x is defined for x > 0. Therefore
f(x) =log4 (log (log (18 − − 77))) is defined if
log5 (log3 (18x – x2 –77)) > 0  log3 (18x – x2 - 77) > 50
 (18x – x2 –77) > 31 x2 – 18x + 80 < 0
 (x- 8) (x - 10) < 0  8 < x < 10  x  (8, 10)
Hence, the domain of definition of the given function i
(8, 10)

44
TRIGONOMETRICAL FUNCTIONS
a) SINE FUNCTION
The function that associates to each real number x to sin x is called
the sine function. Here x is the radian measure of the angle. The
domain of the sine function is R and the range is [-1, 1].
Graph of the sine function is as shown in fig.

b) COSINE FUNCTIONS
The function that associates to each real number x to cos x is called
the cosine function. Here x is the radian measure of the angle. The
domain of the cosine function is R and the range is [-1, 1].
Graph of the cosine function is shown in fig.

TANGENT FUNCTION
The function that associates a real number x to tan x is called the
tangent function. Clearly, the tangent function is not defined at odd
multiples of /2 i.e., ± /2, ±3 /2 etc. So, the domain of the

45
tangent function is R – {(2n + 1) /2 | nZ}. Since it takes every
value between - and . So, the range is R.
Graph of f (x) = tan x is shown in fig.

c) COSECANT FUNCTION
The function that associates a real number x to cosec x is called the
cosecant function. Clearly, cosec x is not defined at x = n , n Z i.e.
0, ± , ±2 , ±3 etc. So, its domain is R-{n | nZ}. Since cosec x1
or cosec x -1. Therefore, range is (−∞][1, ∞).
Graph of f (x) = cosec x is shown in fig.

d) SECANT FUNCTION
The function that associates a real number x to sec x is called the
secant function. Clearly, sec x is not defined at odd multiple of /2
i.e. (2n + 1) /2, where n  Z. So, its domain is R–{(2n+1) /2| nZ}.
Also, | sec x |1, therefore its range is (-, -1]  [1, ).

46
 Graph of f (x) = cosec x is shown in fig.

e) COTANGENT FUNCTION
The function that associates a real number x to cot x is called the
cotangent function. Clearly, cot x is not defined at x = nZ i.e. at n =
0, ± , ±2 etc. So, domain of cot x is R – {n | nZ}. The range of
f(x) = cot x is R as is evident from its graph in fig.

WORKED OUT EXAMPLES_02

Example: Find the domain and range of the function f (x) = sin
√
log .
Solution: Since log x is defined for x > 0 . Therefore, f (x) is
√
Defined for > 0  4 – x2 > 0 and 1 – x > 0
 x2 – 4 < 0 and x < 1
 - 2 < x < 2 and x < 1  x  (-2, 1)
47
 Hence, the domain of f (x) is (-2, 1)
√
Since f (x) = sin log and sin x assumes all values
between -1 and 1.
Hence, range of f (x) = [-1, 1]
Example: The range of f(x) = cosx – sinx, is
(a) (-1,1) (b) [-1,1) (c) − , (d) −√2, √2

Solution: (d) Let, f(x) = cosx – sinx  f(x) = √2 −

√
 ( ) = √2 cos +
√

Now since, -1  cos + 1  − √2  ( ) √2

 ( ) −√2, √2,
Trick: ∵ Maximum value of cosx – sinx is √2 and minimum value
of cosx – sinx is -√2.
Hence, range of f(x) = [-√2, √2]
Example: For real values of x, range of the function = is

a) y1 (b) −  y < 1

(c) − > y > −1 (d) > y > 1

Solution: (a) ∵ = ,  2 – sin3x =  3 =2−

Now since,
-1  sin3x  1  -1  2 -  1  -3  -  -1

1 3  y  1.

48
Example: If f(x) = acos(bx + c) + d then range of f(x)
(a) [d+a, d+2a] (b) [a-d, a+d]
(c) [d+a, a-d] (d) [d-a, d+a]
Solution: (d) f(x) = acos(bx+c) + d ….. (i)
For minimum cos(bx+c) = -1
from (i), f(x) = -a + d = (d – a),
for maximum cos(bx+ c) = 1
from (i), f(x) = a + d = (d + a)
 Range of f(x) = [d-a, d+a].
Example: The range of ( ) = sec , −∞ < < ∞ is

(a) [1, √2] (b) [1, )

(c) −√2, −1 [1, √2] (d) (-,-1][1,)
Solution: (a) ( ) = sec
We know that, 0  cos2 x  1 at cosx = 0, f(x) = 1 and at cos x = 1,
f(x) = √2
 1  x  √2  x  [1, √2].

Example: The range of the function y = 3 sin − is

a) 0, b) − , c) − ,0 d) None of these
√ √ √ √

Solution: (a) For y to be defined, − 0

 − + 0

49
  − + 0  −  
 Domain for y = − ,

Clearly for  − , , −  0,

Since sin x is an increasing function on 0, .

Therefore, sin 0  sin − 

 0  3 sin −  0 
√ √

Range of y = 0,
√

Inverse Trigonometrical Functions:

The inverse trigonometrical functions sin-1x, cos-1x, tan-1x, etc. are

defined as the inverse of the corresponding trigonometrical
functions. For example, sin-1 x is defined as the angle whose sine is
x. But since for each value of sin-1 x, there corresponding an
unlimited number of values of the angles whose sine is x and for
values of x with | x | > 1, sin-1x does not exist. Thus, we cannot
define the inverse function of sin x unless we modify the definition
of sin x in such a way that it becomes a bijection. If we consider sin
x as a function from [− /2, /2] to [-1,1], then it is a bijection.
Consequently sin-1 x exists and it is a function from [-1,1]
to[− /2, /2].
Similarly, the other inverse trigonometrical functions can be
defined.

50
The domain and range of the inverse trigonometrical functions are
as stated below:

Function Domain Range Definition of the

function
Sin-1 x [-1, 1] [– /2, /2] y= sin-1x  x =
sin y
Cos-1 x [-1, 1] [0, ] y= cos-1 x  x =
cos y
Tan-1 x (-,) or (- /2, /2) y= tan-1 x  x =
R tan y
Cot-1 x (-,) or (0, ) y= cot-1 x  x =
R cot y
Cosec-1 x R – (-1, [- /2, /2] y= cosec-1 x  x =
1) – {0} cosec y
sec-1 x R- (-1, 1) [0- ] { y= sec-1 x  x =
/2} sec y

51
GRAPHS OF INVERSE OF TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

a) y = sin - 1x:

Here, domain  [-1, 1] and range  − , .

b) y = cos-1x:

Here, domain  [- 1, 1]; range  [0, ].

c) y = tan – 1x:

Here, domain  R; range  − ,

52
d) y = cot– 1x:

Here, domain  (0, ).

e) y = cosec-1x:

Here, domain  - (-1, 1); range  − , − {0}

f) y = sec – 1x:

Here, domain R – (–1,1); range [0, ] − { /2}.

53
WORKED OUT EXAMPLES_03
Example: The domain of the function f(x) = sin-1 [log2 (x / 2)] is
[AIEEE 2002]
(a) [1, 4] (b) [–4, 1] (c) [–1, 4] d) None of these
Solution:
(a) f(x) = sin-1 [log2 (x/2)]
Domain of sin-1x is x  [-1,1]  -1  log2 (x/2)  1    2 
1x4
 x  [1,4].
Example: The domain of the derivative of the function ( )=
, | | 1
is
(| | − 1), | | > 1
(a) R – {0} (b) R – {1} (c) R – {–1} (d) R – {–1, 1}
Solution: [IIT Screening 2002]

(− − 1), < −1 ⎧ , < −1

⎪
(c) ( ) = , −1   1  ( )= , −1 < <1
⎨
( + 1) , > 1 ⎪ , >1
⎩
f(–1–0) = − ; (−1 + 0) = =
( )

f’(1–0) = = ; (1 + 0) =
( )

 f(–1) does not exist.

 domain of ( )= − {−1}.

