Module 2

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ELEC7404

Lecture 2
R. S. design

Dr KM Leung
BSc (Eng), MSc, PhD, JP
CEng, FIMechE, FHKIE, MIET, REW
(leungkm2@hku.hk)

8/15/2023 Page 1
Course contents

1. Train types
2. Car body
3. Bogie
4. Wheel set
5. Wheel-rail contact
6. Couplers
7. Risk matrix

8/15/2023 Page 2
言之吾听
示之吾明
行之吾知之欸

“I hear and I listen, I see and I remember, I do and I


understand”

Confucius
Train motion equations - stopping/slowing down

• Braking distance, 𝑆𝑏 = 𝑣 2 /2b (where v – speed of train in m/s, b


– braking rate in m/s2)

• Slowing down distance, 𝑆𝑠𝑑 = (𝑣 2 - 𝑢2 )/2b

• Kinetic energy, KE = 0.5M𝑣 2 (where M – mass of train)

• J, jerk in m/s3, the rate of change of deceleration


Train types

1. Concentrated power - Train with locomotives and carriages


• Locomotives hauled, coupling in service, safe and quieter
• Can have fixed formation (fixed car no., eg. TGV)
• Locomotive must be heavy to generate traction
(The development of power electronics using IGBT reduces the size and
weight of the traction control systems a lot. Smaller motors and
converters can be fitted on the underframe or bogies. This changes the
design of trains from loco hauled to distributed power.)
Train types

2. Distributed power - Multiple units


• Traction motors (motored axles) are integrated into the load carrying car,
almost full train mass is used for traction
• No wasted passenger volume
• Short formation (4 cars, 6 cars) can make marginal service profitable
• Electric multiple units (EMU) – a multiple unit train consists of many
carriages using electricity (motored axles) as motive power (controlled by
manual or auto modes), the cars can be separated into 4 types, power
car, motor car, driving car and trailer car. Each car can have more than 1
function, eg. motor driving car or power driving car.
Train types
• Why distributed power -
➢ more space for passengers
➢ more distributed power on train, more motors more redundancy and
over boost capacity
➢ lower coefficient of adhesion exploited (less derailment risk)
Source : Siemens
Train Types - Concentrated/distributed power

Distributed power train runs on


smaller size transformer, traction
converters and traction motors
Train types - Electric train vs. Diesel train (for reading only)
1. EMUs better acceleration, reduced passenger journey time
2. No refueling issue, time saving and reduced contamination
3. Higher train reliability, eg. electric train achieves 34 kkm/fault and
diesel train 18 kkm/fault
4. RS maintenance cost 30 to 45 % lower (Virgin trains)
5. Regenerative braking saves 10 to 20 % energy cost, total energy
cost saving amounts to 40 to 50 % (total carbon emission 20 to 40 %
lower)
6. Lower train weight, EMU 18 % less weight than DMU
7. Better power to weight ratio,
8. Quieter
Train Types- Distributed power vs Loco hauled
Distributed power Concentrated power Loco hauled
Smaller motor capacity and
Motor drive higher capacity Motor drive higher capacity
Propulsion more no., more distributed
and less no. and less no.
power
Traction performance Higher adhesion Lower adhesion Lower adhesion

Max. axle load Lighter (17 tonnes/axle) Heavier Heavier


Full (more space for
Passenger capacity 2 cars less than distributed 1 car less than distributed
passengers)
More (drives below
Noise in saloon Less Less
passenger cars)
Lower (smaller drives and
Maintenance costs High High
traction control)
Flexibility of train sets Less Less High
Redundancy of main
Higher Low Very low
component
Train Types- TGV, Alstom, concentrated power Source : Alstom

Concentrated power type


Train Types- TGV Duplex, Alstom, concentrated power
Train Types - ICE 3, Siemens, distributed power
Source : DB Bahn

HST in Germany - increasing market share (for reading only)

2011
Types of RS vehicles in HK (for reading only)
• EMU, Electric multiple units (for passenger trains) : M-Trains for KTL, TWL
and ISL, C-Trains for KTL, CAF-Trains for TCL and AEL, K-Trains for TCL and
TKL, SP1900 Trains for EAL, WRL and MOL,

• LRV, Light rail vehicles : LRVs for LRL

• Loco, Locomotives

• AV, Auxiliary vehicles


Train car body
1. Car body structure materials -
• Stainless steel (ss or steel underframe and metro ss body shell)
• Aluminum alloy (Al for light rail and HS trains car body)
• Carbon steel
• Composite materials (strong and light, but lacks the stiffness to be used as car
body shell and has difficulty in repairing damaged composite sections) (roof
made of composite sandwich panels from Al honeycomb core with carbon
fiber as inner and outer skins bonded by epoxy resin, 28 % lighter than ss)
• GRP, fiberglass has been used extensively to shape the noses
• Optimum weight reduction design (use of light-weight materials) to minimize
power consumption, weight management from design to manufacture
Typical car body structure Al extruded profiles
as wall panels

