SELF LEARNING

MODULE
GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1
Antipolo City National Science and Technology High School

Jasmine Kate L. Esparagoza, RCh

Special Science Teacher 1
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

LESSON LESSON TITLE Most Essential Learning Competency Pages

1. Use properties of matter to identify substances and to
separate them
2. Recognize the formulas of common chemical substances
Chemistry: The 3. Compare consumer products on the basis of their
LESSON 1
Study of Change components for use, safety, quality and cost
4. Describe various simple separation techniques such as
distillation, chromatography

1. Recognize common isotopes and their uses.

2. Represent compounds using chemical formulas, structural
formulas and models
Atoms, Molecules, 3. Name compounds given their formula and write formula
LESSON 2
and Ions given the name of the compound
4. Calculate the empirical formula from the percent
composition of a compound

1. Calculate molecular formula given molar mass

2. Write and balanced chemical equations
3. Construct mole or mass ratios for a reaction in order to
calculate the amount of reactant needed or amount of
Mass Relationships
product formed in terms of moles or mass
LESSON 3 in Chemical
4. Calculate percent yield and theoretical yield of the reaction
Reactions
5. Explain the concept of limiting reagent in a chemical
reaction; identify the excess reagent(s)
6. (LAB) Determine mass relationship in a chemical reaction

1. Define pressure and give the common units of pressure

2. Use the gas laws to determine pressure, volume, or
temperature of a gas under certain conditions of change
3. Use the ideal gas equation to calculate pressure, volume,
Temperature, or number of moles of a gas
4. Use Daltons law of partial pressures to relate mole fraction
LESSON 4 Gases
and partial pressure of gases in a mixture
5. Apply the principles of stoichiometry to determine the
amounts (volume, number of moles, or mass) of gaseous
reactants and products
6. Relate the rate of gas effusion with molar mass

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How to Learn from this Module

To achieve the objectives, you are to do the following:

• Take your time reading the lessons carefully.

• Follow the directions and/or instructions in the activities and exercises diligently.

• Answer all the given tests and exercises

What I Need To Know This part contains learning objectives that are set for you
to learn as you go along the module.

What I know This is an assessment as to your level of knowledge to

the subject matter at hand, meant specifically to gauge
prior related knowledge
What’s In This part connects previous lesson with that of the
current one.

What’s New An introduction of the new lesson through various

activities, before it will be presented to you

What is It These are discussions of the activities as a way to

deepen your discovery and understanding of the
concept.
What’s More These are follow-up activities that are intended for you
to practice further in order to master the competencies

What I Have Learned Activities designed to process what you have learned
from the lesson

What I can do These are tasks that are designed to show- case your
skills and knowledge gained, and applied into real-life
concerns and situations

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Lesson 1: Chemistry: The Study of Change

WHAT I NEED TO KNOW?

We defined chemistry at the beginning of the chapter as the study of matter and the changes it undergoes.
Matter is anything that occupies space and has mass. Matter includes things we can see and touch (such as water,
earth, and trees), as well as things we cannot (such as air). Thus, everything in the universe has a “chemical”
connection. Chemists distinguish among several subcategories of matter based on composition and properties. The
classifications of matter include substances, mixtures, elements, and compounds, as well as atoms and molecules.

A mixture is a combination of two or more substances in which the substances retain their distinct
identities. Some familiar examples are air, soft drinks, milk, and cement. Mixtures do not have constant
composition. Therefore, samples of air collected in different cities would probably differ in composition because of
differences in altitude, pollution, and so on.

A substance is a form of matter that has a definite (constant) composition and distinct properties. Examples
are water, ammonia, table sugar (sucrose), gold, and oxygen. Substances differ from one another in composition
and can be identified by their appearance, smell, taste, and other properties.

Atoms of most elements can interact with one another to form compounds. Hydrogen gas, for example,
burns in oxygen gas to form water, which has properties that are distinctly different from those of the starting
materials. Water is made up of two parts hydrogen and one-part oxygen. Thus, water is a compound, a substance
composed of atoms of two or more elements chemically united in fixed proportions. Unlike mixtures, compounds
can be separated only by chemical means into their pure components.

At the end of the lesson, you will be able to:

1. Use properties of matter to identify substances and to separate them

2. Recognize the formulas of common chemical substances
3. Compare consumer products on the basis of their components for use, safety, quality and cost; see the
connections between Science, Technology and Society by determining the problem in the community
(Society) that was addressed by a certain consumer product (Technology) and the knowledge (Science)
behind the creation of the said consumer product
4. Describe various simple separation techniques such as distillation, chromatography

WHAT’S NEW?

Observe the following pictures below and write your answers on your notebook.

Guide Questions
1. What does the pictures show?

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WHAT I KNOW?
Before proceeding to the lesson, answer this pre-assessment activity

1. Classify the words below as Physical Properties or Chemical Properties and use Intensive property or Extensive
Property if it’s a Physical Property

a. Flammability e. Mass i. Melting point

b. Corrosion f. Density
c. Reactivity with water/acid g. Volume
d. Combustibility h. Boiling point

2. Pick from the box below the appropriate chemical formula given their common name and chemical name

1. Baking Soda – Sodium Bicarbonate a. HCl e. NH3

2. Ammonia – Ammonia
3. Bleach – Sodium Hypochlorite b. CH3COOH f. NaOCl
4. Vinegar – Acetic Acid
c. H2O g. CH3H8O
WHAT IS IT?
d. NaHCO3
PROPERTIES OF MATTER

Substances are identified by their properties as well as by their composition. Color, melting point, and
boiling point are physical properties. A physical property can be measured and observed without changing the
composition or identity of a substance. For example, we can measure the melting point of ice by heating a block of ice
and recording the temperature at which the ice is converted to water. Water differs from ice only in appearance, not in
composition, so this is a physical change; we can freeze the water to recover the original ice. Therefore, the melting point
of a substance is a physical property. Similarly, when we say that helium gas is lighter than air, we are referring to a
physical property.

On the other hand, the statement “Hydrogen gas burns in oxygen gas to form water” describes a chemical
property of hydrogen, because to observe this property we must carry out a chemical change, in this case burning. After
the change, the original chemical substance, the hydrogen gas, will have vanished, and all that will be left is a different
chemical substance—water. We cannot recover the hydrogen from the water by means of a physical change, such as
boiling or freezing. Every time we hard-boil an egg, we bring about a chemical change. When subjected to a temperature
of about 100°C, the yolk and the egg white undergo changes that alter not only their physical appearance but their
chemical makeup as well. When eaten, the egg is changed again, by substances in our bodies called enzymes. This
digestive action is another example of a chemical change. What happens during digestion depends on the chemical
properties of both the enzymes and the food.

All measurable properties of matter fall into one of two additional categories: extensive properties and
intensive properties. The measured value of an extensive property depends on how much matter is being considered.
The measured value of an intensive property does not depend on how much matter is being considered. Temperature is
an example, suppose that we have two beakers of water at the same temperature. If we combine them to make a single
quantity of water in a larger beaker, the temperature of the larger quantity of water will be the same as it was in two
separate beakers. Unlike mass, length, and volume, temperature and other intensive properties are not additive
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 Mass - which is the quantity of matter in a given sample of a substance, is an extensive property
Volume - defined as length cubed, is another extensive property.
Density - defined as the mass of an object divided by its volume, is an intensive property.
Boiling Point - The temperature at which the molecules of a liquid become gas is an intensive property
Melting point - temperature at which a solid is converted to a liquid is an intensive property
Corrosion - involves the deterioration of a material as it reacts with its environment
Flammability - refers to whether a compound will burn when exposed to flame. Again, burning is a chemical
reaction—commonly a high-temperature reaction in the presence of oxygen
Key point that properties of matter are classified into Physical Properties and Chemical Properties. Physical Properties
are either intensive or extensive. Physical property can be measured and observed without changing the composition or
identity of a substance or Physical change is only observed. Chemical property, to observe this property we must carry
out a chemical change in which one or more substances are converted into different substances. Extensive property
depends on how much matter is being considered. Intensive property does not depend on how much matter is being
considered

COMMON CHEMICAL SUBSTANCES

Given below is table of common substances. Familiarize yourself with their common name, chemical name and chemical
formula.

Observe the following chemical formula and how does it represent the chemical name.

The chemical formula of slaked slime based from the table above is Calcium Hydroxide, and its chemical formula is
Ca(OH)2. The chemical formula comes from its chemical name, which is Calcium with the chemical symbol Ca and
Hydroxide which is OH. Remember that chemical formulas can’t interchanged like (OH) 2Ca, because OH is an Anion and
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Ca is a cation. Further explanation about this on the next lessons.Another example is galena and its chemical name is Lead
(II) Sulfide. The chemical symbol of lead is Pb and the chemical symbol of Sulfur is S. That’s why its chemical formula is
PbS.

CONSUMER PRODUCTS

This module was written to enumerate how consumer products we have at home are different from one another
in terms of their usefulness, level of safety and their cost in the market. Understanding the different consumer products
may help us to make informed decisions regarding the use of those products that may affect our health, finances, and the
quality of way of our life. In addition, this module will help us to see the connections between Science, Technology and
Society by determining the problem in the community (Society) that was addressed by a certain consumer product
(Technology) and the knowledge (Science) behind the creation of the said consumer product.

