University of Larbi Ben M’hidi -OEB Module: Academic Writing

Department of English Level: M1 (G1&2)

Teacher: Mrs. N.Senoussi

Content:
1. Characteristics of Academic Writing
2. Main Features and Functions of an Abstract
3. The Main Stages of Writing a Research Paper
4. Referencing Techniques in Academic Writing: quoting, summarising,
paraphrasing
5. Coherence & Cohesion: Linking words, hedging

1. Characteristics of Academic Writing

Objective: To help students identify different features of academic writing style

Exercise 1 Replace the following phrasal verbs with a more formal single word.
1 The locals could not put up with the visitors from the city. ______________________
2 The decline was brought about by cheap imports. _____________________________
3 The university is thinking about installing CCTV. ____________________________
4 Sales are likely to drop off in the third quarter. ______________________________
5 He went on speaking for over an hour. _____________________________________
6 The meeting was put off until December. __________________________________
7 The cinema was pulled down ten years ago. _________________________________
8 People have cut down on their consumption of beef. ___________________________

Exercise 2 Which of the two alternatives in bold do you think is more appropriate in
academic writing?
1. The government has made considerable/great progress in solving the problem.
2. We got/obtained excellent results in the experiment.
3. The results of lots of/numerous tests have been pretty good/encouraging.
4. A loss of jobs is one of the consequences/things that will happen if the process is
automated.
5. The relationship between the management and workers is extremely/really
important.
6. Some suggestions springing up from/arising from the study will be presented.
Exercise 3 Use a more formal/academic word or phrase to replace those in bold.
1. The reaction of the officials was sort of negative. _______________________
2. The economic outlook is nice.__________________________
3. Car manufacturers are planning a get together to discuss their
strategy.________________
4. The resulting competition between countries is good._________________
5. The economy is affected by things that happen outside the
country.___________________
6. She was given the sack because of her poor record. __________________
7. The examination results were super. ________________________
8. The future of Federal funding is up in the air
Exercise 4 Suggest improvements to the following sentences to avoid use of “you” and
“we”.
1. You can apply the same theory of learning to small children.
_______________________________________________________________
2. You can only do this after the initial preparation has been conducted.
______________________________________________________________
3. The figures are accurate to within 1%, but you should note that local variations may
apply.
______________________________________________________________
4. In the second section of the report, we will consider the environmental consequences.
______________________________________________________________

Exercise 5 Suggest alternatives to the following to avoid use of personal language.

1 In this essay I will discuss the main differences between the English and Scottish
educational systems.
2 I have divided my report into five sections.
3 I will conclude by proposing that students caught plagiarising should face academic
misconduct charges.
4 The opinion of the present author in this essay is that the importance of the monarchy
should be reduced.
5 In the third part of the essay, we will look at the reasons for students’ language
classroom anxiety.
6 Although I am not an expert in the field, I have tried very hard to understand the main
ideas.
Exercise 6 Make these statements more cautious.
1 Today everyone uses credit cards for all their shopping.
___________________________________________________________
2 Drinking wine is bad for you.
___________________________________________________________
3 Global warming will have disastrous consequences for the whole world.
___________________________________________________________
4 Teleworking leads to isolation.
___________________________________________________________
5 Women are worse drivers than men.
___________________________________________________________

Exercise 7 Rewrite the following in a more formal style.

1. The positive feedback made up for the problems we came across during the trials.
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2. You can clearly see the differences between these two learning processes.
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3. The subjects didn't have much difficulty with the task.
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4. We found example after example of autonomous systems in lots of countries.
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Exercise 8 Choose a verb from the list that reduces the informality of each sentence.
Note that you may need to add tense to the verb from the list.
-Assist -reduce -create - investigate -raise –establish - increase -determine -
fluctuate -eliminate
1. Expert Systems can help out the user in the diagnosis of problems.
2. This program was set up to improve access to medical care.
3. Research expenditures have gone up to nearly $350 million.
4. The use of optical character readers (OCRs) should cut down the number of problems
with the U.S. mail service.
5. Researchers have found out that this drug has serious side effects.
6. Building a nuclear power plant will not get rid of the energy problem completely.
7. Researchers have been looking into this problem for 15 years now.
8. This issue was brought up during the investigation.

