L1 - Scientific Research

Scientific Research Hypothesis-Based Investigation

• Is an objective, logical, and repeatable attempt to • When you conduct an experiment, you start to
understand the principle forces operating the natural perform an Inquiry-Based Investigation.
universe. • It requires one to propose and test a hypothesis;
hence it is also called a Hypothesis-Based
Capstone research Project Investigation.
• Is designated for Senior High School students to conduct • It involves the use of the scientific method
experiments that will draw their experiences together to anchored on a well-defined procedure designed
answer a research question or problem. to answer a researchable question.

Discovery-Based Investigation  Steps:

• It is also called a Non-inquiry Investigation 1. Problem
• It relies on verifiable observation and measurements. 2. Hypothesis
• It involves methods to observe a structure or 3. Procedure
phenomenon; to record, analyze, and interpret the data 4. Results
obtained; and to generate detailed descriptions. 5. Conclusion

 Examples:  Inquiry-Based Investigation

> Description of Human DNA • Students conduct science investigation projects.
> Composition of Plat Extract • It aims to establish specific detailed information
> Correlation of Typhoon Intensities and or characteristics about a given group
Amount of Rainfall • To do this, certain characteristics need to be
> Measurement and comparison of Ultraviolet determined, defined and compared to another
Rays throughout the months population by making observations or
measurements on variables.
 Steps:
1. Project  Variable
2. Research • is a test subject's characteristic that can change
3. Materials (or is allowed to change).
4. Procedure
5. Conclusion  Experimental & Control Group
• Scientific investigation project may also aim to
apply a treatment on a test subject in a controlled
 Two (2) Types: way and to collect data in response to be
1. Demonstration experimental conditions.
• It explains a scientific principle of why • To have a valid conclusion, it is important to make
or how something works through comparisons among the test subjects;
models, illustrations, or visual  Experimental Group
animations. • Received a treatment but in different
• This does not require hypothesis degrees/ levels
resting. However, you must carry out  Control Group
testing or trials to demonstrate that a • Did not receive the treatment at all
given specific principle actually works.
Basic and Applied Research
• Example:
> Solar Energy as an alternative  Basic Research
source of energy for watering • Theoretical
plants • For the expansion of knowledge
> Genetic diversity
2. Collection > Ecological patterns
• It is a group of naturally occurring > Biodiversity studies
specimens or samples, gathered show > Host-parasites interactions
their scientific hierarchy or > Characterization of organisms
relationship.
• It must demonstrate a newly  Applied Research
discovered information that would • Practical
contribute to an existing scientific • For the betterment of life's quality
knowledge > Alternative energy sources
> Low-cost instrumentation
• Example: > Development of diagnostic kits
> Collection and identification of > Identification of antibacterials
tadpoles in Dasmariñas Cavite > Biomaterials characterization

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Qualities of an Empirical Research Project

1. It should contribute to an existing knowledge in science

2. It has to exhibit originality
3. It should follow the process of a research
4. It must look into available scientific sources of
information
5. Its deign must be logical and rational
6. It results and conclusions must be verifiable and
repeated by others
7. It should address a real-world problem or issue

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L2 - Research process & Design

Research Process & The Research Topic

• The conduct of an experimental study employs the
Scientific Method, which involves systematic
procedures in order to come up with scientifically
acceptable and verifiable results and conclusions.
• Research is an interactive process because the result
generated may lead to more questions that need
further research.
• There are also instances when the procedure needs to
be modified as a result of an unexpected data or
problems in the conduct of the experiment. Hence,
there is a need to return to a previous step.

Research Process
1. Choosing a Research Topic
2. Gathering information about the Research topic
3. Preparing a Review of Related Literature
4. Writing the Research Proposal (formulating the
hypothesis and the Research Design)
5. Conduct the experiment
6. Collecting and analyzing data
7. Writing the research report
8. Disseminating the research study

Research Topic

I. Selecting a research topic is a critical initial step in

conducting a project. The challenge is to come up with
a topic that is novel, feasible, and applicable.

