Lasers

Lectures
Engineering Physics (PH-101)

For BTech (Engineering Physics)
by
Dr. Tulsi Anna
Department of Physics and Photonics Science
Author: William T. Silfvast
LASER: Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation
The laser is a quantum-mechanical device

that manages to produce its “marvelous
light” by taking advantage of the subtle
ways in which atoms interact with
electromagnetic radiation.
Laser Light
Charles Townes (left)

&
Arthur Schwalow Theodore H. Maiman
Invented laser principle Successful operation of Laser
in 1958 In 1960
Theoretical Foundation
Later we will discuss
this (what are the
importance of these
component) in detail.
Why So Much Interest in Lasers?
✓ Lasers have unique properties; compared to conventional light sources
✓ Lead to creation of many new devices
✓ Improved existing devices ✓ Laser Printer
✓ Bar Code Readers
And it is now all around us!!
Scientific research,
Biomedicine,
Environmental sciences
Industrial materials
Processing, Scientific Research
Microelectronics, and Medical Science
Spectroscopy Cosmetic surgery
Entertainment. Lunar laser ranging Eye surgery
Material processing Refractive surgery
Photochemistry Soft tissue surgery
Laser cooling Laser scalpel (General surgery,
Nuclear fusion gynecological, urology, laparoscopic)
Microscopy laser therapy
"No-Touch" removal of tumors,
especially of the brain and spinal cord.
✓ Laser shows
Properties of Laser Light (Or, simply Laser)
Definition: Laser, the acronym of Light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation, is a
quantum-mechanical device which produces highly spatial and temporal coherent light waves; completely
different from a common light bulb; or flash light.
Property # 2
Property # 1 Highly Collimated Beam
High Monochromaticity Diffraction Limited Collimation
Narrow Spectral Width Very Small Focused Spot
High Temporal Coherence Diffraction Limited Focusing
High Spatial Coherence
Property # 3
Very High Power
Property # 4
Broad Tunability Across
Optical spectrum Property # 5
Produce Short Pulse Widths
Property # 1: High Monochromaticity; Narrow Spectral Width
White light
Δλ ≈ 120 nm
emitting diode
Spectrometer Δλ
Δλ: Spectral Bandwidth: It is defined as the width of the emission

spectrum of the light at one-half of the peak maximum (Full-width at
half maximum; FWHM)
Δλ ≈ 5 nm Δλ
He-Ne Laser
source
Spectrometer
Monochromatic light is light with single optical frequency

or wavelength. Laser is highly monochromatic.
Contd….. Properties of Laser Light (Or, simply Laser)
Property # 1: High Temporal Coherence
-∞ +∞
Wave with constant

frequency and
amplitude
Frequency domain
spectrum
Frequency bandwidth is too

narrow zero
✓ The property of such wave; as example pure sine wave; has perfect temporal coherence. This mean that
the wave can maintain its constant frequency and amplitude for very very long time; or infinite time
interval.
Fig. 1
✓ However, in practice, light sources do not radiate
for such a long time, without any phase
interruptions.
✓ Lets consider a light source which radiates for
time τ; and then shuts off. Due to this, it will have
a non-zero frequency bandwidth; as shown in the
Fig. 2
Fig 1.
✓ Atoms, actually from where we can radiation,
actually radiates in bursts; as shown in the Fig. 2.
Due to this, τ can be quite short, which means that
the width of the radiation will be broader. The
time, τ, is considered for uninterrupted wave Fig. 3
propagation.
✓ Other atoms have sinusoidally interrupted decay
sine function; (Fig. 3). They have much broader
bandwidth.
✓ Radiation time of the wave, τ, without phase interruption is very long
✓ Frequency bandwidth, Δf ≈ 1/τ is very small
✓ We can predict amplitude and phase at any time, at any given position
❖ The average time interval during which the lightwave oscillates in a predictable way we have already
designated as the coherence time of the radiation. The longer the coherence time, the greater the temporal
coherence of the source.
❖ Bear in mind that temporal coherence is a manifestation of spectral purity.

Property # 2: Highly Collimated Beam; Diffraction limited collimation
✓ A collimated beam of light or other electromagnetic radiation has parallel rays, and therefore will spread
minimally as it propagates.
Extended light source;

Arc lamp
f: focal length of the biconvex lens; θ: Angle of divergence; 2h: size of the source
We can better collimation (pre-laser days) either by decreasing the size of the source; or increasing the focal length
(which eventually reduces the intensity of the light after collimation)
Property # 2: Highly Collimated Beam; Diffraction limited collimation
✓ In this case, the best we can get is the diffraction limited collimation;
Diffraction limited collimation

No dependence on the size of the source
D: Diameter of the beam

λ: Wavelength of light
θ: Divergence angle
✓ Now, let’s have a look at the output of laser light;
All laser beam can be put in

this collimated beam
Property # 2: Very small focused spot; Diffraction limited focusing
✓ Let us now try to focus the light source: High intensity focused spot;
though you can not make this
spot brighter than the source itself
✓ Diffraction limited focusing:
Perfect collimation with a focal spot equal to the wavelength of the

light; wee can get the diffraction limited spot size; and the source can
be considered as perfect.
Property # 2: High Spatial Coherence
✓ Wave is well behaved in space
✓ We can predict amplitude and phase at any position at given time
Point source of radiation

(We can have spherical waves)
Collimated beam
We can predict the amplitude and phase at two
different positions at a certain time
Let us now see the wave We cannot predict the amplitude and phase at
front from an arc lamp two different positions (space) at a certain time
Property # 2: High Spatial Coherence
✓ As observed from a fixed point in space, the passing lightwave appears fairly sinusoidal for some
number of oscillations between abrupt changes of phase. The corresponding spatial extent over
which the lightwave oscillates in a regular, predictable way is the coherence length (lc). And time
taken is known as coherence time.
✓ If the light were ideally monochromatic, the wave would be a perfect sinusoid with an infinite
coherence length.
✓ All real sources fall short of this, and all actually emit a range of frequencies, albeit sometimes
quite narrow. For instance, an ordinary laboratory discharge lamp has a coherence length of
several millimeters, whereas certain kinds of lasers routinely provide coherence lengths of tens of
kilometers.
403
Spatial and Temporal Coherence (a) Spatial and Temporal Coherence (b) Spatial Coherence but partial temporal
𝑃1′
➢ In Fig (a) at every point i.e., , , ,𝑃2′ 𝑃3′ 𝑃4′
on
the wave is correlated; its coherence time is
unlimited. (High temporal coherence)
➢ In Fig. (b) no correlation of the wave at points
that are far apart like 𝑃1′ , and 𝑃4′ , but they’re
not completely unpredictable; the behavior at
points that are close together such as 𝑃2′ ,
and 𝑃3′ , are somewhat correlated. This is an
instance of partial temporal coherence.
➢ Notice, in both parts of Fig. (b), that the
behavior of the waves at points 𝑃1 , 𝑃2 and 𝑃3 is
completely correlated. And they are in the same
wavefront in both cases. Both waves therefore (c)
exhibit complete spatial coherence.
With multiple (here four)
➢ suppose the source is broad, that is, composed of many widely spaced widely spaced point
point sources (monochromatic ones of period t), as in fig. (c). If we sources, the resultant wave
could take a picture of the wave pattern in Fig. (c) every t seconds, it is still coherent. But if those
would be the same; each wavefront would be replaced by an identical sources change phase
one, one wavelength behind it. The disturbances at 𝑃1′ , 𝑃2′ , and 𝑃3′ rapidly and randomly, both
are correlated, and the wave is temporally coherent. If each point the spatial and temporal
source keeps on changing phase the lateral points such as 𝑃1 ,and coherence diminish
would be almost completely uncorrelated, depending on the size of accordingly.
the source.
Property # 3: High Power
Ruby laser
He Ne laser
Continuous Wave
Types of laser Pulsed Laser
(CW) Laser
Property # 4: Broad Tunability Across Optical Spectrum
Ti: Sapphire laser

