3.

Know the effect of harmonics and the factors affecting the size
Module 1 of alternator
Title: Electrical Machines 2
Lesson Proper
Title of the Lesson: Alternator Principle
Duration: 6 hrs 1.1 Alternator Working Principle

1.1 Introduction: AC generator is a machine that converts mechanical energy into

electrical energy. The AC Generator’s input supply is mechanical
Nowadays, electric supply used for commercial as well as energy supplied by steam turbines, gas turbines and combustion
domestic purposes, is of alternating type. engines. The output is alternating electrical power in the form of
alternating voltage and current.
Like dc machines, the ac machines associated with ac
AC generators work on the principle of Faraday’s law of
voltages are also classified as generators and motors.
electromagnetic induction, which states that electromotive force –
EMF or voltage – is generated in a current-carrying conductor that cuts
The machines that generates ac e.m.f. are called alternators a uniform magnetic field. This can either be achieved by rotating a
or synchronous generators. While the machines accepting input from conducting coil in a static magnetic field or rotating the magnetic field
ac supply to produce mechanical output are called synchronous containing the stationary conductor. The preferred arrangement is to
motors. They must be driven at a specific constant speed called keep the coil stationary because it is easier to draw induced alternating
synchronous speed and therefore in general called synchronous current from a stationary armature coil than a rotating coil.
machines.
Remembering that generators action depends upon the
All modern power stations consist of large capacity three relative motion of conductors with respect to lines of force, it should
phase alternators. Here, we are going to discuss the construction, be clear that it is possible to construct an alternator with stationary field
working principle and the equation of induced e.m.f of a three phase and moving armature or with stationary armature and moving field.
alternator.

Objective:

After thoroughly studying this module the student should be able to:

1. Discuss the principle and construction of AC generators.

2. Solve the generated voltage using the equation of induce emf
.

1
 6. Stationary armature makes overall construction very simple.
With simple, strong mechanical construction and low inertia of
rotor, it can be driven at high speeds. So larger output can be
obtained from an alternator of given size.
7. In stationary armature, the ventilation arrangement for high
voltage side can be improved.
With all these reasons, most of the alternators in practice use
stationary armature type of arrangements. For small voltage rating
alternators, rotating armature arrangement may be used.

The value of the voltage generated depends on

Fig 1.1
1. The number of turns in the coil.
Advantages of having stationary armature (and a rotating field 2. The strength of the field.
system) are: 3. The speed at which the coil or magnetic field rotates.

1. Alternating current is used everywhere, the ac voltage

1.2 Details of Construction
generated maybe higher as 11 kV to 33 kV. For stationary
armature large space can be provided to accommodate great
number of conductors and it is easier to insulate. Stator Frame
It is used for holding the armature stampings and windings in
2. Protecting high voltage winding from the effect of short circuit
position. Low-speed large diameter alternators have frames which
current and high centrifugal forces is always better. With because of ease of manufacture, are cast in section. Ventilation is kept
stationary armature, windings can be more easily fixed to with the help of holes cast in the frame itself. The provision of radial
avoid any deformation. ventilating spaces in the stampings assists in cooling the machine.
3. The output current from fixed terminals on the stator (or But, these days instead of using castings, frames are generally
fabricated from mild steel plates welded together in such a way as to
armature winding) can be ran directly to the load circuit,
form a frame having a box type section
without having to pass it through brush-contacts.
4. The sliding contacts i.e. slip rings are shifted to the low
voltage, low power dc field circuit hence, it can be easily
insulated.
5. By keeping armature as stationary which is high voltage circuit
and low voltage rotating field. The problem of sparking at
the slip rings can be avoided.

