Fundamentals of Sports Training

Coordinator:
JOSÉ MARÍA GONZÁLEZ RAVÉ

Authors:
JOSÉ MARÍA GONZÁLEZ RAVÉ
FERNANDO NAVARRO VALDIVIELSO
MANUEL DELGADO FERNANDEZ
JOSÉ MANUEL GARCÍA GARCÍA
BASICS
OF TRAINING
SPORTS
URNCEULEN
SPORTS EDITORIAL
Qualification: BASICS OF SPORTS TRAINING
Authors: JOSÉ MARÍA GONZÁLEZ RAVÉ, FERNANDO NAVARRO VALDIVIELSO,

MANUEL DELGADO FERNÁNDEZ, AND JOSÉ MANUEL GARCÍA GARCÍA
Cover photo: José Luis Rúa Nacher
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INDEX
INDEX..................................................................................................5
1. SPORTS TRAINING..................................................................17
HISTORICAL EVOLUTION............................................................17
1.1.1. INTRODUCTION............................................................17
1.1.2. HISTORICAL EVOLUTION..........................................17
1.2.1. Training during humanism...............................................19
1.2.2. Contemporary sports training...........................................20
1.1.3. The Finnish school...........................................................21
1.1.4. The Swedish school..........................................................23
1.1.5. Sports training in the second half of the 20th century......24
2. SPORTS TRAINING:.................................................................34
CONCEPT..........................................................................................34
2.1. INTRODUCTION...............................................................34
2.2.1. Concepts from pedagogical theories................................34
2.2.2. Concepts from the technical-pedagogical trend...............35
2.2.3. Concepts from the applied scientific trend.......................36
2.3. THE OBJECTIVES OF SPORTS TRAINING...................37
2.4. TRAINING AS A SYSTEMIC MODEL............................40
2.4.1. The systemic model of Banister et al. (1986)...................42
2.4.2. Manfred Grosser's cybernetic model (1992)....................43
2.4.3. Sports training as a management problem
(Verkhoshansky, 1990; Siff and Verkhoshansky, 2000)................45
2.4.4. The systemic model of García Manso, Navarro and Ruiz
(1996) and García Manso (1999)....................................................51
2.4.5. The systemic model of Martin, Carl and Lehnertz (2001).
52
2.4.6. The systemic-cybernetic model of Hohmann et al (2005).
54
2.4.7. Tschiene's updated model (2000, 2001)...........................57
2.5. TOWARDS A UNIFICATION AND SYNTHESIS OF THE
MOST RELEVANT ELEMENTS IN THE TRAINING SYSTEM.
59
2.6. PERFORMANCE MODEL AND TRAINING MODEL....60
2.6.1. Performance model...........................................................60
2.6.2. Training model.................................................................62
3. THE TRAINING LOAD.............................................................63
3.1. TRAINING LOAD CONCEPT...........................................63
3.2. TRAINING EFFECT CONCEPT........................................66
3.3. TRAINING LOAD CAPACITY CONCEPT......................70
3.4. ANALYSIS AND CLASSIFICATION OF TRAINING
LOAD..............................................................................................72
3.5. APPLICATION OF THE CLASSIFICATION OF LOADS
TO 76
SPORTS TRAINING......................................................................76
3.6. NATURE OF THE TRAINING LOAD..............................77
3.7. MAGNITUDE OF THE LOAD..........................................80
3.8. LOAD VOLUME................................................................81
3.9. LOAD INTENSITY.............................................................84
3.10. LOAD DENSITY.............................................................87
3.11. DURATION OF THE TRAINING LOAD......................88
3.12. ORIENTATION OF TRAINING LOADS......................88
3.13. ORGANIZATION OF TRAINING LOADS...................92
3.14. FORMS OF THE TRAINING LOAD.............................95
3.15. TRAINING METHODS..................................................95
3.16. THE TRAINING MEANS...............................................96
3.17. PHYSICAL EXERCISES................................................97
3.18. CLASSIFICATION OF PHYSICAL EXERCISES.........97
4. ADAPTATION IN SPORTS TRAINING...................................105
4.1. CONCEPT OF ADAPTATION.........................................105
4.2. THE ADAPTATION MECHANISM................................106
4.3. LAWS OF ADAPTATION...............................................109
4.4. ADAPTATION IN RELATION TO THE PROCESS OF
THE 114
SPORTS TRAINING....................................................................114
4.5. ADAPTATIONS IN RELATION TO THE EXPOSURE
TIME OF TRAINING LOADS....................................................118
4.6. ACUTE RESPONSES OR ADAPTATIONS TO A
TRAINING LOAD.......................................................................119
4.7. PARAMETERS THAT REGULATE ACUTE RESPONSES
TO EXERCISE.............................................................................119
4.8. LONG-TERM ADAPTATIONS TO THE LOADS OF....122
TRAINING...................................................................................122
4.8.1. The physical form of the athlete (current level of sports
performance).................................................................................124
4.8.2. The duration of sports training.......................................124
4.8.3. The delayed effects of training loads.............................126
4.8.4. The order of training regimens.......................................126
5. THE PRINCIPLES OF SPORTS TRAINING..........................130
5.1. GENESIS AND VALIDITY OF THE PRINCIPLES OF. 130
TRAINING...................................................................................130
5.2. CONCEPT AND SCOPE OF THE PRINCIPLES OF......131
TRAINING...................................................................................131
PRINCIPLES OF EFFORT..........................................................132
PRINCIPLES THAT ORDER THE TRAINING CYCLES.........132
PRINCIPLES OF SPECIALIZATION.........................................132
5.3. PRINCIPLES RELATED TO THE PHENOMENA OF...134
BIOLOGICAL ADAPTATION...................................................134
5.3.1. Overload Principle..........................................................134
5.3.2. Variation Principle.........................................................135
5.3.3. Principle of Specificity...................................................136
5.3.4. Principle of Continuity...................................................137
5.3.5. Individualization Principle.............................................138
5.4. PRINCIPLES RELATED TO THE TEACHING-
LEARNING PROCESS................................................................139
5.4.1. Principle of the Conscious..............................................140
5.4.2. Principle of Planning and Systematization.....................140
5.4.3. Principle of Mental Representation................................140
5.4.4. Feasibility Principle........................................................141
6. THE PERIODIZATION OF TRAINING.................................142
6.1. INTRODUCTION.............................................................142
6.2. THE PERIODIZATION OF TRAINING..........................142
6.3. TRAINING STRUCTURES IN RELATION TO
PERIODIZATION........................................................................144
6.4. THE STRUCTURE OF MATVEYEV'S CLASSICAL
MODEL........................................................................................148
6.8. PERIODIZED MODELS VS. NOT PERIODIZED TO
IMPROVE PERFORMANCE......................................................153
6.9. PERIODIZATION OF RESISTANCE TRAINING.........154
6.10. THE CONTEMPORARY MACROCYCLE MODEL.. 157
6.11. VERCHOSHANSKIJ PLANNING MODEL................159
6.12. SCIENTIFIC STUDIES ABOUT PERIODIZATION...161
OF TRAINING.............................................................................161
7. RESEARCH IN SPORTS TRAINING.....................................165
7.1. INTRODUCTION.............................................................165
7.2. REQUIREMENTS FOR AN INVESTIGATION TO BE.166
LISTED AS A SCIENTIST..........................................................166
7.3. RESEARCH AS A SOURCE OF KNOWLEDGE...........167
7.4. DOCUMENTATION PHASE...........................................169
7.5. RESEARCH PHASE.........................................................170
7.6. PREPARATION PHASE..................................................170
7.7. THE CONSIDERATION OF MEASUREMENTS IN
SPORTS SCIENCES....................................................................170
7.8. THE RESEARCH DESIGN OR PLAN............................171
7.9. NON-EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS.................................171
7.9.1. Sectional designs............................................................172
7.9.2. Longitudinal designs......................................................172
7.9.3. Comparative designs......................................................173
7.10. PREEXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS................................173
7.10.1. Design of an experimental group with a single
measurement.................................................................................174
7.10.2. Design of an experimental group with pretest and
posttest. 174
7.11. QUASI EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS..........................174
7.11.1. Chronological series design........................................175
7.12. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS.......................................175
7.12.1. Multigroup experimental design.................................176
7.13. FACTORIAL DESIGNS................................................177
7.14. OTHER TYPES OF RESEARCH: THE META
ANALYSIS...................................................................................178
8.1. INTRODUCTION.............................................................179
8.2. BALANCE BETWEEN EXTERNAL LOAD-RECOVERY.
180
8.3. CONTROL OF TRAINING LOADS....................................185
On the part of the athlete:..............................................................189
By laboratory staff:.......................................................................189
8.4.1. Analysis of training structures: macrocycles, phases,
mesocycles and microcycles.........................................................191
8.5. TRAINING CONTROL THROUGH THE.......................195
SPORTS PERFORMANCE IN MOTOR TEST..........................195
8.6. SUBJECTIVE PERCEPTION OF EFFORT (RPE)..........197
8.7. OTHER LOAD CONTROL RECORDS...........................197
TRAINING...................................................................................197
8.8. LOAD CONTROL THROUGH FREQUENCY...............199
CARDIAC.....................................................................................199
FCE. = [(HRmax - RHR) x % effort] + RHR...............................199
MHR= 208- 0.7x age....................................................................199
8.9. LOAD CONTROL THROUGH BIOLOGICAL
PARAMETERS OF RESPONSE TO TRAINING......................202
8.10. BIOCHEMICAL MONITORING OF TRAINING.......203
8.10.1. Creatine.......................................................................206
8.10.2. Urea.............................................................................207
8.10.3. Creatine kinase............................................................208
8.10.4. Cretatinine...................................................................209
8.10.5. Study of urine sediment..............................................209
8.10.6. Leukocyte sediment....................................................210
8.10.7. Red blood cells...........................................................210
8.10.8. Ph study......................................................................210
8.10.9. 3 Methyl-histidine in urine.........................................210
8.10.10. Other biochemical markers of training.......................211
9. SPEED TRAINING......................................................................227
9.1. INTRODUCTION.............................................................227
9.2. DEFINITION OF THE CONCEPT OF SPEED................228
9.3.1. Pure (or elemental) manifestations of speed..................231
9.3.2. Complex manifestations of speed...................................233
Synthesis: Importance of speed manifestations in relation to the
performance model.......................................................................234
9.4. SPEED IN TEAM SPORTS..............................................234
9.5. SPEED TRAINING METHODOLOGY...........................238
9.5.1. Reaction speed training methodology............................238
9.5.2. Training speed of action or movement...........................241
9.5.3. Frequency speed training................................................242
9.5.4. Strength-speed training...................................................244
9.5.5. Resistance training at maximum speed...............................247
9.6.1. General considerations regarding training programming
ment of speed................................................................................249
9.6.2. Speed periodization model with concentrated loads......252
9.6.3. Traditional American periodization model....................254
9.6.4. Organization of the contents in the training session.......258
9.7. SPEED EVALUATION....................................................258
9.7.1. Field evaluations.............................................................258
9.7.2. Laboratory evaluation.....................................................259
10. TRAINING PLANNING............................................................265
OF THE STRENGTH.......................................................................265
10.1. INTRODUCTION..........................................................265
10.2. ASPECTS TO TAKE INTO ACCOUNT WHEN
CARRYING OUT.........................................................................266
A PROGRAM FOR STRENGTH TRAINING.-..........................266
10.3. ASPECTS RELATING TO THE TRAINING LOAD.- 267
10.4. ASPECTS RELATING TO THE PERIODIZATION OF
THE 270
CYCLES.......................................................................................270
10.5. CYCLES, PHASES AND PERIODS............................270
1st Phase:.......................................................................................271
2nd Phase:.....................................................................................271
3rd Phase:......................................................................................271
4th Phase:......................................................................................271
10.6. MICROSTRUCTURAL METHODOLOGY.................272
11. BIBLIOGRAPHY.......................................................................292
1.1.
1.2. THREE BASIC RELEVANT CRITERIA WHEN ORGANIZING