Exercise 9 Reduce the informality of each sentence by substituting a single verb for the
one in italics.
1. The implementation of the LMD system has brought about some serious problems.
2. The process should be done over until the desired results are achieved.
3. Plans are being made to come up with a database containing detailed environmental
information for the region.
4. Subtle changes in the earth's crust were picked up by these new devices.
5. Proposals to construct new nuclear reactors have met with great resistance from
environmentalists.
Exercise 10 Reduce the informality of each sentence.
1. If you fail the exam, you can't enter the university.
2. OK, what are the causes of deformation? Many possibilities exist.
3. You can clearly see the difference between these two processes.
4. A small bit of ammonium dichromate is added to the gelatin solution gradually.
5. These special tax laws have been enacted in six states: Illinois, Iowa, Ohio, etc.
6. The subjects didn't have much difficulty with the task.

Exercise 11 Compare these two paragraphs. What do you notice?

 1. The question of what constitutes "language proficiency" and the nature of its
cross-lingual dimensions is also at the core of many hotly debated issues in the
areas of bilingual education and second language pedagogy and testing.
Researchers have suggested ways of making second language teaching and testing
more "communicative" (e.g., Canale and Swain, 1980; Oller, 1979b) on the
grounds that a communicative approach better reflects the nature of language
proficiency than one which emphasizes the acquisition of discrete language skills.
2.
We don't really know what language proficiency is but many people have talked
about it for a long time. Some researchers have tried to find ways for us to make
teaching and testing more communicative because that is how language works. I think
that language is something we use for communicating, not an object for us to study and
we remember that when we teach and test it.

2. Main Features and Functions of an Abstract

Objective: To help students distinguish between two types of abstracts (descriptive
& informative) , identify the different moves in an abstract and work in pairs to
write an abstract about a given topic

Watch the video, then answer the following questions:

1. What is the main difference between descriptive and informative abstracts?

2. What are the main moves and sub-moves used by the authors in the abstracts
provided ?
3. Choose a journal article abstract and check whether it contains the main moves
4. a-Work in pairs and think about a research topic, then decide what would you
include in your abstract
b- After discussing with your partner, try to write an abstract
5. Exchange abstracts with other students , then try to give your feedback about
their abstract.

3.The Main Stages of Writing a Research Paper

Objective: To help students evaluate a research paper and identify the
different stages used by the author(s)

Practice:

1.Download a journal article about a topic of your interest , then examine it to find
out whether the researcher has included the main research steps in the article.

2.a.Think about a research area of your interst and think about a possible research
topic
b. work in pairs to form your future research topic.
c. Think how would you conduct your research ( informants, research method,
research tools,….etc)
 4.Referencing Techniques in Academic Writing: quoting, summarising &
paraphrasing

Objective: To help students identify the different referencing techniques in

Academic writing to avoid plagiarism.

Academic work depends on the research and ideas of others, so it is vital to show

which sources you have used in your work, in an acceptable manner.

Why use references?

There are three principal reasons for providing references and citations:

(a) To show that you have read some of the authorities on the subject, which will give
added

weight to your writing.

(b) To allow readers to find the source, if they wish to examine the topic in more detail.

(c) To avoid plagiarism.