Consumer product is the final good that is bought by individuals or households for personal use. In other words,
consumer products are goods that are bought for consumption by the average consumer. Consumer products were made
possible because of the interactions of Science, Technology and Society. The Knowledge (Science) is being used to come
up with the different consumer products (Technology) that address problems of the community (Society). For example,
Bath soap (Technology) is a consumer product which we usually use to solve a problem of the Society that is skin infection
and poor hygiene. The Science, Technology and Society are interrelated to one another because any change in one aspect
could trigger also a change to other aspects. Meaning if Knowledge (Science) will improve due to new or latest discoveries
made by scientists or even an ordinary person (Society), there will be also a corresponding effect or improvement to the
consumer products (Technology) we use every day. There are many consumer products available in the market because
of their usefulness. However, the same consumer products may post danger to anyone. Now, when is a consumer product
may cause danger if it is very useful to us? A consumer product may cause harm to us for two reasons. First is when we
abuse or misuse such product. A good example of this would be the solvent like rugby that was invented to use as an
adhesive material. But for some instances, the same solvent is being used by drug dependent. And secondly is if a
consumer product was made intended to cause harm such as gun powder and poisons.
Let us analyze the table below that shows information of bath soap in terms of its some chemical components, use,
safeness, and cost.

Consumer Some Chemical Components Use Level of Safeness Cost

Product (Chemical Formula)
Bath Soap -Glycerine (C3H8O3) - Cure skin - Generally safe -Generally very
-Sodium hydroxide infection (External use only affordable price
(NaOH) (nonbranded) but
-Titanium dioxide (TiO2) - Triclosan - Improve some are costly if
(C12H7Cl13O2) personal its branded
hygiene
Based from the table, some of the chemical components used to make bath soap are glycerine, sodium hydroxide
and titanium dioxide. Glycerine is added to soap as emollient and texture enhancer while sodium hydroxide is added to
bath soap to as main ingredient. Titanium dioxide is added to make the bath soap opaque while Triclosan is added as the
active anti-bacterial ingredient.

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SEPARATION TECHNIQUES

a. Filtration - the process of separating the insoluble solid from the liquid substance by allowing the liquid to pass
through a porous material called filtering agent. The solid particles which are
retained in the filter paper is called residue, and the clear liquid which passes
through a filtering agent such as filter paper is called the filtrate. In using a filter
paper, a glass funnel is used as a support. To transfer the mixture (liquid) from
the beaker into the funnel, you have to mix thoroughly the mixture using a
stirring rod so that no solid substance will be left behind. A stirring rod may also
be used to guide the mixture into the funnel to avoid spillage especially if the
said funnel is too small. See to it also that the filter paper is not damaged before using it.
b. Distillation - is an effective method to separate mixtures comprised of two or more pure liquids, a purification
process where the components of a liquid mixture are vaporized and then condensed and isolated. In simple
distillation, a mixture is heated and the most volatile component vaporizes at the lowest temperature. The vapor
passes through a cooled tube (a condenser), where it condenses back into its liquid state. The condensate that is
collected is called distillate. This method uses the difference in boiling points of the components of a mixture. The
more volatile liquid in the mixture boils first, evaporates, then condenses. The distillate is the liquid formed from the
condensation of the vapor. Content of the container should always be checked to avoid drying up of the said
container.

c. Magnetic Separation - When one substance in the mixture has some magnetic properties then this method is quite
useful. Strong magnets are commonly used to separate magnetic elements.

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d. Decantation - is the process of pouring a liquid gently so as to not disturb a solid in the bottom of the container.
separate immiscible liquids that have different densities. This is a
method used to separate the liquid layer known as supernatant
and a heavy insoluble solid known as precipitate by allowing the
said solid to settle at the bottom of the container then the liquid
above the solid is poured off carefully into another container. In
decantation process, the mixture is being set aside and given
enough time the precipitate to settle at the bottom of the
container such as a beaker. Unlike the filtration process where you
can immediately pour the mixture into the funnel, you have to wait
all the precipitate to settle at the bottom of the 6 container before
the actual pouring can be done. A stirring rod may also be used to
guide the liquid into another container to avoid spillage especially if the said container is too small. In checking the
temperature of a container such as beaker, you may use the back part of your hand to determine it hotness. Do not
immediately touch the container.

e. Sublimation - Sublimation is the process of transition of a substance from the solid to the gaseous state without
passing through the liquid state. To separate mixtures that contain a sublimate with volatile component from a non-
sublimate impurity, the sublimation process is used

f. Chromatography – is the separation of a mixture by passing it in solution or

suspension or as a vapor (as in gas chromatography) through a medium in which
the components move at different rates. Thin-layer chromatography is a special
type of chromatography used for separating and identifying mixtures that are or
can be colored, especially pigments. Chromatography Difference in rate of
movement of a solute through a stationary phase. This process uses the
difference in the degrees to which substances are absorbed on the surface of an
inert substance such as a filter paper. A drop of ink 8 or extract will be separated
into different components if it is placed at the end of a filter paper and the tip of
the paper is allowed to barely touch the solvent. Separate bands of colors,
representing the different components will appear on the paper. In doing this
process, the filter paper should ensure the touching of the solvent.

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WHAT’S MORE?

PROPERTIES OF MATTER

1. Now that you know the difference between physical and chemical property, fill in the block diagram and separate
the properties based on the discussion earlier.

2. Answer the application focusing on their learned concepts about properties of matter

Scenario Physical or Evidence

Chemical Change
Umm! A student removes a loaf of bread hot from the oven. Physical No change of substance. No
The student cuts a slice off the loaf and spreads butter on it. unexpected color change,
temperature change or gas given off.
Your friend decides to toast a piece of bread, but leaves it in
the toaster too long. The bread is black and the kitchen if full
of smoke
You forgot to dry the bread knife when you washed it and
reddish brown spots appear on it
You blow dry your wet hair
In baking biscuits and other quick breads, the baking powder
reacts to release carbon dioxide bubbles. The carbon dioxide
bubbles cause the dough to rise
A straight piece of wire is coiled to form a spring
Food color is dropped into water to give it color
Chewing food to break it down into smaller particles
represents a change, but the changing of starch into sugars by
enzymes in the digestive system represents a _______ change
In a fireworks show, the fireworks explode giving off heat and
light

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COMMON CHEMICAL SUBSTANCES

Now that you have recognized the formulas of common chemical substances. Write the chemical formula of common
chemical substances

Common Name Chemical Formula

a) Ammonia NH3
b) Rubbing Alcohol
c) Salt
d) Sugar

e) Milk of Magnesia

CONSUMER PRODUCTS

1. Choose a consumer product that is available in the field of medicine, communication, transportation and agriculture.
2. Fill-in the table with correct information

Area or Field Consumer Some Chemical Use Level of Safeness Cost

Product Components
(Chemical
Formula)
Medicine
Communication
Transportation
Agriculture

QUESTIONS
1. For each field, which problem is being addressed by the consumer product?
2. What are the chemical components of the consumer products?

SEPARATION TECHNIQUES

Mixture
Separating red dye from a mixture of inks
Separating sand from a mixture of sand and water
Separating oil from a mixture of oil, water and ethanol
Separating oil and vinegar
Separating a mixture of iron filings and aluminum
filings

REFERENCES
Raymond Chang 10th Edition Chemistry

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LESSON 2: Atoms, Molecules, and Ions

WHAT I NEED TO KNOW?

Chemistry is a subject that involves a lot of calculations, formulas and 3d models. Some formulas and calculations
in Chemistry are quite difficult for some people because of their unfamiliarity of the said formulas and calculations.
However, these calculations and formulas are very important in making accurate and precise measurements of chemical
materials needed in the preparation or making of solutions of certain product. For a beginner student, studying these
formulas and performing the correct procedure of calculations need a strict focus and patience.

At the end of the lesson, you will be able to:

1. Recognize common isotopes and their uses.

2. Represent compounds using chemical formulas, structural formulas and models
3. Name compounds given their formula and write formula given the name of the compound
4. Calculate the empirical formula from the percent composition of a compound

WHAT IS IT?

ISOTOPES

All atoms can be identified by the number of protons and neutrons they contain. The atomic number (Z) is the
number of protons in the nucleus of each atom of an element. In a neutral atom the number of protons is equal to the
number of electrons, so the atomic number also indicates the number of electrons present in the atom. The chemical
identity of an atom can be determined solely from its atomic number. For example, the atomic number of fluorine is 9.
This means that each fluorine atom has 9 protons and 9 electrons. Or, viewed another way, every atom in the universe
that contains 9 protons is correctly named “fluorine.” The mass number (A) is the total number of neutrons and protons
present in the nucleus of an atom of an element. Except for the most common form of hydrogen, which has one proton
and no neutrons, all atomic nuclei contain both protons and neutrons. In general, the mass number is given by

The number of neutrons in an atom is equal to the difference between the mass number and the atomic number,
or (A - Z). For example, if the mass number of a particular boron atom is 12 and the atomic number is 5 (indicating 5
protons in the nucleus), then the number of neutrons is 12 - 5 = 7. Note that all three quantities (atomic number, number
of neutrons, and mass number) must be positive integers, or whole numbers. Atoms of a given element do not all have
the same mass. Most elements have two or more isotopes, atoms that have the same atomic number but different mass
numbers. For example, there are three isotopes of hydrogen. One, simply known as hydrogen, has one proton and no
neutrons. The deuterium isotope contains one proton and one neutron, and tritium has one proton and two neutrons.
The accepted way to denote the atomic number and mass number of an atom of an element (X) is as follows

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 Isotopes are important to help scientist understand the makeup of atoms the unique characteristics isotopes of
certain elements may have. Isotopes can be unstable and provide opportunities for fission like Uranium. Uranium is a very
important element because it provides us with nuclear fuel used to generate electricity in nuclear power stations. It is
also the major material from which other synthetic transuranium elements are made. Isotopes may decay into new
isotopes or elements. They’re also used in our everyday life. Ex. In smoke detectors, used in forensic analysis of food
preparation sites.

