UNIT-I

1.1 Introduction:
Based on the ability of conduction of electrons, all the
materials are classified as conductors, insulators and semiconductors. A
conductors is a very good carrier of electricity.
Ex: Silver, Copper, Aluminum etc.
An insulator is a very poor conductor.
Ex: Glass, Wood, Mica etc.
A semiconductor having conductivity which is between
conductor and an insulator.
Ex: Silicon and Germanium.
These semiconductors do not conduct current at low temperature but as
the temperature increases, these behave as good conductors.
1.2 Classification of Semiconductor:
Semiconductors are classified as (a) Intrinsic (pure) and (b)
Extrinsic (impure) types. The extrinsic semiconductors are of N-type
and P-type.
1.2.1Intrinsic Semiconductor:
A semiconductor in its purest form is called intrinsic
semiconductor. The impurity level is very small, of the order of one part
in 100 million parts of semiconductor.
Intrinsic Semiconductors behave as a perfect insulator at
absolute temperature. At room temperature, some of the valence
electrons absorb the thermal energy. So they break the covalent bond
and enter into the conduction band. Such electrons become free to move
in the crystal one and are called conduction electrons. A missing
electron in the valence bond leaves a vacant space which is known as a
hole, as shown in fig 1.1

Holes

So free electrons and holes get generated in pairs. In an intrinsic

semiconductor, the concentration of free electrons and holes is equal.
These thermally generated electrons and holes move
randomly and cannot constitute any current. Under the influence of
applied voltage, these carriers move in a particular direction, causing the
flow of current as shown in fig. 1.2 holes are positively charged
particles. So they move towards the negative terminal of the battery.
Electrons move towards the positive terminal of the battery. Though the
total current inside the semiconductor is due to free electrons and holes,
the current in the external wire is fully by electrons.
Extrinsic Semiconductor:
At room temperature, the conduction capability of an
intrinsic semiconductor is very little. Its conduction properties should be
increased, in order to use in electronic devices. This can be done by
adding some impurities to the intrinsic semiconductors. The added
impurity is very small of order of one atom per million atoms of pure
semiconductor. The process of adding pure impurity to a semiconductor
is known as doping. Such a semiconductor is called extrinsic
semiconductor.
Depending on the type of impurity added, the extrinsic
semiconductor can be divided into two types
a) N- type semiconductor and b) P- type semiconductor
N- Type extrinsic semiconductor:

When a small amount of pentavalent impurity is added to a pure

semiconductor, N type extrinsic semiconductor is formed. Some
examples of pentavalent impurity are arsenic, antimony or phosphorous.
 Silicon has 4 valence electrons and Arsenic has 5 valence
electrons. Each Arsenic atom uses 4 valence electrons and form 4
covalent bonds by taking of electron from 4 nearby silicon atoms. The
fifth electron of Arsenic is loosely bound to its parent atom and gets
become free. This electron is available as a carrier of current. The
amount of energy needed to detach this fifth valence electron from the
impurity atom is of the order of only 0.01eV for Ge and 0.05eV for Si.
This energy is very small and may be provided with thermal agitation at
room temperature. A small amount of arsenic impurity provides enough
atoms to supply millions of free electrons.
Each impurity atom donates one electron to the
semiconductor, it is called donor impurity. After donating one electron,
Arsenic atom becomes positively charged ion. It cannot take part in
conduction because it is fixed in the crystal lattice.

Concentration of electrons will be increased in conduction band

than the concentration of holes in the valence band. Donor impurity
atoms form a new energy level of the order of 0.01eV for Ge and 0.05eV
for Si below the conduction band.
 In N type semiconductor, electrons are the majority carriers
while holes are the minority carriers. But as a whole, N type
semiconductor is electrically neutral. Fermi level shifts towards the
conduction band due to increase of concentration of electrons in
conduction band.
P-type Semiconductor:
When a small amount of trivalent impurity such as gallium,
boron or indium, is added to a pure semiconductor a P-type
semiconductor is formed. The trivalent impurity has three valence
electrons.