(Structural members like underframe structures are normally steel (or S.S.)
beams for structural supports. HS train underframe uses Al for light weight)
Train car body

2. Method of construction – by welding or riveting


3. Design life - Minimum operational life with specified loading, typically
25 to 40 years
4. Train weight –
• Not exceeding max. permitted tare train wt. eg. 310 ton for 8-car
train (metro passenger loads, eg. 2400x0.8x60 = 115 tons)
• Not exceeding max. axle loading, eg. 17 ton/axle
Train car body
5. Strength requirements –
• Proof loading
• Fatigue loading
• Collision (crashworthiness) and energy absorption
• Design references – International Union of Railways, UIC 566, En
12663, En 15227, Railway Group Standards, RGS GM/RT 2100
6. Purpose
• Transmit traction and braking forces, support passengers/freight loads,
protect passengers in case of train collision, protect passengers from
weather, carry ancillary equipment (eg water)
Train car body
Bogie with primary and secondary suspensions – to support the weight of
the train car body
Train car body – loading
1. Proof loading
• Car body end loads – compressive and tensile loads at coupler,
compressive load at window sill, compressive load at cant rail
• Traction and braking loads
• Passenger load
• Lifting and jacking loads
• Twist load
• The body structure shall withstand the specified loads without
permanent deformation or any form of damage or deterioration
Train car body – loading

2. Fatigue loads
• Vertical, lateral and longitudinal cyclic loads
• The body structure shall withstand the defined fatigue loads (under
specific fatigue cycles) using the specified fatigue assessment methods
Train car body – loading
3. Collision loads
• Prevent damage to the train structures and couplers in the event of
collision
• Energy absorbed by the couplers and anti-climbers by means of plastic
deformation
• Withstand defined train collision scenarios without causing damage to
the car structure, eg. an 8-car train in tare condition at speed up to
22.5 kph collides with a similar train with parking brakes applied, an 8-
car train in tare condition at speed up to 11 kph collides with a fixed
concrete buffer stop (specified by BSEn 15227)
Bogie
1. Many designs, for better quality ride, easy maintenance, cost-
effectiveness
2. Bogie frame holds wheels parallel, supports vehicle car body, runs
stably on straight and curve track
3. Carries braking and traction equipment, suspension equipment
4. Purpose of suspension :
• Isolate passengers from acceleration, absorb vibration and ensure ride
comfort
• Reduce KE
• Prevent track/train damage
• Transmit traction/braking forces
Bogie
5. Primary suspension –
• Coil springs (cheap, constant elasticity, low inherent damping) and that
is why always with viscous dampers,
• other types can be leave springs (cheap, inherent damping,
maintenance intensive, heavy), rubber elements (cheap, light weight, not
stable in any direction) or friction damping,
• attach the weight of the bogie and equipment onto the axles,
• remove high frequency vibration,
• low inherent damping, therefore always with a viscous damper
• light weight and compact,
Bogie
5. Primary suspension –
• viscous dampers (tunable) to dissipate energy,
• suspensions are tuned to give optimum ride quality
Bogie
6. Secondary suspension –
• Removes low frequency vibration
• Air bags (air suspension most popular) for auto height and level
adjustment, increase ride comfort, good damping, carrying the car
body to allow the bogie to rotate as the train goes around bends,
remove low frequency vibration and noise transmission (from bogie
to car body)
• Can be coil springs (eg see TGV power bogie)
7. King pin (sits in the bolster of the car body and the bogie) transfers
traction and braking and guidance forces to the car body. For
bolsterless designs, the secondary suspension transfer the longitudinal
forces.
Secondary suspension
Bogie

8. Yaw damper prevents swaying side to side (yaw is rotation against


vertical axis), reduces car body and bogie rotation, raises critical
speed
9. Axle bearings – axle boxes with bearings at the ends of the axle
for easy maintenance (take the wheels off)
10. Hollow axles minimize weight without losing stiffness and allow for
easy ultrasonic inspection
Motor Bogie for CRH 380A
Anti-roll bars

2nd suspension, air spring

Yaw damper
(prevent rotation
against vertical
axis
Primary spiral steel spring
Axle box and bearings
Primary vertical damper
Bogie and suspensions

1. Maintain car sway (roll) within specific gauge, support car body
firmly
2. Ensure running stably on straight and curved track
3. Ensure comfort ride (by absorbing vibration) generated by track
irregularities
4. Minimize derailment risk at curve transitions
5. Minimize track force on curve track at high speed
6. Minimize generating track corrugation and wheel flange/rail wear
Bogie and suspensions