Property # 5: Very Short Pulse Widths
Definition: the duration of an optical pulse
Nanosecond 10-9 s
Picosecond 10-12 s
Femtosecond 10-15 s
Lectures

by
Dr. Tulsi Anna
Author: William T. Silfvast

Laser Light

&
in 1958 In 1960
Fundamental Atomic Transitions Relevant to Laser Mechanism
➢ The basic underlying phenomena which involves in the laser mechanism is the interaction of atoms in a
medium with the electromagnetic radiation.
❖ Absorption of radiation
❖ Spontaneous emission
❖ Stimulated emission
❖ Population inversion
➢ Here, we will derive a relationship between the absorption and emission processes. This will lead us to
the famous “Einstein’s coefficients”; as we slowly develop the theory of lasers.
➢ Furthermore, from here, we will show that light amplification can only be achieved through the process
of “Population inversion”.
Contd.. Fundamental Atomic Transitions Relevant to Laser Mechanism
1. Absorption of radiation
The process of absorbing energy from photons is called absorption of radiation.
E2
E2-E1 = hν
E1
✓ When the ground state electrons absorb energy which is equal to the energy difference between the two energy states
(E2 – E1), the electrons jumps from ground state (E1) to the excited state or higher energy level (E2). The electrons in
the higher energy level are called excited electrons.
✓ Absorption occurs only if the energy of photon exactly matches the difference in energy between the two electron
shells or orbits in an atom.
✓ This process is inherent to an atomic system; and can be called as the intrinsic property of the system.
2. Spontaneous emission
✓ The process by which excited electrons emit photons while falling to the ground level or lower energy level is called
spontaneous emission.
✓ The electrons in the excited state do not stay for a long
period because the lifetime of electrons in the higher
energy state or excited state is very small, of the order
of 10-8 sec. Hence, after a short period, they fall back to
E2
the ground state by releasing energy in the form of
photons or light.
✓ The energy of the emitted photon is directly
proportional to the energy gap of the material. The
materials with large energy gap will emit high-energy
photons or high-intensity light whereas the materials
with small energy gap will emit low energy photons or
low-intensity light.
✓ In spontaneous emission, the electrons changing from E1
one state (higher energy state) to another state (lower
energy state) occurs naturally. So the photon emission
also occurs naturally or spontaneously.
✓ The photons emitted due to spontaneous emission do not flow exactly in the same direction of incident photons. They flow
in the random direction. Also, this might be of different phase; though it can give monochromatic light.
3. Stimulated emission
✓ In this process, an incident photon
causes an excited state electron to
decay to the ground level, emitting a
“stimulated” photon whose properties
are identical to those of the incident
photon.
✓ The term, “stimulated” underlines the
fact that this kind of radiation only
occurs if an incident photon is present.
✓ Unlike the spontaneous emission, in
this process, the light energy or photon
energy is supplied to the excited
electrons instead of supplying energy
to the ground state electrons.
✓ The stimulated emission is not a
natural process it is an artificial
process. In stimulated emission, the
electrons in the excited state need not
wait for natural spontaneous emission
to occur.
✓ The incident photon stimulates or forces the excited electron to emit a photon and fall into a lower
state or ground state.
✓ The energy of a stimulating or incident photon must be equal to the energy difference between the
two electron shells.
✓ In this process, the excited electron releases an additional photon of same energy (same frequency,
same phase, and in the same direction) while falling into the lower energy state. Thus, two photons
of same energy are released while electrons falling into the ground state.
✓ In stimulated emission process, each incident photon generates two photons.
✓ The photons emitted in the stimulated emission process will travel in the same direction of the
incident photon.
✓ All the photons in the stimulated emission have the same frequency and travel in the same
direction. They will be in phase with the incident photon.
✓ Many ways exist to produce light, but the stimulated emission is the only method known to
produce coherent light (beam of photons with the same frequency).
Hey, Molecules don’t have to obey
Contd.. The Einstein A and B Coefficients thermodynamic laws if they are
not in equilibrium.
✓ The consideration which led Einstein to the prediction of stimulated emission was the description of
thermodynamic equilibrium between atoms and the radiation field.
✓ We consider two levels of an atomic system as shown in the Figure. We know that the energy levels are
quantized, as from our knowledge of quantum mechanics.
✓ Let N1 and N2 be the number of atoms per unit volume present in the energy levels E1 and E2, respectively.
✓ The atomic system can interact with the electromagnetic radiation in three distinct ways; as discussed in the
next slides;
Contd.. The Einstein Coefficients
1. Absorption of radiation
✓ An atom in the lower energy level E1 can absorb the incident radiation at a frequency And, excited to E2
(1) ℏ = 𝒉/𝟐𝝅
✓ This excitation process requires the presence of radiation.
Conditions:
➢ The rate at which absorption takes place from level 1 to level 2 will be proportional to the number of atoms
present in the level E1. and the energy density of the radiation at the frequency ω = (E2 − E1) / ℏ.
✓ Thus if u(ω)dω represents the radiation energy per unit volume between ω and ω + dω then we may write the
number of atoms undergoing absorptions per unit time per unit volume from level 1 to level 2 as:
(2)
where B12 is a constant of proportionality and depends on the energy levels E1 and E2.
Notice here that u(ω) has the units of energy density per frequency interval.
✓ For the reverse process, namely the deexcitation of the atom from E2 to E1, Einstein postulated that an atom
can make a transition from E2 to E1 through two distinct processes, namely stimulated emission and
✓ In the case of stimulated emission, the radiation which is incident on the atom stimulates it to emit radiation
and the rate of transition to the lower energy level is proportional to the energy density of radiation
at the frequency ω and number of atom present in the excited state. Thus, the number of stimulated
emissions per unit time per unit volume will be
where B21 is the coefficient of
(3) proportionality and depends on the
energy levels.
3. Spontaneous emission
✓ An atom which is in the upper energy level E2 can also make a spontaneous emission; this rate will be
proportional to N2 only and thus we have for the number atoms making spontaneous emissions per
unit time per unit volume
(4)
❖ The quantities A21, B12 and B21 are known as Einstein coefficients and are determined by the atomic system.
✓ Now, at thermal equilibrium between the atomic system and the radiation field, the number of upward
transitions must be equal to the number of downward transitions. Hence, at thermal equilibrium
(5)
✓ Using Boltzmann’s law, the ratio of the equilibrium

populations of levels 1 and 2 at temperature T is
(6)
where kB(= 1.38 × 10−23J/K) is the Boltzmann’s constant. Hence
In a thermodynamic equilibrium, the