2
 Rotor

It is the rotating component of the alternator. It is driven by the

generator’s prime mover, which may be a steam turbine, gas turbine,
or diesel engine. This component may be the armature or the field,
depending upon the type of generator. The rotor will be the armature
if the voltage output is generated there; the rotor will be the field if
the field excitation is applied there.
Fig. 1.2 Two Types of rotors used in alternators.
Stator
The stator is a stationary armature. This consists of a core and 1. Salient pole
the slots to hold the armature winding similar to the armature of a dc
generator. The stator core uses a laminated construction. It is built up This is also called projected pole type as all the poles are
of special steel stampings insulated from each other with varnish or projected out from the surface of the rotor. The poles are built up of
paper. The laminated construction is basically to keep down eddy thick steel laminations. The poles are bolted to the rotor as shown in
current losses. Generally choice of material is steel to keep down
the Fig. 1.4. The pole face has been given a specific shape. The field
hysteresis losses.
winding is provided on the pole shoe. These rotors have large
diameter and small axial length. The limiting factor for the size of the
rotor is the centrifugal force acting on the rotating member of the
machine. As mechanical strength of salient pole type is less, this is
preferred for low speed alternators ranging from 125 r.p.m. to 500
r.p.m. The prime movers used to drive such rotor are generally water
turbines and I.C. engines.

Fig. 1.3 Section of an alternator stator

The entire core is fabricated in a frame made of steel plates.

The core has slots on its periphery for housing the armature
conductors. Frame does not carry any flux and serves as the support Fig.1.4 Salient pole type rotor
to the core. Ventilation is maintained with the help of holes cast in
frame. The section of an alternator stator is shown in Fig. 1.3.

3
2. Smooth Cylindrical Type

This is also called non-salient type or non-projected pole type or

round rotor construction. The Fig. 1.5 shows smooth cylindrical type
of rotor.
The rotor consists of small solid steel cylinder, having number of slots
to accommodate the field coil. The slots are covered at the top with
the help of steel or

Damper Windings

In most of the alternators, where the oscillation or the hunting

effect is very high, the damper winding in the pole faces is provided.
The copper bars short circuited at both ends are placed in the specially
holes. The relative velocity of the damping winding with respect to
main field will be zero when the speed is steady but as soon as it
departs from the synchronous speed there will be relative motion
Fig. 1.5 Smooth cylindrical rotor between the damper winding and the main field. This will induce
current in them. This induced current will exert a torque in such a way
manganese wedges. The unslotted portions of the cylinder itself act as to bring the alternator to operate at synchronous speed. The
as the poles. The poles are not projecting out and the surface of the damper winding also tends to maintain balanced 3 phase voltage
rotor is smooth which maintains uniform air gap between stator and under unbalanced load conditions. (Fig. 1.6)
the rotor. These rotors have small diameters and large axial lengths.
This is to keep peripheral speed within limits. The main advantage of
this type is that these are mechanically very strong and thus preferred
for high speed alternators ranging between 1500 to 3000 r.p.m. Such
high speed alternators are called 'turboalternators'. The prime movers
used to drive such type of rotors are generally steam turbines, electric
motors.

Difference between Salient and Cylindrical Type of Rotor

Fig. 1.6

4
Armature Windings per revolution will be; respectively, two, three, four or more. Or, to put
it more generally, the frequency per revolution is equal to the number
The armature is the part of an AC generator in which of pairs of poles. Combining both facts in a single statement, it should
voltage is produce. This component consists of many coils of wire that
be clear that the frequency of the emf in an alternator is proportional
are large enough to carry the full-load current of the generator.
Armature windings are the essential features of electric to:
machines. The field windings are simple arrangements with
concentrated coils (i.e. coils in which all the turns have the same The speed in revolution per second (rpm/60)
magnetic axis). Armature windings on the other hand comprise a set The number of pairs of poles, P/2.
of coils embedded in the slots. The relationship maybe written in the form of the equation.

𝑃 𝑁 𝑃𝑁
Field 𝑓 = 2 𝑥 60 =120
The field consists of coils of conductors that receive a voltage from the
source and produce magnetic flux. The magnetic flux in the field cuts where f = generated frequency, hertz
the armature to produce a voltage. This voltage is the output voltage N= rotor speed
of the AC generator. P=number of poles on the rotor
*N is known as the synchronous speed, because it is the speed at
Prime Mover which an alternator must run in order to generate an emf of the
required frequency. In fact for a given frequency and given number of
The component used to drive the AC generator is known as a prime
mover. The prime mover could either be a diesel engine, a steam poles, the speed is fixed. For producing a frequency of 60 Hz, the
turbine, or a motor. alternator will have to run at the following speeds.