Consider the formation of P-type material by adding boron to

Silicon. Boron atom form three complete covalent by using its three
valence electrons with three adjacent silicon atoms. Fourth covalent
bond is incomplete because there is a deficiency of one electron foe
boron. This vacancy is called a hole. Each boron atom gives one hole to
the silicon. The number of holes will depend on the amount of impurity
added to the silicon.
At room temperature, electron from the neighboring atom acquires
sufficient energy and fills the vacancy in the incomplete bond. But this
creates a vacancy in the adjacent bond from where the electron was
jumped, which is nothing but a hole.
 After accepting one electron, boron atom becomes a negatively
charged ion. Even a small amount of impurity is added, large number of
holes get created in the P-type material. In a P-type material, holes are
the majority carriers and electrons are the minority carriers. Acceptor
ions create one energy level above the valence band. The gap between
valence band and acceptor level is 0.01ev for Germanium and 0.05ev for
Silicon. Fermi level shift towards the valence band. It lies above the
acceptor energy level. At room temperature, the electrons from valence
band jump to acceptor energy level. Representation of P-type
semiconductor is shown in above fig. ni2
Mass Action Law:
 In a pure semiconductor, the number of electrons same as
number of holes. This is due to the thermal energy for which equal
number of free electron-hole pairs is generated.
If the pure semiconductor is doped with donor impurities,
the number of electrons in the conduction band increases and number of
holes in the valence band decreases. Reduction in holes is due to the
recombination, and enhancement in electron is due to doping.
Similarly acceptor impurities are added, the number of
electrons in conduction band decreases and number of holes in valence
band increases.
Under thermal equilibrium, for any semiconductor, the
product of number of electron and number of holes is constant and is
independent of amount of doping.
This relation is known as mass action law.

:. n.p=n2i
Where n=number of free electrons per unit volume
p=number of holes per unit volume
ni =Intrinsic concentration
 Charge density ρ
2
d v −ρ
2
=
dx E

dv
E=-
distance dx

ρ
=∫ dx
E

Potential barrier for

holes v = -∫ ∈ dx

Potential barrier for electrons

A PN junction is formed by adding acceptor impurities to the left side
and donor impurities to the right side of a semiconductor.
P region has more number of holes, very less number of
electrons and more number of immobile negative ions. N region has
more number of electrons, very less number of holes and more number
of immobile positive ions. Each region is electrically neutral because
each of them carries equal positive and negative charges.
There exists a concentration gradient across the junction.
Hence some of the holes diffuse across the boundary from p side to n
side. Similarly some of the electrons diffuse from n side to p side
material. This is called diffusion.
In the displacement of changes due to recombination of
electrons and holes, an electric field appears across the junction.
Equilibrium is established when the field becomes large enough to
restrain the process of diffusion. The general shape of the charge
distribution is shown in fig b. This shape depends on the nature of diode
doping.
The free electrons crossing the junction create negative ions
on p side. Similarly holes create positive ions on n side. As negative ions
are created on p side it acquires a positive potential. Similarly positive
ions are created on side and acquire a positive potential as shown in fig
d.
Both these positive and negative potentials prevent migration
of any more charges across the junction. Thus initial distribution of
charge carriers creates a barrier potential at the junction. Hence the
region around the junction is depleted of mobile carriers it is called as
depletion region or space charge region or transition region.
 The thickness of this region is of the order of wavelength of
visible light i.e. 0.5µm. For further diffusion of carriers across the
junction, some potential energy is required. This potential is called
barrier potential or Contact potential or Diffusion potential denoted as
Vo. The value of V 0varies with doping levels and temperatures.
Generally V 0=0.3v for Ge at room temperature
=0.7v for Si
PN junction as a diode:-
The electrical characteristic of a PN junction is that it
constitutes a diode which allows easy flow in one direction and restricts
in other direction.

