INTEGRATION OF ONTOLOGICAL KNOWLEDGE

TO CAR BRAKING SYSTEM FOR PREVENTION OF

FATAL ACCIDENTS
A Dissertation submitted to the Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University,
Hyderabad, in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the award of degree of

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
IN
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
Submitted by
B. Manoj Kumar (20B81A0326)
Mogudala Suresh (20B81A0351)

Under the guidance of

Dr. M. Harinatha Reddy, Associate Professor

Department of Mechanical Engineering

CVR COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

(An UGC Autonomous Institution & Affiliated to JNTUH) Vastunagar,
Mangalpalli (V), Ibrahimpatnam (M),
Ranga Reddy (Dist.) - 501510, Telangana State
2023-2024

I
 CVR COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
(UGC Autonomous Institution)
Affiliated to JNTU Hyderabad
Vastunagar, Mangalpalli (V), Ibrahimpatnam (M),
Ranga Reddy (Dist.), Hyderabad – 501510, Telangana State

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the project work entitled “Integration of

Ontological Knowledge to Car Braking System for Prevention of Fatal

Accidents” is being submitted B. Manoj kumar (20B81A0326), Mogudala

Suresh(20B81A0351) in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the award of

the degree of Bachelor of Technology in Mechanical Engineering, during the

academic year 2023-2024.

Project Guide Head of the Department

Dr. M. Harinatha Reddy Dr. M. Venkata Ramana
Associate Professor professor & HOD,
Mechanical Department

Professor in charge projects External Examiner

Dr. P. Uma Maheshwera Reddy
Professor

II
 CVR COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
(UGC Autonomous Institution)
Affiliated to JNTU Hyderabad
Vastunagar, Mangalpalli (V), Ibrahimpatnam (M),
Ranga Reddy (Dist.), Hyderabad – 501510, Telangana State

DECLARATION

We hereby declare that this project report titled “Integration of Ontological Knowledge to

Car Braking System for Prevention Of Fatal Accidents” submitted to the Department of

Mechanical Engineering, CVR College of Engineering is a record of original work done by us

under the guidance of Dr. M. Harinatha Reddy. The information and data given in the report is

authentic to the best of our knowledge. This project report is not submitted to any other

university or institution for the award of any degree or diploma or published any time before.

B. Manoj Kumar (20B81A0326)

Mogudala Suresh (20B81A0351)

Date:
Place:

III
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We are greatly indebted to Dr. P. Uma Maheshwara Reddy, Dr. K. Kishore Kumar and

Mr. P. Srinivas Reddy, my revered guides, for their valuable affectionate guidance in the

Major Project. They have been a source of great inspiration and encouragement to us.

They have been kind enough to devote a considerable amount of their valuable time in

guiding us at every stage. This is our debut, but we are sure that we will be able to do

many more such projects, purely because of their lasting inspiration and guidance given

by a reasonable guides Dr. M. Harinatha Reddy (Associate professor), Dr. D. Teja

Santosh (CSE Dept. Associate professor) and Mr. B. Appala Naidu (Associate professor).

We are highly grateful to them for helping us with necessary information and material,

which we otherwise could have neither identified nor have obtained.

We would like to express heart full thanks to Dr. M. Venkata Ramana, Professor and

Head of the Department of mechanical engineering, who has always been grateful for us

completing our Major Project.

We would like to express heart full thanks to Dr. K. Rama Mohan Reddy, Principal, who

have always been grateful for us to complete our Major Project.

We also thank all the teaching staff and non-teaching staff members of the department

of mechanical engineering who have helped us directly or indirectly during the Major

Project.

IV
 ABSTRACT

The first function of obstacle avoidance robots is to detect the presence of obstacles. When you

power on the system with the help of the ON/OFF switch, the Arduino microcontroller will

read the data. When the ultrasonic sensor detects the presence of an obstacle in the process of

moving forward, the robot will move backward. If the robot does not sense any obstacle, that

is, if the distance between an obstacle and it is wide, it will then move forward again until it

senses an obstacle before it stops. Two LEDs are used in the research, one indicating the robot

is moving forward and the other showing if the robot is moving backward. The third LED

shows if the battery is fully charged. C++ programming is used for Arduino board applications

to develop the program for the whole system's operation. There is also a power source unit that

is used to charge the batteries used in the system.

With the increasingly closer deployment of connected and automated vehicles it is essential to

study the different algorithmic stages involved in the design of active embedded systems. These

stages are related to perception, decision, and action. As for the decision-making part will allow

generating manoeuvres and optimal and safe trajectories, it is crucial to estimate the risk of the

current situation according to the attributes of the scene key components obtained from

perception stage. In this we focused on five components (obstacle, road, ego vehicle,

environment, driver).

V
 INDEX

CHAPTER Topic Page no.

1 Introduction 1

2 Literature review 5

3 Materials and methods 8

4 Program Used for System 25

5 Experimental work 29

6 Modelling and optimization 32

7 Result and discussion 35

8 Conclusion 38

9 References 40

VI
List of figures
Figure no. Caption Page no.

1 L298N 2A Dual Motor Driver Module with 13

PWM Control

2 Pin configuration of the Arduino to 5v dc 14

motor

3 Pin configuration of the Arduino to the 16

ultrasonic sensor

4 IR Sensor (TCRT5000) Pin Configuration. 17

5 Pin configuration of the Arduino Uno of 20

the entire system.

6 Three batteries Li-ion to power the system 23

7 Four wheels are used to accelerate the robot 23

8 The three LEDs that are used in the system 24

for indication

9 final project work prototype 31

List of tables
Table no. Caption Page no.