Slip Rings
Slip rings are electrical connections used to transfer power to and fro No. of 4
from the rotor of an AC generator. They are typically designed to Poles 2 6 12 24 36
conduct the flow of current from a stationary device to a rotating one.
Speed
1.3 Frequency of Alternating Current Generators (rpm) 3600 1800 1200 600 300 200

As the poles of the alternator revolve, the generated emf in

the stationary armature winding changes direction every half
It is clear from the above that because of slow rotative speeds
revolution; therefore, one complete positive and negative pulse, one
of the engine driven alternators, their number of poles is much greater
cycle will occur in one revolution. It follows then, that the frequency in
as compared to that of the turbo generators which run at very high
cycles per seconds will depend directly upon the number of revolution
speed.
per second (rpm/60) made by field. Moreover, if the generator is
multipolar, i.e., if it is four, six, eight or more poles, then the frequency

5
Problem 1.1) • These coils are then housed in the slots spread around the air-gap
periphery to form phase or commutator winding
An alternator has 6 poles and operates at 1200 rpm. (a) What • Examples of distributed winding are
frequency does it generate? (b) At what speed must the machine be – Stator and rotor of induction machines
operated it it is to have frequency of 25 cycles, 50 cycle – The armatures of both synchronous and D.C. machines

Solution: Armature windings, in general, are classified under two main

heads, namely,
𝑃𝑁 (6)(1200)
(a) 𝑓 = 120 = = 60𝐻𝑧 Closed Windings
120
120𝑓 (120)(25)
(b) 𝑁 = = = 500 𝑟𝑝𝑚
𝑃
(120)(50)
6 • There is a closed path in the sense that if one starts from any point
(c) 𝑁 = = 1000 𝑟𝑝𝑚 on the winding and traverses it, one again reaches the starting point
6
from where one had started
Problem 1.2) • Used only for D.C. machines and A.C. commutator machines
In this type of winding, a closed path is formed around the armature.
What is the maximum speed at which the field of an alternator
The starting point of the winding is reached again after passing
can be operated to develop 60 cycles? 25 cycles? 50 cycles.
through all the turns. The current passing through closed type of
Ans. 3600, 1500 and 3000 rpm respectively winding is through brushes placed on commutator. The commutator
segments are connected to various armature coils.
The armature current gets divided into different parallel paths. The
1.4 AC winding design current flowing through the coil changes continuously but from brush
side the winding view remains same and polarity is maintained which
The windings used in rotating electrical machines can be classified as: is in effect due to use of commutator segments.
Concentrated Windings
The closed type of winding is normally used in a.c. and d.c.
 All the winding turns are wound together in series to form one commutator machines. This type of winding is usually double layer.
multi-turn coil
 All the turns have the same magnetic axis
 Examples of concentrated winding are Open Windings
– field windings for salient-pole synchronous machines • Open windings terminate at suitable number of slip-rings or
– D.C. machines terminals
– Primary and secondary windings of a transformer • Used only for A.C. machines, like synchronous machines, induction
machines, etc
Distributed Windings In case of a.c. machines, commutator is not used and hence closed
winding is not required to be used. In such cases pen type winding is
• All the winding turns are arranged in several full-pitch or fractional- used. The armature is left open at one or more points.
pitch coils The ends of each section of the winding can be brought at the
terminals to do the required type of interconnection externally. The

6
open type of winding is preferred over closed type as it gives better
flexibility in design and freedom of connections.
These type of windings are either single layer type or double layer
type and are mainly used in induction machines and synchronous
machines.

Some of the terms common to armature windings are described

below:

1. Conductor. A length of wire which takes active part in the energy

conversion process is a called a conductor.
2. Turn. One turn consists of two conductors.
3. Coil. One coil may consist of any number of turns.
4. Coil –side. One coil with any number of turns has two coil-sides.