INDEX..................................................................................................5
1. SPORTS TRAINING..................................................................17
HISTORICAL EVOLUTION............................................................17
1.1.1. INTRODUCTION............................................................17
1.1.2. HISTORICAL EVOLUTION..........................................17
1.2.1. Training during humanism...............................................19
1.2.2. Contemporary sports training...........................................20
1.1.3. The Finnish school...........................................................21
1.1.4. The Swedish school..........................................................23
1.1.5. Sports training in the second half of the 20th century......24
2. SPORTS TRAINING:.................................................................34
CONCEPT..........................................................................................34
2.1. INTRODUCTION...............................................................34
2.2.1. Concepts from pedagogical theories................................34
2.2.2. Concepts from the technical-pedagogical trend...............35
2.2.3. Concepts from the applied scientific trend.......................36
2.3. THE OBJECTIVES OF SPORTS TRAINING...................37
2.4. TRAINING AS A SYSTEMIC MODEL............................40
2.4.1. The systemic model of Banister et al. (1986)...................42
2.4.2. Manfred Grosser's cybernetic model (1992)....................43
2.4.3. Sports training as a management problem
(Verkhoshansky, 1990; Siff and Verkhoshansky, 2000)................45
2.4.4. The systemic model of García Manso, Navarro and Ruiz
(1996) and García Manso (1999)....................................................51
52
54
2.4.7. Tschiene's updated model (2000, 2001)...........................57
2.5. TOWARDS A UNIFICATION AND SYNTHESIS OF THE
MOST RELEVANT ELEMENTS IN THE TRAINING SYSTEM.
59
2.6. PERFORMANCE MODEL AND TRAINING MODEL....60
2.6.1. Performance model...........................................................60
2.6.2. Training model.................................................................62
3. THE TRAINING LOAD.............................................................63
3.1. TRAINING LOAD CONCEPT...........................................63
3.2. TRAINING EFFECT CONCEPT........................................66
3.3. TRAINING LOAD CAPACITY CONCEPT......................70
3.4. ANALYSIS AND CLASSIFICATION OF TRAINING
LOAD..............................................................................................72
3.5. APPLICATION OF THE CLASSIFICATION OF LOADS
TO 76
SPORTS TRAINING......................................................................76
3.6. NATURE OF THE TRAINING LOAD..............................77
3.7. MAGNITUDE OF THE LOAD..........................................80
3.8. LOAD VOLUME................................................................81
3.9. LOAD INTENSITY.............................................................84
3.10. LOAD DENSITY.............................................................87
3.11. DURATION OF THE TRAINING LOAD......................88
3.12. ORIENTATION OF TRAINING LOADS......................88
3.13. ORGANIZATION OF TRAINING LOADS...................92
3.14. FORMS OF THE TRAINING LOAD.............................95
3.15. TRAINING METHODS..................................................95
3.16. THE TRAINING MEANS...............................................96
3.17. PHYSICAL EXERCISES................................................97
3.18. CLASSIFICATION OF PHYSICAL EXERCISES.........97
4. ADAPTATION IN SPORTS TRAINING...................................105
4.1. CONCEPT OF ADAPTATION.........................................105
4.2. THE ADAPTATION MECHANISM................................106
4.3. LAWS OF ADAPTATION...............................................109
4.4. ADAPTATION IN RELATION TO THE PROCESS OF
THE 114
SPORTS TRAINING....................................................................114
4.5. ADAPTATIONS IN RELATION TO THE EXPOSURE
TIME OF TRAINING LOADS....................................................118
4.6. ACUTE RESPONSES OR ADAPTATIONS TO A
TRAINING LOAD.......................................................................119
4.7. PARAMETERS THAT REGULATE ACUTE RESPONSES
TO EXERCISE.............................................................................119
4.8. LONG-TERM ADAPTATIONS TO THE LOADS OF....122
TRAINING...................................................................................122
4.8.1. The physical form of the athlete (current level of sports
performance).................................................................................124
4.8.2. The duration of sports training.......................................124
4.8.3. The delayed effects of training loads.............................126
4.8.4. The order of training regimens.......................................126
5. THE PRINCIPLES OF SPORTS TRAINING..........................130
5.1. GENESIS AND VALIDITY OF THE PRINCIPLES OF. 130
TRAINING...................................................................................130
5.2. CONCEPT AND SCOPE OF THE PRINCIPLES OF......131
TRAINING...................................................................................131
PRINCIPLES OF EFFORT..........................................................132
PRINCIPLES THAT ORDER THE TRAINING CYCLES.........132
PRINCIPLES OF SPECIALIZATION.........................................132
5.3. PRINCIPLES RELATED TO THE PHENOMENA OF...134
BIOLOGICAL ADAPTATION...................................................134
5.3.1. Overload Principle..........................................................134
5.3.2. Variation Principle.........................................................135
5.3.3. Principle of Specificity...................................................136
5.3.4. Principle of Continuity...................................................137
5.3.5. Individualization Principle.............................................138
5.4. PRINCIPLES RELATED TO THE TEACHING-
LEARNING PROCESS................................................................139
5.4.1. Principle of the Conscious..............................................140
5.4.2. Principle of Planning and Systematization.....................140
5.4.3. Principle of Mental Representation................................140
5.4.4. Feasibility Principle........................................................141
6. THE PERIODIZATION OF TRAINING.................................142
6.1. INTRODUCTION.............................................................142
6.2. THE PERIODIZATION OF TRAINING..........................142
6.3. TRAINING STRUCTURES IN RELATION TO
PERIODIZATION........................................................................144
6.4. THE STRUCTURE OF MATVEYEV'S CLASSICAL
MODEL........................................................................................148
6.8. PERIODIZED MODELS VS. NOT PERIODIZED TO
IMPROVE PERFORMANCE......................................................153
6.9. PERIODIZATION OF RESISTANCE TRAINING.........154
6.10. THE CONTEMPORARY MACROCYCLE MODEL.. 157
6.11. VERCHOSHANSKIJ PLANNING MODEL................159
6.12. SCIENTIFIC STUDIES ABOUT PERIODIZATION...161
OF TRAINING.............................................................................161
7. RESEARCH IN SPORTS TRAINING.....................................165
7.1. INTRODUCTION.............................................................165
7.2. REQUIREMENTS FOR AN INVESTIGATION TO BE.166
LISTED AS A SCIENTIST..........................................................166
7.3. RESEARCH AS A SOURCE OF KNOWLEDGE...........167
7.4. DOCUMENTATION PHASE...........................................169
7.5. RESEARCH PHASE.........................................................170
7.6. PREPARATION PHASE..................................................170
7.7. THE CONSIDERATION OF MEASUREMENTS IN
SPORTS SCIENCES....................................................................170
7.8. THE RESEARCH DESIGN OR PLAN............................171
7.9. NON-EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS.................................171
7.9.1. Sectional designs............................................................172
7.9.2. Longitudinal designs......................................................172
7.9.3. Comparative designs......................................................173
7.10. PREEXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS................................173
7.10.1. Design of an experimental group with a single
measurement.................................................................................174
7.10.2. Design of an experimental group with pretest and
posttest. 174
7.11. QUASI EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS..........................174
7.11.1. Chronological series design........................................175
7.12. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS.......................................175
7.12.1. Multigroup experimental design.................................176
7.13. FACTORIAL DESIGNS................................................177
7.14. OTHER TYPES OF RESEARCH: THE META
ANALYSIS...................................................................................178
8.1. INTRODUCTION.............................................................179
180
8.3. CONTROL OF TRAINING LOADS....................................185
On the part of the athlete:..............................................................189
By laboratory staff:.......................................................................189
8.4.1. Analysis of training structures: macrocycles, phases,
mesocycles and microcycles.........................................................191
8.5. TRAINING CONTROL THROUGH THE.......................195
SPORTS PERFORMANCE IN MOTOR TEST..........................195
8.6. SUBJECTIVE PERCEPTION OF EFFORT (RPE)..........197
8.7. OTHER LOAD CONTROL RECORDS...........................197
TRAINING...................................................................................197
8.8. LOAD CONTROL THROUGH FREQUENCY...............199
CARDIAC.....................................................................................199
FCE. = [(HRmax - RHR) x % effort] + RHR...............................199
MHR= 208- 0.7x age....................................................................199
8.9. LOAD CONTROL THROUGH BIOLOGICAL
PARAMETERS OF RESPONSE TO TRAINING......................202
8.10. BIOCHEMICAL MONITORING OF TRAINING.......203
8.10.1. Creatine.......................................................................206
8.10.2. Urea.............................................................................207
8.10.3. Creatine kinase............................................................208
8.10.4. Cretatinine...................................................................209
8.10.5. Study of urine sediment..............................................209
8.10.6. Leukocyte sediment....................................................210
8.10.7. Red blood cells...........................................................210
8.10.8. Ph study......................................................................210
8.10.9. 3 Methyl-histidine in urine.........................................210
8.10.10. Other biochemical markers of training.......................211
9. SPEED TRAINING......................................................................227
9.1. INTRODUCTION.............................................................227
9.2. DEFINITION OF THE CONCEPT OF SPEED................228
9.3.1. Pure (or elemental) manifestations of speed..................231
9.3.2. Complex manifestations of speed...................................233
Synthesis: Importance of speed manifestations in relation to the
performance model.......................................................................234
9.4. SPEED IN TEAM SPORTS..............................................234
9.5. SPEED TRAINING METHODOLOGY...........................238
9.5.1. Reaction speed training methodology............................238
9.5.2. Training speed of action or movement...........................241
9.5.3. Frequency speed training................................................242
9.5.4. Strength-speed training...................................................244
9.5.5. Resistance training at maximum speed...............................247
9.6.1. General considerations regarding training programming
ment of speed................................................................................249
9.6.2. Speed periodization model with concentrated loads......252
9.6.3. Traditional American periodization model....................254
9.6.4. Organization of the contents in the training session.......258
9.7. SPEED EVALUATION....................................................258
9.7.1. Field evaluations.............................................................258
9.7.2. Laboratory evaluation.....................................................259
10. TRAINING PLANNING............................................................265
OF THE STRENGTH.......................................................................265
10.1. INTRODUCTION..........................................................265
10.2. ASPECTS TO TAKE INTO ACCOUNT WHEN
CARRYING OUT.........................................................................266
A PROGRAM FOR STRENGTH TRAINING.-..........................266
10.3. ASPECTS RELATING TO THE TRAINING LOAD.- 267
10.4. ASPECTS RELATING TO THE PERIODIZATION OF
THE 270
CYCLES.......................................................................................270
10.5. CYCLES, PHASES AND PERIODS............................270
1st Phase:.......................................................................................271
2nd Phase:.....................................................................................271
3rd Phase:......................................................................................271
4th Phase:......................................................................................271
10.6. MICROSTRUCTURAL METHODOLOGY.................272
11. BIBLIOGRAPHY.......................................................................292
2.
I dedicate this book to the person who is the fundamental axis in
my life, Inma and to our future Irene and Bruno.
PRESENTATION
In his classic book Fundamentals of Sports Training (1983, Edi torial