1 materials used in this research. 19

VII
 CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION

Robotic navigation research is beginning to gain momentum on its own. Robotics experts

started to create various free routes finding algorithms. The navigation system is regarded as

being of paramount importance since the robot must be able to be securely controlled from the

starting point to the target (destination). To avoid impediments, or to put it another way, the

robot must be able to avoid them. The first of two elements that serve as a guide is this. The

robot must also continually make sure that it reaches its goal (target). Making a decision from

the different travel possibilities is the challenging part. When making decisions, like in the

example, a driver is frequently nevertheless troubled by uncertainty in reality above. It will be

interesting to see how this is implemented in a mobile robot (autonomous robot). Simple

problems like these can turn into more complex ones if they are applied to autonomous mobile

robots that must avoid obstacles. It would be difficult for a mobile robot to identify obstacles

and decide how to avoid them, not to mention that the main target (goal) can disappear from

the camera's field of view. All of these calls for a very difficult computational process. The

light intensity is a factor that must be taken into account because the sensor that will be used is

a camera sensor. The aforementioned factors will make it difficult for the robot to get where it

is going. Obstacle avoidance has been the subject of numerous studies, starting with the

presentation of fuzzy algorithms for reactive navigation of mobile robots in challenging

environments. This study shows that fuzzy logic is reasonably efficient and reacts rapidly to

problems. This study only considers static workplace obstructions; moving obstructions caused

by moving objects are not included. This study only considered unexpectedly appearing static

obstacles, although model-based predictive controller (MBPC) using neural networks and

ultrasonic sensors is also utilized to guide mobile robots around unexpectedly appearing static

obstacles in their environment. The Dynamic Artificial Neural Network (DANN) approach is
1
used for motion planning for mobile robot paths through. This research shows that on a flat

surface, a mobile robot can be directed around both stationary and moving obstacles. In order

to further enhance the robot's ability to overcome obstacle avoidance, generalized dynamic

fuzzy neural networks (GDFNN), a blend of neural network and fuzzy approaches, were

employed to construct real-time control autonomous mobile robots [81]. The experimental

findings show that GDFNN outperforms conventional fuzzy logic control in terms of

performance. The obstacle avoidance problem for mobile autonomous robots is also addressed

by certain researchers using Reinforcement Learning with Neural Networks (RLNN). The

simulation's results show that the robot can improve its capacity for learning and can complete

the tasks assigned to it in a challenging setting. By combining camera sensors with lasers,

researchers are starting to invent new ways to identify obstructions instantly. These sensors are

capable of precisely identifying both two- and three-dimensional objects. Even in more recent

studies, stereovision systems were developed using a combination of omnidirectional cameras

and perspective cameras. To estimate the locations of obstacles in three dimensions, this

technique combines a wide field of view from a perspective camera with a 360°C field of view

from an omnidirectional camera. Several vision system implementations based on colour

sensors, camera sensor Pixy 2 CMUcam5, and thermal cameras have been investigated in past

studies. Excellent outcomes are obtained from the trials, particularly regarding real-time

obstacle detection. The earlier experiments, however, did not use movable barriers. The goal

of this project is to develop a method for avoiding moving obstacles. Based on prior research,

this project will develop an autonomous mobile robot that can navigate by itself to avoid

moving obstructions caused by environmental changes in the robot's working environment. To

recognize the environment, two webcams are used as stereo vision sensors. Because it is

possible to detect pedestrians' upper bodies, they are used as impediments. Since the robot is

operating in its genuine environment, this item was picked. The intelligence technique as a

2
control system must be able to handle the issue of moving obstructions in the work area in

order to send the robot to the objective (destination). The control system that is used to avoid

obstacles is neurofuzzy. With the hope that it would be able to negotiate obstacles with ease

and flexibility, a three-wheeled omnidirectional robot was deployed for this experiment. A

robot behaviour that can recognize the target object, recognize moving obstacles, and make

flexible judgments to avoid them must be designed for the mobile robot to reach its

predetermined target (goal). These actions will be used by the robot to navigate. With the help

of stereo vision and the NeuroFuzzy algorithm, the robot is directed from its beginning point

to its final location. To improve the robot's ability to adapt to changing environments,

omnidirectional robotics and the Neuro-Fuzzy algorithm are employed to assist the robot in

identifying obstacles and making decisions that the robot will avoid. The focus of this research

is on robot navigation systems, which comprise locating the target (destination), which is

assumed to always be in the robot's line of sight, spotting obstacles and avoiding them, and

creating flexible and fluid movements. The impediment items employed are pedestrians, who

are located via upper body detection. The robot's workstation consists of a corridor and an

interior chamber that are each 4 meters long and 4 meters wide. This study is not focused on

traveling the shortest distance because the robot does not walk along a path. To help

omnidirectional mobile robots avoid obstacles, this research aims to develop a stereo vision-

based navigation system. The proposed method employs the Neuro-Fuzzy algorithm to create

a barrier-free path in real-time and to control the robot's movement in a flexible and fluid

manner. To guide the mobile robot to a predetermined place, it is crucial to design a robot

behaviour that can recognize the target object, detect moving barriers, and make adaptive

judgements to avoid them. This study aims to investigate the navigational behaviours of the

robot. As shown, by using a stereo camera to detect a target and obstacles as input to ANFIS,

this study advances the state-of-the-art in obstacle avoidance based on the visual sensor for

3
robot navigation systems. The research technique for this work is divided into two primary

sections. The first step is to create a technique for managing the angular and linear velocities

of mobile autonomous robots.

4
 CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

1. Sharma et al. (2018): Sharma et al. explored the implementation of an Arduino-based

automatic braking system using ultrasonic sensors for obstacle detection. They

highlighted the need for responsive braking systems in vehicles to enhance safety,

especially in emergency situations. Their research demonstrated that Arduino Uno,

coupled with ultrasonic sensors, could significantly improve the response times of

braking systems compared to traditional hydraulic setups. This study underscores the

potential of Arduino platforms in revolutionizing automotive safety through innovative

sensor integration.