Chemical Formulas, Structural Formula and Models

Chemical formula as a symbolic expression of a compound or substance. It is also defined as shorthand of

expressing the types and the number of atoms in a substance. Chemical name is the scientific name given to a chemical
in accordance with the nomenclature system developed by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry. While
structural formula is a graphical representation of the molecular structure showing how the atoms are possibly arranged
in the real three-dimensional space.

This is a substance which is made up of two or more atoms joined together by a chemical bond. Compounds may be
classified into two based from the nature of the atoms that make up them, and the type of intramolecular bond that exist
between atoms. The two classification of compounds are ionic compound and covalent compound. The ionic compound
is formed between a metal atom and a nonmetal atom, and the type of intramolecular bond exist between atoms is ionic
bond due to the presence of ionic charges. Example of this is sodium chloride which is made up of metal sodium and
nonmetal chlorine.

Na+1 + Cl-1 → NaCl

The covalent compound is formed between two or more nonmetal atoms, and the type of intramolecular bond that exist
between atoms is covalent bond. Example of this is Carbon tetrachloride.

In writing the chemical formula, structural formula as well as the chemical name of a given compound, you must
determine first the intramolecular bond that exists between atoms of compounds.

Molecular Formulas

A molecular formula shows the exact number of atoms of each element in the smallest unit of a substance. In our
discussion of molecules, each example was given with its molecular formula in parentheses. Thus, H2 is the molecular
formula for hydrogen, O2 is oxygen, O3 is ozone, and H2O is water. The subscript numeral indicates the number of atoms
13
of an element present. There is no subscript for O in H2O because there is only one atom of oxygen in a molecule of water,
and so the number “one” is omitted from the formula. Note that oxygen (O2) and ozone (O3) are allotropes of oxygen. An
allotrope is one of two or more distinct forms of an element. Two allotropic forms of the element carbon—diamond and
graphite—are dramatically different not only in properties but also in their relative cost.

Empirical Formulas

The molecular formula of hydrogen peroxide, a substance used as an antiseptic and as a bleaching agent for
textiles and hair, is H2O2. This formula indicates that each hydrogen peroxide molecule consists of two hydrogen atoms
and two oxygen atoms. The ratio of hydrogen to oxygen atoms in this molecule is 2:2 or 1:1. The empirical formula of
hydrogen peroxide is HO. Thus, the empirical formula tells us which elements are present and the simplest whole-number
ratio of their atoms, but not necessarily the actual number of atoms in a given molecule. As another example, consider
the compound hydrazine (N2H4), which is used as a rocket fuel. The empirical formula of hydrazine is NH2. Although the
ratio of nitrogen to hydrogen is 1:2 in both the molecular formula (N2H4) and the empirical formula (NH2), only the
molecular formula tells us the actual number of N atoms (two) and H atoms (four) present in a hydrazine molecule.
Empirical formulas are the simplest chemical formulas; they are written by reducing the subscripts in the molecular
formulas to the smallest possible whole numbers. Molecular formulas are the true formulas of molecules. If we know the
molecular formula, we also know the empirical formula, but the reverse is not true. Why, then, do chemists bother with
empirical formulas

For many molecules, the molecular formula and the empirical formula are one and the same. Some examples
are water (H2O), ammonia (NH3), carbon dioxide (CO2), and methane (CH4).

Molecular Models

Molecules are too small for us to observe directly. An effective means of visualizing them is by the use of molecular
models. Two standard types of molecular models are currently in use: ball-and-stick models and space-filling models. In
ball and-stick model kits, the atoms are wooden or plastic balls with holes in them. Sticks or springs are used to represent
chemical bonds. In space-filling models, atoms are represented by truncated balls held together by snap. fasteners, so
that the bonds are not visible. The balls are proportional in size to atoms. The fi rst step toward building a molecular
model is writing the structural formula, which shows how atoms are bonded to one another in a molecule. For example,
it is known that each of the two H atoms is bonded to an O atom in the water molecule. Therefore, the structural formula
of water is H-O-H. A line connecting the two atomic symbols represents a chemical bond

Chemical Formula Structural Formula Ball and Stick Model Space Filling Model

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Naming Compounds

Many ionic compounds are binary compounds, or compounds formed from just two elements. For binary
compounds, the first element named is the metal cation, followed by the nonmetallic anion. Thus, NaCl is sodium chloride.
The anion is named by taking the first part of the element name (chlorine) and adding “-ide.” Potassium bromide (KBr),
zinc iodide (ZnI2), and aluminum oxide (Al2O3) are also binary compounds.

The “-ide” ending is also used for certain anion groups containing different elements, such as hydroxide (OH 2) and
cyanide (CN2). Thus, the compounds LiOH and KCN are named lithium hydroxide and potassium cyanide, respectively.
These and a number of other such ionic substances are called ternary compounds, meaning compounds consisting of
three elements.

Certain metals, especially the transition metals can form more than one type of cation. Take iron as an example.
Iron can form two cations: Fe2+ and Fe3+. An older nomenclature system that is still in limited use assigns the ending “-
ous” to the cation with fewer positive charges and the ending “-ic” to the cation with more positive charges:

Fe2+ ferrous ion

Fe3+ ferric ion
This method of naming ions has some distinct limitations. First, the “-ous” and “-ic” suffixes do not provide
information regarding the actual charges of the two cations involved. In addition, the “-ous” and “-ic” designations provide
names for only two different elemental cations. The names of the compounds that these iron ions form with chlorine
would thus be

FeCl2 ferrous chloride or Iron (II) Chloride

FeCl3 ferric chloride or Iron (III) Chloride
Using the Stock system, we denote the ferrous ion and the ferric ion as iron(II) and iron(III), respectively; ferrous
chloride becomes iron(II) chloride; and ferric chloride is called iron(III) chloride

Some metallic elements can assume three or more different positive charges in compounds. Therefore, it has
become increasingly common to designate different cations with Roman numerals. This is called the Stock system. In this
system, the Roman numeral I indicates one positive charge, II means two positive charges, and so on. For example,
manganese (Mn) atoms can assume several different positive charges:

Mn 2+: MnO manganese(II) oxide

Mn 3+: Mn2O3 manganese(III) oxide
Mn 4+: MnO2 manganese(IV) oxide
These names are pronounced “manganese-two oxide,” “manganese-three oxide,” and “manganese-four oxide.”

15
Ionic Compound

Another example is Al2O3, given from the table that Aluminum is a cation and Oxide is an anion, observe the charges of
both ions.

What happens is a criss cross of charges, (note the charges becomes the subscript)

Al3+ O2-
That leads to

Al2O3
For the naming, take the name of the cation and in anion change the last 4, 3 or 2 letters of the name of nonmetal element
into -ide. The name of the compound is

Aluminum Oxide

Covalent Compounds

These compounds mostly consists of non metallic elements. In writing the chemical formula of a covalent compound, do
the following steps below. We will use Carbon Dioxide as an example of a chemical name that needs to be converted into
chemical formula

Step 1 (Atoms involved) - Carbon and Oxygen

Step 2 (Chemical symbol) - C + O
Step 3 (Number of atoms)) - 1 + 2

Note that the carbon has 1 atom while chlorine has 2 atoms. We can determine the number of an atom based from the
Greek prefixes used before each type of atom. In Carbon dioxide, there is no Greek prefix written before the word carbon.
This means that the number of Carbon is 1. In Greek prefix, 1 is mono but there is no prefix mono before the word carbon.
This is because the prefix mono is not allowed to be written at the beginning of the chemical name. From supposedly
Monocarbon dioxide, it is name as carbon dioxide

Greek Prefixes
1- Mono 8- Octa
2- Di 9- Nona
3- Tri 10- Deca
4- Tetra
5- Penta
6- Hexa
7-Hepta

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Step 4 (Combined the chemical Symbol and number of atoms) - C1 + O2
Step 5 (Remove the plus sign to determine the chemical formula) - C1O2 or CO
If you want to reverse the process, let us say naming a covalent compound, do the following steps below. We
will use CO2 as an example of a chemical formula that need to convert to chemical name.

Step 1 (Chemical name involved) - Carbon and Chlorine

Step 2 (Determine the Greek prefix) - none and tetra
Step 3 (Remove the word and then combined Greek prefix and Change the last 4, 3 or 2 Letters of the name of
last nonmetal element into -ide) - Carbon dioxide

Acids and Bases

An acid can be described as a substance that yields hydrogen ions (H +) when dissolved in water. (H+ is
equivalent to one proton, and is often referred to that way.) Formulas for acids contain one or more hydrogen
atoms as well as an anionic group. Anions whose names end in “-ide” form acids with a “hydro-” prefix and an “-
ic” ending. In some cases, two different names seem to be assigned to the same chemical formula.