Raduga, Moscow), Matevéev explained that “sports training constitutes the
broadest part of the phenomenon called sport. Arise, arise returns and develops in
unity with other aspects of sports activity, therefore, to clarify the problems of sports
training it is important “before forming a global representation of the essence of
sport as a whole” (p.5). This proposal is still current and the authors of the book you
have in your hands are an example of this.
Sports training has evolved in a very notable way in the last fifty years, and
the achievements that we currently know in different sports are the fruit of an
inquiring attitude that has given cone new foundations, new technology and new
field applications that have made it possible to break barriers that seemed impossible
to overcome.
The main purpose of this book has been to put before the reader the latest
advances in this matter, its authors, all of them closely related to research and
training in the field, present us, over 10 chapters, a whole set of matters that allow
the reader to know what the state of the art is on this matter: Planning, fatigue and its
expressions sions in training, the principles that currently govern training and its
periodization, the concept of training load or where the most current lines of
research on this matter go, without a doubt all of them current and fully present in
the mouths of those who day to day day they have the answer ability to direct the
destinies of thousands of athletes.
I am convinced that both Sports Science students and En Trainers will find
the pages of this book attractive and useful, immersing themselves in them will be a
source of numerous reflections and questions, and that is what the authors want, for
readers to establish a fruitful dialogue. fero with the different chapters, to extract
from them the practical applications that allow them to improve the excellence of
their athletes.
The authors are aware of the dynamic and changing nature of many of the
notions and concepts that have been expressed in the text, but they do not abdicate
from highlighting that there are aspects that have endured over the decades, and that
will continue to do so, which New and old blend in the pages of this book, and you,
the reader, have the obligation to consider whether this combination is appropriate or
not.
I am fully convinced that you, dear reader, will enjoy reading this book,
without losing sight of, as Matvévv indicated, the global vision of sport.
Luis M. Ruiz
University Professor at UCLM.
Head of the Motor Competence Laboratory and Director
of the “Areté” Research Group
FOREWORD
This book has been written for a fundamental reason: to update and compile
the synthesis of all the most relevant aspects regarding sports training. vo and its
scientific verification, since many of the concepts that have been published around it
by the great methodologists of professional training In most cases, they come from
speculation and empirical practice itself (which would give low credibility to these
works, except for the fact that said empirical practices have provided numerous
medals in Champion. World Cup and Olympic Games). The challenge was worth it,
three years of re flexion and writing of it, reading, seeing the latest scientific works
that deserved to be included, review and criticism by Fernando and Manolo, all of
this means that each chapter has had a special treatment and affection from each of
us. On the other hand, the work in the Sports Training Laboratory evaluating
athletes, and the pleasant conversations with their coaches always reached the same
point, knowledge about sports training must be updated. All this was ratified by the
demands of the doctoral students who time and again ask us There was no
publication that merged the concepts of training and research. gation from a more
up-to-date perspective. From these lines I want to thank you cer the effort that
Manuel Delgado Fernández. PROFESSOR (with capital letters, yes) of the
University of Granada, it has always been a pleasure and an undeserved honor for
me to work alongside him, and I allow myself the freedom to highlight in this
prologue not only his professionalism and honesty, but also his humanity and good
work, which is much greater than his scientific capacity. Within Sports Sciences,
Doctor Manuel Delgado constitutes a very important reference for many of us. The
other person who is part of the writing of some of the chapters of the text that you
have in your hands is a great TEACHER, Professor Fernando Navarro, with whom I
have shared the assignment. ture Theory and Practice of Sports Training at the
Faculty of Sports Sciences of Toledo until today. I think that his career and
professional resume nal is well known by those of us who belong to the world of
Sports Sciences, therefore, I am not going to try to summarize or highlight anything
because I would probably forget many things, which would be unforgivable for me.
Furthermore, a career as extensive and successful as his allows me to affirm that his
contributions have been invaluable for this book to acquire scientific consistency.
Special mention deserves the chapter on strength: Nano, Dr. José Manuel
García, almost his entire life dedicated to sport as a practitioner and as he trains. dor,
and always investigating in the field of force, a researcher like him deserved to
imbue us with his wisdom around this issue in which he is a qualified expert and I
believe that he has given a lesson in this book.
But returning to the book you have in your hands, when you see the index
you see It will have two well-defined parts, the first establishes the conceptual
foundations of sports training broken down into the following sections.
First of all, we will talk, as it could not be otherwise, about the historical origin. co
of training, below we will conceptually define training sports training, we will break
it down into its most important components and analyze it from a systemic and
procedural perspective. Later I will see We discuss the concepts of loading,
adaptation and training principles and continue We will continue analyzing the
periodization of sports training, the investigation tion in this area and we will finally
see the chapter dedicated to the control of sports training.
The second part develops the training methodology of two ca sports

performance capabilities: speed and strength.
We hope that the contents developed in the book satisfy expectations. tives
of coaches, undergraduate and doctoral students related to physical activity and
sport; This is really what has been intended to be done from the first paragraph.
Dr. José María González Ravé.