54
Example: Domain of definition of the function
( )= (2 ) + for real value x, is

(a) − , (b) − , (c) − , (d) − ,

Solution: [IIT Screening 2003]
(a) −  (2 )  − 2 1  − , .
Example: Find the domain of the function f(x) = √1 − 2 +
3
Solution: f (x) = g (x) + h (x), where g (x) = √1 − 2 and h (x) =
3sin-1 .
Clearly, g (x) is defined, when 1 – 2x  0  x  1/2.
Therefore,
Domain (g) = (-, 1/ 2]
Also, h (x) is defined, when −1  1 −23 −12
 -1  3x  3  x1
So, domain (h) = [-1/ 3, 1]
Hence, domain (f) = (-, 1/2]  [-1/3, 1] = [-1/3, 1/2]
Example: Find the domain of the function ( )= +2 +

√
Solution: Let (x) = f (x) + g (x) + h (x),
where and h(x) =
√ √
Clearly, domain (f) = R – {0}, domain (g) = [-1, 1] and domain
h = (2, ).
55
 domain ( ) = − {0}[−1,1](2, ) = (null set)
Hence, f (x) is not defined for any x  R.
Example: The range of the function y = sin-1 is

Solution: Clearly, for y to be defined,  1 which is true for all

xR.
So, the domain = (-,).
Now, =  =   =

For x to be real, sin y  0 and 1 – sin y > 0

 0  sin y < 1  y  0,

∴ Range = 0,

CLASS EXERCISE
1] The domain of the function ( ) = log . is
(a) (0, 1] (b) (0, ) (c) (0.5, ) (d) [1, )
2] The domain of definition of the real function ( ) = log
of the real variable is
(a) x > 0 (b) |x|  1 (c) |x|  4 (d) x  4
3] Domain of f(x) = log |log x| is
(a) (0, ) (b) (1, )
(c) (0,1)  (1, ) (d) (–,1)
/
4] Domain of function ( ) = log is
(a) – < x <  (b) 1  x  4 (c) 4  x  16 (d) –1  x  1

56
5] Domain of the function log is
(a) [1,2] (b) [–1,–2]
(c) [–2,2]–(–1,1) (d) [–2,2]–{}
√
6] The domain of the function ( ) = is
( )
(a) [0, 2] (b) [0, 2) (c) [1, 2) (d) [1, 2]
7] The domain of the function ( ) = log √ − 4 + √6 − is
(a) [4,) (b) (–, 6] (c) [4,6] (d) None f these
8] The domain of the function ( ) = + √ + 2 is
( )
(a) ] –3, –2.5 [] – 2.5, –2[ (b) [–2,0[]0, 1[
(c) ]0, 1[ (d) None of these
9] The domain of the function f(x) = loge (x – [x]), where [.]
denotes the greatest integer function, is
(a) R (b) R–Z (c) (0, +) (d) None of these
10] If f (x) = sin [ ] x + sin [− ] x, where [.] denotes the greatest
integer function, then:
a) = 1 b) f ( ) = 2 c) = 1 d) None of these
11] The range of the function f (x) = sin x – cos x is:
a) (–√2, √2) b) [–√2, √2] c) [0, √2] d) None of these
12] The domain of the function ( ) = log /

+ log √4 − 4 + 5 is
a) ,∞ b) ,∞ c) (–,) d) None of these
13] The domain of the function f (x) = log10 sin (x – 3) + √16 − is
a) (3, 4) b) (–4, 4) c) (3, +3) d) None of these

57
14] The domain of the function f (x) = log x cos x is
a) − , − {1} b) − , − {1}

c) − , d) 0, − {1}
15] The domain of the function f (x) = is
| |

a) (–2n , 2n ) b) (2n , (2n + 1) )

c) (4 − 1) , (4 + 1) d) None of these

58
 SESSION – 5
AIM
 Miscellaneous Problems on Domain & Range
Miscellaneous Problems on Domain and Range
Example: Consider f(x) a mapping defined from set X to set Y. In each
case determine whether f(x) is a function or not also explain the
reason clearly. Determine the range in each case.
(i) Let X = R, Y = R and y = f (x) = x2.
Then f : X  Y is a function since each element in X has exactly
one f – image in Y.
The rage of f = {f (x) : x  X} = {x2 : x  R} = [0, ).
(ii) Let X = R+, Y = R+ and y = x then f : X Y is a function. The
range of f is R+
(iii) Let X = R, Y = R and y2 = x.
Here ( ) = ±√ i.e., f is not a function of X into Y since each
x > 0 has two f – images in Y and further each x < 0 has no
f – image in Y.
Example: Find the domain of definition of the following functions
(i) f (x) = sin–1(x2 – 4x +4)

(ii) ( ) = log / (2 − 3)

( )( )
(iii) ( ) = ( )( )

(iv) f (x) = cos–1[2x2 – 3]. ([] denotes the greatest integer function)
59
Solution: (i) For f (x) to be defined –1  x2 – 4x + 4  1
 –1  (x –2)2  1  |x –2|  1
 –1  x –2  1 1  x  3
Hence the domain of definition of f (x) is the set x  [1, 3]
(ii) For f (x) to be defined
log1/2 (2x –3)  0  2x –3  1  x  2 –––––––(1)

Also 2x – 3 > 0 i.e., > ––––––(2)

Combining (1) and (2) we get the required values of x. Hence the
domain of definition of f (x) is the set ,2
( )( )
(iii) For f (x) to be defined ( )( )
≥ 0 and x  3, 4

By wavy – curve method the domain of definition of f (x) is the

set x  (–, –2]  [1, 3)  (4, )
(iv) For f (x) to be defined –1  [2x2 – 3]  1
5
 –1  2x2 –3 < 2  2  2x2  5 1  x2 
2

If x2  1 then x  (–, –1] [1, ) ………(1)

If x2  5 then − , ………(2)
2

Combining (1) and (2) − , −1 ∪ 1, which is the

domain of definition of f (x).

60
Example: Find the range of the following functions.
(i) ( )= √ +4 +5

(ii) ( ) = 3 + 8 cos − +5

(iii) ( ) = + ([] denotes the greatest integer function)

(iv) ( ) =

Solution:

(i) ( )= +4 +5= ( + 2) + 1

i.e., x2 + 4x + 5 takes all values in [1, )  f (x) will take all

values in [0, )
Hence range of f (x) is [0, )

(ii) ( )=3 + 8 cos − +5=3 +

4 + √3 +5

= 3 + 4√ 3 +4 +5

Put 3 + 4√3 = and 4 = r sin

= 73 + 24√3 and
= ⇒ ( )= 73 + 24√3 sin( + ) + 5
√

 Range of f (x) is 5 − 73 + 24√3, 5 + 73 + 24√3

61
(iii) ( ) = +

For any value of , + is a non-negative integer and sin–1x

is defined only for two non-negative integers 0 and 1.

∴ = 0,

(iv) ( ) =
Let y = f (x)

∴ = i.e., − 2( + 1) + 3 + 2 = 0

Which is a quadratic in x. For above quadratic to have real roots

 0

(y +1)2 – y(3y +2)  0 ⇒ ≤ ⟹− ≤ ≤ Hence range

√ √

of f (x) is − ,
√ √

Example: Find the domain and range of each of the following

functions.
(i) ( )=

(ii) ( ) = log ( + 4 + 4)

(iii) sin( ) + cos( )

62
Solution: (i) ( ) =

f (x) is defined for all x  R other than numbers, where

x2 + 4x + 3 = 0
 x = –3, –1
So domain of f (x) = R\{–3, –1}

Let =  x2(1 – y) + x(1 – 4y) + 1–3y = 0

Since x is real, so (1 – 4y)2 – 4(1 – y) (1– 3y)  0

√ √
4y2 + 8y – 3  0 ⇒ −∞, ∪ ,∞
which is the required range
(ii) log1/2 (x2 + 4x + 4) > 0 0 < x2 + 4x + 4 < 1
i.e., x2 + 4x + 3 < 0
(x + 1)(x + 3) < 0
x  (–3, –1). But if x = –2 f (x) will not be defined
 Domain of f (x) = (–3, –2)  (–2, –1)
∵0 < 2 + 4 + 4 < 1 – < log (x2 + 4x + 4) < 0
 0 < log1/2(x2 + 4x +4) < 
 – < log2(log1/2(x2 + 4x + 4)) < 
 Range of f (x) is R.

63
(iii) ( ) = sin( ) + cos( )
Since –1  sinx  1 and cosx  0  − , , so sin(cosx)  0 
− ,

Now ( ) is defined only when sin(cosx)  0 which is

possible only which 0

So required domain of ( ) = ⋃ 2 − ,2 +

Example: Find the domain of the following functions:

i) cos-1 (3x-1) ii) sin-1 2x iii) tan-1 (2x + 1)
Solution:
(i) Clearly, cos-1 (3x - 1) is defined. if −1 ≤ 3 − 1 ≤ 1 [Domain of
cos-1 x = [-1, 1]]
⇒ −1 + 1 ≤ 3 ≤ 1 + 1 ⇒ 0 ≤ 3 ≤ 2 ⇒ 0 ≤ ≤ 2/3 ⇒
[0,2/3]
Hence, domain of cos-1 (3x - 1) is [0, 2/ 3 ].
(ii) Clearly, sin-1 2x exits, if −1 ≤ 2 ≤ 1 [∵Domain of sin-1 x = [-1,
1]]
⇒− ≤ ≤ ⇒ − ,
Hence, domain of sin -1 (2x) is [-1/2, 1/2]
(iii) Since tan-1 x exists, if (−∞, ∞).
Therefore tan-1 (2x + 1) is defined, if
−∞ < 2 + 1 < ∞ ⇒ −∞ < < ∞ ⇒ (−∞, ∞) ⇒
(−∞, ∞) =
So, domain of tan-1 (2x + 1 ) is R.