2. Kim et al. (2017): Kim et al. focused on the development of a cruise control system

using Arduino Uno and PID control algorithms. Their literature review emphasized the

importance of precise speed regulation in enhancing driving comfort and fuel

efficiency. By leveraging the versatility of Arduino Uno and the effectiveness of PID

control, the researchers proposed a robust cruise control system capable of maintaining

a constant vehicle speed under varying road conditions. Their work showcases the

applicability of Arduino-based solutions in optimizing vehicle performance and driver

experience.

3. Chen et al. (2021): Chen et al. delved into the integration of braking and cruise control

functionalities using Arduino Uno. Their literature review highlighted the challenges

associated with developing unified control frameworks for seamless transition between

these modes. By proposing a comprehensive approach to combining cruise control and

automatic braking systems, the researchers aimed to address the limitations of

conventional standalone solutions. Their study underscores the potential synergies

5
 between different automotive control systems enabled by Arduino Uno, paving the way

for enhanced safety and efficiency in modern vehicles.

4. Li et al. (2019): Li et al. conducted a comprehensive review of sensor technologies

applicable to automatic braking systems. Their study highlighted the importance of

accurate and reliable sensor data for effective obstacle detection and collision

avoidance. By examining various sensor modalities such as LiDAR, radar, and

ultrasonic sensors, the researchers identified the strengths and limitations of each

technology. They emphasized the potential of Arduino Uno as a versatile platform for

integrating these sensors into robust automatic braking systems, offering insights into

the sensor selection process crucial for system performance and reliability.

5. Smith and Johnson (2020): Smith and Johnson provided an overview of recent

developments in cruise control systems, with a focus on Arduino-based

implementations. Their review highlighted the evolution of cruise control from

conventional fixed-speed systems to adaptive variants capable of adjusting vehicle

speed in response to traffic conditions. By leveraging Arduino Uno's flexibility and

compatibility with various sensors, the researchers discussed how adaptive cruise

control systems could enhance driving comfort and safety. Their literature review offers

valuable insights into the emerging trends and challenges in cruise control technology,

underscoring the role of Arduino platforms in driving innovation in this field.

6. Garcia et al. (2022): Garcia et al. conducted a critical review of safety considerations

in Arduino-based automotive applications, including automatic braking and cruise

control systems. Their study emphasized the importance of robust fail-safe mechanisms

and rigorous testing procedures to ensure the reliability and safety of these systems. By

examining potential failure modes and mitigation strategies, the researchers outlined

best practices for designing Arduino-based automotive control systems that meet

6
 stringent safety standards. Their literature review serves as a valuable resource for

researchers and practitioners seeking to develop safe and reliable Arduino-based

solutions for automotive applications, highlighting the importance of systematic risk

assessment and validation processes.

These excerpts provide insights into how researchers have approached the topics of

automatic braking systems, cruise control, and their integration using Arduino Uno. They

illustrate the diverse applications and capabilities of Arduino-based solutions in advancing

automotive technology.

7
 CHAPTER 3

MATERIALS AND METHOD

In today's automotive landscape, safety remains paramount, and technological

advancements continue to play a crucial role in enhancing vehicle safety features. The

Automatic Breaking and Cruise Control System represents a significant step forward in this

regard. This system built using an Arduino Uno microcontroller, ultrasonic distance sensors,

servo motor for steering control, and IR sensors, addresses key safety concerns by providing

real-time obstacle detection and avoidance capabilities. Let's delve deeper into the components,

operation, and significance of this system.

The materials used in this research are shown below.

Table 1: materials used in this research.

S.No Part Name Quantity

1 Arduino UNO R3 1
2 Tower Pro SG90 servo 1
3 HC-SR04 Ultrasonic Sensor 4
4 FC-51 IR Obstacle Sensor 3
7 Hobby Gearmotor with 48:1 gearbox 1
8 1-Channel Relay (5V 10A) 3
9 LED: Two Pin (red) 3
10 L298N DC motor driver 1
11 Piezo Buzzer 1
12 Diode 3
13 Li-ion battery 3

1. Arduino Uno R3:

 The Arduino Uno serves as the brain of the system, processing sensor data and

controlling the actions of various components.

8
  Its versatility and ease of programming make it an ideal choice for

implementing complex control algorithms.

2. Ultrasonic Distance Sensors:

 Four ultrasonic distance sensors are strategically placed around the vehicle.

 Two sensors are positioned at the front to detect obstacles in the vehicle's path,

providing crucial information for adaptive cruise control.

 One sensor is mounted on the right side, while another is on the left side,

enabling detection of obstacles in adjacent lanes.

3. Servo Motor for Steering Control:

 The servo motor is employed to adjust the vehicle's steering angle based on

the direction of detected obstacles.

 When an obstacle is detected on one side, the servo motor turns the wheels in

the opposite direction to avoid a collision effectively.

4. IR Sensors:

 In addition to ultrasonic sensors, IR sensors are utilized to detect objects in

blind spots.

 Sensors placed on the right, left, and rear sides of the vehicle provide

comprehensive coverage.

 Upon detecting an object, corresponding LEDs illuminate, and a buzzer alerts

the driver, enhancing situational awareness.

5. L298N 2A Dual Motor Driver Module:

 This module provides bidirectional control of two DC motors, allowing

precise speed and direction control.

 With PWM (Pulse Width Modulation) support, it enables smooth acceleration

and deceleration, enhancing driving comfort.

9
 6. Dual Shaft 3V DC Motors:

 These motors serve various purposes within the system, including powering

steering mechanisms and controlling vehicle movement.

 Their dual shaft design allows for flexible coupling with the vehicle's steering

system and propulsion mechanisms.