Toledo-Córdoba, September 2009.
Block 1.
BASICS
CONCEPTUAL
- 15 -
BASICS OF SPORTS TRAINING
1. SPORTS TRAINING.
HISTORICAL EVOLUTION.
1.1.1. INTRODUCTION.
Although making a historical evolution about a discipline implies a process of

collecting information that allows us to offer a more objective vision, possible of this
discipline, Sports Training walks hand in hand with what has been the science that
supports it in the European context, Sports Sciences, and has had the same problems of
recognition of this, that is, conceptual lack of definition. as a science, terminological
divergences regarding the concept, search for efficiency in empirical fields fundamental
ted in particular experiences lacking any scientific methodology, unscientific speculation
(Martín-Acero and Vittori, 1997). All these symptoms have led to a corpus of knowledge
that they have had to build little by little, from sports practice itself to scientific
knowledge co, from the artisanal trainer to those who use scientific methodology as the
basis of their work.
If physical exercise has been the primary source of scientific knowledge in Sports
Sciences, we have known it in its rudimentary form at the dawn of time, but can it be part
of the contingent of knowledge? ments surrounding the concept of sports training
practice? The conceptual delimitation of sports training in its purest essence should deny
this issue, since the attributes of this discipline are more narrow. more than simply
obtaining a utilitarian, military or even health purpose. Thus, the historical evolution of
the concept will revolve around the sport that originated in ancient Greece and the
Olympic Games. ancient with their idea of periodization of training, and from there we
will “move” to the 18th, 19th and 20th centuries, where the generation of knowledge
around this subject really occurs, up to the current era.
1.1.2. HISTORICAL EVOLUTION.
As stated by Bompa (1999), contemporary sports training raneo and its scientific
foundations are based on concepts created in the last third of the 20th century, when
scientists who research in the field of sports began to publish their first works on training
periodization. Most of them from the former Soviet bloc countries.
Although the initial premises about the planning and implementation of training
programs have been well documented in the most ancient societies of China, Egypt,
Greece, India and Rome (Bompa, 1994, Norris and Smith, 2002), the origin of training
sports goes back even further, if we associate it with the diverse roles that physical
activity has had throughout history.
Thus, physical exercise in these cultures had a fundamentally utilitarian role, of

preparation for work or survival, militaristic, of defense of a given civilization against the
attacks of another, and even of health, in some cases, as we find in eastern cultures.
- 17 -
JMGONZÁLEZ RAVÉ, F.NAVARRO VALDIVIELSO, M.DELGADO FERNÁNDEZ AND JMGARCÍA
GARCÍA
In this sense, Amar (1995) cites how in the Hittite culture the first horse training
manual was written, an animal that served as a valuable instrument for daily life activities
of the time, including wars. Amar (1995:13) collects this significance of horse training in
the following way in relation to training: “ the knowledge they had was very advanced,
speaking to us about current concepts such as training planning, in addition, several
indications that the trainer "It had to be done to support training."
From a historicist perspective, the origins of the most rudimentary in Sports

training can be linked to the origins of gymnastics in ancient Greece, since the Greeks as
a people reached the zenith of civilization tion in aspects such as Politics, Art,
Architecture, Literature, Philosophy and also in gymnastics (Amar, 1985; Hegedus, 1984;
Rodriguez, 2000).
Indeed, in Greek culture, along with the foundations of Western culture, athletic
games appeared as great gymnastic manifestations. periodic ceremonies in honor of the
gods and that were carried out in times of peace or truce throughout the Hellenic
geography: Olympus, Delphi, Corinth, Nemea, Rhodes, Athens. In these games there was
a varied program of physical exercises such as the pentathlon (competition of five
different events), running, jumping with dumbbells, discus and javelin throwing, and
wrestling. In addition, real They used other types of physical and bodily activities,
considered of lower rank because they were typical of metics and peasants, such as dance,
dances and games with spheres (spherical), among others.
In this sense, we can see the interest that was placed in the care of the athletes'
bodies in relation to their performance, involving a process between training in relation to
three fundamental aspects: lifestyle, nutrition tion and training. This training implies a
series of basic considerations regarding sports training (Hegedus, 1984):
^ Constant training throughout the year.

^ Coaches who take care of both athletic and technical preparation nica.
^ Periodization of training for 10 months in advance, and intensively the

month before the competition.
^ The athlete's job consisted during the course of the day of sleeping,
training, eating, and following philosophical discussions. cas.
Mandell (1986) recalls that in ancient texts such as the Iliad it is reflects the epic
of Greek sport. Homer's poems cover the sport of those times (pedestrian races, long
jump, etc.), which was very important for contemporaries of his time. Thus, in the
preparation of free citizens for these competitions, the first glimpses of rudimentary
programming called tetras were established, which were nothing more than four-day
training structures planned by the sports coach. tive (Durántez, 2001). The tetras started
on the first day with gentle preparatory training; the second was very intense; resting or
doing very gentle exercises in the third and fourth, medium-intensity work ty (Hegedus,
1984,1988; Amar, 1995; Navarro, 1999).
Filostratos (in Hegedus, 1984: 13) explains the principle of this preparation tion:
“…preparation training is a brief but energetic movement, the intense part, an irrefutable
- 18 -
test of the athlete's constitution, of the strength stored in his body. He believed that the
rest or gentle training on the third day allowed us to replenish the capacity for movement,
while on the fourth day, the effort teaches us to flee from the enemy, in the sense of
avoiding it, but if he wanted to do the same, he is capable of preventing it. …”
Ceramic showing an image of fighting.

Source: AAVV (1985) Cuadernos Historia 16. Olympics. 106.
The Greeks had knowledge of different media and systems among training, such
as overload exercises, skipping and even the medicine ball and, of course, the use of
protection systems such as helmets, protectors for boxers, etc. In addition, they already
used dune running work and even interval-training, or strength development systems. two
to body-building (Amar, 1995).
Professor Mehl (1986) in his analysis of the history of the gim concept nastic, cites
various sections of Galen's works and studies carried out by Professor Julius Jüthner, and
explains how gymnastics was, among the Hellenes, not simple exercise, but the art of the
gymnast, that is, of the sports doctor and the coach, in the same way that “paidotribia”
was the art of the “paidotribos”, that is, of the sports coach.
1.2.1. Training during humanism.
The renaissance reveals a profound recovery of the va lores that classical culture
gives to the movement and, in some way, place the man bre at the epicenter of its object
of study. They deserve to be highlighted, among many chos, two authors and their works:
Book of exercise and its benefits by Cristóbal Méndez and De Arte Gimnástica by
Mercurial. These works are a reference for conservative medicine (which the gymnast
was in charge of) versus curative medicine (which the doctor was in charge of). But as we
have already mentioned at the beginning, if this chapter focuses on sports training
exclusively, it is worth noting car the work of Mercurialis, in which one of its parts was
dedicated to the gym athletic nasia .
- 19 -
GARCÍA
1.2.2. Contemporary sports training.
We would place the modern origin of sports training in the 18th century, in the so-
called English School, in which athletes, known as "run ning-footman" (Hegedus, 1984),
prepared for long-distance races by using jogging and walking as means of locomotion
in training and competitions, in which they performed up to eight hours of continuous
effort. The English school stands out for its inclination towards long-term tests and for
reflecting the considerations around the training methods developed by authors such as
Thomas Ellyot or Roger Ashham (Hegedus, 1984, 1988; Amar, 1995).
The influence of modernity in the social, political, industrial sectors trials and
economics by trying to bring the idea of progress to these aspects of sport, achieved an
evolution that launched modern sport, regularizing it through rules and partially reducing
the aggressiveness of athletes and also fans, who would begin to appear at this stage and
would constitute a mass social phenomenon since then. All these changes in sport also
developed in American society, as a sphere of influence of the Anglo-Saxon society. The
mass of athletes increased progressively, increased The veneration of records diminished
and the attraction to religion diminished. This tendency towards secularization constitutes,
in the words of Blanchard and Cheska
(1986), one of the main characteristics of modern sport, leading to greater development of
sport in the United States. For Billat (2002), the word record appears for the first time in
1883 written in a work on swimming whose author was William Wilson called " the
swimming instructor, a treatise on the arts of swimming and diving ", although the lack of
reliable chronometers could mask these returns.
In relation to how athletes trained, Forteza (2000) states that: “…In the last half of
the 19th century, athletes trained with methods based on long-term loads, uninterrupted
and uniform. Therefore, due to the lack of experiences and primitive methods of
developing man's abilities, athletes competed in various specialties, both athletic and
sports . Work based on increasing training volume as an improvement was the
fundamental element to achieve maximum performance and this was so non-specific that
an athlete could win from sprint races to middle distance or long distance races.
In the United States, the ways of working used by English coaches had a
significant influence on North American coaches. us through the long run and walk
method, introducing shorter distance runs. In this way, Americans began to train and even
hold competitions over shorter distances. In the process training sessions used the so-
called tempo training, a variant of the fractional formation (Hegedus, 1984, 1988; Amar,
1995). These adjustments in training caused North American athletes to dominate the
competitions. tions by having higher speeds associated with a good base of resistance, the
only concern of the preparation in the European Training Schools. The training of the
American runners respected the following sequence cia: walking + duration training +
tempo-training.
Álvarez del Villar (1992) states that in the throes of the 19th century, systematized
strength training was already being carried out, specifically in 1880, “…Eugen Muller
(Sandow) founded a gym in London for overload training, recommending a number of
- 20 -
exercises for various groups “muscular exercises, which had to be carried out daily in an
orderly manner.” For this same author, in 1901, Soviet wrestlers used overload training to
improve strength. At the same time, this type of training cough is also spreading in the
United States through German trainers manes (Álvarez del Villar, 1992).
At the beginning of the 20th century, there were precursors within the process of
sports training, as stated by García Manso et al (1996), whose character The primary
characteristic lies in the sequential effect that one load has on the next. Of the first
training plans discussed in this period we have those of Kotov (1916); Gorinevsky (1922),
Pihkala (1930), among other authors, calling this era of “rationalization of planning.”
“sports cation.”
However, despite this development of sports planning models tiva that coherently
rationalized training loads, sports with great tradition such as athletics developed training
methodologies with very specific and special characteristics, giving rise to the so-called “
athletic schools .” Thus, during the first half of the 20th century, one can There are three
contributions from the Finnish, Swedish and German schools to sports training.
1.1.3. The Finnish school.
In the Finnish school, whose hegemony spanned from 1912 to 1939 (Paiva, 1995),
two coaches can be distinguished with different conceptions of training: Pihkala, coach of
Paavo Nurmi, who emphasized training methods based on continuous running, walking,
medium extensive interval and intensive interval and Kolehmainen who focused his
means on continuous running, walking and medium extensive interval. The most
representative characteristics tatives of both are shown in table 1.1. This interval training
was Europe's reaction to the American innovations of " Sprint training " and " Tempo-
training " for distance runners, thus increasing the quantity and quality of work performed
by the athlete.
In 1930, Pihkala, together with other colleagues, edited a book where they
presented a set of revolutionary norms for the time when research did not exist. scientific
support for the preparation of athletes and which were:
^ The need for alternation between volume and intensity;