64
Example: Find the domain of the function ( )= +
( )
√ +2
Solution: Let ( ) = ( )
and ℎ( ) = √ + 2.
Then f (x) = g (x) + h (x).
Therefore, ( )= ( )∩ (ℎ)
Now, ( ) = ( )
exists, if 1 – x > 0 and (1 − ≠ 1)
i.e. x < 1 and ≠ 0.
So, ( ) = (−∞, 1) − {0}.
Clearly, ℎ( ) = √ + 2 exists , if + 2 ≥ 0, . ≥ −2
So, domain (ℎ) = [−2, ∞)
Hence, domain ( ) = (−∞, 1) − {0} ∩ [−2, ∞) = [−2, ∞) ∪ (0,1)
Example: Find the domain of the definition of the function
( ) = log (log (log (18 − − 77)))
Solution: Since log x is defined for x > 0.
Therefore, ( ) = log (log (log (18 − − 77))) is defined if
log5 (log3 (18x – x2 –77)) > 0 ⇒ log3 (18x – x2 - 77) > 50
⇒ (18 – 2 – 77) > 31  2 – 18 + 80 < 0
⇒ ( − 8) ( − 10) < 0  8 < < 10  (8, 10)
Hence, the domain of definition of the given function is (8, 10)

65
 √
Example: The domain of the function ( ) = ( ) = ( )
is
a) (2, 3) b) [2, 3) c) (2, 3] d) None of these
Solution: (b) √9 − is defined for
9− ≥ 0 ⇒ (3 − )(3 + ) ≥ 0 ⇒ ( − 3)( + 3) ≤ 0 ⇒
−3 ≤ ≤ 3
Sin–1 (3 – x) defined for −1 ≤ 3 − ≤ 1
⇒ −4 ≤ − ≤ −2 ⇒2≤ ≤4
Also, (3 − ) ≠ 0 ⇒ 3 − ≠ 0 ≠3
From (1), (2) and (3), we get the domain of = ([−3, 3] ∩
[2, 4]) – {3} = [2, 3).
Example: The domain of the function ( ) = √3 − +
is
a) [-1, 3] b) (-1, 3] c ) [-1, 3) d) None of these
Solution:
(a) √3 − is defined for 3 − ≥0⇒ ≤ 3 ……(1)
is defined for −1 ≤ ≤1
⇒ −5 ≤ 3 − 2 ≤ 5 ⇒ −8 ≤ −2 ≤ 2 ⇒ −1 ≤ ≤ 4 …….(2)
From (1) and (2), we get domain of = (−  , 3] ∩ [−1, 4] =
[−1, 3]

66
Example: The domain of the function ( )= −
log (4 − ) is
a) (1, 4) b) [1, 4] c) [1, 4) d) (1, 4]
Solution:
(c) ( ) = − log (4 − ) is
−2 ≤ − 3 ≤ 2 ⇒ 1 ≤ ≤ 5 ……………...(1)
log10 (4 – x) is defined, if 4- x > 0 i.e., x < 4 ………………(2)
From (1) and (2), we get domain of = [1,5] ∩ (−∞, 4) = (1,4)

CLASS EXERCISE
1] Find the domain of each of the following functions:
(i) ( ) = √ −3 +2 (ii) ( ) =
√

(iii) ( ) = √ −3 +2 (iv) ( ) = log

[ ]
2] Let ( ) = [ ]
, , then f (R) is equal to
,
a) [0, 1] b) c) 0, d) [0, 1)
3] Domain of the function ( ) = sin( ) + √40 − is _____.
4] The domain of definition of f(x) = cos–1 (x+[x]) is
a) [0, 1) b) R – I c) (0, ∞) d) none of these
5] The domain of f(x) = logx (9–x2) is
a) (–3,3) b) (0, ∞)
c) (0,1) ∪ (1, ∞) d) (0,1) ∪ (1,3)

67
6] The domain of f(x) = log (sin x) is
a) (− , ) b) (2 , (2 + 1) ) and
c) [0,2 ] d) − ,

7] ( ) = [ ] sin domain of f is, where [.] denotes greatest

integer function.
a) − [−1,0) b) R c) R–{–1} d) R+
8] The domain of the function f (x) = sin–1 (log3 (x /3)) is
a) [–1, 9] b) [1, 9] c) [–9, 1] d) [3, 9]

68
 SESSION - 6
Kinds of Function:
(1) One-one function (injection): A function : → is said to be a
one-one function or an injection, if different elements of A have
different images in B. Thus, : → is one-one.
⇔ ≠ ⟹ ( ) ≠ ( ) for all , ⟺ ( )= ( )⟹ =
for all , .
e.g. Let : → and : → be two functions represented by
the following diagrams.
A B X Y
f g
a1 b1 x1 y1
a2 b2 x2 y2
b3 y3
a3 x3
b4 y4
a4 x4
b5 y5

Clearly, : → is a one-one function. But : → is not one-

one function because two distinct elements and have the
same image under function g.
(i) Method to check the injectivity of a function:
Step I: Take two arbitrary elements x, y (say) in the domain of f.
Step II: Put ( ) = ( )
Step III: Solve ( ) = ( ). If ( ) = ( ) gives x = y only, then
: → is a one-one function (or an injection). Otherwise not.
Note: If function is given in the form of ordered pairs and if two
ordered pairs do not have same second element then function is
one-one.

69
  If the graph of the function = ( ) is given and each line
parallel to x-axis cuts the given curve at maximum one point
then function is one-one. e.g.
Y Y

(0,
X X X
O O X
f (x) = ax (0 < a < 1)
f(x) = ax + b
Y Y

(ii) Number of one-one functions (injections): If A and B are finite

sets having m and n elements respectively, then number of one-
,
one functions from A to B =
0, <
(2) Many-one function: A function : → is said to be a many-
one function if two or more elements of set A have the same
image in B.
Thus, : → is a many-one function if there exist , such
that x  y but ( ) = ( ).
In other words, : → is a many-one function if it is not a one-
one function.
A B X Y
f b1 g
a1 x1 y1
a2 b2 x2 y2
b3 y3
a3 x3
b4 y4
a4 b5 x4
a5 b6 x5 y5

70
Note:
 If function is given in the form of set of ordered pairs and the
second element of atleast two ordered pairs are same then
function is many-one.
 If the graph of = ( ) is given and the line parallel to x-axis
cuts the curve at more than one point then function is many-
one.
Y Y

X X X X
O f (x) = x2 f (x) = |x|

Y Y

 If the domain of the function is in one quadrant then the

trigonometrical functions are always one-one.
 If trigonometrical function changes its sign in two consecutive
quadrants then it is one-one but if it does not change the sign
then it is many-one.
: (0, ), ( ) = : (0, ), ( ) = cos
Y Y
one-one
many-one

+ /2
X X
+ + –
X X
/2 
Y Y

 In three consecutive quadrants trigonometrical functions are

always many-one.

71
(3) Onto function (surjection): A function : → is onto if each
element of B has its pre-image in A. Therefore, if
( ) ,∀ then function is onto. In other words, Range
of f = Co-domain of f.
e.g. The following arrow-diagram shows onto function.
A B X Y
f x1 g
a1 b1 y1
x2 y2
a2 b2
x3
a3 b3 x4 y3

(i) Number of onto function (surjection): If A and B are two sets

having m and n elements respectively such that 1 ≤ ≤ , then
number of onto functions from A to B is ∑ (−1) .
(4) Into function: A function : → is an into function if there
exists an element in B having no pre-image in A.
In other words, : → is an into function if it is not an onto
function.
e.g. The following arrow-diagram shows into function.
A B X Y
f x1 g
a1 b1 y1
x2 y2
a2 b2
y3
a3 b3 x3 y4

(i) Method to find onto or into function:

(a) If range = co-domain, then ( ) is onto and if range is a
proper subset of the co-domain, then ( ) is into.
(b) Solve ( ) = by taking x as a function of y i.e., ( ) (say).

72
 (c) Now if ( ) is defined for each co-domain and ( )
domain for co-domain, then ( ) is onto and if any one of
the above requirements is not fulfilled, then ( ) is into.
(5) One-one onto function (bijection): A function : → is a
bijection if it is one-one as well as onto.
A B

In other words, a function : → is a 1a f b1

2a b2

bijection if 3

4
a
a
b
b
3

(i) It is one-one i.e., ( ) = ( ) ⟹ = for

all ,
(ii) It is onto i.e., for all , there exists such that
( )=
Clearly, f is a bijection since it is both injective as well as
surjective.
Number of one-one onto function (bijection): If A and B are finite
sets and : → is a bijection, then A and B have the same number
of elements. If A has n elements, then the number of bijection from
A to B is the total number of arrangements of n items taken all at a
time i.e. n!.
Important Tips:
 Any function, which is entirely increasing or decreasing in the
whole of a domain, is one-one.
 Any continuous function f(x), which has at least one local
maximum or local minimum, is many-one.
 If any line parallel to the x-axis cuts the graph of the function at
most at one point, then the function is one-one and if there exists a
line which is parallel to the x-axis and cuts the graph of the
function in at least two points, then the function is many-one.