Forward Bias-:
When a battery is connected to a PN junction diode that the positive
terminal of the battery is connected P section and negative terminal is
connected to N section, then the junction is said to be forward biased.
When the PN junction is forward biased, holes and repelled
from the battery positive terminal and electrons are repelled by the
negative terminal. Both holes and electrons move towards junction.
Because of this acquired energy, some of holes and free electrons
penetrate the depletion region. This reduces the potential barrier. As a
result of this more majority carriers diffuse across the junction. These
carriers recombine and cause movement of charge carriers in the space
charge region.
The junction offers very low resistance for forward bias. The
current continues as long as the battery is in the circuit. If the battery
voltage is increased, the barrier potential is further reduced and more
majority carriers cross the junction and results in more current.
Note that current in the external circuit is only due to
electrons where as in the semiconductor it is due to both electrons and
holes.
Reverse Bias:-
If battery positive terminal is connected to N section and negative
terminal is connected to P section, then it is said to be reverse biased.
The holes in the P region are attracted towards the battery
negative terminal and electrons in the N region are attracted towards
positive terminal. These majority carriers are drawn away from the
junction. This action widens the depletion region and increases the
barrier potential compared to unbiased diode.
Due to this increased barrier potential, the majority carriers
cannot diffuse across the junction. However this barrier potential is
helpful to the minority carriers in crossing the junction.
The rate of generation of minority carriers depends upon the
temperature. If the temperature is fixed, the rate of generation is also
fixed. Therefore the current due to flow of minority carriers remains the
same, whether the battery voltage is low or high. For this reason, this
current is called reverse saturation current. This current is very small and
is of order nA for Si diodes and µA for Ge diodes.
Current Components in a PN junction Diode:
 When a forward bias is applied to a diode, holes are injected into N
side from P side and electrons are injected into P side from N side. The
number of these injected carriers decreases exponentially with the
distance from the junction due to recombination.
There are two minority currents
1) Due to electrons in the P region denoted as I np

2) Due to holes in the N region denoted as I pn

But both these currents vary with distance, they are

represented as I np (x) and I pn (x)
Electrons crossing from N to P will constitute current in the
same direction as holes crossing from P to N.
Hence total current at the junction is the total conventional
current I flowing through the circuit.
I= I pn (0) + I np (0)
Where x=0
(0) decreases on N side as we move away from the
I pn
junction. Similarly I np (0) decreases on P side as we move away from the
junction.
Since current is same throughout a series circuit, I is independent of x
and is indicated as a horizontal line in the fig.
Due to electric field, there exists another current component
I pp i n P side. This drift current is due to majority carriers i.e. holes in P

side. As the holes approach the junction, some of holes combine with
electrons, so I pp decreases near the junction. Remaining I pp enters the N
side and become I pn.
 :. In a forward biased PN diode, the current enters the P side
as a hole current and leaves N side as electron current of same
amplitude.
The current in PN diode is bipolar. Since it is due to both
electrons and holes.
V-I characteristics of a diode:

Io

When a forward bias is applied to a PN junction diode. The forward

current .If is almost zero up to a forward voltage less than V 0i.e. the
region OA. This is because the potential barrier prevents the electrons
from N side and holes from P side crossing the junction and move
towards N section and electrons towards P section, So that the potential
barrier is completely disappeared. Then large current flows through the
diode.
VI characteristics can be explained by using diode current equation.
−V
i.e. I = I 0 (e ή V −1)T

Where I 0=reverse saturation current.

V T =Volt equivalent of temperature
KT
= q

T
= 11,600

At room temperature
T =300°K
V T =26mv

When the applied voltage V is positive and several times Vt then above
equation becomes.
v
I =I 0 eη v T Here η=1 for Ge

= 2 for Si
Hence current increases exponentially with ‘V’
The forward voltage below which the current is very small and
beyond this the current increases very rapidly is called cut in voltage or
offset voltage or threshold voltage. It is denoted as V r . Its value is 0.3v
for Ge and 0.7v for Si.
When a reverse bias is applied, there is no current flowing through
the diode. But a small reverse saturation current I 0flows due to minority
carriers. For large applied reverse bias, breakdowns occur and reverse
current increases rapidly. The reverse voltage at which the junction
break down occurs is known as breakdown voltageV BD.
For reverse biased diode,
−V
|v| is several timesV T , and then e ή V is very small compared to
T

unity. Then the diode equation becomes I≈- I 0

The reverse current is thus constant and independent of the applied
reverse bias. Its value depends mainly upon the junction temperature. I 0
Value will be in the order of µA for Ge and nA for Si diodes.
Diode Equation:

Consider an open circuit PN junction.

Let P p be the density of holes in P region.
Letn p be the density of electrons in P region.
Letn n be the density of electorns in n region.
Let Pnbe the density of holes in n region.