7. Suspension parameters shall be optimized to achieve best operation -


• High primary suspension vertical stiffness – decrease car sway (roll),
but increase derailment risk, and also poor comfort ride
• High primary suspension yaw stiffness – increase wheel set stability,
but increase track force and wheel/rail wear
Typical bogie with suspension components (for reading only)
Typical bogie with suspension components (for reading only)
1. Primary suspension absorbs high frequency vibration due to track
irregularities up, to allow wheel-set to move up and down at an extent
2. Primary suspension is quite stiff vertically, and relatively soft horizontally
to allow wheel-set to slightly rotate by a few degrees (by means of soft
swinging arm pivot)
3. Secondary suspension accommodates long wavelength irregularities
vertically and horizontally
4. Secondary suspension also ensures car body linked to bogie to minimize
derailment and allows good ride comfort, ie. air springs with vertical,
lateral and yaw dampers to absorb energy injected due to track
irregularities
5. Anti-roll system to ensure body shell moves up and down in the same
amount on both sides
Wheelset
Wheelset
Wheelset centred on the line

Cone angle
1 in 20
Rail inclination
1 in 20
Wheelset

Wheel load, 𝐹𝑤 = 𝑀𝑐 g/𝑛𝑤 = 40000 x 9.81/8 = 49 kN

where 𝑀𝑐 - mass of vehicle (car),


𝑛𝑤 is no. of wheels
𝐹𝑤 is the typical wheel load of a passenger carriage.
Wheel/rail contact

• 2 surfaces come into


contact and deform
slightly under imposed
load.
• Contact patch between
wheel and rail is ~ 100
to 150 mm2
Wheel/rail contact
Area of adhesion
during traction or
braking

Area of slip

Hertzian wheel-rail contact patch -


• When the wheel and rail come into contact, the contact stress is higher
than the yield stress and the material deforms until the stress ~ 1300
MPa.
• The area of wheel-rail contact patch is usually elliptical in shape, and the
area is in the range of 100 to 150 mm2. The stress distribution is ideally
parabolic.
Wheel/rail contact
• The coefficient of friction, µ, depends on many influencing factors. If we
apply too much longitudinal (or lateral) force for a given value of µ, the
wheels are likely to slip. Creep force, F = µN (N, normal force between
wheel and rail)

• The stress distribution of the Hertzian wheel-rail contact patch is ideally


parabolic with elastic deformation.

• Lateral displacement of the wheelset (on straight track) causes the wheels
run with different rolling radii. The “larger” wheel will roll a greater
distance, and the wheelset will yaw wrt. the track. Due to the yaw inertia
of the wheelset, it will pass the equilibrium position. The other wheel now
has a larger rolling radius and a kinematic oscillation is set up.
Wheel/rail contact - conicity
• RRD, rolling radius difference
• Wheel with a larger rolling radius will yaw and pass the equilibrium
position, and then the opposite wheel which now has a larger rolling
radius will then yaw. A kinematic oscillation is set up.
• RRD = Δr = 𝑟1 - 𝑟2 = (r + γy) – (r – γy) = 2 γy
Wheel/rail contact - conicity

𝑙0

y
𝑙0

RRD = Δr = 𝑟1 - 𝑟2 = (r + γy) – (r – γy) = 2 γy


Wheel/rail contact - conicity
• The profile of a real wheel is not conical, an equivalent conicity γ (or λ )
has to be calculated. Typical values of γ range from 0.05 to 0.2. A low
conicity γ < 0.15, a medium conicity 0.3 > γ > 0.15, and a high
conicity γ> 0.3. Wheel profiles with low conicity (common value 2.5 %)
is necessary for good running stability.

• Δr = 𝑟1 - 𝑟2 = (r + γy) – (r – γy) = 2 γy

• For a plot of the difference of the rolling radius (Δr = 𝑟1 - 𝑟2 ) between


the 2 wheels against y, the slope will be 2 γ.
Wheel/rail contact - conicity
• For no slip between rail and wheel, the ratio of the rolling radii of the
left and right wheels must equal to the radii of curvature of the left
and right rails (2 𝑙0 =1435mm), ie.
(r – γy)/(r + γy) = (R - 𝑙0 )/ (R + 𝑙0 )
Wheel/rail contact
Optimized wheel-rail profile enhances oscillation speed
endurance
Length (m)

Length (m)
Wheel/rail contact - Stability

• Train shall be designed dynamically stable under all operating


conditions :
➢ All speed range
➢ New or worn wheel profile with different conicity

• Train will be unstable at :


➢ Sufficiently high speed
➢ High conicity (low conicity is necessary for stable running, most
common value 2.5 %)
and will eventually lead to continuous oscillation.
Wheel/rail contact - Stability
• At low speed, the kinematic oscillations die away. At higher speed,
the oscillations increase where flange contact occurs. Eventually,
the lateral force becomes too great that the train derails (flange
climb). This is called the kinematic oscillation. Variable yaw
damping (changing rate between low and high speed) can solve
the problem.