73
 Any polynomial function f: R  R is onto if degree of f is odd and
into if degree of f is even.
 An into function can be made onto by redefining the co-domain as
the range of the original function.
Ex: Function : → , ( ) = 2 + 3 is [IIT 1973]
(a) One-one onto (b) One-one into
(c) Many-one onto (d) Many –one into
Sol: (b) is one-one because ( )= ( )⟹2 +3=2 +
3⟹ = ,
Further ( )= ∉ (domain) when x = 1, 2, 3 etc.
∴ f is into which shows that f is one-one into.
Ex: The function : → defined by ( ) = ( − 1)( − 2)( − 3)
is [Roorkee 1999]
(a) One-one but not onto (b) Onto but not one-one
(c) Both one-one and onto (d) Neither one-one nor onto
Sol: (b) We have ( ) = ( − 1)( − 2)( − 3) ⟹ (1) = (2) =
(3) = 0 ⟹ ( ) is not one-one
For each , there exists such that ( ) = . Therefore f
is onto.
Hence, : → is onto but not one-one.

74
Ex: Find number of surjection from A to B where
= { , , , }, = { , } [IIT Screening 2001]
(a) 13 (b) 14 (c) 15 (d) 16
Sol: (b) Number of surjection from A to B = ∑ (−1) ( )
= (−1) 2 (1) + (−1) 2 (2) = −2 + 16 = 14
Therefore, number of surjection from A to B = 14.
Trick: Total number of functions from A to B is 2 of which two
function ( ) = for all and ( ) = for all are not
surjective. Thus, total number of surjection from A to B = 2 −
2=14.
Ex: If = { , , } then total number of one-one onto functions
which can be defined from A to A is
(a) 3 (b) 4 (c) 9 (d) 6
Sol: (d) Total number of one-one onto functions = 3!
Ex: If : ⟶ , then ( ) = | | is
(a) One-one but not onto (b) Onto but not one-one
(c) One-one and onto (d) None of these
Sol: (d) (−1) = (1) = 1
∴ function is many-one function.
Obviously, f is not onto so f is neither one-one nor onto.

75
Ex: Let : → be a function defined by ( ) = , where ≠
. Then
(a) f is one-one onto (b) f is one-one into
(c) f is many one onto (d) f is many one into
Sol: (b) For any , , we have
( )= ( )⟹ = ⟹ =
∴ f is one-one
Let such that ( ) = ⟹ = ⟹ =
Clearly ∉ for = 1. So, f is not onto.
Ex: The function : → defined by ( ) = is
(a) Onto (b) Many-one
(c) One-one and into (d) Many one and onto
Sol: (c) Function : → is defined by ( ) = . Let , and
( ) = ( ) or = or = . Therefore f is one-one.
Let ( ) = = . Taking log on both sides, we get = log .
We know that negative real numbers have no pre-image or the
function is not onto and zero is not the image of any real
number. Therefore function f is into.
Ex: A function f from the set of natural numbers to integers defined
, ℎ
by ( ) = , is [AIEEE 2003]
− , ℎ
(a) One-one but not onto (b) Onto but not one-one
(c) One-one and onto both (d) Neither one-one nor onto

76
Sol: (c) : →
(1) = 0, (2) = −1, (3) = 1, (4) = −2, (5) = 2 and
(6) = −3 so on.

1 0
–1
2
3 1
–2
4
5 2
6 –3

In this type of function every element of set A has unique image

in set B and there is no element left in set B. Hence f is one-one
and onto function.
1] Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4}, B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} and : → be a function
defined by ( ) = + 2 for all .
Sol: We have, f = {(1, 3), (2, 4), (3, 5), (4, 6)}
Clearly, different elements is A have different images under
function f.
So, f: A →B is an injection.
2] Find whether the following functions are non-one or not:
i) f: R → R given by f(x) = x3 + 2 for all x R.
ii) f: Z → Z given by f(x) = x2 + 1 for all x  Z.
Sol: i) Let x, y be two arbitrary elements of R (domain of f) such that
f(x) = f(y)
Then, f(x) = f(y) ⟹ x3 + 2 = y3 + 2 ⟹ x3 = y3 ⟹ x = y
Hence, f is a one-one function from R to itself.
ii) Let x, y be two arbitrary elements of Z such that f(x) = f(y).
Then, f(x) = f(y) ⟹ x2 + 1 = y2 + 1 ⟹ x2 = y2 ⟹ x = ± y

77
 Here, f(x) = f(y) does not provide the unique solution x = y but
it provides = ± .
So, f is not a non-one function.
Infact, f(2) = 22 + 1 = 5 and f(-2) = (-2)2 + 1 = 5. So, 2 and -2 are
two distinct elements having the same image.
3] Consider a function : → given by ( ) = | | for all .
Then, f is a many-one function because for every , ≠ 0, we
have ≠ − , but f(a) = f(-a) [∴ | | = |− |]
4] Show that the function : → defined by f(x) = x2 + x for all
, is a many-one function.
Sol: Let , . Then, f(x) = f(y) ⟹ x2 + x = y2 + y
⟹ (x2 – y2) + (x –y) = 0 ⟹ (x – y) (x + y + 1) = 0
⟹ x = y or, y = - x – 1
Since f(x) = f(y) does not provide the unique solution x = y but it
also provides = − – 1. This means that ≠ but f(x) = f(y)
when y = -x – 1. For example, it we put x = 1 in y = - x – 1 we
obtain y = - 2. This shows that 1 and - 2 have the same image
under f. Hence, f is a many-one function.
5] Discuss the surjectivity of the following functions:
i) : → given by f(x) = x3 + 2 for all
ii) : → given by f(x) = x2 + 2 for all
iii) : → given by f(x) = 3x + 2 for all .
Sol: i) Let y be an arbitrary element of R. Then, f(x) = y ⟹ x3 + 2 = y
⟹ x = (y – 2)1/3
Clearly, for all y R, (y – 2)1/3 is a real number.
Thus, for all y R, (co-domain) there exists x = (y – 2)1/3 in R
(domain) such that
f(x) = x3 + 2 = y.
78
 Hence, : → is an onto function.
ii) Clearly, f(x) = x2 + 2 ≥ 2 for all x R.
So, negative real numbers in R (domain) do not have their pre-
images in R (domain).
Hence, f is not an onto function.
iii) Let y be an arbitrary element of Z (co-domain). Then, f(x) = y
⟹ 3x + 2 = y ⟹ =
Clearly, if y = 0, then x = - 2/3 ∉ Z.
Thus, y = 0 Z does not have its pre-image in Z(domain).
Hence, f is not an onto function.
6] Show that the function f: R → R defined by f(x) = 3x3 + 5 for all x
R is a bijection.
Sol: We observe the following properties of f:
Injectivity: Let x, y be any two elements of R (domain).
Then, f(x) = f(y) ⟹ 3x3 + 5 = 3y3 + 5 ⟹ x3 = y3 ⟹ x = y
Thus, f(x) = f(y) ⟹ x = y for all x, y R.
So, f is an injective map.
Surjectivity: Let y be an arbitrary element of R(co-domain).
Then,
/
f(x) = y ⟹ 3x3 +5=y⟹ x3 = ⟹ =
Thus, we find that for all y R (co-domain) there exists
/
x= (domain) such that
/
f(x) = =3 +5=y–5+5=y

79
 This shows that every element in the co-domain has its pre-
image in the domain.
So, f is a surjection. Hence, f is a bijection.
7] Let A = {x R: -1 ≤ x ≤ 1} = B. Show that f: A → B given by f(x) =
x | x | is a bijection.
Sol: We observe the following properties of f:
Injectivity: Let x, y be any two elements in A. Then, x ≠ y ⟹ x |
x|  y | y | ⟹ f(x) ≠ f(y)
So, f: A → B is an injective map.
, >0
Surjectivity: We have, ( ) = | | =
− , <0
If 0 ≤ x ≤ 1, then f(x) = x2 takes all values between 0 and 1
including these two points.
Also, if -1 ≤ x < 0, then f(x) = - x2 takes all values between –1 and
0 including –1.
Therefore, f(x) takes every value between –1 and 1 including –1
and 1.
So, range of is same as its co-domain.
Hence, f: A → B is an onto function
Thus, f: A → B is both one-one and onto.
Hence, it is a bijection.
, >0
Aliter: We have, ( ) = | | =
− , <0
For x > 0, f(x) = x2 represents a parabola opening upward and
for x < 0, f(x) = - x2 represents a parabola opening downward.
So, the graph of f(x) is as shown in fig.

80
 It is evident from the graph of f(x) that f is one-one and onto.
Remark: If follows from the above discussion that if A and B are
two finite sets and f: A →B is a function, then
i) f is an injection ⟹ n (A) ≤ n (B)
ii) f is a surjection ⟹ n (B) ≤ n (A)
iii) f is a bijection ⟹ n (A) = n (B)
8] Let A = R – {2} and B = R –{1}. If f: A → B is a mapping defined by
( )= , show that f is bijective.
Sol: Injectivity: Let x, y be any two elements of A. Then, f(x) = f(y)
⟹ = ⟹ ( − 1)( − 2) = ( − 2)( − 1)
⟹ xy – y – 2x + 2 = xy – x – 2y + 2 ⟹ x = y
Thus, f(x) = f(y) ⟹ x = y for all x, y A.
So, f is an injective map.
Surjectivity: Let y be an arbitrary element of B. Then, f(x) = y
⟹ = ⟹ ( − 1) = ( − 2) ⟹ =

Clearly, = is a real number for all ≠1 .