Quoting
A quotation reproduces an author’s words exactly as they were spoken or written,
preserving even peculiarities of spelling, grammar, and punctuation. In other words,
using a quotation means bringing the original words of a writer into your work. Student
papers tend to overuse quoted material (so much so that many teachers automatically
regard excessive quotations as a sign of padding). A good rule of thumb is to limit
quoted material to no more than 10 percent of the total paper. Quotations are effective
in some situations, but must not be overused. They can be valuable:
 when the material simply cannot be paraphrased or summarized;
 when the original words express an idea in a distinctive way;
 when the original is more concise than your summary could be.
  Quotations are generally introduced by a phrase that shows the source, and also
explains how this quotation fits into your argument:
As far as grammar is concerned, the Communicative Approach emphasizes meaning
along with grammar. For some linguists and language teaching specialists, as
Richards and Rodgers (1986) pointed out, “Communicative Language Teaching means
little more than an integration of grammatical and functional teaching” (p. 66).
 It is possible for the citation to precede the introductory phrase:
White and Arndt (1991), while acknowledging the importance of grammar in
producing written work, assert that “grammatical accuracy and correctness of form
are now important” (p.133).
 Sometimes, quotations are introduced without an introductory phrase:
Situational Language Teaching is totally inductive in its approach to teaching
grammar. The meaning of the structures is not given through explanation; it is induced
from the way the form is used in the situation. In fact, it is preferred if students do not
think about grammar at all, and the theory has clearly stated that no grammar rule
should be explicitly taught. Ellis (2005) notes that: “According to this theory, grammar
is learned inductively; there is no need for (and no value) in explicit explanations of
grammar points” (pp. 3-4).
 In many instances the quotation precedes the citation as in the following
examples:
The Oral-Situational Approach (originally called the Oral Approach or Situational
Language Teaching) was developed by British applied linguists, such as Firth and
Halliday from the 1930’s to the 1960’s. It was considered “as an alternative approach to
the audiolingual approach promoted in the United States” (Ellis, 2005, p. 3).
Short quotations in APA style
- An APA short quotation is made up of less than 40 words.
- It is inserted as part of the sentence.
- It is enclosed with double quotation marks.
- The last punctuation mark is placed after the parenthetical element.
Author Prominent Short Quotations
Ordinarily, introduce the quotation with a signal phrase that includes the author's last
name followed by the date of publication in parentheses. Put the page number (preceded
by "p.") in parentheses after the quotation.
- De Rosis (1979) observed that “anxiety is a reaction to unresolved anger that
seems to burn a hole into one’s very being” (p. 56).
- According to Jones (1998), "Students often had difficulty using APA style,
especially when it was their first time" (p. 199).
Information Prominent Short Quotations
If the signal phrase does not name the author, place the author's last name, the year, and
the page number in parentheses after the quotation. Use commas between items in the
parentheses.
- Another theorist argued that “anxiety is a reaction to unresolved anger that seems
to burn a hole into one’s very being” (De Rosis, 1979, p. 56).
- She stated, “Students often had difficulty using APA style” (Jones, 1998, p. 199),
but she did not offer an explanation as to why.
-
APA Long Quotations
If the quotation has 40 or more than 40 words, use a block (long) quotation. When
writing an APA block quotation,
- start the block quotation on a new line;
- indent all the lines of the block quotation five spaces from the left margin, i.e., at
the same spot where you would start a new paragraph;
- use double spacing for the entire long quote;
- do not use any quotation marks;
- place the last punctuation mark before the citation;
- include the ending citation on the last line off the block quotation;
- start the text after the quotation on its own line, but with no indentation.
Author Prominent Long Quotations
If the quotation is introduced with a signal phrase that includes the author's last name
followed by the date of publication in parentheses, put the page number (preceded by
"p.") in parentheses after the quotation.
Example:
Today, digital cameras have practically taken over photography. As Johnson (2010)
explained:
Digital cameras now make up 90% of all camera sales at the leading electronic
stores. This increase in sales can be partially attributed to the widespread use of
email and social networking, which has encouraged the sharing of digital photos.
Now, many people, from students to grandparents, prefer to take pictures digitally
so they can upload and share those photos. (p. 23)
Along with the use of email and social networking, phones and iPods that have cameras
have also replaced regular, film photography.
Information Prominent Long Quotations
If the signal phrase does not name the author, place the author's last name, the year, and
the page number in parentheses after the quotation.
Computer users often disagree about which operating system is best: Mac or PC. Oyler
(2010) stated that one operating system is not better than the other, but that one may be
better suited for different purposes than the other. She explained by saying that:
Macs are often the best option for users who wish to work with video or picture
manipulation. Macs are also very user friendly, which may benefit consumers who
are new to computers. PCs, however, run Microsoft Office Suite the best.
Therefore, students might find that a PC is their best option because it can run
Microsoft Word and PowerPoint the smoothest. (Oyler, 2010, p. 48)
Conversely, Jones (2010) disagreed with the statement that Macs work with graphics
such as video and pictures better than PCs, stating that PCs can be modified to work as
well as Macs.

Notes:
1. Summaries and quotations are usually introduced by a reference verb. Most of these
verbs are followed by a noun clause beginning with ‘that’. They include: argue, claim,

consider, hypothesize, suggest, believe, think, state, assume, conclude, discover,

explain, imply, indicate, maintain, presume, reveal, show …etc.
2.When quoting from a source that does not provide page numbers use paragraph
numbers (type “para.” and the number).
- Lee (2007) stated, “The data is unreliable” (para. 4).
If the paper is divided into sections, provide the section and the paragraph number (type
“para.” and the number) within that section.
- The research found that the training built "sequentially and developmentally"
(Jones & Ifill, 2010, Conclusions section, para. 6).
-
3. The use of quotation marks around quotations in APA style
Note that there are certain differences between the American style (or North American
Style) and British style as far as the use of quotation marks around quotes is concerned.
As you might guess APA Style uses American style.
Style issue American Style British Style
To enclose a short Double quotation marks Single quotation marks
quotation, use…
To enclose a quotation Single quotation marks Double quotation marks
within a short quotation,
use…

To enclose a long No quotation marks No quotation marks

quotation, use…
To enclose a quotation Double quotation marks Single quotation marks
within a long
quotation,use
Examples: A quotation within a short quotation in APA style
According to Samson (2009), “the military defenses of late have failed to deter any
abroad threats, especially among the waters. These particular threats have been named
‘over sea sabotages’ by most military officials” (p. 24).