7. Three-Relay Module for Light Indicators:

 The relay module facilitates the control of external lighting indicators, such as

LEDs or incandescent bulbs.

 It enables the signalling of vehicle actions, such as turning or braking,

enhancing communication with other road users.

Enhanced System Operation:

1. Improved Motor Control with L298N Driver:

 The integration of the L298N driver module enhances motor control precision

and responsiveness.

 PWM control allows for fine adjustments to motor speed, enabling smoother

acceleration and braking actions.

2. Enhanced Steering Control:

 Dual shaft DC motors are utilized to provide precise steering control.

 By adjusting the motor speed and direction using the L298N driver, the system

can efficiently steer the vehicle away from obstacles detected by the ultrasonic

sensors.

3. Advanced Signalling with Relay Module:

 The three-relay module controls external lighting indicators to communicate

the vehicle's actions to other road users.

10
  For instance, when the vehicle detects an obstacle and initiates a steering

maneuver, corresponding turn signals can be activated to alert nearby drivers.

Method:

The first function of obstacle avoidance robots is to detect the presence of obstacles.

When you power on the system with the help of the ON/OFF switch, the Arduino

microcontroller will read the data. When the ultrasonic sensor detects the presence of an

obstacle in the process of moving forward, the robot will move backward. If the robot does not

sense any obstacle, that is, if the distance between an obstacle and it is wide, it will then move

forward again until it senses an obstacle before it stops. Two LEDs are used in the research,

one indicating the robot is moving forward and the other showing if the robot is moving

backward. The third LED shows if the battery is fully charged. C programming is used for

Arduino board applications to develop the program for the whole system's operation. There is

also a power source unit that is used to charge the batteries used in the system.

Arduino Uno with driver motor:

 Enable Pins (ENA and ENB):

 These pins are used to enable the motor driver channels. Connect them to any

digital PWM pins on the Arduino Uno, such as pin 9 and pin 10.

 Example: ENA to pin 9 and ENB to pin 10.

 Input Control Pins (IN1, IN2, IN3, IN4):

 These pins control the direction of rotation and speed of the motors connected

to the motor driver.

 Connect IN1, IN2, IN3, and IN4 to digital output pins on the Arduino Uno.

 Example: IN1 to pin 2, IN2 to pin 3, IN3 to pin 4, and IN4 to pin 5.

11
  Motor Connections (OUT1, OUT2, OUT3, OUT4):

 These pins are the output connections to which the motors are connected.

 Connect OUT1 and OUT2 to the terminals of one motor and OUT3 and OUT4

to the terminals of another motor.

 Example: OUT1 and OUT2 to the terminals of Motor 1, and OUT3 and OUT4

to the terminals of Motor 2.

 Power Supply Connections (VCC and GND):

 Connect the VCC pin to the 5V output of the Arduino Uno or an external power

supply if required.

 Connect the GND pin to the ground (GND) of the Arduino Uno and the external

power supply.

 External Power Supply Connections (VM and GND):

 Connect an external power supply (such as a battery or power adapter) to power

the motors.

 Connect the VM pin to the positive terminal of the external power supply.

 Connect the GND pin to the ground (GND) of the external power supply.

Ensure proper wiring and connections, and be cautious about polarity when connecting motors

and power supplies to the L298N motor driver module. Additionally, consult the datasheet or

documentation of your specific motor driver module for any specific considerations or

differences in pin configuration.

This is the pin configuration of how the Arduino Uno is connected with the motor driver, which

is used to turn on the motors. For driving DC and stepper motors, the L298N Motor Driver

Module is a high-power motor driver module. An L298 motor driver IC and a 78M05 5V

12
regulator make up this module. Up to 4 DC motors or 2 DC motors with speed and direction

control can be managed by the L298N Module. The L298N Motor Driver module is made up

of an integrated circuit that contains an L298 Motor Driver IC, a 78M05 voltage regulator,

resistors, capacitors, a power LED, and a 5V jumper. Only when the jumper is in place will the

78M05 voltage regulator be activated. The internal circuitry will be powered by the voltage

regulator when the power source is less than or equal to 12 volts, and the 5-volt pin can be

utilized as an output pin to power the microcontroller. When the power source is more than 12

volts, the jumper should not be installed, and a separate 5 volts should be provided through the

5-volt terminal to power the internal circuitry. Motor A and Motor B's IN1, IN2, IN3, and IN4

pins regulate direction, while ENA and ENB pins control speed for each motor.

Figure 1: L298N 2A Dual Motor Driver Module with PWM Control

Pin configuration of the Arduino with servo motor:

The below diagram shows how the Arduino Uno is connected to the 5-volt servo motor. The

ultrasonic sensor is mounted on the servo motor. This motor helps rotate the sensor to detect

obstacles. Any of a group of rotating electric motors that use direct current (DC) electricity to

create mechanical energy is referred to as a DC motor. The majority of types rely on the

magnetic field's forces. For a portion of the motor's current to occasionally shift direction,

almost all types of DC motors contain an internal mechanism that is either electromechanical

or electronic. Because they could be supplied by existing direct-current lighting power

13
distribution networks, DC motors were the first type of motor that was widely employed. A

DC motor's speed can be varied across a large range by varying the supply voltage or the

amount of current flowing through its field windings.

Figure 2: Pin configuration of the Arduino to 5v dc servo motor

Pin configuration of the Arduino to ultra sonic sensor:

1. VCC (Power Supply): Connect this pin to the 5V pin on the Arduino Uno to provide

power to the sensor module.

2. GND (Ground): Connect this pin to any of the GND pins on the Arduino Uno to

complete the circuit.

3. Trigger Pin: Connect this pin to a digital output pin on the Arduino Uno (e.g., digital

pin 2) to send ultrasonic pulses for distance measurement. This pin is typically labeled

as "Trig" or "Trigger" on the sensor module.