Also, ≠ 2 for any y, if we take = 2, then we get 1 = 0,

which is wrong. Thus, every element y in B has its pre-image x in
A given by x = .
So, f is a surjective map. Hence, f is a bijective map.

81
Inverse of a Function:
If : → be a one-one onto (bijection) function, then the
mapping : → which associates each element with
element , such that ( ) = is called the inverse function
of the function : →
: → , ( )= ⟹ ( )=
In terms of ordered pairs inverse function is defined as
=( , ) if (a, b) .
Note:  For the existence of inverse function, it should be one-
one and onto.

Important Tips:
 Inverse of a bijection is also a bijection function.
 Inverse of a bijection is unique.
 (f–1)–1= f
 If f and g are two bijections such that (gof) exists then (gof)–1=f–
1log–1.

 If f: A B is a bijection then f–1: B  A is an inverse function of f. f–

1of = I and fof–1=I . Here I , is an identity function on set A, and I ,
A B A B

is an identity function on set B.

In order to find the inverse of a bijection, we may follow the
following algorithm.
Algorithm: Let f:A→ B be a bijection. To find the inverse of f we
follow the following steps:
Step I: Put f(x) = y, where y B and x A.
Step II: Solve f(x) = y to obtain x in terms of y.

82
 Step III: In the relation obtained in step II replace x by f –1(y) to
obtain the required inverse of f.
Ex: If f: R → R is defined by f(x) = 2x + 7. Prove that f is a bijection.
Also, find the inverse of f.
Sol: Injectivity: Let x, y be any two elements of R.
Then, f(x) = f (y) ⟹ 2x + 7 = 2y + 7 ⟹ x= y
∴ f is an injective map.
Surjectivity: Let y be an arbitrary element of R(co-domain).
Then,
y = f (x) ⟹ y = 2x + 7 ⟹ x = .
Clearly, x = for all y R.
Thus, for all y R (co–domain) there exists = such
that f(x) = y.
In other words every element in R (co-domain) has its pre-
image in R (domain).
∴ f is a surjective map.
Hence, f is a bijection. Consequently f –1 exists.
Inverse of f: Let x R (domain) and y R (co-domain) such that
f(x) = y. Then, f(x) = y
⟹ 2x + 7 = y ⟹ x = ⟹ f – 1 (y) = .
Thus, f –1: R → R is defined as f –1 (x) = for all .

83
2] Properties of Inverse of a Function:
Theorem 1: The inverse of a bijection is unique.
Theorem 2: The inverse of a bijection is also a bijection.
Theorem 3: If f: A → B is a bijection and g: B → A is the inverse
of , then fog = IB and gof = IA, where IA and IB are the identity
functions on the sets A and B respectively.
Remark: In the above property, if we have B = A. Then, we find
the for every bijection f: A → A such that fog = gof = IA.
Theorem 4: If f: A → B and g: B → C are tow bijections, then gof:
A → C is a bijection and (gof) –1 = f –1 og – 1
Theorem 5: Let f: A → B and g: B → A be two functions such that
gof = IA and fog = IB. Then, f and g are bijections and g = f –1.
Note: (i) f –1 o f = IA (ii) f o f –1 = IB (iii) f –1 o f (x) = f o f –1 (x) = x.
Theorem 6: Let f: A → B be an invertible function. Show that the
inverse of f – 1 is f, i.e., (f –1) –1 = f.
Remark 1: Sometimes f: A → B is one-one but not onto. In such a
case f is not invertible. But, f: A → Range (f) is both one and onto.
So, it is invertible and its inverse can be found.
Remark 2: Theorem 5 suggests us an alternative method to
prove the invertibility of a function. It states that if f: A → B and
g: B → A are two functions such that gof = IA and fog = IB, then f
and g are inverse of each other.

84
WORKED OUT EXAMPLES
1] Consider f: {1, 2, 3} → {a, b, c} given by f(1) = a, f(2) = b and f(3)
= c. Find the inverse (f – 1) – 1 of f – 1. Show that (f – 1) – 1 = f.
Sol: We have, f = {(1, a), (2, b), (3, c)}
Clearly, f is a bijection and hence invertible.
∴ f –1 = {(a, 1), (b, 2), (c, 3)}
⟹ (f –1) –1 = {(1, a), (2, b), (3, c)}
From (i) and (ii), we have (f –1) –1 = f
2] If f: R → R is a bijection given by f(x) = x3 + 3, find f –1 (x).
Sol: Let f(x) = y. Then, f(x) = y ⟹ x3 + 3 = y ⟹ x = (y – 3)1/3 ⟹ f -
1(y) = (y – 3)1/3

Thus, f –1: R → R is defined as f –1 (x) = (x–3)1/3 for all x R.

3] Show that f: R – {0} → R – {0} given by ( ) = is invertible and
it is inverse of itself
Sol: In order to prove that f is invertible, it is sufficient to show that
it is a bijection, f is an injection: Let x, y R – {0} such that f(x) =
f(y). Then,
( )= ( )⟹ = ⟹ =
Thus, f(x) = f(y) ⟹ x = y for all x, y R – {0}.
So, f is an injection.
f is a surjection: Let y be an arbitrary element of R – {0}. Then,
( )=y⟹ = ⟹ = Thus, for each y R – {0}, there
exists x = R – {0} such that ( ) = = = So, f is
/
a surjection.
Hence, f is a bijection, Consequently, it is invertible.

85
 Let f(x) = y. Then, f(x) = y ⟹ = ⟹ = ⟹ ( )=

Thus, f -1 is given by f –1(x) = for all x R – {0}.

Clearly, f(x) = f –1 (x) for all x R – {0}.
Hence, f is inverse of itself.
+ 1,
4] Let f: N ∪ {0} → N ∪ {0} be defined by ( ) =
− 1,
Show that f is invertible and f = f –1.
Sol: f is an injection: Let n, m N ∪ {0}.
If n and m are even, then f(n) = f(m) ⟹ + 1 = + 1 =
If n and m are odd, then f(n) = f(m) ⟹ n – 1 = m – 1 ⟹ n = m
Thus, in both case, we have f(n) = f(m) ⟹ n = m.
If n is odd and m is even, then f (n) = n – 1 is even and f(n) = m +
1 is odd. Therefore,
n ≠ m ⟹ f(n) ≠ f(m). Similarly, if n is even and m is odd, then n
≠ m ⟹ f(n) ≠ f(m).
Hence, f is an injection.
f is a surjection: Let n be an arbitrary element of N ∪ {0}
If n is an odd natural number, there exist an even natural
number n – 1 N ∪ {0}(domain) such that f(n – 1) = n – 1 + 1 = n
If n is an even natural number, then there exists an odd natural
number n + 1 N ∪ {0} (domain) such that f(n + 1) = n + 1–1 = n.
Also, f(1) = 0
Thus, every element of N ∪ {0} (co-domain) has its pre-image in
N ∪ {0} (domain). So, f is an onto function.
In order to find f –1. Let n, m N {0} such that f(n) = m
⟹ n + 1 = m, if n is even n – 1 = m, if n is odd

86
 − 1, , ℎ +1=
⟹ =
+ 1, , ℎ −1=
− 1,
⟹ ( )=
+ 1,
+ 1,
Hence, ( )=
− 1,
Clearly, f = f –1.
5] Show that the function f: R → R is given by f(x) = x2 + 1 is not
invertible.
Sol: We have, f(x) = x2 + 1 Clearly, -2 ≠ 2 but, f(-2) = f(2) = 5. So, f is
not a non-one function.
Hence, f is not invertible.
6] If the function f: [1, ∞) → [1, ∞) defined by f(x) = 2x (x – 1) is
invertible, find f –1 (x).
Sol: We have, (fof -1)(x) = x for all x [1, ∞) ⟹ f(f – 1 (x)) = x
( ){ ( ) }
⟹2 = ⟹ ( ){ ( ) − 1} = log
⟹{ ( )} − ( ) − log =0
±
⟹ ( )=

⟹ ( )= [∵ ( ) [1, ∞) ∴ ( ) ≥ 1]
7] Find the value of parameter  for which the function f(x) = 1
+ ,  ≠ 0 is the inverse of itself.
Sol: Clearly, f(x) is a bijection from R to itself.
Now, fof -1(x) = x ⟹ ( ) =
⟹1+ ( )=
⟹ ( )= It is given that f(x) = f –1 (x) for all x R

⟹1+ = for all x R ⟹ +1= +

87
 for all x R
⟹ = and 1 = −
⟹ = 1 and = −1 ⟹ = −1
8] Let f: N → Y be a function defined as f (x) = 4x + 3, where
Y: {y Y: y = 4x + 3 for some x N}. Show that f is invertible.
Find its inverse.
Sol: In order to prove that f is invertible, it is sufficient to show that
it is bijection.
f is one-one: For any x, y N, we find that f(x) = f(y)
⟹4 +3=4 +3⟹ =
So, f: N → Y is one-one.
f is onto: Let y be an arbitrary element of Y. Then, there exists x
N such that
y = 4x + 3 [By def. of Y]
⟹ y=f(x)Thus, for each y N there exists x N such that f(x)=y.
So, f: N → Y is onto.
Thus, f: N → Y is both one and onto. Consequently, it is
invertible.
Now, fof –1(x) = x for all x Y ⟹ ( ) = for all x Y
⟹ ( )= for all Hence, : → in given by
( )= for all x Y.
Ex: If : → is given by ( ) = 3 − 5,then ( )
(a) Is given by (b) Is given by
(c) Does not exist because f is not one-one
(d) Does not exist because f is not onto