The density of holes in P region and the density of holes in n

region are related by Boltzmann equation.
VB
VT
P p=P n e
Where V B=Barrier Voltage
V T =Volt equivalent of temp
T
= 11,600

For open circuit PN junction, V B=V 0

Vo
Then P p= Pn e V -------------------> (1)
T

When the PN junction is forward biased (with a voltage of V)

its barrier voltage will be decreased and let it to be ‘ V o -V’ with forward
bias, the hole density in N region exceeds from Pn to Pn+∆ Pn due to
diffusion of holes from P to N region.
V o−V
P p= ( Pn+∆ Pn) VT
e
Vo −V
= ( Pn+∆ Pn)e V .e V -----------------> (2)
T T

Substitute equation (1) in (2)

Vo Vo −V
Pn e
VT =( Pn+∆ Pn)e V .e V T T

−V
Pn=( Pn+∆ Pn) V
e T

V
Pn+∆ Pn= P e V T
n

V
∆ Pn= Pn (e V -1) T

Substituting the value of Pn in above equation

−V o V
∆ Pn= P p e V (e V -1)
T T

The diffusion of holes constitute a hole current given by Ip which is

proportional to ∆ Pn.
:. I pα∆ Pn
−V o V
Or I pα P p e V (e V -1) T T

Where I sp=constant
Similarly the expression for electron current in P region due to
diffusion of electrons is
V
I n= I sn (e V -1) T

Total current I= I p+ I n
V V
= I sp (e V -1) + I np (e V -1)
T T

V
I= I 0 (e V -1) T

Where I 0=Saturation current

In above equation, Generation and recombination in depletion region is
neglected. To consider its effects, which is dominant in Si diodes, factor
ή is introduced.
V
I= I 0 (e ήV -1) T

For forward bias

V
I= I 0 (e ήV -1) T

ή=1 for Ge
ή=2for Si
If V is high, then
V

e
ήV T >>1
V
So I ≈ I 0 e ήV T

For reverse bias,

−V
I= I 0 (e ήV -1) T

If V is large, then
−V

e
ήV T <<1

So I=−I 0 ------------>Reverse saturation Current

Temperature Dependence of V-I Characteristics:-

(mA)
75° 25°
 25° 75°

(µA)

In a semiconductor the generation of electron-hole pairs

increases with the temperature, so their conductivity also increases. So
the current through the PN junction diode increases with temperature.
The diode current is given by
V
I= I 0 (e ήV -1)
T

The reverse saturation current I0 increases approximately

7%/ºc
So for every 10ºc rise in temperature I 0 will be doubled. At
fixed voltage, if the temperature increases, the current also increases. To
bring the current to its original value, Voltage should be reduced. It is
dV
found that at room temperature dT =-2.5mv/ºc in order to maintain a
constant current.
The barrier voltage is also temperature dependent and its value decreases
by 2mv/ºc. This is given by

I 02= I 01* ( )
T 2−T 1
10
2

Where I 01=Saturation current atT 1.

I 02=Saturation current atT 2.
A germanium diode can be used up to a maximum of 75ºc
and a silicon diode to a maximum of 175ºc.
Energy band diagram of a diode:
When the PN junction is formed, the energy band diagrams
of these two regions undergo shift to equalize the Fermi level. Such a
shift does not distribute the relative positions of conduction band,
valence band and Fermi level in any region.
Equalization of Fermi levels in the P and N materials of a PN
junction is similar to equalization of levels of water in two containers
when joined together.
When the PN junction is formed, transfer of carriers
(electrons or holes) takes place until the Fermi levels on the two sides
get equalized. Generally Fermi level E f is closer to conduction band edge
Ecn in n type material while it is closer to valence band edge E vp in P type

material.
 C.B
C.B
ECP
1 E0
EG
2 ECn
_
E1 E0
EF
1 _ E2
EG
EVP 2
E0
V.B EVn
V.B

Conduction Band edge Ecp in P type is higher than Ecn in N type and E vp
in P type is higher than E vn in N type material. E1 and E2 indicate the shifts
in the Fermi level from the intrinsic conditions in P and N materials
respectively.
Total shift in energy level E0 is given by
E0 = E1 + E2

= Ecp - Ecn= E vp- E vn

E0 is the potential energy of the electron at the PN junction.
E0 =qV 0

Where V0 is the contact potential or barrier potential

 1
E F - E vp= EG - E1
2

1
Ecn - E F = EG - E2
2

Combining above two equations, we get

E0 = E1 + E2 = EG - ( Ecn- E F)-( E F- E vp) ---------------> (1)
−E G
We know that np= N C N V e K and np=n2i T