HCl hydrogen chloride

HCl hydrochloric acid

The names assigned to the compound depends on its physical state. In the gaseous or pure liquid state, HCl is a
molecular compound called hydrogen chloride. When it is dissolved in water, the molecules break up into H + and
Cl- ions; in this state, the substance is called hydrochloric acid.

Oxoacids are acids that contain hydrogen, oxygen, and another element (the central element). The formulas of
oxoacids are usually written with the H first, followed by the central element and then O. We use the following
five common acids as our references in naming oxoacids:
H2CO3 carbonic acid
HClO3 chloric acid
HNO3 nitric acid
H3PO4 phosphoric acid
H2SO4 sulfuric acid

Often two or more oxoacids have the same central atom but a different number of O atoms. Starting with our
reference oxoacids whose names all end with “-ic,” we use the following rules to name these compounds.

1. Addition of one O atom to the “-ic” acid: The acid is called “per . . . -ic” acid. Thus, adding an O atom to HClO3
changes chloric acid to perchloric acid, HClO4.
2. Removal of one O atom from the “-ic” acid: The acid is called “-ous” acid. Thus, nitric acid, HNO3, becomes
nitrous acid, HNO2.
3. Removal of two O atoms from the “-ic” acid: The acid is called “hypo . . . -ous” acid. Thus, when HBrO3 is
converted to HBrO, the acid is called hypobromous acid.

17
The rules for naming oxoanions, anions of oxoacids, are as follows:
1. When all the H ions are removed from the “-ic” acid, the anion’s name ends with “-ate.”
For example, the anion CO32- derived from H2CO3 is called carbonate.
2. When all the H ions are removed from the “-ous” acid, the anion’s name ends with “-ite.”
Thus, the anion ClO2- derived from HClO2 is called chlorite.
3. The names of anions in which one or more but not all the hydrogen ions have been removed must indicate
the number of H ions present.

Summary of nomenclature for the oxoacids and oxoanions

For example, consider the anions derived from phosphoric acid:

H3PO4 phosphoric acid
H2PO4- dihydrogen phosphate
HPO42- hydrogen phosphate
PO43- phosphate

Note that we usually omit the prefix “mono-” when there is only one H in the anion. Table 2.6 gives the names
of the oxoacids and oxoanions that contain chlorine.

Names of Oxoacids and Oxoanions That Contain Chlorine

Acid Anion
HClO4 ClO4-
HClO3 ClO3-
HClO2 ClO2-
HClO ClO-

18
Empirical Formula From The Percent Composition Of A Compound

Empirical Formulas

Empirical formulas are the simplest chemical formulas; they are written by reducing the subscripts in the
molecular formulas to the smallest possible whole numbers. The molecular formula of hydrogen peroxide, a
substance used as an antiseptic and as a bleaching agent for textiles and hair, is H2O2. This formula indicates that
each hydrogen peroxide molecule consists of two hydrogen atoms and two oxygen atoms. The ratio of hydrogen
to oxygen atoms in this molecule is 2:2 or 1:1. The empirical formula of hydrogen peroxide is HO. Thus, the
empirical formula tells us which elements are present and the simplest whole-number ratio of their atoms, but
not necessarily the actual number of atoms in a given molecule. Molecular formulas are the true formulas of
molecules. If we know the molecular formula, we also know the empirical formula, but the reverse is not true.

How to Calculate the Empirical Formula?

In calculating the empirical formula of a compound, do the following steps below. We will refer to the sample
problem below.

SAMPLE PROBLEM:

Determine the empirical formula of a compound whose percentage composition is 50.05% S and 49.95% O by
mass.

Step 1. Use 100 g of the compound as basis of calculation. Meaning there will be 50.05 g would be atoms of
Sulfur and 49.95 g would be atoms of Oxygen.

Step 2. Convert the given mass of each atom into their equivalent mole. To do this, convert the given mass of
atom in the compound by using the mole of the atom as the conversion factor.

Let us use Sulfur to determine the calculation process. First the given mass of sulfur is 50.05 g multiply to 1 mol
of Sulfur atoms. You may refer to the red straight arrow. The answer is 50.05 g mol of S atoms. Then the 50.05
g mol of Sulfur atoms was divided by 32.1 grams of Sulfur. We divide it to 32.1 g because that is the weight of
Sulfur and the unit is gram/mol, to cancel out the grams divided it to get mol in the answer. You may refer to the
red curved arrow. The answer is 1.56 mol of S atoms.

19
Step 3. The equivalent value of mole of each atom will be used as the subscript. Therefore, the formula maybe
written as S1.56O3.12, but this formula does not have whole-number subscripts. One way to get a formula with
whole-number subscript is to divide all the subscripts by the smallest subscript.

WHAT’S MORE?

ISOTOPES

1. To apply the concept of isotopes, ask them to complete the following table containing information about
the isotopes of uranium

Isotope Uranium – 238 Uranium - 235

Atomic Number 92 92
Mass number 238 235
Number of protons
Number of electrons
Number of nutrons

2. List at least two of the applications/uses of other isotopes in the industry

Example:
Iodine – 131 – Used in the detection, diagnosis and treatment of thyroid disorders

CHEMICAL FORMULAS, STRUCTURAL FORMULA AND MODELS

1. Write the molecular formula of the compounds, from its model

Blue – Nitrogen; Green – Chlorine; Red - Oxygen

a) . c.

d. .

b) . e.

20
2. Draw the structural formula of the following compounds
a) N2O
b) Li3N
c) TiCl4
d) CH4
e) C2H6

Naming Compounds

1. Write the formula of: a. magnesium nitride b. rubidium sulfate and c. barium hydride
2. Name the following compounds: a. Cu(NO3)2, b. NH4ClO3, c. PbO d. Li2SO3 e. CrSO3 f. FeCl2
3. Name the following oxoacid and oxoanion: a. HBrO and b. HSO4
4. Write step by step process of naming of CrSO3 both in Old nomenclature and Stock system

Empirical Formula From The Percent Composition Of A Compound

1. Ascorbic acid (vitamin C) cures scurvy is composed of 40.92 percent carbon (C), 4.58 percent hydrogen
(H), and 54.50 percent oxygen (O) by mass. Determine its empirical formula.
2. Determine the empirical formula of a compound having the following percent composition by mass: K:
24.75 percent; Mn: 34.77 percent; O: 40.51 percent.
3. The mineral pyrolusite is a compound of manganese-55 and oxygen-16. If 63% of the mass of pyrolusite
is due to manganese, what is the empirical formula of pyrolusite?

21
Lesson 3: Mass Relationships in Chemical Reactions

WHAT I NEED TO KNOW?

We learned from the previous lesson that empirical formulas are the simplest chemical formula. The
formula calculated from percent composition by mass is always the empirical formula because the subscripts in
the formula are always reduced to the smallest whole numbers. To calculate the actual, molecular formula we
must know the approximate molar mass of the compound in addition to its empirical formula. Gaining the skill
on writing and balancing chemical equations, you can predict the product when two or more substances react
to one another as well as the correct number of atoms that will combine or breakdown. The scope of this module
covers many different learning situations where students could relate their personal experiences on chemical
reactions and chemical equations. The water we drink every day, the sugar found in bread, the carbon dioxide
gas produce from burning a piece of paper are examples of compounds which are being produced as the result
of chemical reactions. These chemical reactions can be easily analyzed if they are written through chemical
equations. Knowing the process of expressing chemical reactions through chemical equations will give us full
understanding on how elements or compounds combined or broken down to form new substances. This module
will discuss the process of expressing the chemical reactions through words equations and balanced chemical
equations properly and correctly.

At the end of the lesson, you will be able to:

1. Calculate molecular formula given molar mass

2. Write and balanced chemical equations
3. Construct mole or mass ratios for a reaction in order to calculate the amount of reactant needed or
amount of product formed in terms of moles or mass
4. Calculate percent yield and theoretical yield of the reaction
5. Explain the concept of limiting reagent in a chemical reaction; identify the excess reagent(s)
6. (LAB) Determine mass relationship in a chemical reaction

WHAT IS IT?

Molecular Formulas

A molecular formula shows the exact number of atoms of each element in the smallest unit of a substance. In
our previous discussion, each example was given with its molecular formula in parentheses. Thus, H 2 is the
molecular formula for hydrogen, O2 is oxygen, O3 is ozone, and H2O is water. The subscript numeral indicates the
number of atoms of an element present. There is no subscript for O in H 2O because there is only one atom of
oxygen in a molecule of water, and so the number “one” is omitted from the formula.

Example:

1. Acetylene (C2H2), which is used in welding torches; The molecular formula is C2H2 and its empirical
formula is CH
2. Glucose (C6H12O6), a substance known as blood sugar; The molecular formula is C6H12O6 and its CH2O
22
How to Calculate the Molecular Formula?

In calculating the molecular formula of a compound, do the following steps below. We will refer to the sample
problem below.

SAMPLE PROBLEM #1:

A sample is found to have 40.0% C, 6.6% H and 53.4% O by mass. The molecular mass of the compound is 180.
What its empirical and molecular formulas?