^ Specific training should be based on a training very broad general
understanding;
^ Training should be characterized by an obvious alternation between work
(training) and recovery.
Based on these principles, increases in the weekly frequency of training and a

differentiation of tasks were observed in terms of factors involving the specificity and
value of the intensity of the load. Despite these advances, the factors for quantifying the
training load continued to be objectively specified, and Pihkala's attempt to present in his
work the first training tables associated with a first outline of structuring the season was
of interest. in well-defined training periods:
^ The preparation training period;
- 21 -
GARCÍA
^ Spring Training;
^ The Summer Training;
^ The Fall and Winter Recovery Training.
- 22 -
This organization responds in practice to the foundations of the cyclical nature of

the load, being necessary to respect the alternation between fatigue and rest in accordance
with the authors' own ideas.
Table 1.1. Parameters that characterize the Finnish training school (1912-1946). Cited
by Paiva (1995).
Fundamental Means and
School Hegemony Coaches athletes Surface
aspects methods*
Start of EIEM DC
Kolehmainen Kolehmainen systematized Run Nature and
training track
Finnish 1912-1946 Association of
quality and EIEM DC Nature and
Pihkala Paavo Nurmi quantity of Run track
training
* CC: Continuous stroke, EIEM: average extensive interval.
1.1.4. The Swedish school.
Sweden was one of the first countries to adopt the training method ment of the
Finns. The Swedish school was important during the period from 1930 to 1947, its
initiators defending a training model. something that can be done in the natural
environment that develops a variety in training rhythms, followed in some cases by work
on ramps in the same nature. This type of work was called “fartlek” (Hegedus, 1981;
Paiva, 1995). The most representative characteristics are shown in table 1.2.
Table 1.2. Parameters that characterize the Swedish training school.

(1930-1947). Cited by Paiva (1995).
Fundamental
School Hegemony Coaches athletes Means and Surface
aspects
methods
Development of
Gustaffson
speed and Fartlek and
holmer Alberg Nature
resistance in Cuestas
Jonnsson
each session
Swedish 1930-1947
Alternation of
Haegg hard work with
Olander Anderson soft work Fartlek Nature
Starnd
If a training methodology was built in relation to schools That allowed the

development of knowledge in an empirical way, the other impulse to the recognition of
sports training came from the interest of countries in having champions among their
citizens, so starting in the 1930s, in the interwar period, the Powers in developed
countries begin to define sports equipment programs and development plans with sports
clubs, etc. (Pociello, 1999).
As an example of this interest, Pociello (1999) argues the great impact sion that
the Olympics have in figures for the countries: “ In 1937, the IOC (International Olympic
Committee) recorded the adhesion of almost 50 sporting disciplines to the Olympic
- 23 -
GARCÍA
Games, thus the 1936 Berlin Olympics had brought together almost 4,000 athletes from
55 countries…” On the other hand, the development of the media of the time (radio, press
and cinema) before the Second Great War gave new impetus to sports competitions, with
the consequent support of countries for their athletes.
1.1.5. Sports training in the second half of the 20th century.
The consequences left by the Second World War would reach humanity in all its
dimensions and sport was no exception. In Europe, the fact that many athletes were
involved in the war, accompanied by the destruction of many training places and the
impossibility of holding the Olympic Games (1940 and 1944) marked these generations
regarding sports practice. And as in all activities from countries involved in war, sports
training and competition tion re-emerged with new ideas and new values.
Until this moment, the success results of an athlete were frequently confused with
a specific training method, making its use widespread. The truth is that the lack of
scientific foundation explains the large fluctuations tions on the interpretation and
application of these work programs and the difficulty in attributing the authorship of some
ideas that, in large part, contributed to an accumulation of knowledge that improved the
preparation processes of athletes at the beginning of the 1950s.
The revolution in the development of sports training had its turning point after the
Second World War, with the first serious scientific studies beginning by the incipient
Soviet bloc and its satellite countries, and having their reply by the Americans.
1.1.5.1. The German school.
The German school contributed interval resistance systems to sports training, since
there seems to be a consensus about the authorship of this type of method, which would
correspond to Waldemar Gerschler. In this way, one of the most significant contributions
in the history of sports training lies in the foundation, development and systematization of
the "between "interval training".
On the other hand, there was a clear concern to understand the processes
physiology associated with resistance training, involving both physiologist gos as
cardiologists, among whom Herber Reindell and his most direct collaborators,
Helmut Roskmann and Joseph Keul, stand out, resulting in a considerable advance
in training methodology (Paiva, 1995). The characteristics The most representative
cases are shown in table 1.3.
Table 1.3. Parameters that characterize the German training school.

Cited by Paiva (1995).
aspects methods
- 24 -
Gustaffson Few alterations Intensive

1939-1944 holmer Alberg nes in each session interval Clue
Jonnsson whose contents work
are systematically
repeated
Haegg Decrease in Interval

German 1947-1953 Olander Clue
Anderson recovery time and training
increase in the
number of interval
training repetitions
Focus the
effectiveness of
training on Interval
1952-1964 starnd recovery time and Clue
training
not on the
dynamics of the
external load.
In 1948, in Hungary, another of the schools emerged whose great

contribution comes from coach Mihaly Igloi, combining training methodologies
used by Finns, Swedes and Germans. But his main contribution to sports training
comes in the large volume of daily training that he programs for athletes and its
individualization for each of them, being one of the first to use two and even three
training units per day (Pavia, 1995). . The most representative characteristics are
shown in table 1.4.
- 25 -
GARCÍA
Table 1.4. Parameters that characterize the Hungarian training school.

(1948-1956). Cited by Paiva (1995).
aspects methods
Hungarian 1948-1956 Igloi Iharos High volume of Continuous Clue
Tabori training daily run. Races
Rosznioyi (20-40 km daily) with change
Levels to classify of pace with
training intensity acceleration
systematic
tion Short
and medium
extensive
interval
1.1.5.2. The scientific discipline “Training Science”.