 Broad
• Enough to make an impact on the society II. After reviewing the categories, limit your topic using
and the scientific community. subcategories
• But if it is too broad, you will find too many
articles that have little significance to your  Main Categories
topic. > Energy and emerging technology

 Narrow  First Level

• Enough to make the research project > Renewable energy
doable and answer a specific problem.
• But if it is too narrow, only few articles or  Second Level
studies are available to serve a your > Natural extracts as alternative sources of
reference. energy

 Proposed Title
> The feasibility of producing ethanol from
bitter orange (citrus aurantium) peelings

III. After choosing a topic, questions to be answered in

inquiry may then be crafted. Ideal questions for doing a
project start with why, how, what, who, when, where, or
which.

 Water Pollution:
1. What aquatic plants, animals, and microorganism
to be used as indicators to measure the level of
water pollution?
2. How can water pollutants affect the growth and
reproduction of specific plants and animals?
 Alternative Energy:
1. What local nonagricultural plants can be sources of
essential oils?
2. How can one maximize the utilization of solar
energy as source of electricity?

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Nature of research 2. Correlational
• It establishes the extent of the relationship among
 Qualitative Research variables. It recognizes the trends and patterns in
• Is to explore, understand, and interpret human the data, in the variables, or in the subject itself.
behavior and issues. • However, it proves only relationship, not the cause.

 Quantitative Research 3. Casual-Comparative

• To test hypothesis, determined cause-and-effect • It attempts to establish cause-and-effect
relationships, and make predictions. relationships among variables.
• This can determine the influence of a certain
Quantitative Research variable on other variables or even on the entire
subject.
 Philosophical Foundation • However, because of the nature of this research
• Deductive; Reductionist design, the samples are usually predetermined and
not randomly selected.
 Aim
• Test predetermined hypothesis 4. Experimental
• It involves a setup where the researcher maintains
 Methodology absolute control over all the factors that may affect
• Predetermined; step-by-step, confirmatory, or the experiment.
Top-down • Hence, the variable are systematically manipulated
to observe their effects.
 Variables
• Distinct set of variables Types of Probability Sampling

 Position of Researchers  Probability Sampling - means that every member of the

• Detached; highly objective population has a chance of being selected (Quanti)

 Assessing Quality of Outcomes 1. Simple Random

• Validity and Reliability tested directly through • Is a method of choosing samples in which all
statistics the members of population are given an
equal chance of being selected
 Unit of Results
• Generalizability 2. Stratified Sampling
• The population is first divided into different
Research Design strata, and then sampling follows criteria
• Is the overall plan or conceptual structure formulated used to divide a population into strata.
to address the research problem.
• If the research design is not properly formulated, the 3. Cluster Sampling
overall research problem might be independently • Used in large-scale studies, where the
addressed. population is geographically spread out.
• Sampling produces may be difficult and time
> The nature of research; consuming .
> The objective of the research design;
> Flexibility of the research design to undergo 4. Systematic Sampling
changes; • Is a method of selecting every nth element of
> Skills of the researchers; a population.
> Effectivity and efficiency of the Research Design
in obtaining the needed data;  The population is the entire group that you want to draw
> Accuracy and reliability of the data and the conclusions about.
biases it should avoid;
> And the time frame, cost, and feasibility of the  The sample is the specific group of individuals that you
study. will collect data from.

1. Descriptive
• It describes, explains, and validated various
aspects of the subject. The data are obtained
through a systematic observation of the samples.
• However, because the samples are merely
observed, the variables are not controlled and
the conclusion cannot describe any relationship
among the variables.

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Types of Non-probability Sampling

 Non-probability Sampling - individuals are selected

based on non-random criteria, and not every individual
has a chance of being included. (Quali)

1. Convenience Sampling
• simply includes the individuals who
happen to be most accessible to the
researcher.

2. Purposive Sampling
• also known as judgement sampling,
involves the researcher using their
expertise to select a sample that is most
useful to the purposes of the research.