Step 1. Use 100 g of the compound as basis of calculation. Meaning there will be 40.0 g would be atoms of
Carbon, 6.6 g would be atoms of Hydrogen and 53.4 g would be atoms of Oxygen.

Step 2. Convert the given mass of each atom into their equivalent mole. To do this, convert the given mass of
atom in the compound by using the mole of the atom as the conversion factor

Step 3. The equivalent value of mole of each atom will be used as the subscript. Therefore, the formula maybe
written as C3.33H6.6O3.33., but this formula does not have whole-number subscripts. One way to get a formula
with whole-number subscript is to divide all the subscripts by the smallest subscript.

Therefore, the empirical formula is C1H2O1 or CH2O because it has the lowest possible ratio of whole-numbered
subscript. But what is the molecular formula?

Step 4. Divide the molecular mass of the compound which is 180 by its molecular mass by empirical formula
which is CH2O. The molecular mass of CH2O is 30 g/mol.

23
Molecular Mass of compound divided by Molecular Mass of CH2O

180 / 30 = 6

Step 5. Multiply the empirical formula (CH2O) by 6 would produce a molecular formula of C 6H12O6

SAMPLE PROBLEM #2:

A sample of a compound contains 1.52 g of nitrogen (N) and 3.47 g of oxygen (O). The molar mass of this
compound is between 90 g and 95 g. Determine the molecular formula and the accurate molar mass of the
compound.

We are given grams of N and O. Use molar mass as a conversion factor to convert grams to moles of each
element. Let n represent the number of moles of each element. We write:

1 mol N
nN = 1.52 g N • = 0.108 mol N
14.01 g N

1 mol N
nO 5 3.47 g O • = 0.217 mol O
16.00 g

The equivalent value of mole of each atom will be used as the subscript. Therefore, the formula maybe written
as N0.108O0.217 but this formula does not have whole-number subscripts. One way to get a formula with whole-
number subscript is to divide all the subscripts by the smallest subscript.

0.108 0.217
N: =1 O: =2
0.108 0.108

Try to convert to whole numbers by dividing the subscripts by the smaller subscript (0.108). After rounding off,
we obtain NO2 as the empirical formula.

The molecular formula might be the same as the empirical formula or some integral multiple of it (for example,
two, three, four, or more times the empirical formula). Comparing the ratio of the molar mass to the molar mass
of the empirical formula will show the integral relationship between the empirical and molecular formulas. The
molar mass of the empirical formula NO2 is

empirical molar mass = 14.01 g + 2(16.00 g) = 46.01 g

Next, we determine the ratio between the molar mass and the empirical molar mass

90
molar mass/empirical molar mass = =2
46.01

24
The molar mass is twice the empirical molar mass. This means that there are two NO 2 units in each molecule of
the compound, and the molecular formula is (NO2)2 or N2O4. The actual molar mass of the compound is two
times the empirical molar mass, that is, 2(46.01 g) or 92.02 g, which is between 90 g and 95 g.

Chemical Equation

Chemical Reaction, and Chemical Equation

We turn next to what happens to atoms and molecules in a chemical reaction, a process in which a substance
(or substances) is changed into one or more new substances. To communicate with one another about chemical
reactions, chemists have devised a standard way to represent them using chemical equations. A chemical
equation uses chemical symbols to show what happens during a chemical reaction. In this section we will learn
how to write chemical equations and balance them.

How to Write and Balance a Chemical Equation?

In writing and balancing the chemical equations, important symbols must be remembered. Below are the
common symbols used in writing and balancing chemical equations.

SYMBOLS

( + ) = reacts with (s) = solid

(→ ) = to yield (aq) = aqueous
(g) = gas (Δ)Heat = heat is applied
(l) = liquid Pt = use as catalyst

SAMPLE PROBLEM #1: Nitrogen gas reacts to Hydrogen gas to produce Ammonia.

Step 1. Convert the given problem into a word equation.

Nitrogen gas + Hydrogen gas Ammonia

Step 2. Convert the word equation into a chemical equation. N2(g) + H 2(g) NH 3(g) Note that there is subscript
written after the chemical symbol of Nitrogen at the reactant side of the equation is 2 while the hydrogen is 2
as well. This is because both nitrogen gas and hydrogen gas are diatomic substance. Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen,
Nitrogen and other elements are diatomic substance. At the product side, the chemical formula of ammonia is
NH3.

25
Step 3. Balance the given chemical equation written in the step 2 by adding coefficient after the chemical symbol
or chemical formula.

N2(g) + 3H2(g) --> 2NH3(g)

To explain how we came up with this balanced chemical equation, let us refer the chemical equation in step 2.
Let us determine the number of atoms of each element in the reactant side and in the product side. Look at the
diagram below showing the subscript written after the chemical symbols and chemical formula in the chemical
equation.

Reactant side Element Product side

2 N 1
2 H 3
As you can see, the number of nitrogen atom in the reactant side is 2 while in the product side is 1 as shown by
their subscript. For the hydrogen atoms, there are 2 atoms at the reactant side and 3 atoms for the product side.
So, to balance the number of atoms at the reactant side and product side, coefficient is added before the
chemical symbol or the chemical formula as indicated inside the parenthesis.

Reactant side Element Product side

2 N 1 (2) = 2
2 (3) = 6 H 3 (2) = 6
This balanced chemical equation shows that “one nitrogen molecule can combine or react with three oxygen
molecules to form two ammonia molecules”. Because the ratio of the number of molecules is equal to the ratio
of the number of moles, the equation can also be read as “1 mole of hydrogen molecules reacts with 3 moles of
hydrogen molecules to produce 3 moles of ammonia molecules.” We know the mass of a mole of each of these
substances, so we can also interpret the equation as “ 2g of N2 react with 6g of H2 to give 8g of NH3.” These are
the three ways of reading the equation.

A chemical equation, then, is just the chemist’s shorthand description of a reaction. In a chemical equation, the
reactants are conventionally written on the left and the products on the right of the arrow:

reactants ---> products

To provide additional information, chemists often indicate the physical states of the reactants and products by
using the letters g, l, and s to denote gas, liquid, and solid, respectively. For example,

2CO(g) + O2(g) --> 2CO2(g)

To represent what happens when sodium chloride (NaCl) is added to water, we write NaCl(s) ¡H2O NaCl(aq)
where (aq) denotes the aqueous (that is, water) environment. Writing H 2O above the arrow symbolizes the
physical process of dissolving a substance in water, although it is sometimes left out for simplicity.

26
Mole or Mass Ratios

One of the requirements of a balanced chemical equation is that it follows the Law of Conservation of
Mass, which states that matter is neither created nor destroyed. The identity and quantity of the elements in
the reactants side, though they can change in pairing or arrangement, must be equal to the identity and quantity
of elements in the products side. To do this, all elements in the left side of the equation must be reflected, and
of the same number in the right side of the equation. A stoichiometric coefficient is then added before each
element, ion or molecule to make the number of each element in the left side equal to the number of the same
element in the right side of the equation. This stoichiometric coefficient denoted by a number, can be
interpreted as the number of moles of each substance. The mole method approach makes stoichiometry (the
quantitative relationship between reactants and products in a chemical reaction) more understandable. Let’s
take for example the formation of table salt or NaCl:

2 Na ( s ) + 2 HCl ( aq ) → 2 NaCl ( aq ) + H 2 ( g)

The stoichiometric coefficients in the equation denotes that 2 elemental sodium (Na) react with 2
molecules of hydrochloric acid (HCl) to form 2 molecules of sodium chloride (NaCl) and 2 molecules of hydrogen
(H2) gas. Following the mole method approach, the equation can be interpreted and read as 2 moles of Na react
with 2 moles of HCl to form 2 moles of NaCl and 1 mole of H2. Since the equation is balanced, the stoichiometric
coefficient for the reactants and products can be used in a ratio or mole-mole factor

2 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑁𝑎 ≅ 2 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙

The symbol ≅ means “equivalent to”. Hence, we can make the following mole-mole factor:

Let’s consider a simple example. Ammonia, NH3, is a leading industrial chemical used in the production of
agricultural fertilizers and synthetic fibers. It is produced by the reaction of nitrogen and hydrogen gases.

3 𝐻2(𝑔) + 𝑁2(𝑔) → 2𝑁𝐻3(𝑔)

As shown in the balanced equation, 3 moles of H2 are stoichiometrically equivalent to 1 mole N2 and to 2 moles
NH3. The ratio of moles H2 to moles NH3 in 3:2; the ratio of moles N2 to moles NH3 is 1:2. Using this ratio, we
will be able to calculate the quantities of the product or reactant like the example below:

a. How many moles of H2 are needed to produce 26.5 moles of NH3?

Solution:

27
b. How many moles of NH3 will be produced if 33.7 moles of N2 reacts completely with H2?

Solution:

Note: In using the mole-mole factor or ratio, the arrangement of the numerator and denominator is done in a
way that there is a cancellation of similar units found in the numerator and denominator. In first example above,
moles of NH3 were cancelled while in the second example, moles of N2 were cancelled.

The stoichiometric coefficients of the reactants and products can be used readily to determine the mole-mole
ratio of the substances involved. However, in laboratory setups, the mass (in grams) of the substance are given
or needed instead of moles for easy measurement. In this type of problem, there is a need to convert the mass
into number of moles using the molar mass of the substance. Below are the steps used to convert grams to
moles or vice versa:

1. Convert the mass of the substance (A) to number of moles using its molar mass.

2. Using the number of moles of substance A and the mole-mole ratio of substance A and B from the balanced
equation, compute for the number of moles of B.