From above equations, we get

N C NV
EG = K T ln 2 ----------------> (2)
ni

For N type material

NV
E F = EC - K T ln NA

NC
Ecn - E F = K T ln ----------------> (3)
ND

Similarly for P type material

NV
E F = EV + K T ln NA

NV
E F - EVp = K T ln ----------------> (4)
NA

Substituting equations (2), (3), (4) in equation (1)

N C NV NC NV
E0 = K T [ln 2 - ln - ln N ]
n i
ND A

N C NV NC NV
= K T ln [ n
2 *N *N ]
i D A
 NDNA
E0 = K T ln 2
ni

KT NDNA
V 0= ln 2
q ni

Diode resistance:
An ideal diode offers zero resistance in forward bias
condition and infinite resistance in reverse bias condition. But no diode
can act as an ideal diode. So actual diode offers less resistance in
forward bias and very high resistance in reverse bias.
D.C or Static Resistance:-
V
It is defined as the ratio of the voltage to the current I in the
forward bias characteristics of PN junction diode. Its value varies with V
and I, so it is not a useful parameter.
A.C or Dynamic Resistance:-
It is defined as the reciprocal of the slope of the volt ampere
characteristics.
r f =Change in Voltage/resulting change in current
∆V
=∆I

AC resistance is the sum of bulk resistance r b and the junction

r j. Bulk resistance includes the ohmic resistance of P and N sections.

Reverse Resistance:
It is resistance offered by the PN diode under reverse biased
condition. It is very large compared to forward resistance. Its range will
be several mega ohms.
Transition Capacitance (CT):-
When a reverse bias is applied to a PN diode, the majority
carriers (both electrons and holes) move away from the junction. Hence
a width of the depletion region at the junction increases. This increase in
the width of the depletion region with the applied reverse voltage can be
considered as a capacitive effect. Transition capacitance C T can be
expressed as
dQ
C T=
dV

Where dQ is the increase in charge caused by a change in

voltage dV.

As reverse bias is increased, width of depletion region (w)

increases. As CT is inversely proportional to w, transition capacitance
decreases.
Diffusion Capacitance:
 When a forward bias is applied to a diode, the capacitance
offered is called diffusion capacitance or storage capacitance CD.
In forward biased condition, the width of depletion region
decreases and holes are diffused from P side to N side while electrons
move from N side to P side. As the applied voltage increases,
concentration of injected charged particle increases. Diffusion
capacitance is defined as the rate of change of injected charge with the
applied voltage.
dQ
C D=
dV

Diffusion Capacitance increases exponentially with forward

bias or it is proportional to diode forward current. The values of C D range
from 10 to 1000PF. The effect of C D is negligible for a reverse biased PN
junction. The Value of C D is much larger thanC T .
C D (np∨µp)

Break Downs in Diodes:-

The sharp increasing current under break down conditions is
due to the following two mechanisms.
1) Avalanche Break down
2) Zener Break down
1) Avalanche Break Down:
 When a small reverse bias is applied to a PN diode, less
number of thermally generated carriers cross the junction and results
small current. But the reverse bias increases, the field across the junction
also increases.
Thermally generated carriers while travelling through the junctions
acquire a large amount of kinetic energy. Then velocity of these carriers
increase and they collide with the immobile ions. This result new
electron-hole pairs generation. Then these carriers acquire sufficient
energy and collide with other immobile ions. The electron-hole pairs are
generated further. This process is cumulative in nature and results in
generation of a valance (multiplication) of charge carriers within a short
time. This results in large amount of current at the same value of reverse
voltage. This carriers generation mechanism is called Avalanche
breakdown.
2) Zener Break Down:
This break down takes place in very thin junction i.e. when
both sides of junction are very heavily doped. So the depletion layer is
narrow when a small reverse bias voltage is applied, a very strong
electric field about 107v/m is set up across the depletion layer. This field
is sufficient to break or rapture the covalent bonds. Then large number
of electrons and holes produced which constitute the current in reverse
bias condition. This current is the reverse saturation current or zener
current. Zener current is independent of the applied voltage and depends
only on the external resistance.
When a diode breaks down, both zener and avalanche effects
are present. At reverse voltage less than 6v, Zener break down
predominates while at about 8v, avalanche break down predominates.
Zener diode Characteristics:
 Zener diode is a reverse biased heavily doped silicon or
germanium PN junction diode. It is operated in the break down region.
Due to higher temperature and current capability, silicon is preferred in
comparison to Germanium. The V-I characteristics is shown in fig.
When a Zener diode is forward biased, its characteristics are just same as
ordinary diode. When the reverse voltage applied to a Zener diode is
increased, a value is reached at which the current through the diode
increases (in region AB), the voltage across the Zener diode serves as a
reference voltage. Zener diode can be widely used as voltage regulator.
Tunnel Diode:
A tunnel diode is a high conductivity PN junction diode
doped heavily about 1000 times higher than a conventional junction
diode.
 The impurity concentration in a conventional diode is 1 part
in 108 atoms. With this doping, the depletion layer is relatively wide. If
the concentration of impurity atoms is greatly increased by about 1000
times, width of depletion layer reduces to about 10-6cm and the device
characteristics are completely changed. When there is not enough energy
to overcome the potential barrier, many carriers penetrate through the
junction. Consequently, large forward current is produced.