Fig. 1.9 Single layer winding

In single layer windings permit the use of semienclosed and

closed types of slots. Also the coils can be pushed through the slots
from one end of the core and are connected during the process of
windings at the other end. Here the insulation can be properly applied
and consolidated which is advantageous in large output machines with
high voltage.
The single layer windings used in high voltage machines use
small groups of concentrically placed coils. The interlinking between
these coils is in such a way so as to minimize the space taken up
Fig.1.8 outside the slot and in the overhang connections.
Two types of armature windings most commonly used for 3-
phase alternators: Double Layer Armature Winding
 single - layer winding (half-coiled) It is shown in the Fig. 1.10. It consists of identical coils with one
 double - layer winding (whole-coiled)
coilside of each coil in top half of the slot and the other coilside in
Single layer Armature Winding bottom half of another slot which is nearly one pole pitch away.
In the Fig. 1.10(a) there are two coilsides per slot while in (b)
In this type of winding, the complete slot is containing only one there are eight coilsides per slot. Each layer may contain more than
coil side of a coil. This type of winding is not normally used for one coil side if large number of coils are required. For placing double
machines having commutators. It is shown in the Fig. 1.9. layer windings, usually open slots are used.
7
 Coil Pitch in an Armature Winding

Full Pitch Winding

The distance between the two sides of an individual coil of an
AC armature winding is termed the coil pitch. When the angular
distance between two sides of a coil is exactly equal to the angular
distance between the centers of adjacent field poles, the coil is termed
to be full pith coil. An armature winding made up of full pitch coils is
termed a Full Pitch winding.

Fig. 1.10 Double layer winding Fractional Pitch Winding

Advantages of Double Layer Winding When the angular distance between the sides of a coil is less
than the angular distance between the centers of adjacent field poles,
The double layer winding has following advantages, the coil is termed to be a fractional pitch coil.
1) It provides neat arrangement as all coils are identical.
2) Greater flexibility can be achieved with double layer winding as Pitch or Chording Factor
coil span can be easily selected.
The pitch factor is defined as the ratio of voltages generated
Single layer windings have the following advantages by the short pitch
winding to that which is generated in the full pitch winding.
 Higher efficiency and quieter operation because of narrow
𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑡 𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ 𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙
slot openings 𝐾𝑝 =
 Space factor for slots is higher owing to absence of inter 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ 𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙
layer separator.
It is always less than unity
(voltage induced in the short pitch coil)/(voltage induced in the full
Single-layer windings may be concentric, lap or wave type
pitch coil)
Double layer windings in open slots have the following Let the rms value of the coil side voltage is 𝐸𝑐𝑠 and the resultant coil
advantages over single layer windings in semi-closed slots. voltage is 𝐸𝑐𝑟

 Ease in manufacture of coils and lower cost of winding For full pitch winding: 𝐸𝑐𝑟 = 2𝐸𝑐𝑠
 Less number of coils are required as spare in the case of
winding repairs For short pitch winding: 𝐸𝑐𝑟 = 2𝐸𝑐𝑠 cos(∝⁄2)
 Fractional slot windings can be employed
 Fractional pitch coil can be use. 𝜌
Finally the pitch factor becomes, 𝐾𝑝 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠(∝⁄2) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛( ⁄2)
Where:
8
 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 2 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑛
𝜌= × 180°
𝑌𝑆 180 pole pitch
Advantages of Short Pitch Coil:
 Short Pitching reduces the amount of copper needed
for End Connection when compared with Full
Pitched Coil as can be observed from the figure
above.
 They improve the waveform of generated EMF i.e.
generated EMF can be made to approximate to a 𝛼
sine wave more easily and the distorting harmonics
can be reduced or totally eliminated. How?
 Suppose you want to eliminate 3rd harmonic from the
Generated EMF. So what we do is that we will select
Chording Angle ξ in such a manner that Cos(nξ/2) 45
(b). 𝛼 = (3⁄12) × 180° = 45° ∴ 𝑘𝑝 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 = 0.924
becomes zero i.e. Pitch Factor becomes zero for 2
5 56.25°
3rd harmonics only. Mind here that Pitch Factor for (c). 𝛼 = ( ⁄16) × 180° = 56.25° ∴ 𝑘𝑝 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 = 0.882
nth harmonic is Cos(nξ/2).