3. Convert the number of moles of substance B to mass using its molar mass.

The molar mass of the substance is used as a conversion factor to calculate the number of moles of the substance
given its mass and vice versa. The three steps can be combined into a single step as follows:

In every conversion, like the steps shown above, similar units found in the numerator and denominator are
cancelled out. Let’s have another example: Solid lithium hydroxide is used to remove carbon dioxide and is called
a CO2 scrubber. The reaction is:

How many grams of CO2 can be absorbed by 236.1 g LiOH?

Solution:

28
PERCENT AND THEORETICAL YIELD OF THE REACTION

Yield of the Reaction

Chemical reaction is a process in which substance/s interact chemically to produce a new substance/s
with different compositions. It is represented by a chemical equation. Substance/s at the left side of the equation
is/are called the reactant/s while the substance/s located at the right side of the equation is/are called the
product/s. Chemical properties of the element or compound as reactant/s dictate the process in which an
element or compound undergoes changes during the reaction.

Evaluation of the percent yield is important to measure the success of a chemical reaction. Percent yield
is the ratio of the actual yield to the theoretical yield expressed as a percentage. So, how are you going to
compute for the percent yield of a chemical reaction? You have to know the values of the theoretical yield and
the actual yield of the reaction. Following the formula of:

𝑷𝒆𝒓𝒄𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒀𝒊𝒆𝒍𝒅 = 𝑨𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒂𝒍 𝒀𝒊𝒆𝒍𝒅/ 𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒐𝒓𝒆𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝒀𝒊𝒆𝒍𝒅 𝑿 𝟏𝟎𝟎%

Theoretical yield is the amount of product that is expected to form based on stoichiometry. It is the
maximum amount of product produced from the given amount/s of reactant/s. It is calculated based on the
stoichiometry of the chemical reaction. While the actual yield is the amount of product produced during the
reaction. It is the amount of product obtained after the actual reaction and it is normally lesser than the
theoretical yield. It is determined experimentally.

These are the steps in calculating the percent yield of a chemical reaction:

1. Balance the given chemical equation

2. Identify the limiting reactant and the excess reactant
3. Compute for the theoretical yield of the reaction
4. Calculate the percent yield

You can continue solving when asked:

a. Percent error
b. Amount of excess reactant

SAMPLE PROBLEM #1

Titanium is a strong, lightweight, corrosion-resistant metal that is used in rockets, aircraft, jet engines, and
bicycle frames. It is prepared by the reaction of titanium(IV) chloride with molten magnesium between 950℃
and 1150℃:

TiCl4(g) + 2Mg(l) → Ti(s) +2MgCl2(l)

29
In a certain industrial operation 3.54x107 g of TiCl4 are reacted with 1.13x107 g of Mg. (a) Calculate the theoretical
yield of Ti in grams (b) Calculate the percent yield if 7.91x106 g of Ti are actually obtained.

SOLUTION

Carry out two separate calculations to see which of the two reactants is the limiting reagent. First, starting with
3.54 x107 g of TiCl4(g), calculate the number of moles of Ti that could be produced if all the TiCl 4 reacted. The
conversions are

grams of TiCl4 → moles of TiCl4 → moles of Ti

Next, we calculate the number of moles of Ti formed from 1.13x10 7 g of Mg. The conversion steps are

grams of Mg→ moles of Mg → moles of Ti

and we write

Therefore, TiCl4 is the limiting reagent because it produces a smaller amount of Ti. The mass of Ti formed is

The percent yield is given by

30
Limiting Reagent In A Chemical Reaction

Limiting and Excess Reagent

When a chemical reaction is carried out in a flask, the amount of reactants are not always present in the
exact proportion stoichiometrically determined from the balanced equation. To make sure that all of the more
expensive reagent is completely used up and converted to the desired product, chemists usually add the cheaper
reagent in excess quantity. The reagent that has completely reacted and used up in a reaction is called the
limiting reagent. The excess reagent is the reactant that is present in quantity higher than what is required to
react with the limiting reagent. For instance, you are preparing a ball dance for your 18th birthday consisting of
pairs of male and female. Upon checking your list of friends, you found out that you have 18 male friends and
25 female friends. The number of male friends will limit the number of pairs to 18. All the males will have a
partner while there will be 7 females who will not have a partner for the dance.

SAMPLE PROBLEM #1

3𝐻2(𝑔) + N2 (𝑔) → 2NH3 (𝑔)

Ammonia, NH3, is synthesized from the reaction of H2 and N2 gases. Suppose 6 moles of H2was initially mixed
with 4 moles of N2 gas at high pressure. To determine which of the 2 reactants is the limiting reagent, the amount
of NH3 produced must be computed given the number of moles of H2 and N2 and the mole-mole factor from the
balanced equation.

From the computed values we determined that if 6 moles of H2 completely reacts with N2, it can produce 4 moles
of NH3 while 4 moles of N2 can produce 8 moles of NH3 when fully used up. Since there is less amount of NH3
produced with 6 moles of H2 than 4 moles of N2, H2 gas is the limiting reagent while the N 2 gas is the reagent in
excess. To determine how much of the 4 moles of N 2 is in excess, we will use the mole-mole factor of N2 and H2.

31
The number of moles of N2 required to fully react to 6 moles of H2 is only 2 moles. Thus, the initial 6 moles of N 2
has an excess of 4 moles.
𝑒𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠 N2 = 6 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 − 2 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 = 4 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠

SAMPLE PROBLEM #2: The combustion of ethane produces carbon dioxide and water shown in the reaction
below:
2𝐶2𝐻6 + 7𝑂2 → 4𝐶𝑂2 + 6𝐻2𝑂
1. How many moles of CO2 is produced with 56.2 moles C2H6 and 73.4 moles of O2? Solution:

2. Which reagent is the limiting reagent? Which is the excess reagent? Limiting reagent is O2 while the excess
reagent is 𝐶2𝐻6 .
3. How many moles of 𝐶2𝐻6 is in excess? Moles of 𝐶2𝐻6 required for 73.4 moles on O2

Excess 𝐶2𝐻6: 56.2 moles – 20.9 moles = 35.3 moles

Note: If the amount of the initial reactant is expressed in grams (mass) instead of moles, the number of moles
must first be converted into grams using the molar mass of the reactant as you have learned in the previous
lessons. In the same manner, if the problem asks to determine the mass (in grams) of the product produced by
the reaction, the number of moles of the product must be converted into grams using the molar mass of the
product.

WHAT’S MORE

Molecular Formulas

Calculate for the Molecular Formula

1. A sample of a compound containing boron (B) and hydrogen (H) contains 6.444 g of B and 1.803 g of H.
The molar mass of the compound is about 30 g. What is its molecular formula?
2. A compound is found to contain 30.4% nitrogen and 69.6% oxygen. If it has a molecular mass of 92.0,
what is its molecular formula?
3. Allicin is the compound responsible for the characteristic smell of garlic. An analysis of the compound
gives the following percent composition by mass: C: 44.4 percent; H: 6.21 percent; S: 39.5 percent; O:
9.86 percent. Calculate its empirical formula. What is its molecular formula given that its molar mass is
about 162 g?

32
Chemical Equation

Write the Chemical equation

1. Magnesium reacts with Nitrogen gas to produce Magnesium nitride.

2. Silicon tetrachloride (SiCl4) can be prepared by heating Si in chlorine gas

Balance the following chemical equations

1. ___ NH3 + ___ HCl4 →___ NH4Cl

2. ___ Na + ___ Cl2 → ___ NaCl
3. ___ Li + ___ AlCl3 → ___ LiCl + ___ Al
4. ___ Na + ___ O2 → ___ Na2O
5. ___ Cs + ___ N2 → ___ Cs3N

Mole or Mass Ratios

Answer the following. Show your solution.

1. Rust, Fe2O3, form from the reaction of iron and oxygen in the following equation: 𝐹𝑒(𝑠) + 𝑂2(𝑔) → 𝐹𝑒2𝑂3(𝑠)

a. Write the balanced equation of the reaction.

b. What is the mole-mole ratio of Fe to Fe2O3?
c. How many moles of Fe2O3 is produced from 39.4 moles of Fe?
d. What is the molar mass of Fe2O3?
e. How many grams of O2 are needed to produce 29.8 g of Fe2O3

2. Given the decomposition reaction: 2 𝐾𝐶𝑙𝑂3(𝑠) → 2 𝐾𝐶𝑙(𝑠) + 3 𝑂2(𝑔)

a. What is the mole-mole ratio of 𝐾𝐶𝑙𝑂3 to O2?

b. What is the molar mass of 𝐾𝐶𝑙𝑂3?
c. How many moles of 𝐾𝐶𝑙𝑂3 are needed to produce 36.6 moles of 𝑂2?
d. How many grams of KCl are produced from an initial mass of 568.4 g KClO3?

Percent And Theoretical Yield Of The Reaction

I. Direction: Determine the theoretical yield and the actual yield, given the information in each question. You
must show your work, including units, through each step of the calculations. Use separate papers for your
answers for these set of problems. (These problems are adapted and modified from https://bit.ly/2W18laC).