A quotation within a long quotation in APA style

Miele (1993) found the following:
 The “placebo effect” which had been verified in previous studies, disappeared
when behaviors were studied in this manner. Furthermore, the behaviors were
never exhibited again [emphasis added], even when reel [sic] drugs were
administered. Earlier studies (e.g., Abdullah, 1984; Fox, 1979) were clearly
premature in attributing the results to a placebo effect. (p. 276)
4. Use brackets, not parentheses, to enclose material such as an addition or explanation
inserted in a quotation by some person other than the original author.
"They are studying, from an evolutionary perspective, to what extent [children's] play is
a luxury that can be dispensed with when there are too many other competing claims on
the growing brain…" (Henig, 2008, p. 40).
6. If any incorrect spelling, punctuation, or grammar in the source might confuse
readers, insert the word sic, italicized and bracketed, immediately after the error
in the quotation.

"In-text" Citations in APA Style

• One work by a single author
The surname of the author and the year of publication are inserted in the text at the
appropriate point:
• Leakey (2001) speculates that perhaps we have not yet found the perfect link
between humans and apes.
• In a recent study (Leakey, 2001), paleoanthropologists focused on Kenya Man, a
possible early hominid and ancestor of humankind.
• Felines often recover from a bite when they are struck by a pit viper (Jones,
2008).
• In a study published in 2001, Leakey described finding a skull in the Kenya
desert that turned out to be a candidate for humankind’s ancestor.
If the name of the author is given in the text, then cite only the year of publication in
parentheses (first example). Otherwise, show both the author and the date of publication
in parentheses (second and third examples). If, however, both the year and the author
are cited in the text discussion, then no parenthetical citation is necessary (fourth
example).
• One work by two authors
When a work has two authors, always cite both last names. Use the word and when the
authors' names are part of the sentence. The ampersand "&" is used when in
parentheses.
• Much earlier, Grant and Change (1958) had discovered . . .
But
• In a previous study of caged rats (Grant & Change, 1958), the surprising element
was . . .
Note: List authors’ names in the order listed on the title page.
• One work by three to five authors
When there are three to five authors, cite all the last names in the signal phrase or
parentheses in the first citation.
First citation:
• Holland, Holt, Levi, and Beckett (1983) indicate that . . .
• The study shows that all children are not receiving equal education (Hill, Jones,
Smith, Clarke, & Williams, 2005).
 In the following (subsequent) citations, use only the last name of the first author
followed by "et al." (which is Latin for "and others") in either the signal phrase or
the parentheses.
NOTE that "et" is not followed by a period, but "al" is.
Subsequent citation:
• Holland et al. (1983) also found . . .
• Efforts are being made across the country to ensure equal education to all (Hill et
al., 2005).
Exception:If two or more references have the same first author and year of publication,
then include as many subsequent author’s last names as necessary to clearly identify the
source, followed by a comma, “et al.” and the year of publication.
First citation: Bodenhausen, Kramer, and Süsser (1994) and Bodenhausen, Sheppard,
and Kramer (1994) found . . .
Subsequently: Bodenhausen, Kramer, et al. (1994) and Bodenhausen, Sheppard, et al.
(1994) concluded . . .
• Work by six or more authors
Use only the first author's name followed by "et al." in the signal phrase or the
parentheses for first and subsequent citations.
• Broch et al. (1990) states that the parents prefer the education of boys over
girls….

• In turn girls lack confidence, which prevents them from making links between
self-confidence and competency in the subjects (Broch et al., 1990).
• Secondary source
Sometimes you read one author (secondary) who cites another (primary).
In the example that follows, you have read Savage who referred to a publication by
Lupton, but you did not read Lupton yourself.
Lupton (as cited in Savage, 2004) distinguishes between emotional labour and
emotional work.
Note:
- Lupton, whom you did not read, is cited here, but not in the reference list.
- Savage, the author you did read, is cited here and is listed in the reference list.
f. Article or chapter in an edited book
An edited book is one that consists of chapters or articles written by different authors.
You need to acknowledge the author of the chapter or article you used. This author is
cited in text (that is, in the body of the paper) in the same way as for one or more
authors.