(7) population number of higher energy
level is always less than the population
number of a lower energy level.
✓ Now according to Planck’s law, the radiation energy density per unit frequency interval is given by
8h 3 1
(8)  =
c 3 e h / K BT − 1
where c is the velocity of light in free space and n0 is the refractive index of the medium.
✓ Comparing Eqs. (7) and (8), we obtain (7)
(say) (9)
&
(10)
✓ Thus the stimulated emission rate per atom is the same as the absorption rate per atom and the
ratio of spontaneous to stimulated emission coefficients is given by Eq. (10). The coefficients A
and B are referred to as the Einstein A and B coefficients.
Einstein in 1917 had predicted the existence of stimulated emission which was later confirmed by rigorous quantum theory.
✓ At thermal equilibrium, the ratio of the number of spontaneous to stimulated emissions is given by
(11)
We may note the following two important points:
Thus, when the atoms are in thermal equilibrium,

the emission (at optical frequencies) is
predominantly due to spontaneous transitions
and hence the emission from ordinary light
sources is incoherent.
❖ Spontaneous lifetime
✓ We shall now obtain the relationship between the Einstein A coefficient and the spontaneous lifetime of
level 2.
✓ Let us assume that an atom in level 2 can make a spontaneous transition only to level 1.
✓ Then since the number of atoms making spontaneous transitions per

unit time per unit volume is A21N2, we may write the rate of change
of population of level 2 with time due to spontaneous emission as
(1)
the solution of which is
(2)
Important: Thus the population of level 2 reduces by 1/e in a time tsp = 1/A21 which is called the
spontaneous lifetime associated with the transition 2→1.
Contd..
Boltzmann’s Distribution continued…

Boltzmann distribution function:
From this equation, we can infer the

following conclusions:
1. The higher the temperature, the
higher the population number Thus, the population numbers of higher energy levels are smaller than the
2. The higher the energy level, the population numbers of lower ones. This situation is called "Normal
lower the population number Population“.
Lectures

by
Dr. Tulsi Anna

Laser Light

&
in 1958 In 1960
❖ Boltzmann distribution function: Population number of atoms
From this equation, we can infer the

following conclusions:
1. The higher the temperature, the
higher the population number Thus, the population numbers of higher energy levels are smaller than the
2. The higher the energy level, the population numbers of lower ones. This situation is called "Normal
lower the population number Population“.
Definition:
Population Inversion
✓ Population inversion is the process of achieving greater population of higher energy states as
compared to the lower energy state.
✓ Population inversion technique is mainly used for light amplification.
✓ The population is required for laser amplification.
❖ In this situation, there are more atoms (N3) in a higher energy level (E3), than the number of atoms (N2)
in a lower energy level (E2).
Contd…
So let us see when we can found a Laser action
𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑁2 𝐵21 𝑢(𝜔)

= (1)
𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑁1 𝐵12 𝑢(𝜔)
Since we have seen that 𝐵21 = 𝐵12 = 𝐵 (2)
𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑁2

= (3)
𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑁1
𝑁2 𝑁2
➢ < 1; Absorption dominates ➢ = 1; optically transparent (so no gain is there)
𝑁1 𝑁1
𝑁2
➢ > 1; Stimulated emission (so here we can found a Laser action)
𝑁1
Two-level energy system
✓ Population inversion cannot be achieved in a two energy level system.
✓ Under normal conditions, the number of electrons (N1) in the lower energy
state (E1) is always greater as compared to the number of electrons (N2) in the
higher energy state (E2). N1>N2
✓ When temperature increases, the population of higher energy state (N2) also
increases. However, the population of higher energy state (N2) will never
exceeds the population of lower energy state (N1).
✓ At best an equal population (N1 = N2) of the two states can be achieved which results in no optical gain. The material
in such case is said to be optically transparent; but no optical gain.
𝑁2
➢ = 1; optically transparent
𝑁1
✓ If the higher energy state has a greater population than the lower energy state (N1 < N2), then the emission process
dominates, and light in the system undergoes a net increase in intensity. It is thus clear that to produce a faster rate of
stimulated emissions than absorptions, it is required that the ratio of the populations of the two states is such that N2/N1
> 1; In other words, a population inversion is required for laser operation.
✓ To achieve population inversion therefore requires pushing the system into a non-equilibrated state.
Contd…
So let us see mathematically why we can not achieve population inversion in Two-level energy system
So we know that N2 is populated due to absorption and depopulated due to emission so we can write the rate of
transition for N2 as;
𝑑𝑁2
= 𝑁1 𝐵12 𝑢 𝜔 − 𝑁2 𝐴21 − 𝑁2 𝐵21 𝑢(𝜔)
𝑑𝑡
Since we have seen that 𝐵21 = 𝐵12 = 𝐵 and let 𝐴12 = 𝐴
𝑑𝑁2
= 𝐵 𝑢 𝜔 (𝑁1 − 𝑁2 ) − 𝐴𝑁2 we can solve this differential equation
𝑑𝑡
At time t=0 there is no photon at 𝑁2 = 0 At that time so 𝑁𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑁1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑁𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑁1 + 𝑁2
𝐵 𝑢 𝜔 𝑁𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑁2 𝐵𝑢 𝜔
So we have 𝑁2 = 𝑜𝑟 =
𝐴+2𝐵𝑢 𝜔 𝑁𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐴 + 2𝐵𝑢 𝜔
𝑁2 1
OR if we write ≤ that means 𝑁1 = 𝑁2 this can be seen at saturation condition
𝑁1 + 𝑁2 2
𝑁 1
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐴 > 0 𝑎𝑙𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠 so essentially 𝑁 +2𝑁 < 𝑎𝑙𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠
1 2 2
So for 𝑁2 > 𝑁1 is not possible for Two-level energy system i.e. population inversion is also not possible.
This (Laser action)can be achieved by the three, or Four level energy system
Three level energy system 𝑬𝟑 > 𝑬𝟐 > 𝑬𝟏
𝑵𝟑 < 𝑵𝟐 < 𝑵𝟏
✓ The energy level E1 is known as the
ground state or lower energy state and 𝟏𝟎−𝟖 𝒔 𝒕𝒐 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟐 𝒔
the energy levels E2 and E3 are
known as excited states.
✓ The energy level E2 is sometimes
Pumping 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 𝒔
referred to as Meta stable state.
Meta stable state
✓ The energy level E3 is sometimes
referred to as pump state or pump
level.
Let,
N1: Number of electrons in the energy state E1
N: Total electrons in the system;

= N1 + N2 + N3
And
𝑬𝟑 > 𝑬𝟐 > 𝑬𝟏 & 𝑵𝟑 < 𝑵𝟐 < 𝑵𝟏
: Normal population condition
Contd… Population Inversion
Three level energy system
✓ Under certain conditions, the greater population of higher energy state (E2) as compared to the lower energy state
(E1) is achieved. Such an arrangement is called population inversion so N2> N1.
✓ Let us assume that initially the majority of electrons will be in the lower energy state or ground state (E1) and only a
small number of electrons will be in excited states (E2 and E3).
✓ When we supply light energy which is equal to the energy difference of E3 and E1, the electrons in the lower energy
state (E1) gains sufficient energy and jumps into the higher energy state (E3). This process of supplying energy is
called the pumping. The flow electrons from E1 to E3 is called the pump transition.
✓ Metastable state: The lifetime of electrons in the energy state E3 is very small as compared to the lifetime of
electrons in E2. Thus, the electrons in the energy level E3 does not stay long for long period.
✓ After a short period (~ 10-8 s), they will fall to the metastable energy level, E2; through the process of non-radiative
transition process (such as heat).
✓ The electrons in the Metastable state E2 will remain there for longer period because of its longer life time (~ 10-3 s).
As a result, a large number of electrons accumulate in the Metastable state. Thus, at one point, the population of
metastable state will become greater than the population of energy states E3 and E1.
✓ So, in three level energy system, we achieve population inversion between energy levels E1 and E2
✓ It can simply be written as: N2 > N1 > N3
✓ After completion of lifetime of electrons in the Meta stable state, they fall back to the lower energy state of
ground state E1 by releasing energy in the form of photons. This process of emission of photons is called the
✓ Stimulated emission: When this emitted photon interacts with the electron in the metastable state, E2, it forces
that electron to fall back to the ground state. As a result two photon are emitted. This process of emission of
photons is called stimulated emission.
✓ When these photons again interacted with the electrons in the metastable state, they forces two metastable state
electrons to fall back to the ground state. As a result, four photons are emitted. Likewise, a large number of
photons are emitted. Hence, millions of photons are emitted by using a small number of photons.
✓ We may get a doubt, in order to excite an electron we hit the electron with a photon. This excited electron again
emits photon when fall back to the ground state. Then how could light amplification or extra photons is
achieved.
✓ We may also use other types of energy sources such as electrical energy to excite electrons. In such case, a
single photon will generate large number of photons. Thus, light amplification is achieved by using population
inversion method. The system which used three energy levels is known as the 3-level laser.
✓ In a 3-level laser, at least half the population of electrons
must be excited to the higher energy state to achieve
population inversion. Therefore, the laser medium must be
very strongly pumped. This makes the 3-level lasers
inefficient to produce photons or light. The three level lasers
are the first type of lasers discovered.
✓ 3-level system gives pulsed laser. (short burst of photons)