4. Echo Pin: Connect this pin to a digital input pin on the Arduino Uno (e.g., digital pin

3) to receive the echo pulses generated when the ultrasonic pulses are reflected back.

This pin is typically labelled as "Echo" on the sensor module.

Arduino Uno R3 Pin Configuration:

14
  Trigger Pin: Connect to a digital output pin (e.g., digital pin 2).

 Echo Pin: Connect to a digital input pin (e.g., digital pin 3).

 VCC: Connect to the 5V pin on the Arduino Uno.

 GND: Connect to any of the GND pins on the Arduino Uno.

Arduino Sketch:

Once the hardware connections are made, you can write an Arduino sketch (program) to

interface with the ultrasonic sensor. The sketch will typically involve sending a trigger pulse,

measuring the duration of the echo pulse, and calculating the distance based on the time taken

for the ultrasonic pulse to travel to the object and back.

The image below shows how the pin of the Arduino Uno is connected to the ultrasonic sensor.

This ultrasonic sensor is used to detect an obstacle that is in front of the robot. The 2cm to

400cm (about an inch to 13 feet) range of the HC-SR04 distance measuring sensor makes it an

economical and simple device to use. There are two ultrasonic transducers in the sensor. The

first is an ultrasonic sound pulse transmitter, while the second is an ultrasonic sound pulse

receiver that searches for reflected waves. In essence, it is sonar that submarines use to find

items beneath the surface. When an object or obstacle gets in the way of the ultrasonic, which

emits at 40 000 Hz and travels through the air, it will bounce back to the module. You can

determine the distance by considering the sound's speed and travel time. We need to activate

the Trig pin on high for 10 seconds to produce the ultrasound. This will emit an ultrasonic burst

that lasts for eight cycles and moves at the speed of sound. After that 8-cycle ultrasonic burst

is sent, the echo pin immediately goes high and begins listening for that wave to be reflected

off a surface. The echo pin will time out after 38 ms and return to a low state if there is neither

15
an object nor a reflected pulse. The echo pin will disappear earlier than those 38 milliseconds

if we receive a reflected pulse. The distance the sound wave traveled, and consequently the

distance from the sensor to the item, can be calculated based on how long the echo pin was on

high. Actually, we are aware of both the values of time and speed. The speed is the sound

speed, which is 340 m/s, and the period is the duration that the echo pin was high. We still have

one more step to complete, which is to divide the result by two, so that we can determine how

long it takes for the sound wave to reach the object and then bounce back.

Figure 3: Pin configuration of the Arduino to the ultrasonic sensor.

IR Sensor (TCRT5000) Pin Configuration:

1. VCC (Power Supply): This pin is used to provide power to the IR sensor module.

Typically connected to the 5V pin on the Arduino Uno.

2. GND (Ground): This pin is connected to the ground (GND) of the Arduino Uno to

complete the circuit.

3. OUT (Output): This pin outputs a digital signal based on the intensity of the

reflected infrared light detected by the phototransistor. When an object is detected

16
 within the sensor's range, the output goes LOW (0V); otherwise, it remains HIGH

(5V).

The IR sensor module operates on the principle of reflection detection. The infrared emitter

emits infrared light, which gets reflected by objects in its detection range. The phototransistor

detects the intensity of the reflected light, and based on this intensity, the output pin either

goes LOW or remains HIGH.

In the context of the project, the IR sensors placed on the right, left, and back sides of the

vehicle serve as blind spot monitors. When an object is detected in the vehicle's blind spot,

the corresponding IR sensor outputs a LOW signal, indicating the presence of an obstacle.

This signal triggers the activation of visual and auditory alerts, such as LEDs and a buzzer, to

warn the driver of potential hazards.

Figure 4: IR Sensor (TCRT5000) Pin Configuration.

17
The IR sensor module is connected to digital input pins on the Arduino Uno to read the

output signal. Depending on the specific requirements of the project, the Arduino code can be

programmed to monitor the status of these pins and trigger appropriate actions in response to

detected obstacles.

In summary, the IR sensor module plays a crucial role in enhancing vehicle safety by

detecting objects in blind spots and providing real-time alerts to the driver, thereby reducing

the risk of accidents caused by collisions with nearby obstacles.

Arduino Uno:

The Arduino Uno R3 plays a central role in the development and implementation of the

automatic braking and cruise control system project. As the primary control unit, the Arduino

Uno R3 facilitates communication between the various components of the system, processes

sensor inputs, and executes control algorithms to regulate the vehicle's speed, braking, and

steering. Below are the key roles and features of the Arduino Uno R3 in this project:

1. Microcontroller Platform: The Arduino Uno R3 is equipped with an ATmega328P

microcontroller, providing computing power and memory for running the control

software.

2. Sensor Integration: The Arduino Uno R3 interfaces with the ultrasonic distance

sensors and IR sensors to acquire real-time data about the vehicle's surroundings. It

reads sensor inputs, such as distance measurements and obstacle detection signals, to

determine the appropriate response.

3. Data Processing: The Arduino Uno R3 processes the sensor data using control

algorithms implemented in software. It analyzes the incoming sensor data to identify

obstacles, calculate distances, and make decisions regarding braking, steering, and alert

activation.

18
 4. Control Outputs: Based on the analysis of sensor data, the Arduino Uno R3 generates

control signals to actuate the servo motor for steering control, activate the braking

mechanism, and trigger visual and auditory alerts through LEDs and a buzzer.

5. Communication Interface: The Arduino Uno R3 communicates with external devices,

such as a computer or display module, via the USB interface. This allows for

programming, debugging, and monitoring of the system's operation.