In the 1950s, people began to talk about a scientific discipline called da
Science of Training, a discipline that is linked to a set interdisciplinary knowledge
around a single object called sport, as shown in figure 1.1. These first attempts
suggest that scientific training begins to develop as an independent theoretical field.
pending within Sports Science whose central objective was the optimization of
sports-motor performance, with special attention paid to the area of high competition
with a tendency to generalize the subjective experimental knowledge of the different
sports specialties or disciplines, in relation to sports-motor components of
performance such as physical condition, technique, and tactics (Ballreich and
Kuhlow, 1977: 2).
SCIENCES TO SUPPORT SPORTS TRAINING
BOMP (1994:4)
Figure 1.1. Training Science Model according to Bompa (1994).
Ballreich and Kuhlow (1977) justify in this emergence of sport, the
- 26 -
inclusion sion of a new science called “science of training I ”, but it is nothing more
than the need to create a corpus of knowledge that will try to organize all the
empirical knowledge generated until then. Ballreich and Kuhlow (1977) argue, from
a historical perspective, how a discipline initially based on empirical assumptions
applied to high-level athletes was applied to athletes with different levels of
performance, without prior verification. tion of its effects, and subsequently
verifying the final results of the between ning in each population model. This
empirical development occurred in the countries of the socialist bloc that shared the
Germanic language with coaches like G. Schnabel, H.G. Hermann and W. Sieger,
among others.
They intended, in this way, to eliminate that traditional component of

knowledge around this discipline based on trial-error and the generalization of
methods applied to different sporting approaches, moving towards scientific
knowledge based on said methodology.
At the same time, in the United States various methods of strength training
with different approaches. Boff Hoffman “created” the York system of progressive
weight training and developed work with isometric exercises as rehabilitative
therapy (Álvarez del Villar, 1992; Ruiz, 1994). During the 50s and 60s, training
oriented toward body building ral (bodybuilding) gains great importance and
becomes popular among the American population.
Wazny (1977) places this incipient stage of sports training ta 1965 and
defines it as: “ intuitive and extensive, improvements in results were achieved by the
selection of training methods through trial and error and through the gradual
increase in the amount of work performed.” This stage comes to an end when it is
verified that after a certain level of training quantity there is no longer any
improvement in sports results. you.
Starting in 1965 (coinciding with the preparation of the Olympic Games of

Mexico 68) the so-called stage of intensity and prestige of the between ning
(Wazny, 1977). In this the coach begins to receive scientific information that helps
him direct the training. As previously stated, the development of science within
training This was not necessary until it was proven that increasing the volume
between Training did not solve performance problems, so science had to be used to
perfect the sports training process. This inclusion of science had two phenomena
worth highlighting in its initial stage: on the one hand, the initial inability to use the
data that the nator, not being able to develop his training program using the
information provided. On the other hand, we find the reaction of the scientific
community to the world of sports and the persistent ineffectiveness of scientific
knowledge towards sports training. As Wazny (1977) states: “…the different
representatives of the scientific disciplines, take advantage Using the possibilities
that sport offered them to carry out research, they undertake an intense observation
of sport in general and sports training in particular... However, all science shows,
within its development, development, tendencies to narrow their specialization more
I This “science” is implemented within the bloc of Eastern and German-speaking countries, since the
current consideration is that the theory of sports training is part of Sports Sciences.
- 27 -
GARCÍA
and more, create terminological barriers. We can also observe this process in
research related to sports training. Data directed towards the coach is
agglomerated in more and more detailed and more separated from each other.
Precisely this thoroughness and, at the same time, differentiation makes its
application increasingly difficult. The coach, “bombarded” with endless analytical
data, is much worse off than in the previous period when he relied fundamentally on
his intuition… since it is much easier to make decisions with a lack of information.
mation that with its excess, especially when such information is not due "fully
adapted to coaches for direct use towards sports performance."
It can be seen how this phase also begins to be overcome when the coach
begins to train within the parameters and institutions from which science comes, that
is, the University, or when the coaches themselves need a support team that covers
the various parameters that make up sports training.
In any case, we can talk about two fundamental factors in the development of
sports training in the 20th century:
1. The dissociation between Sport Theory and Physical Education Theory sica.
2. The contribution of exercise physiology to sports training.
1.2.5.3. The dissociation between Sports Theory and Physical Education Theory.
Approximately until the second half of the 20th century, the problem of
sports training was located within the Theory of Sport, since training was considered
a branch of it (Matveyev, 2001), and said Theory of Sport encountered its own
identity problems, primarily in his effort to dissociate and reach limits of scientific
knowledge with the theory and methodology of Physical Education, since in Europe
the sports movement and gymnastic movements that supported sports preparation
prevailed (Matveyev, 2001).
In this sense, what this author does is correlate different disci theoretical-
methodological guidelines in reference to biological and humanistic aspects.
- 28 -
cos of sport and center it on a main nucleus oriented towards sporting achievements,
as shown in figure 1.2.
PHILOSOPHICAL-METHODOLOGICAL AND
CULTURAL ASPECTS OF THE THEORY OF
SPORTS
ASPECTS OF ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT IN THEORY

OF SPORT
Aspects
Biological aspects GENERAL THEORY AND METHODOLOGY OF SPORTS
humanistic
of sports tea of sports tea
sports history,
sports anthropology, Theory of competitive activity and the sports sociology
Sports morphology system of sports competitions.
Sports aesthetics
Sports biophysics sports ethics,
Theory and technology of the preparation system
sports biochemistry, sportsman Sports psychology
Sport physiology Sports pedagogy
PARTICULAR THEORY AND METHODOLOGY OF SPORTS

Theory and methodology of training for each sport modality
Sports metrology
ASPECTS OF SPORTS MEDICINE SPORTS HYGIENE ASPECTS
Traumatology Medical control Hygiene Psychohygie

sporty sports sporty ne
sporty
Figure 1.2. Scheme of relationships between different disciplines of the Theory of
Sport. (Matveyev, 2001:17).
After the Second World War, the preparation needs of the sports teams of the
different countries increased significantly, divided into two blocks that were structured as
a consequence of the war and which established a tough struggle to achieve success in
major sporting events. that serve as the stage for the rivalry of both. From this need for
victory in the sports arena, a corpus of knowledge is built that serves as the basis for
preparation aimed at the development of sports performance. (Matveyev, 2001). For
countries, in times of peace, sports competitions They are going to become the symbolic
representation of the strength of that nation. Thus, nations define policies aimed at sports
performance (Pociello, 1999).
The Soviet Union participates in the Olympic Games for the first time in 1952. In
this country, sport was organized in such a way that all types of specialists stood out to
contribute to sporting successes. As an example of these successes, between 1954 and
1968 13 world records were broken in Olympic distances. middle-distance and long-
distance classes, constituting another of the athletic schools mentioned above.
During this period, concepts included in the development of sports training such
as periodization began to be built. Periodization is one of the most important concepts in
training, since it represents a more scientific and less empirical approach, from the point
of view of modern training.
The periodization concept originates in Eastern Europe and was adapted to
- 29 -
GARCÍA
modern training planning in the 1960s by “ sports ” scientists such as Matveyev in the
Soviet environment or Bompa in the Czechoslovak environment (Norris and Smith,
2003, Wathen , 1994).
Matveyev (1977) organizes the training process into three periods:

period
1st , during which the premises are created and the south is secured
development of sports form (preparatory period);
2nd period , during its course the conservation of the form of sports and its
materialization in brands (competitive period);
3rd period , when the need arises to prevent the transformation of the summary
effect of training and competitions into detraining; when it is necessary to
guarantee the restoration of the possibilities of the body's work capacity
and thereby strengthen the succession between the two steps of sports
improvement (transitive period).
It seems that it was Grantyn in 1939 and then Dyson and Ozolin in the 50s who
first presented a training cycle applied to athletics. tism. The first divided the training
process into three large periods to meet the needs of competition, with precise content in
each of them, which allowed facing the competition in each period with a view to better
performance.
In the 1950s, Letunov justified the division into periods, in a more scientific way
based on the biological load that the athlete supports without considering the number of
competitions.
The periodization of sports training developed by Matveyev establishes a series of

methodological bases that place this process closer to the scientific field than to the
empirical field, as it is currently manifested.
Therefore, the rational organization of the sports training process during the
present century lays its foundations in the Soviet school, specifically via LP Matveyev,
when at the end of the 1950s he published about the periodization of training based on
this model, Hans Selye's general adaptation syndrome and the Schultz-Arnodt Law or
threshold law (Czajkoski, 1977).
It was not until the 1970s when these studies reached Spain, through the National
Institute of Physical Education and Sports of Madrid, and said center published the book
translated from Matveyev's original: “Periodization of training. "Sports training", which
together with the work of Álvarez del Villar from 1981, "The physical preparation of
football based on athletics" constitute a reference manual on the training methodology of
the next 20 years in our country.
Subsequently, in Spain, studies have been expanded in relation to this topic and
the contributions of other methodologists in translations of both Soviet and American
books.
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Seirul-lo (1986) states that contributions were made from Matveyev's model that
have allowed it to be improved. Thus, Fidelus (1960) proposes a significant decrease in
the volume of load during the competitive period and, on the other hand, Naglak (1979)
introduces the concept of double cycle as a solution to a calendar of competitions in
winter and summer in sports whose requirements Rituals require two fitness sessions, in
the case of athletics.
Later, American scientists such as Stone and O'Briant modified They continued
Matveyev's work by adding different phases to the preparatory period and applying it to
strength training planning (Norris and Smith, 2003, Wathen, 1994, Wathen and Roll,
1994).
These cycles are made up of different phases. Each one of them must say turn
towards the achievement of a specific manifestation of strength and whose organization
allows training to be directed towards the improvement of the manifestation required by
the sport in question. The recommended duration of these phases, as well as the priority
objective in each of them, are as follows:
1st Phase : Objective, basic content and duration: improvement of maximum strength
due to the effect on hypertrophy and explosive strength training (3-8 weeks).
2nd Phase : Objective, basic content and duration: improvement of maximum strength
due to neural effect and improvement of explosive strength (3-5 weeks).
3rd Phase : Objective, basic content and duration: maintenance of maximum strength
and improvement of explosive strength (3-5 weeks).
4th Phase : Objective, basic content and duration: optimal manifestation of strength
and maintenance of maximum and explosive strength (duration ranges riable).
5th Phase : Objective, basic content and duration: transition phase (1-6 weeks nas).
This model, of a sport with a preferential demand for explosive strength and
maximum power, can be extrapolated to sports that require strength resistance by
introducing this objective in all phases.
Platonov in 1976 (disseminated in the West in 1988) developed the planning

principle according to a systemic model (Platonov, 1988), with notable success for the
USSR swimming team, directed by Vaitsekovseky. Your proposals ta is based on the
principle that the annual load should be defined based on the objective of the season and
the recovery time necessary between the application tion of sessions with the same
functional objectives. It is a model that remains considerably relevant today (Navarro,
1999).
In 1979 Peter Tschiene disseminated a periodization model where It defends a

high volume of the specific load by introducing a recovery period between each
preparation cycle, thus avoiding the appearance of an exaggerated state of fatigue
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GARCÍA
(Navarro, 1999).
In recent years, opinions contrary to the training periodization system proposed by