In the example that follows, Naidoo has written a chapter in a book edited by
Thorogood and Coombes. In the body of your assignment cite only Naidoo.
Naidoo (2000) claims that risk factor simulation models…
Note: The entry in the reference list gives full details of the publication. Under the name
of the author (Naidoo) you need to give the details of the chapter you read plus the
details of the book.
• Corporate author
If the author is a government agency or other corporate organization, name the
organization in the signal phrase or in the parenthetical citation the first time you cite
the source. If the organization has a familiar abbreviation, you may include it in
brackets the first time you cite the source.
• According to Curriculum and Professional Support Section [CAPSS] (1999)
Continuous assessment helps teachers to understand the needs of children find
their weaknesses and provide remedial help.

• The earlier transactions used in Bhutan were in rupees and paise. The Chetrums
and Ngultrums were released on the 6th of April, 1974 (Bank of Bhutan [BOB],
1993).
Use the abbreviation alone in subsequent citations.
• CAPSS (1999) also envisage continuous assessment to gradually replace the
current system of one-shot examinations…
• The Bank financed Druk Air Corporation a loan of Nu.600 million for the
purchase of its second aircraft from British Aerospace (BOB, 1993).
If the name is short or an abbreviation would not be understood easily, spell out the
name each time the reference occurs:
 • (Harvard University, 2006); (Bendix Corporation, 2006)
The names of all of these corporate authors are simple enough to be written out each
time they are cited.
• Authors with the same last name
If your paper includes two or more authors with the same last name, include the
authors’ initials in all text citations even if the dates differ:
• D. L. Spencer (1965) and F. G. Spencer (1983) studied both aspects of . . .

• Two or more works within the same parentheses

Sometimes your paper may require that you cite two or more works supporting the same
point. The following rules will be helpful:

1.List two or more works by the same author(s) by year of publication (in a
chronological order). If one work is in the process of being published, cite it last, using
the words in press:
• Research in the past two years (Ford & Beckham, 2000, 2002) has revealed many
potential . . .
• Past studies (Murphy, 2005, 2006, in press) reveal . . .
2.If an author has published two or more works in the same year, the lower case letters
a,b,c and so forth are used after the date to distinguish between them. Letters are
assigned according to the alphabetical order of the title.
• However it has also been noted that … (McDonald, 2007b).
• McDonald (2007a) suggested …
• According to McDonald (2007c) …
3.List two or more works by different authors with different publication dates
alphabetically according to the first authors’ surnames separated by semicolons.
• Three separate studies (Delaney & Rice, 1980; Rodney & Hollander, 1980; Zunz,
1981) tried to build on the same theory, but . . .
• The masculinisation of science subjects affect girls’ identification with science
and their willingness to pursue science as an avenue of study, and as a result few
girls attempt to enter science fields (Keeler, 1985; Kelley, 1987; Versey, 1990).
• Unknown author/anonymous
If the author is unknown, mention the work's title in the signal phrase or give the first
word or two words of the title in the parenthetical citation. Titles of articles and chapters
are put in quotation marks; titles of books are italicised.
• Chimpanzees in separate areas of Africa differ in a range of behaviors. An
international team of researchers has concluded that many of the differing
behaviors are cultural, not just responses to varying environmental factors
("Chimpanzees," 1999).
• The development of nativist sentiment and the restrictive immigration laws that
followed in the19th century tell a complex story steeped in the fear of the
unknown (Basic History, 2009).
In the rare case when "Anonymous" is specified as the author, treat it as if it were a real
name: (Anonymous, 2001).
• Unknown date
When the date is unknown, APA recommends using the abbreviation "n.d." (for "no
date").
Attempts to return sign-language-using apes to the wild have had mixed results (Smith,
n.d.).

2.Summarising

Objective: To enable students to use summaries while writing their research

papers
 1.1. What is a summary?

In academic writing summarising is a vital skill, allowing the writer to condense

lengthy sources into a concise form. In other words, a summary is a condensation of
significant facts from an original piece of writing. A chapter is condensed into a page, a
page into a paragraph, or a paragraph into a sentence, with the condensation in each
case retaining the essential facts of the original. Like most skills it becomes easier with
practice, and this lecture explains the basic steps needed to achieve an accurate
summary.