3. Snowball Sampling
• can be used to recruit participants via
other participants.

4. Quota Sampling
• relies on the non-random selection of a
predetermined number or proportion of
units. This is called a quota.

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Chart

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L3 - Research Ethics & Safety

Research Ethics 1. Follow the instructions to avoid accidents and

• Is based on moral principles that govern a researcher's endangering your life and others.
behavior in conducting experiments. It is based on a 2. Familiarize yourself with the location and use of
number of foundations including rules and regulations, safety equipment.
rules of conduct, ethical principles, moral principles, 3. Wear personal proactive equipment.
products of research, and values. 4. Strictly no food not drinks.
• The rules and regulations of the school or organization 5. Dispose the wastes.
must serve as the basic foundation of ethics in 6. Study the protocols for accidents.
research and must be followed all the times. 7. Leave your equipment in a safe place.
8. Caring for the environment must be a priority in
Ethical Practices and Morals: conducting a research.
• Proper citation for all reference used
• Statement of conflict of interest Roles of Research in the Society
• Inclusion of authors who contributed to the research • Scientist and researchers have the responsibility to
transmit knowledge for the improvement of the society.
Moral Principles: • Research endeavors must be aimed solving immediate
• Non-maleficence (avoiding harming others) and critical problems of the community.
• Beneficence (doing good for others) • Researchers must also engage in intellectual dialogues
• Autonomy (self-determination) with members of the society in order to understand their
• Justice (being fair) immediate needs and aspirations.
• Fidelity (keeping promises)
• Veracity (truthfulness and consistent honesty) Fraud in Science
• Scientific research is the search for truth
Ethical Principles: • With the tools of science, new knowledge is generated
1. Honesty and Integrity and new discoveries and inventions help societal
2. Objectivity problems.
3. Accuracy and Cautiousness • Scientific achievements of researchers bring honor,
4. Protection of Human Subjects recognition, empowerment, and even financial rewards.
5. Animal Care • These powerful motivation for a wear researcher to
6. Care for the Environment commit scientific breakthrough may also add pressure
7. Respect for intellectual property for someone to falsify results.
8. Responsible research dissemination
Scientific Misconduct
Responsibilities of a Researchers • Is committed when someone reports unreliable and
• Research students are primarily responsible for the fraudulent reports.
design, conduct finalization, and dissemination of the • The following are the common forms of scientific fraud:
study.
• Researchers are expected to observe the highest 1. Fabrication
ethical standard and follow the guidelines and • Making up results and reporting them as
procedures set by the school in conducting a CRP. one's own data.

1. Develop an appropriate CRP plan following the 2. Falsification

format if the school • Manipulating by changing, omitting, or
2. Consult and discuss your concerns with your adding data.
research advise regularity
3. Attend required research orientation sessions, 3. Plagiarism
accomplish research forms, and comply with • Owning someone else's work of previous
other research protocols prior to the conduct of researchers who had published the same
experimentations results.
4. Accomplish preparatory activities ahead of
schedule  Citation Plagiarism:
5. Manage and sustain the progress of the research • Failure to cite the work of previous
6. Prepare the final product and paper following researchers who had published the
the format of the school same results.
7. Disseminate your CRP results following the
guidelines of the school  Plagiarism Fabrication:
• Copying an unrelated figure from an
Safety and Environmental Issues unrelated publication and reproducing
• The safety of the researchers, the end-product of the it exactly in a new publication.
research, and the environment where the research is
conducted should be considered.  Self-plagiarism:
• Safety must be prioritized because of the inherent risks • Publishing the same results using
such as fire hazards, toxic chemicals, risky protocols, different titles in different journals.
and potentially infectious diseases from creatures.

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4. Photo Manipulation
• Image fraud by publishing photoshopped
images.

5. Ghostwriting
• Employment of ghostwriter to write
publications.

6. Authorship Misconduct
• Authors without substantial contribution in the
development of research studies and
publications.