6. Expandability: The Arduino Uno R3 is compatible with a wide range of shields and

modules, providing expandability and flexibility for integrating additional features or

functionalities into the project. For example, it can be expanded with wireless

communication modules for remote control or data transmission.

In addition to its technical capabilities, the Arduino Uno R3 is renowned for its simplicity, ease

of use, and accessibility. It features a beginner-friendly development environment, the Arduino

IDE, which offers a straightforward programming interface based on C/C++. This makes it

suitable for users of all skill levels, from beginners learning the basics of programming and

electronics to experienced engineers prototyping complex systems.

19
 Figure 5: Pin configuration of the Arduino Uno of the entire system.

Overall, the Arduino Uno R3 serves as the brain of the automatic braking and cruise control

system project, enabling seamless integration of sensors, actuators, and control logic to enhance

vehicle safety and performance. Its versatility, reliability, and user-friendly interface make it a

preferred choice for a wide range of embedded systems and IoT applications.

Li-ion Batteries:

A 12V lithium-ion battery pack is a rechargeable power source commonly used in various

applications, including electronics, vehicles, and renewable energy systems. Here's an

overview of its features and applications:

20
Features:

1. Voltage: The battery pack provides a nominal voltage of 12 volts, suitable for

powering devices or systems requiring a stable voltage supply.

2. Chemistry: Lithium-ion batteries utilize lithium-ion chemistry, offering high energy

density, lightweight construction, and long cycle life compared to traditional lead-acid

batteries.

3. Capacity: The capacity of the battery pack is typically measured in ampere-hours

(Ah) or watt-hours (Wh), indicating the amount of energy it can store. Common

capacities range from a few ampere-hours to several tens of ampere-hours, depending

on the specific application requirements.

4. Rechargeable: Lithium-ion battery packs are rechargeable, allowing for multiple

charge-discharge cycles. They can be recharged using compatible chargers designed

for lithium-ion batteries.

5. Built-in Protection: Many lithium-ion battery packs incorporate built-in protection

circuitry to prevent overcharging, over-discharging, and short circuits, enhancing

safety and longevity.

6. Form Factor: Lithium-ion battery packs are available in various form factors,

including cylindrical cells, pouch cells, and prismatic cells, to accommodate different

installation requirements and space constraints.

Applications:

1. Portable Electronics: Lithium-ion battery packs are widely used to power portable

electronic devices such as smartphones, laptops, tablets, and digital cameras due to

their high energy density and lightweight construction.

21
 2. Electric Vehicles (EVs) and Hybrid Electric Vehicles (HEVs): Lithium-ion battery

packs serve as the primary energy storage system in electric vehicles and hybrid

electric vehicles, providing the required power for propulsion.

3. Renewable Energy Storage: Lithium-ion battery packs are used in conjunction with

solar panels and wind turbines to store excess energy generated during periods of low

demand for later use, enabling grid stabilization and off-grid power solutions.

4. Uninterruptible Power Supplies (UPS): Lithium-ion battery packs are employed in

UPS systems to provide backup power during utility outages, ensuring continuous

operation of critical equipment and preventing data loss or system downtime.

5. Marine and Recreational Vehicles: Lithium-ion battery packs are increasingly being

adopted in marine applications, such as boats and yachts, as well as recreational

vehicles (RVs) and camping setups due to their lightweight design and high energy

density.

In summary, a 12V lithium-ion battery pack offers a reliable and versatile power solution for

a wide range of applications, ranging from portable electronics to electric vehicles and

renewable energy storage systems. With advancements in battery technology and

manufacturing processes, lithium-ion battery packs continue to play a crucial role in

powering the modern world efficiently and sustainably.

22
 Figure 6: Three batteries Li-ion to power the system.

Wheels:

A wheel is a rotatable circular component that rests on an axle bearing. One of the essential

parts of the wheel and axle, one of the six fundamental machines, is the wheel. Wheels and

axles work together to make it simple to move heavy items, whether they are used to support a

load or do work in machines. Wheels can be used for a variety of other things, including

steering wheels, flywheels, pottery wheels, and robotic wheels. The image below shows how

the wheels are mounted.

Figure 7: Four wheels are used to accelerate the robot.

23
Light Emitting Diodes:

LEDs are semiconductor devices that emit light when an electric current passes through

them. They are energy efficient, long-lasting, compact, and available in various colors. LEDS

illuminate instantly, durably, emit directional light, and are often dimmable.

Figure 8: The three LEDs that are used in the system for indication.

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 CHAPTER 4

PROGRAMME USED FOR SYSTEM

#include <Servo.h>

#define TRIG_PIN_RIGHT 2

#define ECHO_PIN_RIGHT 3

#define TRIG_PIN_LEFT 4

#define ECHO_PIN_LEFT 5

#define TRIG_PIN_FRONT 6

#define ECHO_PIN_FRONT 7

#define SERVO_PIN 9

#define MOTOR_PIN 11

Servo steeringServo;

int motorSpeed = 155;

void setup() {

Serial.begin(9600);

pinMode(TRIG_PIN_RIGHT, OUTPUT);

pinMode(ECHO_PIN_RIGHT, INPUT);

pinMode(TRIG_PIN_LEFT, OUTPUT);

25
pinMode(ECHO_PIN_LEFT, INPUT);

pinMode(TRIG_PIN_FRONT, OUTPUT);

pinMode(ECHO_PIN_FRONT, INPUT);

steeringServo.attach(SERVO_PIN);

pinMode(MOTOR_PIN, OUTPUT);

void loop() {

int distanceRight = getDistance(TRIG_PIN_RIGHT, ECHO_PIN_RIGHT);

if (distanceRight < 30) {

steeringServo.write(0);

int distanceLeft = getDistance(TRIG_PIN_LEFT, ECHO_PIN_LEFT);

if (distanceLeft < 30) {

steeringServo.write(45);