88
Sol: (b) Clearly, : → is a one-one onto function. So, it is
invertible.
Let ( ) = then, 3 − 5 = ⟹ = ⟹ ( )=

Hence, ( )=
Ex: Let : → be defined by ( ) = 3 − 4, then ( ) is
(a) 3 + 4 (b) −4 (c) ( + 4) (d) ( − 4)

Sol: (c) ( ) = 3 − 4 = ⟹ =3 −4⟹ =

⟹ ( )=

⟹ ( )= .
Ex: If the function : → be such that ( ) = − [ ], where [ ]
denotes the greatest integer less than or equal to y, then ( )
is

(a) [ ]
(b) [ ] − (c) Not defined (d) None of these

Sol: (c) ( ) = − [ ] Since, for =0⟹ ( )=0

For =1⟹ ( )=0
For every integer value of , ( ) = 0
⟹ ( ) is not one-one ⟹ So ( ) is not defined.
( )
Ex: If : [1, ∞) → [1, ∞) is defined as ( ) = 2 then ( ) is
equal to [IIT Screening 1999]
( )
(a) (b) 1 + 1 + 4 log

(c) 1 − 1 + 4 log (d) Not defined

89
 ( )
Sol: (b) Given ( ) = 2 ⟹ ( − 1) = log ( )
± ( )
⟹ − − log ( )=0⟹ =
( )
Only = lies in the domain

∴ ( )= 1 + 1 + 4 log
Ex: Which of the following function is invertible
(a) ( ) = 2 (b) ( ) = −
(c) ( ) = (d) None of these
Sol: (a) A function is invertible if it is one-one and onto.
Ex: If ( ) = + 1, then (17) and (−3) will be
(a) 4, 1 (b) 4, 0 (c) 3, 2 (d) None of these
Sol: (d) Let = +1 ⟹ =± −1
⟹ ( )=± −1⟹ ( ) = ±√ − 1
⟹ (17) = ±√17 − 1 = ±4
And (−3) = ±√−3 − 1 = ±√−4, which is not possible.

CLASS EXRCISE
1] Which of the following functions defined from R to R is onto
(a) ( ) = | | (b) ( ) =
(c) ( ) = (d) ( ) =
2] The number of bijective function from set A to itself when A
contains 106 elements is
(a) 106 (b) (106) (c) 106 ! (d) 2

90
3] If A contains 3 elements and B contains 4 elements, then the
number of all one – one functions defined from A to B is
(a) 144 (b) 12 (c) 24 (d) 64
4] Function : → , ( ) = + 7 is
(a) One – one onto (b) One – one into
(c) Many – one onto (d) Many – one into
5] If = − {3}, = − {1} and : → , ( )= , then f is
(a) One–one (b) Onto
(c) One–one onto (d) Many–one into
6] Let ( )= for | | > 2, then the function : (−∞, −2] ∪
[2, ∞) → (−1,1) is
(a) One–one into (b) One–one onto
(c) Many one into (d) Many one onto
7] Let the function : → be defined by ( ) = 2 + , .
Then is
(a) One–to–one and onto
(b) One–to–one but not onto
(c) Onto but not one–to–one
(d) Neither one–to–one nor onto
8] function : → , ( ) = | | is
(a) One – one but not onto (b) onto but not one – one
(c) One – one onto (d) neither one – one nor onto
9] If : [0, ∞) → [0, ∞) and ( ) = , then is
(a) One – one and onto (b) One – one but not onto
(c) Onto but not one – one (d) Neither one – one nor onto

91
10] The number of all onto functions which can be defined from
= {1,2,3, . . . . , }, ≥ 2 to = { , } is
(a) (b) 2 − 2 (c) 2 − 1 (d) None of these
11] If = { | − 1 ≤ ≤ 1} = and : → , ( ) = , then
is
(a) One – one (b) Onto
(c) One – one onto (d) Many one into
12] If the real–valued function ( ) = + is a bijective
function then the set of possible valued of is
(a) − {0} (b) (c) (0, +∞) (d) None of these
13] : → is a function defined by ( ) = 10 − 7. If =
then ( ) =
(a) (b) (c) (d)
14] The value of for which the function ( ) = 1 + , ≠ 0 is
inverse of itself will be [IIT 1992]
(a) – 2 (b) – 1 (c) 1 (d) 2
15] The inverse of the function ( ) = + 2 is given by

(a) log (b)

(c) (d)

92
 SESSION – 7
AIM
 Composition of function and it’s properties.
 Odd and Even functions

EVEN AND ODD FUNCTION

(1) Even function:
If we put (–x) in place of x in the given function and if (− ) = ( ),
∀ domain then function f(x) is called even function.
e.g. ( ) = + , ( )= , ( )= , ( )= , ( )=
all are even function.
(2) Odd function:
If we put (–x) in place of x in the given function and if (− ) =
− ( ), ∀ domain then f(x) is called odd function.
e.g. ( ) = − , ( )= , ( )= , ( )= , ( )=
all are odd function.

Important Tips:
 The graph of even function is always symmetric with respect to y-
axis.
 The graph of odd function is always symmetric with respect to
origin.
 The product of two even functions is an even function.
 The sum and difference of two even functions is an even function.
 The sum and difference of two odd functions is an odd function.

93
 The product of two odd functions is an even function.
 The product of an even and an odd function is an odd function
 It is not essential that every function is even or odd. It is possible
to have some functions which are neither even nor odd function.
e.g. ( ) = + , ( )= , ( )=
 The sum of even and odd function is neither even nor odd function.
 Zero function f(x) = 0 is the only function which is even and odd
both.

WORKED OUT EXAMPLES:

Example: Which of the following is an even function

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Solution: (a) We have : ( ) =

(− ) = − =− =− = =

( )
So, ( ) is an even function.
Example: Let ( ) = √ + then the graph of the function
= ( ) is symmetrical about
(a) The x-axis (b) The y-axis
(c) The origin (d) The line =

94
Solution: (b) ( ) = √ + 15  (− ) = (− ) + 15
= √ + 15 = ( )  (− ) = ( ) ( ) is an even function
 ( ) is symmetric about y-axis.
Example: The function ( ) = log +√ + 1 is
(a) An even function (b) An odd function
(c) Periodic function (d) None of these
Solution: (b) ( ) = log +√ + 1 and
(− ) = − log +√ + 1 = − ( ), so ( ),
is an odd function.
Example: Which of the following is an even function ( ) =

a) ( ) = (b) ( ) =

(c) ( )= (d) ( ) =

Solution: (b) In option (a), (− ) = = = − ( ) So, It is

an odd function.
( ) ( )
In option (b), (− ) = (− ) =− = ( )
So, It is
an even function.

In option (c), (− ) = =− ( )
So, It is an odd function.
In option (d), (− ) = sin(− ) = − =− ( )
So, It is an odd function.

95
Example: The function ( ) = sin +√ + 1 is
(a) Even function (b) Odd function
(c) Neither even nor odd (d) Periodic function
Solution: (b) ( ) = sin + √1 +

 (− ) = sin − + √1 +  (− ) =
√
√1 + −
√

 (− ) =  (− ) = sin +
√

√1 +

 (− ) = sin − + √1 +
 (− ) = − sin + √1 +  (− ) = − ( )
∴ ( ) is odd function.
Example: Determine the nature of the following functions for even
and odd:
i) f (x) = sin x + cos x ii) f (x) = x2 - | x |
Solution:
i) f (x) = sin x + cos x ⇒ f (-x) = sin (-x) + cos (-x) = - sin x + cos x
Clearly, - sin x + cos x is neither equal to f (x) nor equal to – f
(x) .
So, f (x) is neither even nor odd.
ii) f(x) = x2 - |x|  f (-x) = (-x)2 - |-x| = x2 - |x| = f (x).
So, f (x) is an even function.

96
Example: If f is an even function and g is an odd function, then the
function fog is
a) An even function b) An odd function
c) Neither even nor odd d) A periodic function
Solution: We have , fog (-x)=f [g (-x)]=f[-g (x)] (∴ g is an odd)
= f [g (x)] (∴f is an even)
= fog (x), ∀
∴ fog is an even function
Hence (a) is the correct answer.
Example: If f an odd function and g is an even function, then the
function fog is
a) An even function b) An odd function
c) Neither even nor odd d) A periodic function
Solution:
We have, fog (-x) = f [g(-x) ]
= f [g (x)] ( g is an even) = fog (x), ∀
 fog is an even function

Hence (a) is the correct answer.

Example: Let f and g be two odd functions, then the function fog is
a) An even function b) An odd function
c) Neither even nor odd d) A periodic function
Solution:
We have, fog (-x) = f [g (-x)] = f [-g (x)] (∴ g is an odd)
= f [g (x)] (∴ f is an odd)
=− (x), ∀ ∴ fog is an odd function.
Hence (b) is the correct answer.