Distribution Factor
Problem1.3) It is defined as the ratio of the phasor sum of the voltages in
Calculate the pitch factor for the given windings:
each coil to the arithmetic sum of the voltages. The total induced
36 slots/ 4 poles, span 1-8
72 slots/ 6 poles, span 1-10 voltage in winding will be equal to sum of the induced voltage in each
96 slots/ 6 poles, span 1-12. Sketch the three coil spans. coil. The voltages in each coil are not in phase but displaced by some
angles due to different position of the slots. Mathematically it can be
Solution: expressed as

𝑃ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒𝑠

𝐾𝑑 = 𝐴𝑟𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒𝑠
𝜌
Consider m numbers of coils are connected in series to form a phase
group and the phase angle between the slots is α. The distribution
factor is,
𝑚𝛽⁄
α 𝐾𝑑 =
𝑠𝑖𝑛( 2)
𝛽⁄
𝑚𝑠𝑖𝑛( 2)
(a). Here, the coil span falls short by(2/9) × 180° = 40° = 𝛼 1800 1800
Let β= 𝑁𝑜.𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑡𝑠/𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒 =
40° 𝑛
𝑘𝑝 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 = 0.94 𝑛𝑜.𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑡𝑠
𝑚 = 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒×𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒
2
𝑚𝛽 = 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒
9
 R.M.S. value of emf per phase = 1.11 × 4𝑓∅𝑇 volt.
Problem1.4) This would have been the actual value of the induced voltage if all
Calculate the distribution factor for a 36 slots, 4 pole single the coils in a phase were (1) full pitched and (2) concentrated or
layer three phase winding. bunched in one slot (instead of being distributed in several slots
under poles). But this is not being so, the actually available voltage is
Solution:
36 36 180° reduced in the ratio of this two factors. The actually available voltage
𝑛= = 9; 𝑚= = 3; 𝛽 = = 20° per phase is:
4 3×4 9
𝛽
sin 𝑚 2 sin 3(20⁄2)
𝐾𝑑 = = = 0.959 𝐸 = 4.44𝐾𝑝 𝐾𝑑 𝑓∅𝑇 = 4𝐾𝑓 𝐾𝑝 𝐾𝑑 𝑓∅𝑇 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡.
𝛽
𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2 3 𝑠𝑖𝑛(20⁄2)
If the alternator is star connected ( as usually the case) then the line
voltage is√3 times the phase voltage (as found from the above
1.5 Equation of Induced EMF
formula).
Let Z = No. of conductors or coil sides in series per phase
= 2T----- where T is the no. of coils or turns per
phase (remember one turn or coil has 2 sides) Problem 1.5 ]A 3∅, 16 pole alternator has a star connected winding
P = No. of poles with 144 slots and 10 conductors per slot. The flux per pole is 0.03
f = frequency of induced emf Wb, sinusoidally distributed and the speed is 375 rpm. Find the
ϕ = flux per pole in webers frequency and the phase and line emf. Assume full pitch coil.
𝐾𝑑 = distribution factor
𝐾𝑝 = pitch factor Solution:
𝐾𝑓 = form factor = 1.11 --- if emf is assumed sinusoidal 𝑃𝑁 16 × 375
N = rotor rpm 𝑓= = = 50 𝐻𝑧.
120 120
𝐾𝑝 = 1 = 𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ
In one revolution of the rotor ( i.e. in 60/N second) each stator 180 144
conductor is cut by a flux of ∅P webers. 𝛽= = 20°; 𝑚= =3
144⁄ 16 × 3
60 16
∴ 𝑑∅ = ∅𝑃 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 20
𝑁 sin 3 ( 2 )
𝑑∅ ∅𝑃 ∅𝑁𝑃 𝐾𝑑 = = 0.9598
∴ 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑒. 𝑚. 𝑓. 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = = = 20
𝑑𝑡 60/𝑁 60 3 sin ( 2 )
𝑃𝑁 120𝑓
Now, we know that 𝑓 = 120 𝑜𝑟 𝑁 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 1𝑇𝑢𝑟𝑛
𝑃 144 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑡𝑠 × 10 × 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑.
𝑇⁄ = 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑡 2 = 240 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠/𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒
Substituting this value of N above, we get ∅ 3