1.

a. Calculate the theoretical yield of aluminum chloride (in grams) that can be produced from 10.00 grams of
aluminum metal.
b. An experiment was performed and obtained 25.23 grams of aluminum chloride. Determine the percent yield
of aluminum chloride.
33
2.
a. Calculate the theoretical yield of vanadium (III) oxide, assuming you begin with 200.00 grams vanadium metal.
b. After the experiment is performed, an experimental yield of 183.2 grams is produced.
c. Calculate the percent yield for this experiment

3.

a. Calculate the mass of manganese (IV) oxide that can be synthesized from 15.00 grams of potassium iodide.
b. Calculate the percent yield of this experiment if a mass of 1.982 grams of manganese (IV) oxide is produced.

II. Direction: Carefully read the following word problems. From the knowledge and skills in computation that you
have acquired in this lesson, do the following. Show the complete solutions for your answers in a separate paper.
a. Balance the chemical equation
b. Compute for the theoretical yield
d. Determine the percent yield of the reaction.

1. Eighty grams of Silver was obtained from one hundred and forty grams of Silver nitrate. The Silver metal
is prepared by reducing its nitrate. The chemical equation of the reaction is:

Cu(s) + AgNO3(aq) → Cu(NO3)2(aq) + Ag(s)

Limiting Reagent

Answer the following questions. Show your solution.

1. In the production of Zinc sulfide, 36.8 g of zinc is made to react with 19.4 g of sulfur.
𝑍𝑛 + 𝑆 → 𝑍𝑛𝑆
a. How many moles of ZnS is produced when sulfur is completely used up?
b. How many grams of ZnS is produced when zinc is completely used up?
c. Which reactant is the limiting reagent?
d. How many grams of the excess reagent is left?

2. An aqueous solution of NaOH can dissolve an aluminum sheet in the reaction:

2 𝐴𝑙 + 2 𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻 + 2𝐻2𝑂 → 2 𝑁𝑎𝐴𝑙𝑂2 + 3 𝐻2
If 126.4 g of NaOH is 97.7 g of Al are made to react,
a. How many moles of 𝑁𝑎𝐴𝑙𝑂2 is produced if 126.4 g of NaOH reacts completely?
b. How many grams of 𝑁𝑎𝐴𝑙𝑂2 is produced using the same amount of NaOH?
c. Which reactant is the limiting reagent?
d. How many grams of the excess reagent is left?

34
3. Ferric chloride, FeCl3, reacts with silver nitrate, AgNO3 to form ferric nitrate, Fe(NO3)3 and silver chloride, AgCl.
a. Write the balanced chemical equation of the reaction.
b. If 108.5 moles of FeCl3 is combined with 76.8 moles of AgNO3, how many moles of AgCl is produced?
c. How many grams of AgCl is produced?
d. Which reactant is the limiting reagent?
e. Which reactant is the excess reagent?

WHAT I HAVE LEARNED

Directions: Based on what you have learned from this lesson, write a concise explanation of the following
questions.

1. Why is it important to calculate the percent yield in a chemical reaction?

2. In a chemical reaction, explain the difficulty in obtaining the theoretical yield.
3. Discuss the reason why is it, that the actual yield is often lesser than the theoretical yield?
4. Why do you need to balance first the chemical equation before proceeding to the calculations of
theoretical yield and percent yield?
5. What is the role of the stoichiometric coefficient in a balanced chemical equation to the determination
of the limiting reactant?
6. Why is it that in most cases, the amounts of reactants and products are indicated in grams instead of the
number for moles.
7. How do you determine the limiting reactant in a chemical reaction?
8. Site a situation in your daily life where you can apply the concept of stoichiometry.

35
LESSON 4: GASES

WHAT I NEED TO KNOW?

Get a ball or an inflated balloon. Feel the ball. Is it too hard? Too soft? Or does it feel just right? a
basketball player knows the right feel of the ball, they say the “pressure” is just right. In the same way a jeepney
driver can tell right away if the tire’s pressure is just right, too high, or too low. Everyone knows the important
of pressure, but not all have an idea what is pressure. So, what does pressure mean? Why does the air inside the
tire or a basketball exert pressure?

Air is all around us, thus gases always involved in our daily activities, from breathing down to automobile
tires or bicycle, balloons, and even lifeboats and vest. Life won’t be possible without this life-sustaining gas found
in the atmosphere. Scientist have always been curious about how gases behaves. And how it is different
compared to other states of matter. Investigations and experiments on the behavior of gases leads to the
parameters or variables that used to describe the properties of gases aside from pressure, and these are volume,
temperature, and the amount in moles.

Gases are also everywhere. We interact with gases in our everyday life. The air we breathe, the fire that
cooks our food, the formation of our ozone layer, and even the engines that powers our cars deal with gaseous
reactions.

In this lesson, you will learn the quantitative relationships of the reactants and products in a gaseous
reaction. We will also be tackling how gases interact to form products and its impact on its pressure and volume.
You will also learn how to determine the amount of gaseous reactants or products using the principles of
stoichiometry

At the end of the lesson you will be able to:

1. Define pressure and give the common units of pressure

2. Use the gas laws to determine pressure, volume, or temperature of a gas under certain
conditions of change
3. Use the ideal gas equation to calculate pressure, volume, Temperature, or number of moles of
a gas
4. Use Daltons law of partial pressures to relate mole fraction and partial pressure of gases in a
mixture

36
WHAT’S NEW (For online enrichment class)

1.

Look at the picture (a) shown above. What do you think is the role of the pressure of the gas inside the balloon?

For picture (b) Imagine the tire of a vehicle and the need to pump air into the tire up to a given pressure.
a. What will happen if the pressure is much lower than what it should be?
b. What will happen if the pressure is much greater than what it should be?

2. Graph Analysis Direction: Based on the given graph, analyze and infer the relationship of the properties of
gases (volume, pressure, temperature, and moles)

37
WHAT IS IT?

GAS LAWS

Gas Laws governs the behavior of gases and describes the relationship of the following variables:
Pressure, Volume, Temperature, and moles. The relationship among the variables are led and investigated by
Robert Boyle, Jacques Charles, and Amedeo Avogadro, and the laws where named after them respectively.

Remember!

Conversion Factor: 1 atm = 760 mmHg = 760 torr = 101.3 kPa = 14.7 psi 1 kPa = 1000Pa

Boyle’s Law - The law is named after its proponent, who is a British chemist, Robert Boyle. He emphasized the
law correctly and stated that “The volume of a given amount of gas is inversely proportional to its pressure at
constant temperature”. It means, as the volume increases, the pressure of the gas decreases, and vice versa,
provided that the temperature remains the same. Thus, it is evident that the relationship between the two
variables, volume and pressure is inversely proportional. Boyle’s Law is expressed in this mathematical equation:

In terms of proportion: V α 1/P (at constant amount and temperature)

In terms of equation: V = k/P (at constant amount and temperature) PV=k or P1V1 = P2 V2

Where; P1 = initial pressure V1 = initial volume P2 = Final pressure V2 = Final volume

Example: A 2.5 L container has a gas pressure of 4.6 atm. If the volume is decreased to 1.6 L. What will be the
new pressure inside the container?

Given: V1 = 2.5 L V2 = 1.6 L

P1= 4.6 atm P2 = ?
P1V1 = P2V2
P2 = P1V1 / V2 = 1.6 atm (2.5 L) /1.6 L
P2 = 7.2 atm

Charles’ Law - It is one of the gas laws and named after the French scientist Jacques Charles who formulated the
law in 1897. This law states that “The volume of a given amount of gas is directly proportional to its absolute
temperature and constant pressure.” It means that as the volume increases, the temperature also increases,
and vice versa, provided that the amount of gas and the pressure is constant. The temperature should be
expressed in Kelvin (K). Charles’ Law is expressed in this mathematical equation:

In terms of proportion: V α T (at constant amount and pressure)

In terms of equation: V = kT (at constant amount and pressure) V / T =k or V1 / T1= V2 / T2; Where V1 = initial
volume T1 = initial Temperature V2 = Final volume T2 = Final Temperature

38
Example: A 3.5 L flexible container holds a gas at 250 K. What will be the new volume if the temperature is
increased to 400K at constant pressure?

Given: V1 = 3.5 L V2 = ?
T1= 250 K T2 = 400K
V1 / T1 = V2 / T2
V2 = (V1)(T2) / T1 = 3.5 L (400K) 250 K
V2 = 5.6 L

Avogadro’s Law - The proponent of this law is named after Amedeo Avogadro, who is a notable Italian
mathematical physicist. This law state that “The volume of a gas at a given temperature and pressure is directly
proportional to the number of moles contained in the volume”. This law is based on Avogadro’s hypothesis
that the same volume of two gases at constant temperature and pressure contain the same number of
molecules. It means as the volume increases the amount of substance or the moles also increases, so the
relationship is directly proportional. Keep in mind that a mole is related to the quantity of molecules in a
substance. Avogadro’s Law is expressed in this mathematical equation:

In terms of proportion: V α n (at constant temperature and pressure)

In terms of equation: V = k n (at constant temperature and pressure) V / n =k or V1 / n1= V2 / n2

Where; V1 = initial volume n1 = initial number of moles of the gas V2 = Final volume T2 = Final number of moles
of the gas

Example: A 2.4 moles of gas occupies 60.0 L at a certain temperature. What volume will 3.7 moles of a gas
occupy?