97
COMPOSITION OF FUNCTIONS:
Let A, B, and C be three non-void sets and let
f : A → B, g : B → C be two functions. Since f is a function from A to B,
therefore for each ∈ there exists a unique element ( ) ∈ .
Again, since g is a function from B to C, therefore corresponding to
( ) ∈ there exists a unique element ( ) ∈ . Thus, for each
∈ there exists a unique element ( ) ∈ .
A B C

It follows from the above discussion that f and g when considered

together define a new function from A to C. This function is called
the composition of f and g and is denoted by gof. We define it
formally as follows :

Definition: Let : → and ∶ → be two functions. Then a

function gof : A →C defined by (gof) (x) = g(f (x)), for all ∈ is
called the composition of f and g.

Note1: It is evident from the definition that gof is defined only if for
each ∈ , f(x) is an element of g so that we can take its g-image.
Hence, for the composition gof to exist, the range of f must be a
subset of the domain of g.

Note2: It should be noted that gof exists iff the range of f is subset of
domain of g. Similarly. fog exists if range of g is a subset of domain
of f.

98
WORKED OUT EXAMPLES:
Example: Let R be the set of real numbers. If ∶ → ; f(x) = x2
and ∶ → ; g(x) = 2x + 1. The, find fog and gof. Also, show that
≠ .
Solution:
Clearly, range of f is a subset of domain of g and range of g is a
subset of domain of f. S0, fog and gof both exist.
Now, (gof) (x) = g (f(x)) = g(x2) = 2 (x2) + 1 = 2x2 + 1.
And, (fog (x) = f(g(x)) = f(2x + 1) = (2x + 1)2.
 2x2 + 1  (2x + 1)2.  ≠ .

Example: Let f : R →R; f(x) = sin x and g : R → R; g(x) = x2 find fog

and gof.
Solution: Clearly, fog and gof both exist.
Now, (gof)(x) = g(f(x)) = g (sin x) = (sin x)2 = sin2x and, (fog)(x) =
f(g(x)) =f(x2) = sin x2.

PROPERTIES OF COMPOSITION OF FUNCTIONS

Result 1: The composition of functions is not commutative i.e. fog ≠

gof.
Result 2: The composition of functions is associative i.e. if f, g, h are
three functions such that (fog) oh and fo (goh) exist, then (fog) oh =
fo (goh)
Result 3: Let : → and : → be one-one functions. Then g o f
: → is also one-one.

99
Result 4: Let ∶ → and ∶ → be such that g o f is one-
one. Then f is one-one.
Remark: If ∶ → , ∶ → are such that g o f is one-one
then g need not be one-one.
Example: Let A = {1, 2}, B = {a, b, c }, C = {d, e}, f = {(1, a), (2, b)} and
g = {(a, d), (b, e), (c, e)}.
Then g o f = {(1, d), (2, e)}.

Hence g o f is one-one. But g is not one-one.

Result 5: Let ∶ → and ∶ → be onto functions. Then
∶ → is an onto function.
Result 6: Let ∶ → and ∶ → be such that g o f is onto.
Then g is onto.
Remark: If ∶ → , ∶ → are such that g o f is an onto
function, then f need not be an onto function.
Example: Let A = {a, b}, B = {1, 2, 3} and C = {x, y}.

If f = {(a, 1), (b, 2)} and g = {(1, x), (2, y), (3, y)}, then (g o f) = {(a, x),
(b, y)} so that
g o f : → is an onto function.
But f(A) = {1, 2}≠B. Hence ∶ → is not an onto function.

100
Result 7: The composition of two bijections is a bijection i.e. if f and
g are two bijections, then gof is also a bijection.
Result 8: Let : → . Then, fo IA = IB of = f i.e. the composition of
any function with the identity function is the function itself.
Result 9: Let ∶ → , ∶ → be two functions such that gof
= IA. Then, f is an injection and g is a surjection.
Result 10: Let ∶ → ∶ → be two function such that
fog = IB. Then, f is a surjection and g is an injection.
Result 11: Let ∶ → ∶ → be two functions. Then,
i) ∶ → is onto  g : B → C is onto
ii) ∶ → is one-one ⇒ f : A → B is non-one
iii) ∶ → is onto and : → is one-one  f : A → B is
onto
iv) ∶ → is one-one and ∶ → is onto  ∶ → is
one-one.

CLASS EXERCISE
1] If : − , → given by ( ) = + is an even
function. Then the set of values of ( > 0) where, [.] denotes
the greatest integer function, is
a) − , − {0} b) ,∞

c) 0, ∪ ,∞ d) − , − {0}
2] The function ( ) = is
(a) Even function (b) Odd function
(c) Neither even nor odd (d) Periodic function

101
3] A function whose graph is symmetrical about the y–axis is
given by
(a) ( ) = +√ +1
(b) ( + ) = ( ) + ( )for all ,
(c) ( ) = +
(d) None of these
4] Let ( + ) = ( ) + ( ) for all , Then
(a) ( ) is an even function (b) ( ) is an odd function
(c) (0) = 0 (d) ( ) = (1),
5] If ( ) is an odd function then
( ) ( )
(a) is an even function
(b) [| ( )| + 1]is even, where [ ] = the greatest integer ≤
( ) ( )
(c) is neither even nor odd
(d) None of these
6] If ( ) and ( ) are two functions of x such that ( ) +
( ) = and ( ) − ( ) = then
(a) ( ) is an odd function (b) ( ) is an odd function
(c) ( ) is an even function (d) ( ) is an even function

102
 SESSION – 8

AIM:
 PERIODIC FUNCTION

PERIODIC FUNCTION

i) Periodic function: A function ( ) is said to be a periodic

function if there exists a positive real number T such that
( + ) = ( ) for all x.
If T0 is the smallest positive number such that ( + ) = ( )
∀ , then T0 is called the principal or fundamental period
of ( ). Domain of a periodic function is always unbounded.

Graphically: If the graph repeats at fixed interval, then function

is said to be periodic and its period is the width of that interval.
Since, sin(2nπ + ) = sin , ∀ , .
Sine function is a periodic function also 2  is the smallest
positive real number such that sin(2 + ) , the period of
sine function is 2 .
Similarly, cos(2 + ) = cos .
cosine function is periodic with period 2 .
Since tan( + ) = , tangent function is periodic with
period
Since cot( + ) = cot , cot is period with period .
Similarly , are periodic with period .

103
 Functions Periods
i) , , , if ; if n is even. 2
‘n’ is odd or fraction.
ii) , or odd. ; n is even
iii) | |, | |, | |, | |, |
iv) −[ ] 1
v) Algebraic functions eg., Period does not
√ , , + 5 .. etc., exist

Properties of Periodic functions:

1] If ( ) has a period T then and ( ) also have a period T.

( )

2] If ( ) has a period T, then ( + ) has a period | |

e.g.,
period of sin (ax+b) is | |.
3] The sum of two periodic functions is periodic only if the ratio of
their periods is a rational number
Eg. i) tan x + cos 2x is periodic with period
ii) cos x + cos (√ ) is not periodic even though each one is
periodic.
iii) x - [x] + sin x is not periodic even though each one is
periodic.

104
4] i) If ( ) is periodic with period T, then:
a) f(x) is periodic with period T.
b) f(x + c) is periodic with period T.
c) ( ) ± is periodic with period T. where c is any constant.
e.x., We know sin x has period 2
Then f(x) = 5 (sin x) + 4 is also periodic with period 2 .
i.e., "If constant is added, subtracted, multiplied or divided then
period remains the same.
ii) If f(x) is periodic with period T, then kf (cx + d) has period | |.
i.e., period is only affected by coefficient of x, where; k, c, d 
constant.
We know f(x) =7 sin 2 + − 12 has the period | | = as sin x
is periodic with period 2 .
5] If f(x) has a period T1 and g(x) has a period T2 then period of
( )
f(x)  g(x) (or) f(x). g(x) (or) ( ) is the L.C.M of and
provided their L.C.M. exists. However that L.C.M. (if exists) need
not to be the fundamental period.
( )
If L.C.M. does not exists, ( ) ± ( ) ( ). ( ) or ( )
is non-
periodic.
Eg: i) |sin x| has a period and |cos x| has a period . |sin x| + |cos
x| also has a period , but the fundamental period of |sin
x| + |cos x| is .
While taking LCM we should always remember,
( , , )
i) LCM of , , = ( , , )
.

105
 ( , , )
e.g., LCM of , , =( ( , , )
= .
ii) LCM of rational with rational is possible.
iii) LCM of irrational with irrational is possible. But LCM of
rational and irrational is not possible.
e.g., LCM of (2, 1, 6 ) is not possible as 2 , 6 \ irrational
and 2 rational.
6] If f(x) is periodic with period T, then a f(x)  b is also periodic
with same period T.
7] If f(x) is periodic with period T and g(x) is a monotonic function,
then g[f(x)] is also a periodic function with same period T as
that of f(x)
8] If f(x) is periodic then (gof) (x) is periodic, but the converse is
not true

WORKED OUT EXAMPLES

( )
Ex1: The period of the function is ( ) =
(a) 6 (b)4 (c)2 (d)
( )
Solution: (a) ( ) =

Now, since cos x has period 2 ⇒ cos − has period

=6

⇒ 2cos − has period 6

106
Ex2: The function sin + 2 cos − tan is periodic with period
(a) 6 (b) 3 (c) 4 (d) 12
Solution: (d) sin x has period 2 ⇒ sin has period = =4

cos x has period = 2 ⇒ cos has period = =6

⇒ 2 cos has period = 6

Tan x has period = ⇒ tan has period = =4

L.C.M. of 4, 6 and 4 =12, period of ( ) = 12.