✓ It is difficult to maintain the population inversion in a three
level system; thus have inherently pulsed output.
What is Metastable State?
✓ Metastable state, in physics, is the particularly excited energy level or higher energy level of an atom, nucleus, or
other systems that have a longer lifetime than the ordinary excited states (or the energy levels) and that generally has a
shorter lifetime than the lowest, often highly stable, energy state is known as the ground state.
✓ A metastable state may thus be referred to as a kind of temporary energy level or a somewhat stable intermediate stage
of a system the energy of which may be lost in discrete amounts. In quantum mechanical terms, transitions from
metastable states are forbidden and are much less probable than the allowed transitions from other excited states or
excited energy levels.
Four level energy system
✓ Consider a group of electrons with four energy
levels E1, E2, E3, and E4. We assume that E1 <
E2 < E3 < E4.
✓ The lifetime of electrons in the energy state
E4 and energy state E2 is very small.
Therefore, electrons in these states will only
stay for very short period.
Let,
N: Total electrons in the system; = N1 + N2 + N3+N4

And
E1 < E2 < E3 < E4. Normal population condition 𝟏𝟎−𝟖 𝒔 𝒕𝒐 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟐 𝒔 for 𝑬𝟒 𝒂𝒏𝒅𝑬𝟐
& N1 > N2> N3>N4:
𝟏𝟎−𝟑 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝑬𝟑
Four level energy system
✓ When we supply light energy which is equal to the energy difference of E4 and E1, the electrons in the lower energy
state E1 gains sufficient energy and jumps into the higher energy state E4.
✓ The lifetime of electrons in the energy state E4 is very small. Therefore, after a short period, they fall back into the
next lower energy state E3 by releasing non-radiation energy.
✓ The lifetime of electrons in the energy state E3 is very large as compared to E4 and E2. As a result, a large number of
electrons accumulate in the energy level E3. After completion of their lifetime, the electrons in the energy states E3
will fall back into the next lower energy state E2 by releasing energy in the form of photons.
✓ Like the energy state E4, the lifetime of electrons in the energy state E2 is also very small. Therefore, the electrons in
the energy state E2 will quickly fall into the E1 by non-radiative energy process.
✓ Thus, population inversion is achieved between energy states E3 and E2.
✓ In a 4-level laser, only a few electrons are excited to achieve population inversion. Therefore, a 4-level
laser produces light efficiently than a 3-level laser. In practical, more than four energy levels may be
involved in the laser process.
✓ In 3-level and 4-level lasers, the frequency or energy of the pumping photons must
be greater than the emitted photons.
✓ 4-level system will give continuous output of laser light; or continuous wave lasers.
The Main Components of a Laser
Ti: sapphire laser
Pump Light
Active medium; the Ti:

sapphire crystal
Ti: sapphire laser

head
Pump laser
(532 nm)
➢ The critical components of a laser are a gain medium, a pump source, and an optical resonator.
100% reflecting
End mirror
Optical Resonator ~90% reflecting

Output Coupler
Contd… The Main Components of a Laser
The following Table lists the primary functions of these components as well as typical examples:
1. The Active medium; or Gain Medium
✓ The active medium consists of a collection of atoms, molecules or ions (in solid, liquid or gaseous form),
which is capable of amplifying light waves.
✓ Under normal circumstances, there are always a larger number of atoms in the lower energy state than in the
excited energy state.
✓ An electromagnetic wave passing through such a collection of atoms would get attenuated;
✓ In order to have optical amplification, the medium has to be kept in a state of population inversion, i.e., in a
state in which the number of atoms in the upper energy level is greater than that in the lower energy level. This
is achieved by means of the pump.
✓ Gain in a laser medium can be described by considering
two energy levels with population densities, N2 and N1
and an associated transition cross section σ21, as
described by the below equation:
Here, I0 is the intensity of a beam before entering a material that has a length L, and I is the light
intensity exiting the material.
Contd…
✓ If N1 is greater than N2, absorption is the dominant process and the exponent in the above equation is
negative, resulting in attenuation of the beam. In this case, the product of the population difference (ΔN)
and the cross section (σ21) is known as the absorption coefficient (α), a measure of the loss in
intensity per unit length.
✓ Conversely, if N2 exceeds N1, a population inversion exists and stimulated emission will dominate over
absorption. The equation then possesses a positive exponent, giving rise to amplification. The product
σ21ΔN is then defined as the gain coefficient (G) representing the gain per unit length. In order to
maximize the amplification, a laser gain medium should possess a large transition cross section at
the wavelength of interest and be able to support a significant population inversion.
2. The pumping source
Important Note: The pump frequency should be higher than the lasing frequency (i.e. the frequency of the
amplified stimulated emission)
✓ The pumping mechanism provides for obtaining such a state of population inversion between a pair of
energy levels of the atomic system and when we have a state of population inversion, the input light
beam can get amplified by stimulated emission.
✓ A variety of different pumping mechanisms are used to achieve population inversions; and usually
dictated by the gain medium.
✓ The goal here is to achieve pumping rates, i.e. atoms per unit time per unit volume being raised to a
metastable level, sufficient for establishing sustainable stimulated emission.
Contd…✓ For gas lasers, the pump mechanism is typically via electric discharge where an electrical current is
generated in a low-pressure gas. The electrons transfer their energy to atoms via collision and promote
these atoms to higher energy levels.
✓ In semiconductor lasers, electrical pumping gives rise to charge carriers within a junction that
provides the upper laser level population.
✓ Optical pumping is the most common mechanism for generating a population inversion in solid-
state lasers and this is enabled using either a lamp or a separate laser.
Optical Pumping
✓ Flashlamps or arc lamps produce intense light emission and
typically have a broad emission spectrum of wavelengths that
can be matched to the absorption bands of the laser
medium.
✓ To efficiently pump the laser medium, the flash lamp geometry
can take on different configurations, including a helix wrapped
around a laser rod or laser rods inserted into an elliptically-
shaped or circularly-shaped elongated laser cavity (see Figure).
✓ Laser pumping is used when the pumping energy must be
concentrated into a relatively small volume, delivered over
a short period, or provided over a narrow bandwidth.
Optical Pumping via semiconductor lasers
✓ Pumping via semiconductor lasers has several advantages, including increased system efficiency, better light
coupling into the laser medium, and compact geometry.
✓ The above Figure shows a typical end-pumping configuration for a semiconductor laser diode; however, other
geometries such as side-pumping and close-coupling configurations also exist.
✓ When a laser diode pumps a solid-state gain medium, it is referred to as a diode pumped solid-state (DPSS)
laser system. DPSS lasers can be used to generate very large pumping rates for other solid-state lasers.
3. The optical resonator