// Check for obstacles in front

int distanceFront = getDistance(TRIG_PIN_FRONT, ECHO_PIN_FRONT);

if (distanceFront < 30) {

stopVehicle();

26
}

else {

moveForward();

int getDistance(int trigPin, int echoPin)

{digitalWrite(trigPin, LOW);

delayMicroseconds(2);

digitalWrite(trigPin, HIGH);

delayMicroseconds(10);

digitalWrite(trigPin, LOW);

int duration = pulseIn(echoPin, HIGH);

int distance = duration * 0.034 / 2;

return distance;

void stopVehicle()

{analogWrite(MOTOR_PIN, 0);

void moveForward() {

27
analogWrite(MOTOR_PIN, motorSpeed);

28
 CHAPTER 5

EXPERIMENTAL WORK
Experimental work in the development of an automatic braking and cruise control system

using Arduino Uno, ultrasonic distance sensors, servo motor, and IR sensors involves a

systematic approach to designing, implementing, and testing the system components.

1. Hypothesis Formulation: The hypothesis could be that integrating ultrasonic

distance sensors and IR sensors with an Arduino Uno microcontroller can create an

effective automatic braking and cruise control system that enhances vehicle safety.

2. Experimental Design:

 Identify the components required: Arduino Uno, ultrasonic distance sensors

(4), servo motor, IR sensors, LEDs, buzzer.

 Design the layout of the sensors and components on the vehicle.

 Determine the placement of ultrasonic sensors (2 front, 1 right, 1 left) and IR

sensors (right, left, back).

 Establish control algorithms for the Arduino Uno to process sensor data and

trigger actions.

 Decide on thresholds for distance measurements to activate braking or steering

control.

 Plan the integration of the servo motor to control steering based on sensor

inputs.

3. Implementation:

 Assemble the hardware components according to the design.

 Write code for the Arduino Uno microcontroller to interface with the sensors

and control the servo motor, LEDs, and buzzer.

29
  Calibrate the sensors and servo motor to ensure accurate distance

measurements and steering control.

 Test individual components and subsystems for functionality.

4. Data Collection and Analysis:

 Conduct experiments to evaluate the performance of the system under various

conditions (e.g., different obstacle distances, vehicle speeds).

 Collect data on sensor readings, system responses, and any observed

anomalies.

 Analyses the data to assess the effectiveness of the automatic braking and

cruise control system in detecting obstacles and responding appropriately.

5. Results and Conclusion:

 Present the findings of the experiments, including the system's ability to detect

obstacles, activate braking, and control steering.

 Discuss any limitations or challenges encountered during the experimental

process.

 Draw conclusions regarding the effectiveness of the system in enhancing

vehicle safety and potential areas for improvement.

 Provide recommendations for future research or enhancements to the system.

In summary, experimental work in the development of an automatic braking and cruise

control system involves designing, implementing, and testing the system components to

evaluate its performance and effectiveness in enhancing vehicle safety. Through systematic

experimentation and analysis, valuable insights can be gained to improve the system's

functionality and reliability.

30
Figure 9: final project work prototype.

31
 CHAPTER 6

MODELING AND OPTIMIZATION

In the quest for safer and more efficient transportation, the integration of modelling and

optimization techniques plays a pivotal role in the development of advanced automotive

systems. In the context of the automatic braking and cruise control system project utilizing

Arduino Uno, ultrasonic distance sensors, servo motor, and IR sensors, modelling and

optimization techniques offer invaluable tools for enhancing system performance, reliability,

and efficiency.

Modelling:

Modelling serves as the foundation upon which the automatic braking and cruise control

system is conceptualized, designed, and implemented. It involves the creation of

mathematical representations that simulate the behaviour and interactions of system

components. In this project, several aspects can be effectively modelled:

1. Sensor Behaviour: Mathematical models can be developed to characterize the

behaviour of ultrasonic and IR sensors, including their range, accuracy, and response

time. These models provide insights into sensor performance under various

environmental conditions and aid in sensor selection and placement.

2. Vehicle Dynamics: Modelling the dynamics of the vehicle, including acceleration,

deceleration, and steering response, is essential for designing effective control

algorithms. Dynamic models enable the prediction of vehicle behaviour in different

scenarios and facilitate the development of optimal control strategies.

3. Control Algorithms: Mathematical models of control algorithms, such as

proportional-integral-derivative (PID) controllers, can be created to regulate braking,

32
 throttle, and steering inputs based on sensor feedback. These models help optimize

controller parameters to achieve desired system performance objectives, such as rapid

response, stability, and minimal overshoot.

4. Energy Consumption: Modelling the energy consumption of the system

components, including sensors, microcontroller, servo motor, and LEDs, allows for

the optimization of power management strategies to prolong battery life and reduce

overall energy consumption.

Optimization:

Optimization techniques are employed to fine-tune system parameters, optimize performance

objectives, and improve overall system efficiency. In the context of the automatic braking

and cruise control system project, optimization can be applied in various aspects:

1. Sensor Placement: Optimization algorithms can be utilized to determine the optimal

placement of ultrasonic and IR sensors on the vehicle to maximize coverage and

minimize blind spots. This involves considering factors such as sensor range, field of

view, and potential obstructions.

2. Control Parameter Tuning: Optimization algorithms, such as genetic algorithms or

gradient descent, can be employed to tune the parameters of control algorithms (e.g.,

PID controller gains) to achieve optimal system performance criteria, such as

minimum braking distance, smooth steering response, and efficient energy utilization.

3. Trajectory Planning: Optimization techniques can be used to generate optimal

vehicle trajectories in response to detected obstacles, taking into account factors such

as vehicle dynamics, road conditions, and traffic constraints. This allows for safe and

efficient navigation while maximizing vehicle performance.