V-I characteristics of tunnel diode are shown in fig. As soon as

the forward bias is applied, Significant current is produced. When the
applied forward voltage reaches a value VP, the current quickly reaches
its peak value IP at point A. When the forward bias is further increased,
the diode current stars decreasing. This may continue up to valley point
B. At that point, the voltage is VV and current is IV. The forward bias is
further increased, the characteristics will be same as a conventional
diode. The most useful property of the diode is that the portion AB in the
characteristic. In this portion, the tunnel diode offers negative resistance
as the voltage increases, the current decreases. Hence the tunnel diode
can be used as a very high frequency oscillator. The reverse current also
increases with the applied reverse voltage.

a) No Forward bias
No Tunneling

b) Peak voltage
Full Tunneling

c) Valley voltage
Tunneling Stopped
The tunneling phenomenon can be explained by considering the energy
band diagram of P type and N type semiconductor materials. When no
forward bias is applied, from fig (a) it is obvious that there is rough
alignment of their respective valence and conduction bands. The energy
levels of holes in P region are slightly out of alignment with the energy
levels of electrons in N region. No current flows across the junction.
When a small forward voltage (≈0.1v) is applied, N region energy levels
move upward relative to two energy levels. At this stage, electrons
tunnel through the depletion region with the velocity of light and results
a large current. After peak point, as voltage is increased, the current
starts decreasing because the energy levels of N region are so high i.e.
two bands are out of alignment. Then tunneling is stopped as shown in
fig(C).
Applications:
1) Ultra high speed switch
2) Logic memory storage device
3) Microwave oscillator
4) Relaxation oscillator circuit
5) Amplifier
Varactor Diode:

Circuit Symbol
Depletion region in a reverse biased PN junction

The varactor diode is a variable capacitance diode also called a varicap.

It is also a PN junction diode with a small impurity concentration at the
junction. It has a property that its junction capacitance may be varied
electronically.
When the diode is reverse biased, both holes and electrons
move outwards from the junction. Hence the width of depletion region
increases. This depletion region acts like as insulator because there are
no majority carriers in the depletion region. P and N regions behave as
two plates of a capacitor. So the varactor diode behaves as a capacitor.

As the capacitance is inversely proportional to the distance

between the plates, the capacitance offered by the varactor diode C T also
varies inversely with the reverse voltage applied when a reverse bias is
increased, depletion region width increases and the transition
capacitance decreases. At zero volts, varactor has less depletion region
width, and the capacitance is large (≈600PF). When the reverse bias
voltage increases (15V), the capacitance is 30PF.

Applications of Varactor diode:

1) FM radio
2) TV receiver
3) AFC circuits
4) Adjustable band pass filters.
Light Emitting Diode (LED):
The light emitting diode is a PN junction. When this diode is
forward biased, it emits light. This phenomenon is called
electroluminescence. In silicon and Germanium diodes, more energy is
radiated in the form of heat and insignificant energy is radiated as light.
In other materials such as gallium phosphide (GaP) or gallium arsenide
phosphide (GaAsP), the number of photons of light energy emitted is
sufficient to create a visible light source.