7. Bare assertion
• Making an unsubstantiated claims.

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L4 - Scientific Literature and Its Types

Scientific Literature and It Types • It is also not as focused and detailed as the
• Conceptualizing a research topic is one of the most previous types.
challenging aspects of research
• It requires obtaining existing or background • Examples:
information about the topic of interest. > Science magazines
• The following are the reasons why gaining background > Textbooks
information about your research topic is important. > Encyclopedia
> Dictionaries
1. It expands your knowledge as a researcher
• Reading background information helps you Traditional Ways of gathering Information
understand your research topic as well as • Traditionally, researchers gather information by reading
its context. various sources or resources to make sure that their
information are correct and accurate
2. It gives a summary of critical studies
• Background information can be I. General References
synthesized so that studies relevant to • Are the broadest reading materials; they cover
your research topic are included. every knowledge available.
• They can used to gain initial knowledge and
3. It helps refine your search topic general ideas about a certain topic.
• Gathering background information reveals • However, general references cannot give an in-
issues that have not been resolved yet. depth discussion about a research topic.

Primary Literature • Examples:

• Refers to original research and new studies that > Almanacs
contain firsthand information about a certain topic. > Atlases
• Also known as primary source, it is used as a basis of > Dictionaries
other types of literature since it is the most recent > Encyclopedia
among them.
• It is evaluated by scientist and researchers of the same II. Scholarly Books
area of expertise as that of the author to ensure its • Are written for general or specialized field of
accuracy and authenticity. This process of evaluation is science (e.g., chemistry, engineering, etc.)
called peer review. • They contain information derived from original
research.
• Examples: • Scholarly books are more detailed than general
> Journal articles references.
> Monographs • They contain key concepts, terminologies, and data
> Autobiographies that can be easily understood.
> Photographs
> Speeches III. Monographs
• Are highly specialized books or treaties that
Secondary Literature contain detailed and thoroughly documented
• Refers to publications that largely rely on primary studies and papers, which focus on a single topic in
literature. a particular field.
• Its main purpose to discuss, evaluate, synthesize, and • It contain comprehensive information that can
summarize information from different primary sources. serve as background knowledge for your research.
• This is the reason why secondary literature usually
broader and more in-depth information about a given IV. Review Article
topic. • Are written documents that sum up the current
• Nevertheless, it also undergoes peer review before state of the research on a particular topic.
publications • Review articles provide a basic understanding
about a specific research area and are, at the same
• Examples: time, relatively easy to understand.
> Literature review articles • They are more detailed, current, and commonly
> Meta-analysis published in peer-reviewed journals
> Indices
> Data compilations V. Scientific Journals
• Are the main source of primary information related
Tertiary Literature to past and current scientific investigations.
• Is based on both primary and secondary literatures • They are usually specialized for different fields or
• It represents a condensed summary or an introduction disciplines of science.
to the current knowledge or research on the topic.
• This kind of literature holds information that, while
authentic, is farthest from the source.

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Online Retrieval of information  Concept Matrix
• There are two approaches in structuring the RRL:
 Search Engines
• Google 1. Concept-centric
• Bing • Concepts are described one after
• Yahoo another.
• Baidu
• Ask 2. Author-centric
• AOL • Discusses the related studies
performed by researchers.
Boolean Operator

 Boolean logic or Searching

• Is a method of organizing one's search using a
combination of key words.
• There are three main Boolean Operators,
namely, or, and not. These are used to limit
your search engines to only the results that you
need.

Research Database
• Is a large and comprehensive collection of data
conveniently organized for rapid search and retrieval
through a computer.
• Companies and schools use databases to store the
information of their workers and students,
respectively.
• In research, publishers use databases to store journal
articles that they have published and, at the same
time, grant researchers access to them.

Preparing a Review of Related Literature

 Note-Taking
• There are three main principles of note-taking
in research:

1. Know what to record

• Before finding and reading your
literature, you must know what ideas or
topics you are trying to find by creating a
list of topics and subtopics.

2. Write efficiently
• Do not write down too much
unnecessary information.

3. Label it logically
• When creating a label, always label the
topic, title of the study, author's, year of
publication, journal, and page number.

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