Earth and Space

(Geology)
 Earth Science

Geology Meteorology Astronomy Oceanography

Earth’s Earth’s atmosphere Physical, chemical

composition, Celestial objects and biological
structure and Weather and and phenomenon features of the
processes climate ocean
Geology
Geology is the multi-disciplinary science that
studies the earth and its history.

It is also concerned with the organisms of the

planet and how the planet has changed over time.
Geologists search for fuels and minerals, study
natural hazards, and work to protect Earth's
environment.
Geologic Time Scale
The Geologic Time-Scale is divided into units.
➢Eons
➢ Eras,
➢Periods
➢Epochs
✓Each of these time periods had different conditions
and unique ecosystems.
✓Their beginning and end are often marked by some
event such as a mass extinction, the appearance of
new life, a change in the rocks' magnetic signature,
or by human convention.
Geologic Time Scale
Geologic time scale is divided into major division of time called
eons. Eons may be further divided into smaller subdivision called
eras, and each era is divided into periods. Sometimes, periods
are further divided into epochs.

It describes the order and duration of major events on Earth for

the last 4.6 billion years.

Geologic time are not divided into equal numbers of years.

Instead, they are divided into blocks of time when the fossil
record shows that there were similar organisms on Earth.
 Hadean Eon
It is named after the Greek god and ruler of the underworld
Hades, is the oldest eon and dates from 4.6–4.0 billion years
ago.
The Age of Planetary Formation
A huge planetoid crushes into Earth & splits off Moon
Massive meteor bombardments pound Earth and Moon
Interior of the molten Earth separates into layers(crust, mantle
and core)
Dense, very hot atmosphere of hydrogen, CO², steam, ammonia
& methane
It represents Earth’s earliest history.
During this time, the planet was characterized by a
partially molten surface, volcanism, and asteroid impacts.
Boiling steam begins to condense into oceans
Earliest known rocks on Earth date from the Hadean
Organic chemical components of the building blocks of
life (amino acids, RNA and DNA) first appear
Archean eon
The Archean Eon lasted from 4.0–2.5 billion years ago, is named
after the Greek word for beginning.
The Earth's temperature is 3x hotter than today
The Earth's crust very thin
Enormous volcanic and tectonic activity
Protocontinents begin to form over hotspots
Dense, hot atmosphere of CO², methane and ammonia
Oceans hot, acidic and filled with dissolved metals
Life forms

First life appears as simple prokaryote bacteria

Cyanobacteria appear & begin forming stromatolites
Cyanobacteria develop photosynthesis & begin pumping
oxygen into the atmosphere
Proterozoic eon
The Proterozoic Eon, meaning “earlier life,” comes after
the Archean Eon and ranges from 2.5 billion to 541
million years old.

It is divided into Paleoproterozoic, Mesoproterozoic and

Neoproterozoic
Paleoproterozoic
Continents stabilize; begin to consolidate
Oxygen atmosphere forms
Metals 'rust' out of the oceans; oceans turn blue.
'Banded Iron' rock formations created as free oxygen
oxidizes the metal on the surface and in oceans.
All land are barren, lifeless desert
"Oxygen Catastrophe" - Earth's first extinction event
Oxygen-intolerant archean microbes wiped out or driven
into hiding
Green cyanobacteria stromatolites thrive and dominate in
coastal waters. Their relentless photosynthesis pumps
more and more oxygen into air.
Mesoproterozoic (2.5 to 1.6 Billion Years
Ago)
Rodinia Supercontinent comes together
All oceans merged into one - Mirovia
Considerable mountain building
Ocean and atmosphere reach chemical composition
approximately same as today
All land is barren, lifeless desert
Green cynobacterial stromatolites continue to dominate
Simple prokaryote bacteria "merge' (endosymbiosis)
to form advanced cells (eukaryotes)
Natural selection speeds up
Ocean plankton (esp. phytoplankton) proliferate
Red and green algae appear after 'absorbing'
cyanobacteria cells as chloroplasts
Neoproterozoic
Worst ice age in Earth's history - "Snowball Earth"
Glaciers a mile thick reach the equator
Earth surface temperature averages -70° F.
Sturtian Ice Age: 750 - 700 million years ago, followed
by "Hothouse Earth" event (temperature 110° F. with huge
hurricanes and acid rain)
Marinoan Ice Age: 660 - 635 million years ago, followed
by another "Hothouse Earth" event
Life barely survives, confined to undersea volcanic vents
and sunlit cracks in the ice sheet.
Survivors include bacteria, archaea and cyanobacteria.
Eukaryotic red and green algae survive
Phanerozoic eon
The term Phanerozoic means "visible" or "revealed
life", or "evident life“.
It is divided into Paleozoic, Mesozoic and
Cenozoic eras.
It is considered relatively short period during which
the Earth has been inhabited by multicellular
organisms that leave fossil traces in the rocks.
Paleozoic Era(Ancient Life)
• The Cambrian period is the 1st period of the Paleozoic Era.
“Age of the Trilobites”
• Explosion of life in the oceans began during this era.
• Most of the continents were covered in warm, shallow seas.
– Invertebrates were dominate - Trilobites
– Fish emerged during this time
– Fish led to the arrival of amphibians
• The end of the Paleozoic era is called the “Age of Amphibians”
– Early land plants including mosses, ferns and cone-bearing plants.
– The early coal forming forests were also formed during this time.
• At the end of the Paleozoic, the largest mass extinction in
history wiped out approximately 90% of all marine animal
species and 70% of land animals.
– Possible causes of this Mass Extinction Event
• Lowering of sea levels when the continents were rejoined as
Pangaea (convergent boundary)
• Increased volcanic activity (ash and dust)
• Climate changes – cooler climate
Mesozoic Era – Middle Life
• At the beginning of this era the continents were joined
as Pangaea.
• Pangaea broke up around the middle of this era.
• Reptiles became the most abundant animals because
of their ability to adapt to the drier climate of the
Mesozoic Era.
– Skin maintains body fluids
– Embryos live in shells
• Dinosaurs were also very active in this era.
– First small dinosaurs appeared in the Triassic Period.
– Larger and more abundant dinosaurs appeared in the
Jurassic Period.
• Small mammals and birds also appeared during this
era.
– The mammals were small, warm-blooded animals. Hair
covering their bodies.
• These characteristics help them survive in changing environments.
• The main plant life of this time were Gymnosperms or
plants that produce seeds, but no flowers.
– Pine Trees