When a forward bias is applied to an LED, both the electrons and

holes move towards the junction and they will recombine. Due to this
recombination, the electrons in the conduction bandandofemission
c) Recombination N regionof light fall into
the holes in the valence band of a P region. The difference of energy
between the conduction band and valence is radiated in the form of light
energy. The brightness of the emitted light is directly proportional to the
forward bias current. Recombination of carriers and emission of light of
LED will be shown in fig C. First take a substrate, an N type layer is
grown on that substrate and a P type layer is deposited on it by diffusion.
Since carrier recombination takes place in P layer, it is kept upper most.
A metal film is applied to the bottom of the substrate for reflecting as
much light as possible to the surface and also to provide cathode
connection LEDs are always encased to protect their delicate wires.
The wavelength of the light emitted and thus its colour
depends on the band gap energy of the materials forming the PN
junction.
Gallium Arsenide (Ga As)-infrared radiation (invisible)
Gallium Phosphide (Ga P)-red or green
Gallium Arsenide Phosphide (Ga As P)-red or yellow
When LEDs are reverse biased, they emit no light. LEDs
operate at voltage levels from 1.5 to 3.3 v with some tens of mill
amperes current. LEDs require power of 10 to 150mw with a life time of
100000+ hours.
They are used in wide applications.
1) Burglar Alarms
2) Picture Phones
3) Multimeters
4) Calculators
5) Digital Meters
6) Microprocessors
7) Digital Computers etc
Photo diode:
A photo diode is a two terminal PN junction device which
operates in a reverse bias. It converts light signals into electric signals. It
is also called photo detector.

When a PN diode is reverse biased, very small current results. The

same is true for a photo diode. The reverse biased current is produced by
thermally generated electron-hole pairs in the depletion layer. These are
swept across the junction by the electric field created by the reverse
voltage. In a rectifier diode, the reverse current increases with the
temperature due to an increase in the number of electron-hole pairs.
In a photo diode reverse current increases with the light
intensity at the PN junction. The magnitude of photo current depends on
the illumination of the diode element. When there is no incident light,
the reverse current is very small and is called the dark current. An
increase in the amount of light energy produces an increase in the
reverse current, for a given value of reverse bias voltage.
The photo diode is kept in a scaled plastic or glass casing.
This cover is so designed that the light rays are allowed to fall on one
surface across the junction. Remaining sides are painted to stop the
penetration of light rays will fall on the junction by using a lens.
When a reverse bias is applied, the current flowing is given
by
V
I= I S + I 0 (1- e ήV )T

Where I 0=reverse saturation current

I S=Short circuit current proportional to light intensity
V=Voltage across the diode
V T =Volt equivalent of temperature
ή=Parameters,1 for Ge and 2 for Si
Applications:
1) Photo detection
2) Demodulation
3) Logic circuit
4) High speed switching
5) Optical communication systems.

Liquid Crystal Display (LCD):

 LCDs are passive type display devices used for display of
numeric and alphanumeric character in dot matrix and segmental
display. The main advantage of LCD is the low power consumption
because no light generation is required. Normally two liquid crystal
materials are used such as nematic and cholesteric.
Based on the construction, LCDs are classified as
a) Dynamic scattering type and b) Field effect type.
The molecules in ordinary liquids normally have random orientations. In
liquid crystals, the molecules oriented in a definite crystal patterns as
shown in fig a.
Dynamic Scattering Type:
This consists of a layer of liquid crystal material sand
witched between glass sheets. These sheets are coated with tin oxide on
the inside with transparent electrodes. Liquid crystal having a thickness
of 5 to 50µm.
 When a weak electric field is applied, molecules of liquid crystal are
aligned in the field direction. As the voltage increases further, the crystal
turns optically inhomogeneous. In this state, it scatters light in all
directions. Then the call appears to be bright. This phenomenon is
known as dynamic scattering.
Field Effect type:
Construction of field effect LCD is similar to that of a
dynamic scattering type. But in this type, two thin polarizing optical
filters are placed at inside of each glass sheet. When the cell is
energized, cell appears dull because there is no change in direction of
polarization. When the cell is not energized, LCD material twists the
light passing through the cell. Then the light will pass through the
optical filters and the cell appears bright.
Liquid crystal cells are of two types.
When both glass sheets ate transparent, the cell is known as
transmitive type cell. When only one glass sheet is transparent on the
other has reflective coating, the cell is called as reflective type.

Advantages:
1) Required voltage is small.
2) Low power consumption.
3) They are economical.
Disadvantages:
1) Very slow devices.
2) They occupy a large area.
3) They are used with a.c supplies having a frequently less than 50Hz.
Specifications of semiconductor diodes:
Specification sheets of some of the commonly used PN
junction diode, Zener diode, Varactor diode, Tunnel diode are given in
the following tables.