✓ An optical resonator (or resonant optical cavity, or simply optical cavity) is an arrangement of optical
components which allows a beam of light to circulate in a closed path.
✓ The gain medium is placed inside an optical resonator that provides feedback. This feedback mechanism
allows for photons generated by stimulated emission to be reflected back into the laser medium for further
amplification.
Note: Feedback occurs when outputs of a system are routed back as inputs as part of a
chain of cause-and-effect that forms a circuit or loop
✓ A common example of a laser resonator or cavity uses two mirrors separated by a specific distance (d)
✓ Typically, one mirror (known as the end mirror) is highly reflective at the lasing wavelength, while the other
mirror (known as the output coupler) is partially transmissive so that a portion of the light exits the cavity as
the laser beam.
✓ One benefit of this feedback mechanism can be from light intensity equation, which gives the optical gain in a
laser as the product of the gain coefficient and the laser medium length (GL). For a given laser gain medium,
extending L could be a means to generate sufficient gain for lasing but there are clearly practical limitations to
simply elongating the gain medium.
✓ An increase in the effective optical path length can provide a means for enhancing gain. This can be achieved by
placing the laser medium inside an optical resonator. This is illustrated in the Figure. While the additional passes
allow for increased gain when compared to a single pass geometry, after just a few passes through the gain medium,
the light begins to leak outside the cavity.
✓ For this optical feedback to work efficiently, the resonator must be designed to be stable such that light stays
inside the cavity and do not leak out. The parallelism of the mirrors, as well as their curvatures, play a large role
in the design of stable laser resonators.
✓ In addition to the resonator-induced feedback leading to increased gain, it also decreases the beam divergence
significantly. This decreased beam divergence is responsible for the high degree of collimation observed for most
laser beams
The Threshold Condition for Population Inversion
✓ Radiation which bounces back and forth between the mirrors is amplified by the amplifying medium and also suffers
losses due to the finite reflectivity of the mirrors and other scattering and diffraction losses.
✓ If the oscillations have to be sustained in the cavity then the losses must be exactly compensated by the gain. Thus a
minimum population inversion density is required to overcome the losses and this is called the threshold
population inversion.
➢ The value of tc should be large, i.e., the

cavity losses must be small.
➢ Smaller values of tsp (i.e., strongly allowed

✓ N2 and N1 are the population density/number for the higher and transitions) also lead to smaller values of
lower energy states, taking part in the lasing action. threshold inversion. At the same time for
✓ ν: frequency at which lasing is happening smaller relaxation times, larger pumping
✓ n0: refractive index of the medium power will be required to maintain a given
✓ tsp: spontaneous lifetime associated with transition from level 2 to population inversion.
level 1 ➢ Since g(ω) is normalized, the peak value of
✓ c: velocity g(ω) will be inversely proportional to the
✓ tc: The passive cavity lifetime, the time in which energy in the width Δω of the g(ω) function. Thus smaller
cavity reduces by a factor 1/e. widths give larger values of g(ω) which
✓ g(ω): Line shape function; implies lower threshold values of (N2 − N1).
Lectures

by
Dr. Tulsi Anna

Laser Light

&
in 1958 In 1960
Some Laser Systems
Depending on the gain media; there are several kinds of lasers with widespread applications:
➢ Solid-state Lasers: Ruby (Cr: Al2O3) Laser, (Nd:YAG) Nd:Y3Al5O12, Neodyminum
doped yttrium aluminum garnet) Laser, Nd: glass Laser
➢ Atomic and Molecular Gas lasers: He-Ne, CO2 , Argon ion etc.
➢ Liquid lasers: Dye; organic dyes in particular (Organic substances dissolved in
water, ethyl alcohol, ethylene glycol etc.).
➢ Excimer lasers: Excimer are molecules which in their excited electronic states
but are unstable in their ground state e.g., Argon fluride, Krypton chloride, Krf,
XeBr etc. (Generates pulsed laser via electronic transition with short-lived
molecules )
➢ Semiconductor lasers: Also called junction laser or diode laser and today very
important type of lasers having its applications in fiber optics communication.
Note: In this course, we will discuss, Ruby laser, He-Ne laser, CO2 and
semiconductor lasers;
Contd… THE RUBY LASER
➢ A typical set up of a flush lamp pumped pulsed ruby laser is shown below. The flash operation of the lamp leads
to a pulsed output of the laser. The helical flash lamp is surrounded by a cylindrical reflector to direct the
pump light into the ruby rod efficiently.
➢ The ruby rod is placed along the axis of helical flash lamp. The ruby rod is length is typically 2-20 cm with
diameters of 0.1 – 2 cm.
➢ In an alternate arrangement elliptical pump cavity can also be used in which straight lamp and the ruby rods are
placed along the foci of an elliptical cylindrical reflector.
➢ The elliptical reflector focuses the light emerging from one focus into the other focus thus leading to an efficient
focusing of the pump light on the ruby rod.
(xenon gas)
capacitor
THE RUBY LASER
➢ In the first laser fabricated by Maiman in 1960. The ruby laser is an example of a three level laser.
➢ It was made from a single cylindrical crystal of ruby whose ends were flat, with one of the ends
completely silvered and the other partially silvered as shown in figures below.
➢ Ruby is a crystal of consists of aluminium oxide Al2O3 with some of the aluminum atoms replaced by Theodore
chromium. H. Maiman
➢ The Al2O3 crystal which serves as a medium to suspend the chromium ions is known as the host crystal.
➢ The characteristics of the host crystal

(Al2O3 ) affect the laser action and also the
broadening of the energy levels of the
activator atoms which in this case is
chromium (responsible for the laser
action). So we will see the energy
levels of chromium.
➢ For a good lasing action, the ruby crystal
consists of about 0.05% (by weight) of
chromium; however, higher
concentrations of chromium have also been
used.
The ruby laser.

➢ The energy states of the chromium ion are shown in Fig. here.
➢ The chief characteristic of the energy levels of a

chromium ion is the fact that the bands labeled
E1 and E2 have a lifetime of ~ 10-8 S whereas the
state marked M has a lifetime of ~ 3 x 10-3 S .
➢ T
—he lifetime represents the average time an
atom spends in an excited state before making a Metastable
transition to a lower energy state. state
➢ A state characterized by such a long lifetime is

termed a metastable state.
➢ The chromium ion in its ground state can
absorb a photon (whose wavelength is around
6600 Å) and make a transition to one of the
states in the band E1; it could also absorb a
photon of ~ 4000 Å and make a transition to
one of the states in the band E2 —
this is known as
optical pumping and the photons which are
absorbed by the chromium ions are The energy levels of the chromium ion; G and M represent
produced by the flash lamp. the ground and metastable states, respectively.
➢ In either case, it immediately makes a non-radiative transition (in a time ~ 10-8 sec) to the metastable state
M- in a non-radiative transition, the excess energy is absorbed by the lattice and does not appear in the form of
➢ Also since the state M has a very long life, the number of atoms in this state keeps increasing and one may
achieve population inversion between states M and G. Thus we may have a larger number of atoms in states
M and G.
➢ Once population inversion is achieved, light amplification can take place, with two reflecting ends of the
ruby rod forming a cavity.
➢ Laser wavelengths of 6943 Å and 6929 Å. However laser action takes place predominantly of the 6943 Å
because of higher inversion.
In the original set-up of Maiman, the flashlamp (filled