𝐸𝑝ℎ = 4.44 × 1 × 0.9598 × 0.3 × 240 × 50 = 1,534.14 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠
∅𝑃 120𝑓
Average e.m.f . induced per conductor = 60 𝑋 𝑃 = 2𝑓∅𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡 𝐸𝐿 = √3 × 1,534.14 = 2657.22 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠
If there are Z conductors in series/phase, then average emf/phase =
2𝑓∅𝑍 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡 = 4𝑓∅𝑇 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡
10
1.6 Effect of Harmonics on Pitch and Distribution Factors 2 × 30
𝑠𝑖𝑛
If the short-pitch angle or chording angle is 𝛼 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑠 (electrical) for 𝐾𝑑 = 2 = 0.966
30
the fundamental flux wave, then its values for different harmonics are 2𝑠𝑖𝑛 2
For 3rd harmonic =3𝛼; for 5th harmonic =5𝛼 and so on. 𝑇𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑡𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 80
=2 ×4 × 10𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 =
𝑃ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒 × 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑡 2
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 = 40
∴ 𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 , 𝐾𝑝 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙
2 𝐸1 = 4.44 × 0.966 × 0.966 × 0.12 × 50 × 40
3𝛼 = 994.37 𝑉
= 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟 3𝑟𝑑 ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑐
2 Harmonic EMF
5𝛼 30
= 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟 5𝑡ℎ ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑐 𝑒𝑡𝑐. 𝐾𝑝3 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠3 ( ) = 0.707
2 2
30
Similarly, the distribution factor is also different for different 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 × 3 ( 2 )
𝐾𝑑3 = = 0.707
harmonic. Its value becomes: 30
2𝑠𝑖𝑛3 ( )
𝛽
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑛 ⁄2 2
𝐾𝑑 = 𝛽 where n is the 𝑓3 = 50 × 3 = 150 𝐻𝑧.
𝑚 sin 𝑛 ⁄2
order of the harmonic. 1
∅3 = (20%)(0.12) = 0.008 𝑊𝑏
For fundamental , n=1 3
For 3rd harmonic, n=3 𝐸3 = 4.44 × 0.707 × 0.707 × 150 ×× 0.008 ×× 40
For 5th harmonic, n=5 = 106.53 𝑉
Frequency is also changed. If fundamental frequency is 50 Hz i.e.
𝑓1 = 50 𝐻𝑧 𝐸𝑝ℎ = √𝐸12 + 𝐸32 = √(994.37)2 + (106.53)2
Then the other frequencies are:
= 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎. 𝟎𝟔 𝑽
3rd harmonic , 𝑓3 = 3 × 50 = 150 𝐻𝑧
5th harmonic, 𝑓5 = 5 × 50 = 250𝐻𝑧 𝑒𝑡𝑐. Since phase emf induced by 3rd, 9th and 15th harmonics etc. are
eliminated fronm the line voltages. The line voltage for Y
Problem 1.6 ]Calculate the RMS value of the induced emf per phase connection would be = √3 × 994.37
of a 10 pole, 3 phase 50 Hz alternator with 2 slots per pole per phase
and 4 conductors per slot in two layers. The coil span is 1500 . The flux
per pole has a fundamental component of 0.12 Wb and a 20% third Note:
Winding factor
component.
Is what makes the rms generated voltage in a three-phase AC
Solution:
electrical generator become lesser. This is because the armature
𝛼 = 180 − 150 = 30°
30 winding of each phase is distributed in a number of slots. Since the
𝐾𝑝 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 = 0.966 emf induced in different slots are not in phase, their phasor sum is less
2
180 than their numerical sum. This reduction factor is called distribution
𝑚 = 2; 𝛽= = 30° factor Kd. Another factor that can reduce the winding factor is when
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the slot pitch is smaller than the pole pitch, called pitch factor K p. The air –cooled whereas much smaller 1800-rpm, 500MVA alternators
winding factor can be calculated as Kw = Kd * Kp. installed in a steam plant are hydrogen cooled.
Most of the three-phase machines have winding factor values
between 0.85 and 0.95. Exercises:

1.7 Factors Affecting Alternator Size 1. A three phase alternator has 6 slots per pole per phase.
Determine the distribution factor. Ans. 0.956
The efficiency of an alternator always increases as its power 2. A two pole three phase 50 Hz Y-connected alternator has 9
increases, For example, if an alternator of 1 KW has an efficiency of slots per pole and 6 conductors per slot. What is the flux per
50%, the one of 10MW will inevitably have an efficiency of about 90%. pole if the voltage on open circuit is 1.1 kV. Assume a coil
It is because of this improvement in efficiency with size that alternators span of unity. Ans. . 1656𝑊𝑏
of 1000MW and above posses efficiencies of the order of 99%. 3. The alternator has 18 slots per pole and the first coil lies in
slots 1 and 16. Calculate the pitch factor for (a) fundamental
Another advantage of large machines is that power output per (b) 3rd harmonic (c ) 5th harmonic (d) 7th harmonic. Ans.
kilogram increases as the alternator power increases. If 1KW 𝑎. 0.9659, b. 0.707, c. 0.2588, d. 0.2588
alternator weighs 20 kg (i.e.50W/kg), then 10 MW alternator weighing 4. A 6 pole, 60 cycle alternator has 12 slots per pole and four
20,000 kg yields 500 W/kg. In other words, larger alternators weighs conductors per slot. The winding is 5/6 pitch. There are
relatively less than smaller ones and are consequently cheaper. 2,500,000 maxwells (0.025) weber entering the armature from
each north pole, and this flux is sinusoidally distributed along
However, as alternator size increases, cooling problem
the air gap. The armature coils are all connected in series.
becomes more serious. Since large machines inherently produce high
The winding is Y-connected. Determine the open-circuit emf
power loss per unit surface area (W/m2), they tend to overheat. To
of the alternator. Ans. 512.4 V
keep the temperature rise within the acceptable limits, we have to
5. In a 3 phase , star connected alternator, there are 2 coil sides
design efficient cooling system which becomes ever more elaborate
per slot and 16 turns per coil. Armature has 288 slots on its
as the power increases. For cooling alternators of rating up to 50 MW,
periphery. When driven at 250 rpm, it produces 6600 V
circulating cold- air system is adequate but for those of rating between between the lines at 50 Hz. The pitch of the coil is 2 slots less
50 and 300 MW, we have to resort to hydrogen cooling. Very big than the full pitch. Calculate the flux per pole. Ans. 12mWb.
machines in 1000 MW range have to be equipped with hollow water-
cooled conductors. Ultimately, a point is reached where increased
cost of cooling exceeds the saving made elsewhere and this fixes the References: 1. Peter F. Ryff : Electric Machinery,:Prentice Hall,
upper limit of the alternator size. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey 07632

So far as the speed is concerned, low-speed alternators are 2. Electrical Machines and Automatic Control, Technical
always bigger than high speed alternator of the same power. Bigness
Publications, 2014
always simplifies the cooling problem. For example, the large 200-
rpm, 500MVA alternators installed in a typical hydropower plant are

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 3. SK Bhattacharya : Electrical Machines, Tata .
McGraw Hill Publishing Company Limited

4. BL Theraja : Electrical Technology Vol. 2

5. https://byjus.com/physics/ac-generator/

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