Given: n1 = 2.4 moles n2 = 3.7 moles

V1= 60.0 L V2 = ?
V1/n1 = V2/n2 ; (V1)(n2) = (n1)(V2)
V2 = (V1) (n2) / n1 = 60.0 L (3.7 moles)/2.4 moles
V2= 92.5 L

To this point, we have examined the relationships between any two of the variables of PP, VV, and TT, while the
third variable is held constant. However, situations do arise where all three variables change. The combined gas
law expresses the relationship between the pressure, volume, and absolute temperature of a fixed amount of
gas. For a combined gas law problem, only the amount of gas is held constant

P1V1 P2V2
= 𝑇2
𝑇1

Example: 2.00L of a gas at 35°C and 0.833atm is brought to standard temperature and pressure (STP). What will
be the new gas volume?

39
Solution

Step 1: List the known quantities and plan the problem.

Known

P1=0.833atm
V1=2.00L
T1=35°C=308K
P2=1.00atm
T2=0°C=273K
V2=?

Use the combined gas law to solve for the unknown volume (V2)(V2). STP is 273K273K and 1atm1atm. The
temperatures have been converted to Kelvin.

Step 2: Solve.

First, rearrange the equation algebraically to solve for V2.

P1•V1•T2
V2=
𝑃2•𝑇1

Now substitute the known quantities into the equation and solve.

0.833 atm • 2.00 L •273 K

V2= 1.00 𝑎𝑡𝑚 • 308 𝐾

C
Ideal gas Equation It is a single equation that sums up and combines the mathematical expression of Boyle’s
Law, Charles’ Law, and Avogadro’s Law.
PV = nRT

Where;

P = Pressure n= moles (refers to the amount of substance)

V= Volume T= Temperature (express in Kelvin (K))

R = The universal gas constant (0.0821 atm•L/mol•K)

40
The value of the universal gas constant (R) is the same anywhere and anytime. It can be calculated using the
using the standard conditions of mole, pressure, volume, and temperature. The value can also be derived from
the ideal gas equation as shown below.

PV = nRT
R = PV = 1.00 atm x 22.4 L nT 1.00 mole x 273 K
R = 0.08206 atm•L/mole•K

An ideal gas is defined as a hypothetical gaseous substance whose behavior is independent of attractive
and repulsive forces and can be completely described by the ideal gas law. In reality, there is no such thing as an
ideal gas, but an ideal gas is a useful conceptual model that allows us to understand how gases respond to
changing conditions. As we shall see, under many conditions, most real gases exhibit behavior that closely
approximates that of an ideal gas. The ideal gas law can therefore be used to predict the behavior of real gases
under most conditions. The ideal gas law does not work well at very low temperatures or very high pressures,
where deviations from ideal behavior are most commonly observed.

Example:

A 3.5 L container holds 0.45 moles of O2 gas at 300K. What is the pressure inside the container?

Given: V = 3.5 L T = 300 K N = 0.45 moles P = ?

PV = nRT ; P = nRT V
P = 0.45 moles x 0.0821 x 300 K /1.5 L
P = 3.17 atm

Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressure

Most of the gases encountered in the surroundings are mixtures. Mixtures are composed of different
components. An example of a mixture is air which is a combination of primarily nitrogen and oxygen and other
inert gases. Each individual component in air exert its own pressure, has its own volume, can have a temperature
that is in thermal equilibrium with the other components, and also has its own molar amount. This just means
that the ideal gas equation can also be used on mixtures of gases.

Say for example, a constant-volume piston shown below contains a sample of flue gas, a by-product of
combustion, which is composed of nitrogen (1), carbon dioxide (2), and carbon monoxide (3) at a constant
temperature of 30°C.

41
 From the situation above, the number of moles of each component can be interpreted as n 1, n2, and n3
for nitrogen, carbon dioxide, and carbon monoxide, respectively, so that the total number of moles can be shown
as:

𝑛𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑛1 + 𝑛2 + 𝑛3.

The pressure exerted by the mixture can then be calculated using the ideal gas equation:

𝑃𝑚𝑖𝑥𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 = 𝑛𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑅𝑇/𝑉

…where V is the volume of the container or in this case, the volume of the constant-volume piston.
Substituting the two equations, the pressure of the mixture can be expressed as:

𝑃𝑚𝑖𝑥𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 = (𝑛1 + 𝑛2 + 𝑛3)𝑅𝑇/𝑉

and distributing the ideal gas constant and temperature:

𝑃𝑚𝑖𝑥𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 = 𝑛1𝑅𝑇/𝑉 + 𝑛2𝑅𝑇/𝑉 + 𝑛3𝑅𝑇/𝑉

As you may recall, the term nRT/V is equal to P which means that the terms in the right hand side of the
equation equates to the pressure exerted by each individual component.

𝑃1 = 𝑛1 𝑅𝑇/𝑉 𝑃2 = 𝑛2 𝑅𝑇/𝑉 𝑃3 = 𝑛3 𝑅𝑇/𝑉

Pressures P1, P2, and P3 are called the partial pressure of each gas. Combining all the equations, it can
be concluded that the pressure exerted by the mixture is the sum of the pressures exerted by each component.
This is known as the Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressure.

𝑃𝑚𝑖𝑥𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 = 𝑃1 + 𝑃2 + 𝑃3

The application of Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressure can help us learn about the composition of each
component in terms of mole fraction of the component.

𝑃1 = 𝑛1 𝑅𝑇/𝑉 𝑃𝑚𝑖𝑥𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 = 𝑛𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑅𝑇/𝑉

Combining these two equations gives the following expression:

𝑃1 𝑛1
= = x1
𝑃𝑚𝑖𝑥𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑛𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙

…where x1 is the mole fraction of component 1 in the mixture. Rearranging the above equation leads
to:

𝑃1 = (𝑃𝑚𝑖𝑥𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒)(𝑥1)

42
 This means that the partial pressure of a component is equal to its mole fraction multiplied to the
pressure exerted by mixture.

WHAT MORE?

GAS LAWS

I. Picture Analysis

Direction: Analyze the given picture and identify the appropriate gas laws that best describes the picture

II. Direction: Calculate the given problems and use the gas laws to determine pressure, volume, or temperature
of a gas under certain conditions of change. Show your solutions. Encircle your final answer.

1. The gas inside the tire has a volume of 20.00 L at a pressure of 5.00 atm. Calculate the pressure of the gas if
its volume is reduced to 10.0 at the same temperature.

2. If 150.00 mL of N2 gas was collected at 760 torr, what is the new volume of the gas when the pressure is
compressed to 740 torr at the same temperature?

3. Determine the pressure change when a constant volume of a gas at 3.0 atm if heated from 15°C to 45°C

4. A certain gas sample has a volume of 40.00 L at 273 K. At constant pressure, the volume increase to 50.00 L.
What will be the final temperature of the gas?

5. At 55.00 L a compressible container contains 5.00 moles of a certain gas. If 3.00 moles of a gas were added to
the container, what will be its final volume?

43
 6. At 300K, the given amount of fluorine gas has a volume of 30.0 L. What will be the temperature if the gas
occupies a volume of 25 L at constant pressure?

7. Sulfur hexafluoride (SF6) is a colorless, odorless, very unreactive gas. Calculate the pressure (in atm)
exerted by 1.82 moles of the gas in a steel vessel of volume 5.43 L at 69.5℃.

8. Calculate the volume (in liters) occupied by 2.12 moles of nitric oxide (NO) at 6.54 atm and 76℃.

9. A gas has a volume of 800 mL at −23.0 °C and 300.0 torr. What would the volume of the gas be at 227.0
°C and 600.0 torr of pressure?

10. 500.0 liters of a gas in a flexible-walled container are prepared at 700.0 mmHg and 200.0 °C. The gas is
placed into a tank under high pressure. When the tank cools to 20.0 °C, the pressure of the gas is 30.0 atm.
What is the volume of the gas?

DALTONS LAW OF PARTIAL PRESSURE

Directions: Try to determine which column exerts greater partial pressure is greater by putting E on the blank if
the column on the left is greater than the column on the right and putting Z on the blank if the column on the
right is greater than the column on the left.

44
II. Problem Solving Directions: Show your solution and encircle your final answer.

1. A sample of oxygen gas, which is saturated with water vapour, is kept in a 10- L vessel at 30°C and has a
pressure of 758 Torr. If the pressure of the water vapour at this temperature is 31.8 Torr, what would be the
pressure of the dry oxygen?

2. If the oxygen gas sample in #1 passed through a drier that decreased the pressure of the mixture to 750 Torr
and the pressure exerted by the water vapour is only 80% of the saturated vapour pressure at the given
temperature, what would be the pressure of the dry oxygen?

3. In a gas mixture composed of N2, Ne, and He, the partial pressure of N2 is 0.50 atm, that of Ne is 1.1 atm, and
the total pressure is 2.4 atm. What is the partial pressure of He?

4. In a gas mixture composed of N2, Ne, and He, the partial pressure of N2 is 0.50 atm, that of Ne is 1.1 atm, and
that of He is 0.80 atm. Calculate the mole fraction of each gas.

5. A gas mixture contains 2.5 mol N2 and 9.7 mol CO2, and has a pressure of 2.3 atm. What is the partial pressure
of each gas?

45