• Improvement is done through


➢ Wheel/rail profile optimization
➢ Suspension modification (pneumatic secondary suspension
increases ride comfort)
Wheel/rail contact – ride comfort
1. Good ride comfort depends very much on the vertical and lateral
acceleration performance of the train. The vertical and lateral
accelerations is generally felt by the passengers on the seats, whilst
the longitudinal acceleration affects more on the standing
passengers.

2. The following values shall not be exceeded :


• Average vertical journey acc. < 0.01g
• Average lateral journey acc. < 0.013g
• Average longitudinal journey acc. < 0.004g
• Vertical acc. 99th percentile < 0.02g
• Lateral acc. 99th percentile < 0.026g
(Reference : En 12299 Method – passenger comfort)
Wheel/rail contact – ride comfort

3. The journey average shall be the arithmetic mean of the weighted


rms accelerations evaluated at 10 s intervals over the full length of
the running line.
Worked Example
Q. A sub-urban rail route with a minimum radius of curvature of 800 m
with a speed limit of 150 kph. The track gauge is 1435 mm, and the
curved track is normally canted. The conicity is 1 in 20.
Calculate the lateral shift of a wheel set on a minimum radius of curvature
assuming perfect curving and a nominal wheel diameter of 860 mm.

Ans - next slide


Worked Example
Q. A sub-urban rail route with a minimum radius of curvature of 800 m with a
speed limit of 150 kph. The track gauge is 1435 mm, and the curved track is
normally canted. The conicity is 1 in 20.
Calculate the lateral shift of a wheel set on a minimum radius of curvature
assuming perfect curving and a nominal wheel diameter of 860 mm.

Ans. (r – γ y)/(r + γ y) = (R - 𝑙0 )/ (R + 𝑙0 )
(430 - y/20)/(430 + y/20) = (800000 – 1435/2)/(800000 + 1435/2)
(430 - y/20) = (430 + y/20)0.9982,
y = 20x430(1-0.9982)/(1+0.9982),
therefore y = 7.75 mm
Couplers
1. Connects cars together, transfers traction loads (push/pull, crashes)
2. Needs to connect air and electric systems
3. Provides longitudinal suspension
4. Manual or automatic coupling, permanent or semi-permanent
connections
5. Buffers are required to absorb compressive load
6. Technician required to get between cars to manually lift the shackle in
position and connect air and electric hoses
Couplers

8. Automatic couplers connect cars mechanically, electrically and


pneumatically
9. Can cause compatibility problem when one train is required to
rescue another
Couplers (for reading only)

Scharfenberg, Germany Dellner, Sweden Faiveley, France


(ICE EMU) popular make
Railway operations - Safety vs economy

1. Public expects railways operate at a higher level of safety (much


higher than road traffic)
2. Safety levels vary - HSR extremely high safety, suburban good
and sustainable safety, metro travels slower, consequence high
and safety level is higher, rural railway travels slower,
consequence lower and risk is not as high as metro
3. Costs seem irrelevant, except when someone has to pay
Risk Matrix
Risk = Likelihood x Consequence
Likelihood (probability Risk matrix
rating)
Descriptor Description
Expect to happen, will occur often
5 Very high (frequent)
with some certainty

More likely to happen than not,


4 High (probable)
common occurrence

An unusual event, not a surprise to


3 Medium (occasional)
occur

2 Low (remote) Unlikely event, but not impossible

Highly unlikely to occur, a total


1 Very low (improbable)
surprise
Risk matrix
Consequence (impact rating)
Descriptor Indicative outcome

Minor injury/inconvenience (no long term


1 Very low (improbable)
effect), operative can continue to work

Minor injury not long term, operative


2 Low (remote) requires first-aid treatment, operative
stops work

Injury or illness incurred which results in a


3 Medium (occasional)
reportable/lost time absence from work

High (probable) Major injury or illness with long term


4
effect, long absence from work

Very high (frequent)


5 Fatality
Risk matrix Consequence
Likelihood
1 2 3 4 5

5 M H H H H

4 M M H H H

3 L M M H H

2 L L M M H

1 L L L M M
Source : MTR Corporation
Risk matrix in HK (10 levels likelihood, 7 levels consequence)
As low as reasonably practicable (ALARP adopts in HK)
(for reading only)

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