2.2 Stages of Summarising

The summary may be just one or two sentences, to explain the main idea of the
article, and perhaps compare it with another summarised text, or it might be necessary
to include much more detail. In other words, a summary can range from 1–2% of the
original to more than 50%: summarising is a flexible tool.
At first students need to follow a series of steps to summarise successfully. With
practice the number of steps may be reduced, as the process becomes more automatic.

a) Read the original text carefully and check any new or difficult vocabulary.
b) Mark the key points by underlining or highlighting.
c) Make notes of the key points, paraphrasing where possible.
d) Write the summary from your notes, re-organising the structure if needed.
e) Check the summary to ensure it is accurate and nothing important has been
changed or lost.
f) Acknowledge other people’s work through appropriate referencing.
g)

Practice
1. Read the following text and compare the three summaries. Decide which is best,
giving reasons.
Researchers in France and the United States have recently reported that baboons are
able to think abstractly. It has been known for some time that chimpanzees are capable
of abstract thought, but baboons are a more distant relation to mankind. In the
experiment, scientists trained two baboons to use a personal computer and a joystick.
The animals had to match computer designs which were basically the same, but had
superficial differences. In the experiment the baboons performed better than would be
expected by chance. The researchers describe their study in an article in the Journal of
Experimental Psychology (Baily, 2011).
a) Baily (2011) asserted that French and American scientists have shown for the first
time that baboons have the ability to think in an abstract way. The animals were taught
to use a computer, and then had to select patterns that were similar, which they did at a
rate better than chance.
b) Baboons are a kind of monkey more distant from man than chimpanzees. Although it
is known that chimpanzees are able to think abstractly, until recently it was not clear if
baboons could do the same. But new research by various scientists has shown that this
is so (Baily, 2011).
c) According to a recent article in the Journal of Experimental Psychology, baboons are
able to think in an abstract way. The article describes how researchers trained two
baboons to use a personal computer and a joystick. The animals did better than would
be expected (Baily, 2011).

2. Read the following text and underline the key points.

Indian researchers are trying to find out if there is any truth in old sayings which
claim to predict the weather. In Gujarat farmers have the choice of planting either
peanuts, which are more profitable in wet years, or castor, which does better in drier
conditions. The difference depends on the timing of the monsoon rains, which can
arrive at any time between the beginning and the middle of June. Farmers, however,
have to decide what seeds to sow in April or May.
There is a local saying, at least a thousand years old, which claims that the
monsoon starts 45 days after the flowering of a common tree, Cassia fistula. Dr.
Kanani, an agronomist from Gujarat Agricultural University, has been studying the
relationship since 1996, and has found that the tree does successfully predict the
approximate date of the monsoon’s arrival (Baily, 2011).

3. Complete the following notes of the key points.

a) Indian scientists checking ancient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
b) Old saying links monsoon to . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
c) Used by farmers to select peanuts (for wet) or . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
d) Dr Kanani of Gujarat Agricultural University has found that . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4. Link the notes together to make a complete summary using conjunctions where
necessary. Check the final text for factual accuracy.
Indian scientists are checking…………………………………………………….
5. Summarise the summary in no more than 20 words.
6. Summarise the following article in about 75 words.

South Korea is planning to move its capital from Seoul to a new site in the middle of the
country. Although Seoul has been the capital since the fourteenth century, the city of
over 20 million is now very crowded, and also close to the hostile armies of North
Korea. The new capital is planned to cost $45 billion, with construction finishing by
2012.
There is, however, strong opposition to the project, since similar schemes in other
countries have taken far longer and cost much more than originally planned. Australia,
for example, took over 70 years to finish building Canberra,
while Nigeria has never completed its planned new capital, Abuja. Both Brazil and
Malaysia have found that the building of new capitals (Brasilia and Putrajaya) can
sharply increase the national burden of debt. Even if the government does eventually
move to the new capital, it is unlikely that South Korea’s main businesses will follow it,
so Seoul will probably continue to be the country’s principal city (Baily, 2011).

2. Paraphrasing
 The notes you gather from your research must blend into the body of your paper to
provide documentation in support of your thesis. These notes are of four kinds: the
paraphrase, the summary, the quotation, and the personal comment.