Matveyev have emerged that have come to consider it even, in our opinion in an
unobjective way, as a factor that "prevents of the progress of scientific knowledge in
sport" (Verchoshansky, 1998).
Another aspect that affects the progress of sports training with temporary, not as a
direct element that has an impact on the improvement of knowledge ment but as a
disseminator of the sporting spectacle, are the media cation of the time and the
dissemination they make of the great events and the changes pawns Between the 60s and
70s there was a great development of television as a dominant medium; With the growth
of the audience, the importance also increases. socio-political significance of the results
of competitions, and what makes governments worry about the preparation of their
athletes (Pociello, 1999).
The takeoff of sports training as an autonomous discipline of ca scientific

character walks hand in hand with the development of the physiology of sport and
exercise. Constant research illuminated the path around the “hidden” processes that
occurred after a training stimulus (Wilmore and Costill, 1999), opening the “black box”
that resulted from ignorance about the internal processes that occurred in the athlete to
adapt. The athlete was an indeterminate system and the knowledge of these processes
made him a determined one. In an indeterminate system, not all the processes and
transformations of the system are controlled, while a determined system is one in which
it is known how the processes and transformations of the system originate. In this case,
research into the physiology of exercise and sport provided an answer to how acute
adaptations were produced in the short, medium and long term to stimuli of between
ning.
The Havard fatigue laboratory, since 1927, has been, as Wilmore and Costill
(1999) state, the one that has had the greatest impact on the field of physiology. ology of
exercise, focusing on the requirements that endurance runners must have, and also
carrying out studies that showed the influence of the environment on performance. The
use of technologies to ending oxygen consumption like the Douglas bag and other
devices made it one of the laboratories with the most impact until 1947, the year it
closed. Another line of exercise physiology that has contributed to the development of
exercise are studies on nutrition and the metabolism of fats and carbohydrates, and the
use of biopsies for a better understanding of muscle fiber. cular in the Scandinavian area
(Legido, 1998; Wilmore and Costill, 1999).
The physiologist and Nobel Prize winner Archivald Vivian Hill (1927)
contributed his contribution to this type of study and was a true pioneer in terms of bio
energy of muscular exercise is concerned (Legido, 1998; Billat, 2002).
Starting in 1960, the use of technologies such as telemé devices sensors,

electronic gas measurement analyzers, among others, represents a notable advance in
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improving sports performance and, therefore, in the transmission sion of this knowledge
to sports training. Studies on the anaerobic (and aerobic) threshold constitute another line
of research regarding the development of exercise physiology that continues to the
present time (Legido, 1998), developing all the known phenomena in relation to this
problem. Authors such as Wassermann in the 60s, who defined the term anaerobic
threshold for the first time, or Kindermann, who proposed several thresholds, aerobic,
aerobic-anaerobic and anaerobic, as a researcher in the 80s, dedicated themselves to this
topic (Legido, 1998 ).
Much of the interest of exercise physiologists has focused on endurance-focused

performance capacity. Verkhoshansky and Siff (2000) point out that: “…scientific
research on the conditional capacity of force did not develop until the 20th century, and
even today ity research on cardiovascular training attracts considers ably more attention
from scientists .” Perhaps it has been physicists who have felt most attracted to the
development of strength, through the generation of devices that measure performance in
the vertical jump, like the Russian Abalakov, or in resistance to movement in swimming
measured with dynamometer by Karpovich. Although in the field of strength training, the
work of the P groups stands out. Komi, K. Hakkinen from Finland from the Department
of Muscle Biology at the University of Jyväskylä since the 1970s, or C. Bosco during his
stay at this university.
However, at present not everything is defined. There are many lines left areas of
research to continue. Proposals arise such as mathematical models based on equations
that determine the biological potential for wear and orientation of loads, or prediction
models based on complex systems, which are still very far from the practical reality that
provides concrete answers to sports training.
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GARCÍA
2. SPORTS TRAINING:
CONCEPT.
2.1. INTRODUCTION
Talking about sports training as a concept means investigating the extensive

bibliography that shows the different conceptions of the term. Zhhelyakov (2001)
states that the concept of training has a broad meaning and is not only applicable to
sport. It is a polysemous term from the English “ trai”. ning ” which means training,
training (Collins Dictionary, Grijalbo, Barcelona, 1991, 15th edition)…and which
within the sports field is much more concrete and applicable.
Current concepts on training try to cover, from a global and integrative

perspective, both biological processes and all sociocultural interventions that affect
the athlete's performance (Hohmann et al, 2005), so sports training does not It is
simply reduced to an interaction of the athlete with physical exercises, but expands
its meaning to institutionalization processes that occur in competitive sports from a
contextual perspective (McPherson, 1981, cited by Campos, 1995), in which the
Competitive sport is studied as a system of interaction and permanent social
relationship that induces us to consider certain environmental aspects of the socio-
sporting environment in which the athletes' performances are developed.
García Manso (1999) provides up to 15 different concepts about the

environment. training. The important thing is not to opt for one definition or another,
but to extract those most interesting characteristics to form a conception of sports
training.
To structure all the definitions presented in this section, it was given They
will be viewed according to the trends established within the framework of training
theory. sports development which are the pedagogical , the theoretical-pedagogical
and the scientific-applied (Verkhoshansky, 2002).
2.2. TRAINING CONCEPTS.
2.2.1. Concepts from pedagogical theories.
The essence of this theory lies in the fact that it is developed by pedagogues of
sports from logical conclusions drawn from their experience in practice. sports ca.
For Verkhoshansky (2002:13): “…this approach uses recognition Mendations for
coaches such as: What should be done in training? How should it be done? And
when?” The foundations of this approach were provided by the Soviet Physical
Education theorist L. Matveyev.
Training pedagogues provide the following concepts:
1. Matveyev (1993:11) defines it as a pedagogical phenomenon; It is the
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specialized process of Physical Education aimed directly at achieving high sports

results.
2. Zhhelyakov (2001) talks about a process of training, education and

perfection tion of the functional possibilities of the individual to achieve high
sporting results in a certain type of motor activity.
3. Campos and Cervera (2001:14) point out sports training as the fundamental
form of preparation of the athlete based on systematic exercises. cos, and which, in
essence, constitutes a pedagogically organized process with the aim of directing the
preparation of the athlete.
4. Harre (1987:11) understands it as any organized instruction whose objective

is to rapidly increase the capacity for physical, psychological performance. co,
intellectual or technical-motor of man, in the field of sport, when we talk about
training in the sense of preparing athletes to achieve high and very high levels of
sports performance. Particularly, sports training is physical, technical, technical-
tactical, intellectual preparation. tual, psychological and moral of an athlete through
physical exercises.
5. Platonov (1995:10) defines it as the set of tasks that ensure good health,
education, harmonious physical development, technical and tactical mastery and a
high level of development of specific qualities.
6. Martin and Vittori (1997a; 1997b; 1997c) consider it a complex

psychopedagogical process where volume and intensity are linked in a planned
way. ity through a series of exercises, with the ultimate objective of raising
performance physical, technical, tactical and psychological development of the
practitioner in the competition.
7. Delgado (1997:143) points out that it is a conscious development process.