• Flowering plants appeared during the END of this era.

• This era ended with a mass extinction event about 65
million years ago.
– Many groups of animals, including the dinosaurs
disappeared suddenly at this time.

• Many scientists believe that this event was caused by a

comet or asteroid colliding with the Earth.
Cenozoic Era – Recent Life
• Began about 65 million years ago and continues today
– Climate was warm and mild.
– Marine animals such as whales and dolphins evolved.

• Mammals began to increase and evolve adaptations that

allowed them to live in many different environments – land, air
and the sea.
– Grasses increased and provided a food source for grazing animals

• Many mountain ranges formed during the Cenozoic Era

– Alps in Europe and Himalayas in India; Rocky Mountains in the USA
• Growth of these mountains may have helped to cool down the
climate
– Ice Ages occurred late in the Cenozoic Era (Quaternary Period).

• As the climate changed, the animals had to adapt to the rise

and fall of the oceans caused by melting glaciers.

• This era is sometimes called the “Age of Mammals”

• Marine animal examples:
– Algae, Mollusks, Fish and Mammals

• Land animal examples:

– Bats, Cats, Dogs, Cattle and Humans
– Humans are thought to have appeared around 3.5 million years ago
(during the most recent period – Quaternary).

• Flowering plants were now the most common plant life.

The Composition and Earth’s Structure

1.the crust,
2.the mantle, Layers based on
composition
3.core
The Composition and Earth’s Structure

1.Crust makes up less than 1% of Earth

by mass, consisting of oceanic crust and
continental
2.Mantle represents about 68% of Earth’s
mass.
3.Core mostly iron metal and makes up
about 31% of the Earth.
The Earth’s Crust
➢Earth’s outer surface
➢a cold, thin, brittle outer shell made of rock.
➢The crust is very thin, relative to the radius of the
planet.
➢ There are two very different types of crust
✓Oceanic crust composed of magma that erupts on the seafloor
to create basalt lava flows or cools deeper down to create the
intrusive igneous rock
✓Continental crust is made up of many different types of
igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary rocks.
The Mantle
➢made of solid rock,
(based on evidence from seismic waves, heat flow,
and meteorites)
➢ it is extremely hot
(because of the heat flowing outward from it )
✓Conduction
✓Convection
The Core
➢Made up of dense metallic core
➢85% iron metal with 15 % nickel
✓outer core is liquid
✓inner core is solid
The Composition and Earth’s Structure

1.lithosphere Layers based on

2.Asthenosphere physical properties
3.Mesosphere
4.Inner Core
5.Outer core
The Composition and Earth’s Structure

1. lithosphere the layer about 100 km thick (up to 200 km

thick beneath continents), it is very brittle and easily
fractures at low temperature
2. Asthenosphere is about 250 km thick composed of solid
rock, but soft and flows easily
3. Mesosphere is underneath the asthenosphere and is
solid.
4. Inner Core
5. Outer core
Layers of the Earth
Earth’s Processes
1.Geologic processes
➢all types of processes affecting geologic
structures.
2. Atmospheric processes
➢the result of complex Earth-Sun interactions and
include weather and climate.
3. Ocean processes
➢recurrent natural changes that are physical,
biological, or chemical, actively affecting the seas
and oceans.
 Geologic processes
▪ diagenesis
▪ Earthquakes
▪ erosion
▪ glaciation
▪ hydrothermal processes
▪ land subsidence
▪ Liquefaction
▪ Metamorphism
▪ sediment transport
▪ sedimentation
▪ tectonic processes
▪ volcanic activity
▪ Earth tides
▪ Deformation
▪ soil formation
Atmospheric Processes
➢ include energy transfer between the Earth's surface and
the atmosphere
✓radiation,
✓conduction,
✓convection
➢boundary layer processes in the lower atmosphere, where
the atmosphere 'feels' the influence of Earth's surface;
➢and cloud and radiation studies.
Ocean Processes
✓ocean circulation
✓ocean currents
✓Tides
✓ocean waves
✓coastal erosion
✓ deposition