3.1 What is a paraphrase?

Paraphrasing means changing the wording of a text so that it is significantly
different from the original source, without changing the meaning. This is what is usually
meant by the phrase “in your own words”. Note that the paraphrase should be clearer
and more easily understood than the original. Importantly, effective paraphrasing is a
key academic skill needed to avoid the risk of plagiarism: it demonstrates your
understanding of a source.
Remember that when paraphrasing you are actually trying to avoid over quoting
in your work. In other words, you do not want to quote word for word. Hence,
paraphrasing is the alternative to direct quoting, and even the best solution. You will
probably therefore only need to paraphrase short texts. When dealing with long
paragraphs or indeed pages or chapters, summarising the main ideas in the text would
be more appropriate.

3.2. The Elements of Effective Paraphrasing

Paraphrasing and summarising are normally used together in essay writing, but while
summarising aims to reduce information to a suitable length, paraphrasing attempts to
restate the relevant information. When you paraphrase, you need to change the words
and the structure of the original text, but keep the meaning the same. Do remember that
even when you paraphrase someone’s work you must acknowledge it.
For example, the following sentences:
a) There has been much debate about the reasons for the industrial revolution
happening in eighteenth-century Britain, rather than in France or Germany (Baily,
2011).
b)
could be paraphrased:
 Why the industrial revolution occurred in Britain in the eighteenth century, instead
of on the continent, has been the subject of considerable discussion (Baily, 2011).

c) Evidence of a lost civilization has been found off the coast of China (Baily,
2011).
could be paraphrased:
Baily (2011) points out that the remains of an ancient society have been discovered
in the sea near China.

3.2.Techniques for Effective Paraphrasing

3.2.1.Changing vocabulary:
studies > research society > civilization mud > deposits
Note: Not all words and phrases can be paraphrased. For example, economics, socialism
or global warming have no effective synonyms.
3.2.2.Changing the Sentence Structure
3.2.2.1.Changing Word Class:
Egypt (n.) > Egyptian (adj.)
mountainous regions (adj. +n.) > in the mountains (n.)

3.2.2.2.Changing Word Order:

Ancient Egypt collapsed > the collapse of Egyptian society began
Summary
Note that an effective paraphrase usually:
 has a different structure to the original;
 has mainly different vocabulary;
 retains the same meaning;
 keeps some phrases from the original that are in common use
e.g. ‘industrial revolution’ or ‘eighteenth century’;
 is the same length as the original
 uses an in-text citation (reference) at the start or end of your paraphrase.
Practice
1. Read the text below and then decide which is the better paraphrase, (a) or (b).

Ancient Egypt collapsed in about 2180 BC. Studies conducted of the mud from the
River Nile showed that at this time the mountainous regions which feed the Nile
suffered from a prolonged drought. This would have had a devastating effect on the
ability of Egyptian society to feed itself (Baily, 2011).
a) The sudden ending of Egyptian civilization over 4,000 years ago was probably
caused by changes in the weather in the region to the south. Without the regular river
flooding there would not have been enough food (Baily, 2011).
b) Research into deposits of the Egyptian Nile indicate that a long dry period in the
mountains at the river’s source may have led to a lack of water for irrigation around
2180BC, which was when the collapse of Egyptian society began (Baily, 2011).
2. Find synonyms for the words in italic.
a) Sleep scientists have found that traditional remedies for insomnia, such as counting
sheep, are ineffective.
Example:
Sleep researchers have found that established cures for insomnia, for instance counting
sheep, do not work.
b) Instead, they have found that imagining a pleasant scene is likely to send you to sleep
quickly.
c) The research team divided 50 insomnia sufferers into three groups.
d) One group was told to imagine a waterfall, while another group tried sheep counting.
3. Change the word class of the words in italic, and then re-write the sentences
a) A third group was given no special instructions about going to sleep.
Example:
A third group was not specially instructed about going to sleep.
b) It was found that the group thinking of waterfalls fell asleep 20 minutes quicker.
c) Mechanical tasks like counting sheep are apparently too boring to make people
sleepy.
4. Change the word order of the following sentences.
a) There are many practical applications to research into insomnia.
Example:
Research into insomnia has many practical applications.
b) About one in ten people are thought to suffer from severe insomnia.
c) It is calculated that the cost of insomnia for the American economy may be
$35 billion a year.