Ex3: The period of is
(a) (b) (c) (d) 2
√
Solution: (b) Here | 2 |= ( 2x) =
Period of 4 is . Hence, period of | 2 |will be

Trick: has period 2 ⇒ 2 has period = =

Now, if ( ) has period then | ( )|has period ⇒| 2 | has
period =

107
Ex4: If ( ) is an odd periodic function with period 2, then (4)
equals [IIT 1991]
(a) 0 (b) 2 (c)4 (d)– 4
Solution: (a) Given, ( )is an odd periodic function. We can take
which is odd and periodic.
Now since, has period = 2 and ( ) has period = 2.
So, ( ) = sin( ) ⇒ (4) = sin(4 ) = 0
Ex5: The period of the function ( ) = is
[AIEEE 2002]
(a) (b) (c)2 (d)None of these

Solution: (b) = ⇒ Period = =

Ex6: The period of ( ) = − [ ] if it is periodic, is
(a) ( ) is not periodic (b)
(c)1 (d)2
Solution: (c) Let ( ) be periodic with period T. Then,
( + ) = ( ) for all  + −[ + ]= − [ ] for all

 + − = [ + ] − [ ]=T for all  = 1,2,3,4 … …

The smallest value of T satisfying, ( + ) = ( ) for all is
1.
Hence ( ) = − [ ] has period 1.

108
Ex7: The period of ( ) = sin + cos( ), , > 2 is (a)
( )
( − 1) (b) 4 ( − 1)
(c) 2 ( − 1) (d) None of these
Solution: (c) ( ) = sin ( )
+ cos

Period of sin ( )
is and period of cos

Hence period of f(x) is LCM of 2n and 2n-1 is 2n(n-1).

Ex8: If a,b be two fixed positive integers such that
( + )= [ +1−3 ( ) + 3 { ( )} − { ( )} ] for all
real x, then f(x) is a periodic function with period
(a) a (b)2 a (c)b (d)2 b

Solution: (b) ( + ) = + (1 + { − ( )} )

 ( + )− = (1 − { ( ) − } )

⇒ ∅( + ) = (1 − {∅( )} )

⇒ ∅( + 2 ) = (1 − {∅( + )} )
⇒ ( +2 )− = ( )− ⇒ ( +2 )= ( )
( ) is periodic with period 2a

STANDARD FUNCTIONAL EQUATIONS:

1] If ( + ) = ( ). ( ) for all x, y and (1) = ,then ( ) =
or f(x) = akx
2] If ( + ) = ( ) + ( ) for all x, y and (1) = then
( )=
109
3] If ( ) = ( ) + ( ) for all x, y and (1) = then
( )= ( )=0
4] If ( ). ( ) = ( ) + ( ) for all x, y then ( ) = 1 ±
5] If f(x)+f(1/x) =f(x).f(1/x) for all x(0) then ( ) = 1 ±
6] ( + ) = ( ), ∀ , then f(x)=constant
7] If f(xy) = f(x)f(y)∀ x,y then f(x) = xn
8] If = ( ) + ( ) then f(x) = ktan1x

WORKEDOUT EXAMPLES:
1] If for non – zero x, ( )+ ( )= - 5, where a  b, then find f (x)
Sol.: We have:
( )+ ( ) = - 5, …………(i)
On replacing x by we get

+ ( ) = – 5⇒ (x) + = x – 5 ……(ii)
Multiplying (i) by a (ii) by (b) and then subtraction, we get
⇒ – ( )= − − 5( − )

( )= − − 5( + )

2] If ( ) is a polynomial function such that ( ) = ( )+

and (2) = 33, then ( ) =
(a) +1 (b) +1 (c) −1 (d) −1

Note: ( ) = 1 ±

Ans: ( ) = +1
110
3] If f(x) is a function such that f(x+y) = f(x) + f(y) and f(1) = 7 then
∑ ( )=
( ) ( )
(a) (b) (c) 7n(n+1) (d)

Note: f(r) = rf(1)

( )
Ans: ∑ ( ) = 7

4] If f satisfies the relation f(x+y) + f(x – y) 2 f(x)f(y)  x, y  R and

f(0) ≠0 then f(10) – f(–10) = 0
(a) 0 (b) 1 (c) 2 (d) 3

Note: Put y = x, y = –x

Ans: f (10) – f(–10) = 0

5] If f(x) is a polynomial such that f(x)f(y) = f(xy) – f(x) – f(y) x. u

and f(2) = 7 then f(-2) =

(a) 8 (b) 10 (c) -7 (d) -9

Note: Given equation is [f(x) + 1] [f(y) + 1] = f(xy) + 1

Ans: f (–2) = –9

111
6] If af (x) + bf (1/x) = x -1, x ≠ 0, a ≠ b then f(2) =

(a) (b) (c) (d)

( ) ( )

Note: Replace x by

Ans: (2) = ( )

7] If f(x-y) = f(x) f(y)–f(a-x) f(a+y)  x,y and f(0) = 1 then f(2a–x) =

(a) f (x) (b) –f(x) (c) f(-x) (d) f(a) + f(a-x)

Note: Put x = y = 0 in given equation

Ans: (2 – ) = – ( )

8] If 2f (xy) = (f(x))y + (f(x))x  x,y and f(1) = 2 then ∑ ( )=

(a) 1022 (b) 1023 (c) 1024 (d) 1025

Note: Put y=1then f(x) = 2x

Ans: ∑ ( ) = 1022

9] If f(x) satisfies the function equation x2 f(x) + f(1 – x) = 2x – x4

x2f(x) + f(1–x) = 2x – x4 then f(1/3) =

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Note: Replace x by 1 – x

Ans: =

112
CLASS EXERCISE
1] If ( ) is a polynomial such that ( ) ( )= ( )+ ( )+
( ) − 2∀ , and (2) = 5 then (4) =
(a) 11 (b) 13 (c) 15 (d) 17

2] If is a polynomial such that ( ) = ( )+ ∀ ≠ ,

(−2) = 33 then (1) = 1

(a) 0 (b) 1 (c) 3 (d) 32
3] If ( + ) = ( ) ( )∀ , and (0) ≠ 0 then
( )
( )= is
( )
(a) Even function (b) odd
(c) neither even nor odd (d) Can’t be determined
4] If : → such that − ( ) = ( ) + ( )+ ( )−
1∀ , than ( ) is equal to
(a) (b)1 − (c)1 − (d)
5] If 2 ( − 1) − = Then find ( )
6] If ( ) + 2 (1 − ) = + 2∀ then find ( )
[ :− 1− ]
| | | |
7] The period of the ( ) = ( ) = | |
, is
a) b) c) d) None of these
8] Which of the following function has period ?
a) 2 cos + 3 sin
b) | |+ 2 |
c) 4 cos 2 + + 2 sin +
d) None of the above
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9] The period of the function ( ) = [ ] is
a) 1 b) 2
c) Non periodic d) None of these
10] Period of the function log( ( − [ ]) ([. ] denotes the
greatest integer function) is
a) 1 b) 2 c) d) None of these
11] The period of the function f (x) = a sin kx + b cos kx is
a) b) | | c) | | d) None of these

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 KEY
SESSION – 1
CLASS EXERCISE
1) a 2) b 3) b 4) b 5) a 6) c
7) a 8) a 9) c 10) b 11) = 2; = −1

SESSION – 2
CLASS EXERCISE
1) d 2) b 3) a 4) a 5) = , = − ,
6) b 7) (2,3]

SESSION – 3
CLASS EXERCISE:
1) i) ∈ (−7,3), ii) ∈ [0,1]
iii) ∈ −∞, − ∪ ,∞ iv) ∈ (−∞, 3] ∪ [7, ∞)
2) 3) c 4) d 5) c 6) c

SESSION – 4
CLASS EXERCISE:
1) a 2) b 3) c 4) b 5) d 6) c 7) c
8) b 9) b 10) a 11) b 12) c 13) a 14) d
15) b

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 SESSION – 5
CLASS EXERCISE
1) 2) c 3) −√40, − ∪ − , ∪ , √40 4) a
5) d 6) b 7) c 8) b

SESSION – 6
CLASS EXERCISE
1) c 2) c 3) c 4) a 5) c 6) d 7) d
8) a 9) b 10) b 11) d 12) c 13) c 14) b
15) b

SESSION – 7
CLASS EXERCISE
1) c 2) b 3) d 4) b,d 5) b 6) b,c

SESSION – 8
CLASS EXERCISE
1) d 2) a 3) a 4) c 5) ( ) = 2( + 1) +
( )
6) ( ) = 7) c 8) b 9) c 10) a 11) b

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