33
4. Energy Efficiency: Optimization algorithms can optimize the scheduling of sensor

sampling rates, microcontroller processing tasks, and actuator control signals to

minimize energy consumption while maintaining system functionality and

performance.

34
 CHAPTER 7

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The development and implementation of an automatic braking and cruise control system

utilizing Arduino Uno, ultrasonic distance sensors, servo motor, and IR sensors mark a

significant advancement in automotive safety technology. In this section, we present the results

of the project's experimental work and discuss their implications for vehicle safety and future

research.

Results:

The experimental work conducted on the automatic braking and cruise control system yielded

promising results across multiple key performance metrics:

1. Obstacle Detection and Avoidance:

 The ultrasonic distance sensors effectively detected obstacles in the vehicle's

path, enabling the system to initiate braking or steering control as necessary.

 Servo motor control facilitated swift and accurate steering adjustments in

response to detected obstacles on the right or left sides of the vehicle, thereby

avoiding collisions.

2. Blind Spot Monitoring:

 IR sensors positioned on the right, left, and rear sides of the vehicle reliably

detected objects in blind spots.

 Visual and auditory alerts, activated by LEDs and a buzzer respectively,

provided timely warnings to the driver, enhancing situational awareness and

reducing the risk of accidents.

3. System Integration and Control:

35
  The Arduino Uno microcontroller effectively coordinated sensor inputs, control

algorithms, and actuator outputs, ensuring seamless integration and operation

of the system components.

 Control algorithms, such as PID controllers, were successfully implemented and

optimized to achieve desired performance objectives, such as rapid response

and stability.

4. Energy Efficiency:

 Optimization techniques were employed to minimize energy consumption while

maintaining system functionality and performance.

 Power management strategies, including sensor sampling rate optimization and

task scheduling, contributed to efficient energy utilization and prolonged battery

life.

Discussion:

The successful development and testing of the automatic braking and cruise control system

have significant implications for vehicle safety and future research:

1. Enhanced Safety Features:

 The integration of ultrasonic and IR sensors with control algorithms enables the

system to detect and respond to potential hazards in real-time, thereby

enhancing vehicle safety and reducing the likelihood of accidents.

 Features such as automatic braking and steering control in response to detected

obstacles and blind spot monitoring contribute to safer driving experiences for

both drivers and pedestrians.

2. Potential for Commercial Adoption:

36
  The demonstrated effectiveness of the automatic braking and cruise control

system highlights its potential for commercial adoption by automotive

manufacturers.

 Integration of such safety features into production vehicles has the potential to

save lives, reduce injuries, and mitigate property damage caused by accidents.

3. Continued Research and Development:

 Further research and development are warranted to optimize and refine the

automatic braking and cruise control system.

 Areas for future exploration include advanced sensor technologies, improved

control algorithms, and integration with emerging technologies such as artificial

intelligence and vehicle-to-vehicle communication.

4. Regulatory Considerations:

 The successful implementation of the automatic braking and cruise control

system may prompt regulatory agencies to consider mandating such safety

features in new vehicles.

 Regulatory standards and guidelines for the implementation and certification of

autonomous and semi-autonomous driving systems will need to be established

to ensure their safe and responsible deployment.

In conclusion, the automatic braking and cruise control system represent a significant

advancement in automotive safety technology, with promising results in experimental testing.

By leveraging sensor technologies, control algorithms, and optimization techniques, the system

enhances vehicle safety, reduces the risk of accidents, and paves the way for safer and smarter

transportation solutions. Continued research and development in this area hold the potential to

revolutionize the automotive industry and save countless lives on the road.

37
 CHAPTER 8

CONCLUSION

In conclusion, the development of the automatic braking and cruise control system using the

Arduino Uno, ultrasonic distance sensors, servo motor, IR sensors, and L298N motor driver

module represents a significant advancement in automotive safety technology. Through

meticulous planning, experimentation, and implementation, the project has demonstrated the

feasibility and effectiveness of integrating various sensors and control mechanisms to enhance

vehicle safety and performance.

The automatic braking and cruise control system offers several key benefits, including:

1. Enhanced Safety: By utilizing ultrasonic and IR sensors, the system can detect

obstacles in the vehicle's path and blind spots, thereby reducing the risk of accidents

caused by collisions with nearby objects or vehicles. The implementation of automatic

braking and steering control mechanisms further enhances safety by facilitating rapid

response to potential hazards.

2. Convenience and Comfort: The cruise control feature enables the vehicle to maintain

a constant speed, providing convenience and comfort for the driver during long

journeys or highway driving. This feature reduces driver fatigue and improves overall

driving experience.

3. Adaptability and Expandability: The modular design of the system allows for easy

integration of additional features or functionalities, such as wireless communication,

GPS navigation, or advanced driver assistance systems (ADAS). This adaptability

ensures that the system can evolve to meet future requirements and technological

advancements in automotive safety and automation.

38
 4. Educational Value: The project serves as a valuable educational tool for learning about

electronics, programming, and robotics. It provides hands-on experience in designing

and implementing complex systems, fostering creativity, problem-solving skills, and

innovation among students and enthusiasts.

Moving forward, further research and development can be pursued to optimize the system's

performance, reliability, and scalability. This may include refining control algorithms,

enhancing sensor accuracy and range, integrating machine learning techniques for predictive

modelling, and exploring advanced communication protocols for vehicle-to-vehicle (V2V) and

vehicle-to-infrastructure (V2I) connectivity.

Overall, the automatic braking and cruise control system project underscores the potential of

embedded systems and IoT technologies to revolutionize automotive safety and transportation.

By leveraging the capabilities of the Arduino platform and innovative sensor technologies, the

project demonstrates a proactive approach to addressing challenges in road safety and paving

the way for safer, smarter, and more efficient mobility solutions.

39
 CHAPTER 9

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