(xenon gas)
with xenon gas) was connected to a capacitor which was
charged to a few kilovolts. The energy stored in the
capacitor (~a few thousand joules) was discharged
through the xenon lamp in a few milliseconds. This
results in a power which is ~a few megawatts. Some of
this energy is absorbed by the chromium ions resulting
in their excitation and subsequent lasing action. capacitor
❖ Spiking in Ruby Laser
✓ The flash lamp operation in ruby laser lead to a pulsed output of the laser. As soon as the flash lamp stops
operating the population of the upper level is depleted very rapidly and lasing action stops till the action of next
flash.
✓ Even in the short period of a few tens of microseconds in which the ruby is lasing, one finds that the emission is
made up of spikes of high intensity emissions as shown in Fig. here.
✓ This phenomenon is known as spiking and can be understood as follows.
✓ When the pump is suddenly switched on to a value much above
the threshold, the population inversion builds up and crosses the
threshold value, as a consequence of which the photon number
builds up rapidly to a value much higher that the steady state
value.
✓ Since the photon number is higher than the steady state value,
the rate at which the upper level depletes (because of stimulated
transitions) is much higher than the pump rate.
✓ Consequently, the inversion becomes below threshold and the
laser action ceases. Thus the emission stops for a few
microseconds, within which time the flashlamp again pumps the
ground state atoms to the upper level, and laser oscillations
begin again. This process repeats itself till the flashlamp power
falls below the threshold value and the lasing action stops.
Contd…
Application of Ruby laser
➢ In spite of the fact it is three level laser, ruby laser still is one of the important practical lasers.
➢ It was initially used to optically pump tunable dye laser.
➢ The absorption bands of ruby lies is visible spectrum so efficient use of practically available white
light amps can be made for pumping.
➢ Ruby laser is also attractive from an application point of
view, since its output lies in the visible region where
photographic films and photodetectors are much more
sensitive than they are in the infrared.
➢ It also find applications in pulsed holography and
interferometer.
➢ Laser metal working systems for drilling holes in hard
materials.
➢ High-brightness holographic camera systems with long
coherent length.
➢ Medical laser systems for tattoo removal and cosmetic
dermatology.
https://www.laserskinsurgery.com/treatment/lasers/ruby/
Showing good resolution of dark blue tattoo
using the QS Nd:YAG laser after treatment
He-Ne laser
Helium Neon (HeNe) laser was first fabricated by Ali Javan and his
coworkers at Bell Telephone Laboratories in USA. This was also the first
gas laser to be operated successfully.
electric discharge
Schematic set up of helium neon laser

➢ The HeNe laser consists of a mixture of He and Ne in a ratio of about 10:1, placed inside a long narrow discharge
tube (diameter 2-8 mm and length 10- 100cm), The pressure inside the tube is about 1 Torr.*
➢ The gas system is enclosed between a pair of plane mirrors or a pair of concave mirrors so that a resonator
system is formed.
Contd… He-Ne laser
➢ One of the mirrors is of very high
reflectivity while the other is partially
transparent so that energy may be coupled
out of the system.
➢ The first few energy levels of He and Ne
atoms are shown in Figure.
➢ When an electric discharge is passed
through the gas, the electrons traveling
down the tube collide with the He atoms
and excite them (from the ground state F1)
to the levels marked F2 and F3. These
levels are metastable, (~10-4 and ~10-6 S),
i.e., He atoms excited to these states stay
in these levels for a sufficiently long time
before losing energy through collisions.
➢ Through these collisions, the Ne atoms
are excited to the levels marked E4 and E6
which have nearly the same energy as the
levels F2 and F3 of He. Thus, when the
atoms in levels F2 and F3 collide with
unexcited Ne atoms, they raise them to the Relevant energy levels of helium and neon.
levels E4 and E6 respectively.
➢ Thus, we have the following two step process:
1. Helium atom in the ground state 𝑭𝟏 + collision with electron → Helium atom in the excited state (𝑭𝟐 𝑜𝑟 𝑭𝟑) + electron
with lesser kinetic energy.
2. The excited states of He (𝑭𝟐 𝒐𝒓 𝑭𝟑) are metastable * they would not readily lose energy through spontaneous emissions (the
radioactive life time of these excited states would be about one hour). However, they can readily lose energy through
collisions with Ne atoms:
He atom in the excited state F3 + Ne atom in the ground state → He atom in the ground state + Ne atom in the excited state E6.
Similarly,
He atom in the excited state F2 + Ne atom in the ground state → He atom in the ground state + Ne atom in the excited state E4.
➢ This results in a sizeable population of the levels E4 and E6. The

population in these levels happens to be much more than those in the
lower levels E3 and E5. (this also because of relative pressure selection)
➢ Thus a state of population inversion is achieved and any spontaneously
emitted photon can trigger laser action in any of the three transitions
shown in Fig.
➢ The Ne atoms then drop down from the lower laser levels to the level E2
through spontaneous emission. From the level E2 the Ne atoms are
brought back to the ground state through collision with the walls.
➢ The transition from E6 to E5, E4 to E3 and E6 to E3 result
in the emission of radiation having wavelengths 3.39
µm, 1.15 µm and 6328 Å or 632.8 nm, respectively.
➢ It may be noted that the laser transitions
corresponding to 3.39 µm and 1.15 µm are not in the
visible region. The 6328 Å transition corresponds to
the well-known red light of the HeNe.
➢ This HeNe laser has a continuous laser output.
➢ A proper selection of different frequencies may be
made by choosing end mirrors having high
reflectivity over only the required wavelength range.
❖ The pressures of the two gases must be so chosen that the condition of population inversion is not
quenched. Thus, the conditions must be such that there is an efficient transfer of energy from He to Ne
atoms.
❖ Also, since the level marked E2 (lifetime ~10-8 s).) is metastable compare to E6 (10-7 s)), electrons colliding
with atoms in level E2 may excite them to level E3, thus decreasing the population inversion. The tube
containing the gaseous mixture is also made narrow so that He atoms in level E2 can get de-excited by
collision with the walls of the tube.
❖ Here only those levels are shown which are important for laser action.
He-Ne laser
Note that
***Gas lasers are, in general, found to emit light, which is more directional and more
monochromatic. This is because of the absence of such effects as crystalline imperfection,
thermal distortion and scattering, which are present in solid state lasers. Gas lasers are capable of
operating continuously without need for cooling.
**The solid state lasers requires usually a flash lamp or a continuous high power lamp as pumping
system for its operation. Such a technique is efficient if the lasing system has broad absorption bands.
However in gases the atoms have sharp energy levels as compared to those in solids, use of an
electric discharge can be made to pump the atoms in gaseous form.
https://www.pasco.com/products/lab-apparatus/light-and-optics/light-sources-and-lasers/se-9449
He-Ne laser
Note that
If the resonator mirrors are placed outside the discharge tube then reflections from the ends of the discharge tube can
be avoided by placing the windows at the Brewester’s angle.
In such a case the beam polarized in the plane of incidence suffers no reflection at the windows while the
perpendicular polarization suffers reflection losses. This leads to a polarized out of the laser.
Importance of Brewster’s window:

➢ Brewster’s window is used to obtain polarized light from He-Ne laser. This
act like a polarizer.
✓ Brewster windows are typically used as polarizers within laser cavities.
When positioned at Brewster's angle (55° 32' at 633 nm), the P-polarized
portion of the light will pass through the window with no losses, while a
fraction of the S-polarized portion will be reflected off the Brewster
window. When used in a laser cavity, the Brewster window essentially acts as
a polarizer.
Application of He Ne laser
➢ Barcode scanners
➢ Tool alignment
➢ Non-contact measuring and monitoring
➢ Blood analysis
➢ Particle counting and food sorting
➢ Alignment of high power CO2 and YAG
treatment lasers and pointing beams
https://aip.scitation.org/doi/full/10.1063/1.5055791
Lectures

by
Dr. Tulsi Anna

Laser Light

&
in 1958 In 1960
Some Laser Systems
Depending on the gain media; there are several kinds of lasers with widespread applications:
➢ Solid-state Lasers: Ruby (Cr: Al2O3) Laser, (Nd:YAG) Nd:Y3Al5O12, Neodyminum
doped yttrium aluminum garnet) Laser, Nd: glass Laser
➢ Atomic and Molecular Gas lasers: He-Ne, CO2 , Argon ion etc.
➢ Liquid lasers: Dye; organic dyes in particular (Organic substances dissolved in
water, ethyl alcohol, ethylene glycol etc.).
➢ Excimer lasers: Excimer are molecules which in their excited electronic states
but are unstable in their ground state e.g., Argon fluride, Krypton chloride, Krf,
XeBr etc. (Generates pulsed laser via electronic transition with short-lived
molecules )
➢ Semiconductor lasers: Also called junction laser or diode laser and today very
important type of lasers having its applications in fiber optics communication.
Note: In this course, we will discuss, Ruby laser, He-Ne laser, CO2 and
semiconductor lasers;
Molecular Gas Lasers: CO2 Laser
➢ CO2 Lasers: Invented by Dr. C. Kumar Patel in 1963
Dr. C. Kumar Patel
➢ The CO2 laser emits invisible infrared light at a wavelength of 10,600 nm in the infrared range of the
electromagnetic spectrum, and the light cannot be seen by the human eye.
➢ The CO2 laser is one of the most powerful and efficient lasers available for the technological applications.
➢ Both pulsed and CW laser output occurs in several different types of gas discharge configurations.
SPIE interview of Dr. C. Kumar Patel
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7v43P-SY0eU
Contd… To know the energy level diagram and laser action in Co2 laser of let us first know about
Molecular energy levels
In molecular lasers, the energy levels are provided by the quantization of the energy of vibrational and rotational
motions of the constituent gas molecules. The radiations associated with the electronic transitions is usually in the
ultra-violet or visible regions, whereas, vibrational + rotational transitions are in the far infrared regions.
➢ For this reason the molecular lasers have infrared outputs.

➢ Electronic energy levels of molecules typically
have the largest energy separations.
➢ However, superimposed upon each electronic
state of the molecule are the possible
vibrational level, which are equally spaced
ladder like levels.
➢ Associated with each vibrational level are a
series of more closely spaced rotational energy
levels that do not have equal spacing but
instead are separated in proportion to their
rotational quantum numbers.
Contd… To know the energy level diagram let us first know about Molecular energy levels
Etotal = Eelect + Evib + Erot
Unlike atoms, molecules does not

necessarily involve electronic transitions.
These states, which are related to
rotational and vibrational motions of the
molecules, lead to energy levels much
more closely spaced than those associated
with electronic transitions.
Consequently, the radiation resulting from
transitions between those levels is at
much longer wavelengths, in the middle
and far infrared, than that from electronic
transitions.
Energy levels of a molecule, indicating electronic emission as well

as pure rotational emission and rotational-vibrational emission
Contd… CO2 Laser
Simplified construction of a CO2 Laser: Longitudinally excited lasers
Nitrogen
plays a
similar
Pumping : role to that
electric of helium
discharge in He-Ne
laser.
N2 is
lighter
than CO2
➢ This configuration of the CO2 laser is operated as conventional gas discharge lasers in the form of long, narrow,
cylindrically shaped glass enclosures with electrodes at opposite ends from which the discharge excitation current
(upto hundreds of milliamps) is introduced.
➢ These lasers can be either pulsed, or CW and can be have lengths of upto several meters.
➢ Gain medium: consists of a mixture of carbon dioxide, nitrogen, and helium gases, typically with a CO2:N2
ratio of about 0.8:1 and with somewhat more helium than N2. or roughly 1:4:5 in a glass tube.
➢ Brewster’s window to achieve polarized output light.
Contd… CO2 Laser
Excitation mechanism in CO2 Laser:
➢ In a CO2 laser, one uses the transitions occurring between different vibrational states of the carbon dioxide
molecule. That is, gain occurs on a range of vibrational transitions.
➢ Different vibrational modes of CO2: It can vibrate in the three independent modes of vibration.
Symmetric Stretch Asymmetric Stretch

The bending
➢ Each of these modes is characterized by a definite frequency of vibration. According to basic quantum mechanics
these vibrational degrees of freedom are quantized, i.e., when a molecule vibrates in any of the modes it can have
only a discrete set of energies.
➢ Thus if we call ν1 the frequency corresponding to the symmetric stretch mode then the molecule can have energies of
only:
(1)
Contd… CO2 Laser
Energy level diagram for CO2 Laser:
➢ Thus the degree of excitation is
characterized by the integer “m” when the
carbon dioxide molecule vibrates in the
symmetric stretch mode.
➢ In general, since the carbon dioxide
molecule can vibrate in a combination of
the three modes the state of vibration can
be described by three integers (mnq); the
three integers correspond, respectively, to
the degree of excitation in the symmetric
stretch, bending, and asymmetric stretch
modes, respectively.
➢ Depending on this, (001)
Asymmetric stretching and
(100) symmetric stretching
levels of CO2 is involved in the
laser transition.
Laser transitions between vibrational levels of
the CO2 molecule.
Contd… CO2 Laser
Energy level diagram for CO2 Laser:
Contd…
Importance of Nitrogen in CO2 Laser
➢ Although laser action can be produced in pure CO2 gas, such action is very inefficient with low gain.
➢ When N2 is added to the discharge tube, this laser becomes one of the most efficient ones, with
efficiencies as high as 30%.
➢ The nitrogen, n =1 , vibrational level is efficiently excited but is metastable to radiative decay.
➢ It thus accumulates population, which is then collisionally transferred to the CO2 (001) vibrational level.
➢ In the laser transition, the upper laser level (001) is the asymmetric stretch level; while the lower
laser level is the (100) symmetric stretch level.
➢ The radiative decay rate from the lower laser level is approximately 20 times faster than the decay from
the upper laser level, which establishes the population inversion between these two levels.
➢ Nitrogen helps producing a large population in the upper laser level while helium helps removing
population from the lower laser level.
Contd… CO2 Laser
Importance of Helium in CO2 Laser
➢ The primary role of helium is to help CO2 to relax, i.e. to move from the lower to the lowest
energy level and re-enter excitation process.
➢ Helium atoms collide with CO2 molecules and vibrational energy is transferred from CO2
molecules to the helium atoms. As a result, higher laser powers can be obtained.
➢ Helium also helps to conduct heat away from the electric field or the electric discharge (it has the
highest heat-conduction coefficient of all gases). This is essential for slow-flow CO2 lasers, where
excess heat must be conducted to the walls of the discharge tube.
➢ For fast-flow CO2 lasers, helium gives a more stable electric discharge and supports the
excitation efficiency.
Contd… Applications of CO2 lasers CO2 Laser
➢ While other gas lasers have efficiencies of 0.1% or less, the CO2 laser may have an efficiency upto 30%. Because
of this high efficiency it is easy to obtain continuous wave output of 100watt from a metre long tube.
➢ The output power of the CO2 laser is approximately proportional to the tube length. To obtain output of several
kilowatts tens of meters long tubes are used.
Due to their high power levels, CO2 lasers are commonly used in
➢ Material processing applications, particularly for cutting die boards, metals, plastic, etc, welding metals such as
copper, aluminum or stainless steel, and laser marking of different materials.
CO2 Laser in the Medical Field: Due to its wavelength at 10600 nm.
✓ Carbon dioxide laser surgery CO2 Lasers have brought a revolution in the field of medicine especially in surgery.
Carbon dioxide lasers have become useful in surgical procedures because water is capable of absorbing the
wavelength of a CO2 laser.
✓ The output wavelength of the CO laser is 10.6μm remains the best Skin treatment
2
surgical laser for the soft tissue where both cutting and hemostasis are
achieved photo-thermally. CO2 lasers are the best suited for soft tissue
procedures in human and animal specialties, as compared to other laser
wavelengths.
Advantages include less bleeding, shorter surgery time, less risk of
infection, and less post-op swelling.
Applications include gynecology, dentistry, oral and maxillofacial surgery,
and many others.
Semiconductor Laser
Remember we have discussed
So in direct band gap semiconductor the energy is emitted in form of light photons when an electron-
hole recombination takes place at the junction, whereas in the case of indirect band gap
semiconductor most of energy is lost as heat. So direct band gap semiconductors are good light
emitters and preferred for laser diode and light emitting diode (LED) fabrication.’
Contd…
Semiconductor Laser
In a given figure we can see that electron are already in CB and vacancy in
VB. And electron will recombine with the holes in VB. But, here if the
energy state of electron at CB is log enough known as metastable state; then
the transition of electron from CB to VB is triggered by another photon;
then the emitted photon is the same phase as the triggered photon and also
in the same direction and this kind of emission is called Stimulated
emission. This stimulated emission is responsible for light generation for
Lasers diode.
The semiconductors which, are used in LED and laser diode