5. Combine all these techniques to paraphrase the paragraph as fully as possible.

According to Smith (2001), sleep scientists have found that traditional remedies for
insomnia, such as counting sheep, are ineffective. Instead, they have found that
imagining a pleasant scene is likely to send you to sleep quickly. The research team
divided 50 insomnia sufferers into three groups. One group imagined watching a
waterfall, while another group tried sheep counting. A third group was given no special
instructions about going to sleep. It was found that the group thinking of waterfalls fell
asleep 20 minutes quicker. Mechanical tasks like counting sheep are apparently too
boring to make people sleepy. There are many practical applications for research into
insomnia. About one in ten people are thought to suffer from severe insomnia. It is
calculated that the cost of insomnia for the American economy may be $35 billion a
year.
6. Use the same techniques to paraphrase the following text.
Before the last century no humans had visited Antarctica, and even today the vast
continent has a winter population of less than 200 people. However, a recent report
from a New Zealand government agency outlines the scale of the pollution problem in
the ice and snow. Although untouched compared with other regions in the world, the
bitter cold of Antarctica means that the normal process of decay is prevented. As a
result some research stations are surrounded by the rubbish of nearly 60 years’
operations.
Despite popular belief, the polar continent is really a desert, with less precipitation than
the Sahara. In the past, snowfall slowly covered the waste left behind, like beer cans or
dead ponies, but now, possibly due to global warming, the ice is thinning and these are
being exposed. Over 10 years ago the countries using Antarctica agreed a treaty on
waste disposal, under which everything is to be taken home, and this is slowly
improving the situation.
However, the scientists do not want everything removed. The remains of very early
expeditions at the beginning of the twentieth century have acquired historical value and
will be preserved (Baily, 2011).
 Coherence & Cohesion : Linking words

Practice:

1. Supply linking words or phrases that enhance the flow of the passage. Look
carefully at the punctuation to help you make an appropriate choice.
Many modern artists are using computers in their work because these machines
enable the artist to be more creative. 2 Some artists believe computers will gain in
popularity;
, others feel they will have at best a fleeting presence in the art world. 3 The computer is
not a conventional art tool the use of computers for artistic purposes seems exactly like
a brush, pencil, or hammer; ___,it is a tool that provides greater flexibility. 4
somewhat unusual, researchers believe their use will indeed
become more widespread in the next century. 5 Changes can be made quickly and easily
when artists use computers.6 __, copying portions of a painting, drawing, or musical
composition can be done with a keystroke,
saving the artist considerable time. 7 some initial resistance, the artistic community is
beginning to realize that technology can indeed play a role in creativity
2. Complete the following. Can you think of any other nouns that could complete
the sentence?
1. According to a recent survey, 26% of all American adults, down from 38% thirty
years ago, now smoke. This
can be partly attributed to the mounting evidence linking smoking and fatal diseases,
such as cancer.
a. decline b. reduction c. improvement d. decrease e. drop
2. Early in September each year, the population of Ann Arbor, Michigan, suddenly
increases by about 20,000 as students arrive for the new academic year. This changes
the character of the town in a number of ways.
a. influx b. increase c. invasion d. rise e. jump
3. Nowadays, laptop computers are lighter, more powerful, and easier to use than they
were five years ago. These have led to an increase in the sales of these machines.
a. changes b. developments c. advances d. improvements
3. Choose a summary word from the list to complete each sentence.
-number - improvement -trend -fall -support -increase -amount -assurance –risk -
drop -proposals -measures
1. In the United States, the levels of lead, carbon monoxide, and sulfur dioxide have
fallen between 1978 and 1987. Despite this, the air is still contaminated by many
carcinogens.
2. Ozone levels in the United States increased 5% from 1986-87, another 15% from
1987-88, and an additional 10% from 1988-90. Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA) officials are concerned that if this continues, serious environmental damage may
occur.
3. The EPA has revealed that 20 of the 320 known toxic chemicals in the air probably
cause more than 2,000 cases of cancer annually. While this may not seem high, it is still
a cause for concern.
4. The EPA states that individuals living near chemical plants have a higher than normal
chance of developing cancer. This has been substantiated by numerous studies.
5. The Chemical Manufacturers Association has decided it will more strongly support
the pollution control efforts of the EPA.This was a major factor in the drafting of new
regulations.
6. Lawmakers in southern California are proposing banning the sale of new charcoal
grills, requiring sophisticated pollution control devices, and demanding that by the next
century 40% of all cars and buses run on clean fuel, such as methanol. These may
indeed become law in the near future.
 Hedging Techniques

Watch the video to identify what is hedging and what are hedging techniques ?

0bjective: to enable students to identify the importance of using hedging

techniques in research

Practice:

1. Can you guess in which parts of a research can one make resort to hedging
techniques?
2. Examine one of the abstracts that you have studied in previous lessons and say
whether the researcher used any hedging technique. Explain why or why not.