fabrication are III-V compounds. Some of the examples
include GaAs, InP, GaP, InAs,
➢ Semiconductor laser is also known as the diode laser or junction laser as it consists of p-n junction diode. It is a
solid state semiconductor laser.
➢ This Laser diode emits laser light when it is forward biased. (Pumping mechanism)
➢ These lasers uses semiconductors as an active medium and are characterized by specific advantages such as
small size, low cost, the capability of monolithic integration with integrated circuits, direct pumping by conventional
biasing and compatibility with optical fibers.
Contd… semiconductor Laser
Working semiconductor Laser:
➢ Active medium: A PN junction diode made from single crystal of gallium arsenide is used as an active medium.
➢ Pumping method: The direct conversion method is used for pumping action. (Forward biasing)
➢ The end faces of the junction diode are well polished and parallel to each other. They act as an optical resonator
through which the emitted light comes out.
➢ Power output: The power output from this laser is 1mW.
➢ Nature of output: The nature of output is continuous wave or pulsed output.
➢ Wavelength of Output: gallium arsenide laser gives infrared radiation in the wavelength 830nm to 850nm .
Partially reflecting end
highly reflecting end
Depletion region
Contd…
Energy level diagram for semiconductor Laser:
➢ When a p-n junction diode is forward biased, the electrons from n – region and the
holes from the p- region cross the junction and recombine with each other.
➢ During the recombination process, the light radiation (photons) is released from a certain
specified direct band gap semiconductors like Ga-As. This light radiation is known as
recombination radiation.
➢ The photon emitted during recombination stimulates other electrons and holes to
recombine. As a result, stimulated emission takes place which produces laser.
Working
✓ When the PN junction is forward biased with large applied voltage, the electrons and holes are injected into
junction region in considerable concentration
✓ The region around the junction contains a large amount of electrons in the conduction band and a large
amount of holes in the valence band.
✓ If the population density is high, a condition of population inversion is achieved. The electrons and holes
recombine with each other and this recombination’s produce radiation in the form of light.
✓ When the forward – biased voltage is increased, more and more light photons are emitted and the light
production instantly becomes stronger. These photons will trigger a chain of stimulated recombination
resulting in the release of photons in phase.
✓ The photons moving at the plane of the junction travels back and forth by reflection between two sides
placed parallel and opposite to each other and grow in strength.
✓ After gaining enough strength, it gives out the laser beam of wavelength 8400 A0 . The wavelength of laser
light is given by
Semiconductor lasers have several advantages such as;
➢ It is very small in dimension. The arrangement is simple and compact.
➢ It exhibits high efficiency.
➢ The laser output can be easily increased by controlling the junction current
➢ It is operated with lesser power than ruby and CO2 laser.
➢ It requires very little auxiliary equipment
➢ It can have a continuous wave output or pulsed output. Limitations are
➢ The output is usually from 5
degree to 15 degree i.e., laser
beam has large divergence.
➢ It has poor coherence and
poor stability.

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Lectures

Engineering Physics (PH-101)

The laser is a quantum-mechanical device

Charles Townes (left)

Δλ: Spectral Bandwidth: It is defined as the width of the emission

Monochromatic light is light with single optical frequency

Wave with constant

Frequency bandwidth is too

❖ Bear in mind that temporal coherence is a manifestation of spectral purity.

Extended light source;

Diffraction limited collimation

D: Diameter of the beam

✓ Now, let’s have a look at the output of laser light;

All laser beam can be put in

✓ Diffraction limited focusing:

Perfect collimation with a focal spot equal to the wavelength of the

Point source of radiation

Ti: Sapphire laser

Engineering Physics (PH-101)

The laser is a quantum-mechanical device

Charles Townes (left)

✓ This excitation process requires the presence of radiation.

✓ Using Boltzmann’s law, the ratio of the equilibrium

where kB(= 1.38 × 10−23J/K) is the Boltzmann’s constant. Hence

In a thermodynamic equilibrium, the

We may note the following two important points:

Thus, when the atoms are in thermal equilibrium,

✓ Then since the number of atoms making spontaneous transitions per

the solution of which is

Boltzmann’s Distribution continued…

From this equation, we can infer the

Engineering Physics (PH-101)

The laser is a quantum-mechanical device

Charles Townes (left)

From this equation, we can infer the

𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑁2 𝐵21 𝑢(𝜔)

Since we have seen that 𝐵21 = 𝐵12 = 𝐵 (2)

𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑁2

N: Total electrons in the system;

✓ 3-level system gives pulsed laser. (short burst of photons)

What is Metastable State?

N: Total electrons in the system; = N1 + N2 + N3+N4

Active medium; the Ti:

Ti: sapphire laser

Optical Resonator ~90% reflecting

3. The optical resonator

➢ The value of tc should be large, i.e., the

➢ Smaller values of tsp (i.e., strongly allowed

Engineering Physics (PH-101)

The laser is a quantum-mechanical device

Charles Townes (left)

➢ The characteristics of the host crystal

The ruby laser.

➢ The chief characteristic of the energy levels of a

➢ A state characterized by such a long lifetime is

In the original set-up of Maiman, the flashlamp (filled

Schematic set up of helium neon laser

➢ This results in a sizeable population of the levels E4 and E6. The

Importance of Brewster’s window:

Engineering Physics (PH-101)