directed, of the motor capacities that ensure the achievement of previously
established physical-sports results.
2.2.2. Concepts from the technical-pedagogical trend.
This trend tries to clarify the problems of preparation and training of athletes
through the use of isolated experimental facts and informative scientific information
from the physiology of sport. It mixes elements linked to the first with the scientific
contributions of sports physiology.
The concepts of the technical-pedagogical trend of training are:
8. Bompa (1994) defines training as a systematic athletic activity long-lasting

therapy that is graduated individually and progressively. Physiological and
psychological functions are modeled in relation to task demands.
9. González Badillo (1991:90) points out that it is a continuous work process

that seeks the development of the physical and psychological qualities of the subject
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GARCÍA
to achieve achieve maximum sporting performance.
10. Martin, Carl and Lehnertz (2001:17) establish it as a common process

complex of activities, aimed at the planned development of certain states of sports
performance and their display in sports verification situations, especially in
competitive activity.
11. Álvarez del Villar (1992:626) understands it as the systematic and

regularly repeated course of a series of exercises or activities carried out in order to
improve and adapt the natural functions of the healthy human organism to a
previously set performance.
12. Weineck (1994: 11) defines it as a process in which, through physical

exercise, one tends to reach a more or less high level according to the proposed
objectives.
13. Howley and Franks (1986) talk about training as conditioning physical
training through repeated workloads.
14. Dick (1989) established it as the basic means of adapting to individual

stressors or stimuli through controlled exercise.
2.2.3. Concepts from the applied scientific trend.
This trend focuses on the study of the factors, mechanisms and with
conditions that affect the development of mastery in all the manifestations of its
competitive aspect. In this aspect, the most important thing lies in the scientific
essence of the training process, the discovery of the laws that govern the
development of improvement and the formulation based on these of principles that
show the way to incorporate these laws into sports practice.
15. Zintl (1991:9) understands training as the planned process that aims or
means a change (optimization, stabilization, reduction) of the complex capacity for
sports performance (physical condition, movement technique, tactics, psychological
aspects).
16. Hohmann, Lames and Letzeier (2005:18) establish it as the reality

planned and systematic preparation of the necessary measures (contents and training
methods) to obtain, with persistent and lasting effects, objectives (training
objectives) in and through sport.
17. Manno (1992:19) indicates that it is very difficult to make an

approximation synthetic tion to the concept of training, because of the complexity
and diversity ity of intentions. You can find several but partial ones. On the
biological level logically, training aims to provoke morphofunctional,
electrophysiological, biochemical, etc. changes. On the psychological level, these
modifications would refer to motivation, cognitive processes and everything that has
to do with self-image. Viewed generally, it is the way to develop motor and other
abilities in each sporting discipline.
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18. Petit Robert ( 1993, cited by Billat, 2002) defines it as: “the pre
“paration of an animal, a person or a piece of equipment to any performance through
appropriate exercises.”
19. Verkhoshanski (1990:11) points it out as “specific motor activity”. ca,

systematic, aimed at the training and complete education of the athlete in this field:
acquisition of multiple and varied special knowledge of motor skill and sporting
ability; increase in the conditional performance capacity of the organism; and
control of sports technique and the way of behaving in competition (tactics).”
20. García Manso (1999:29) establishes it as the methodological process

cially structured by the sports technician, which consists of the application of
workloads that cause the athlete to break their state of balance. brio through
controlled fatigue, which after adequate recovery allows a return to the normal
situation that over time is transformed into adaptations that lead to an improvement
in performance.
As can be seen, each concept and each trend emphasizes one of finished aspect
of the training, complements some aspect of it, and in most cases presents a series of
key words that are repeated in each of the definitions. These definitions could be
summarized in elemen key points that would give us a rough idea of the concept of
sports training:
1. It is a process
2. Planned
3. Systematic and scientific.
4. Through physical exercise.
5. Leads to sports performance.
In this sense, the training process can be understood as a system, this process
being planned, which implies decision making. sions on the part of the coach to
anticipate what is going to happen in the future. On the other hand, it is found
that in most cases the training uses the scientific method for its development by
establishing relationships of cause (independent variable) and effect (dependent
variable). te) between empirical data, and generalizable, since through a
specific sample the data can be extrapolated to the universe of the population. It
is systematic, identifying and following an action procedure, in which physical
exercise is used, understood as the external workload, which leads to sports
performance.
2.3. THE OBJECTIVES OF SPORTS TRAINING.
In general, sports training aims to influence the state of sports performance,

directing it towards a goal. The objectives lead the intentions that are intended to be
carried out and are formed as a goal to be achieved.
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GARCÍA
When training is understood as a psycho-pedagogical process, as established by

Matveyev (1983), the purpose of training is: “… to develop, through the highest
marks, the spiritual and physical aptitudes of the athlete to use this activity, as a
factor of harmonious formation of personality and education in the interest of
society… ”
For Bompa, (1999:4) the training objectives must cover aspects cough both
physiological and psychological. Thus, the physiological objective is to improve the
functioning of the body's organs and systems and optimize sports performance . In
relation to the psychological aspect, this objective is linked to the control of
competitive anxiety, the motivation to achieve sports performance, etc. Bompa
(1999:5) breaks down the objectives of training I lie in:
^ Multilateral physical development. As development of physical

capabilities basic physical characteristics of the individual.
^ Sport-specific physical development. Improve the specific strength, speed
and endurance required for the sport
^ Technical factors. Development of the specific skills (techniques) required
for the sport based on an economy of effort, at the highest possible speed
and under any circumstances.
^ Tactical factors. Developing the strategic skills of the individual viduo,
and the collective ones, studying the tactics of the opponents to op shy
her
^ Psychological Aspects. Preparation in this aspect is also very important,

improving competitive anxiety, personality, perseverance,...etc.
^ Team cohesion capacity. In team sports, the work The coach's work must
also be channeled towards establishing group cohesion in all factors, not
only strategic or technical, but there must also be an adequate team
climate, this establishing a feeling of belonging to it and trying to achieve
all the same objectives and goals.
^ Health factors. Ensure the health of the individual above their
performance. The health of the elite athlete is important, since without it
their performance can decrease considerably. In this sense, a struggle is
constantly established between performance and health factors. On the
one hand, the type of effort they have to undergo generally entails a
constant risk of injury. On the other hand, as training moves within the
limits of human capacity, a loss of health can occur due to excess fatigue
and overtraining.
^ Injury Prevention . During training sessions, it is about taking precautions
regarding exercises, materials, etc. Through flexibility and strength work,
the muscles can be adapted in such a way that any unusual or natural
movement can be realized. lyse it without causing injury to the individual.
^ Theoretical knowledge. Training should increase knowledge ment of the
athlete in terms of what he does and its subsequent effects teriors, serving
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as a basis to jointly propose between the nator and the athlete what
realistic goals can be developed in the season.
Manno (1992: 20) establishes that there are training objectives linked to their
expiration and, therefore, they are divided into long and short term. Along with this
timing, the objectives oriented to sports training have an order of priority, but taking
into account that there are always interconnections between them. Under these
premises, the objectives proposed by Manno (1992) are:
^ Educate volitional qualities.

^ Strengthen health, consolidate correct body development as I gave of
injury prevention.
^ Develop fundamental motor skills (skills with ditional and coordinative).
^ Perfect the motor skills involved in the technique of portiva.
^ Develop sports technique and tactics.
^ Acquire theoretical-practical knowledge that allows you to evaluate your
own level of training.
^ Train the athlete to perform, during the competition, everything acquired
in training.
Weineck (1994) points out that to improve sports performance capacity, the
following types of objectives must be developed:
^ Psychomotor objectives: They include the development of conditional

and coordinative abilities, as well as techniques.
^ Cognitive objectives: include the development of tactical knowledge, as
well as basic general knowledge that can optimize the effectiveness of
training.
^ Psychological objectives: referring to the development of volitional
abilities tives, self-control, etc.
For Martin, Carl and Lehnertz (2001) the objectives are:
^ Systematically influence the states of sporting performance visible in the

individual.
^ Exhibit sports performances and/or achieve greater individual success
duals, particularly in sports competition.
It seems pertinent, therefore, to point out that the main objective is to

guarantee the coach's maximum performance in the athlete, or in other words, to
achieve the maximum performance that the athlete can achieve in view of the
objectives set in a season.
Once this objective, which is a priority in the field of sports performance, is

broken down, we could reach more contextualized objectives in a second place,
which would lead to this first one, such as:
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GARCÍA
1. Contribute to the development of maximum physical, technical, tactical

performance ethics and strategies of the athlete .
2. Guarantee sports learning based on the initial level, individual or group, of
the athlete or athletes, contributing to their basic progression. being in the
teaching-learning process.
3. Know the needs of the athlete in terms of factors other than the pro training
process and take these into account when planning your training. training.
4. Establish direct coach-sports group relationships so that communication is
direct and you know all the problems that may arise. turn in this area.
Our training objective/s are intended to achieve one of finished performance
statusII , and behind this state there are a series of processes in the elements, which,
related to each other, form a system, a performance system.
2.4. TRAINING AS A SYSTEMIC MODEL.
There is great interest in the application of Systems Theory for the analysis
of responses to sports training (Busso and Thomas 2006). This interest began from
the work of Banister et al. (1985,1986) and their model has subsequently been
expanded and modified by other authors. For Platonov (2001:9) “ The general
theory of training is developed under the influence of a series of disciplines and
theories of a general nature, one of these is cybernetics, defined as the science of
direction, relationship and process. ment of information ”. Systems theory has had a
great influence cy about sports training. The systems underlie and are part of sports
training, replacing, as Martin et al (2001) state, the concept of structure of sports
performance. This should not lead to confusion sion between the sports organization
system of a state and the training system I lie. The first is defined as a series of
ideas, theories or speculations organized or methodologically ordered that would
encompass the experience accumulated in the sports field as well as scientific
discoveries brought together into a whole. The system is understood as an
organizational structure sports organization of a country according to a specific
government, sports clubs you etc…, It is the so-called sports system of a country. On
the other hand, there is a training system that depends directly on the sports system
proposed by the coach, because it is immersed in the conditions. contextual and
social nes of a sports model determined by a state. This systemic model proposed by
Bompa (1994) depends on a series of factors, but this author does not establish them
as a systemic cybernetic model, but rather forms a subordinate structure of factors in
the form of a tree that reflects, in a descriptive way, the different elements. that
intervene and that are not considered necessary to develop.
For Dorsch (1970, cited by Martin, Carl and Lehnertz, 2001), a system is a
conglomerate of several individual processes, which interact with each other
according to certain laws, being dynamically dependent.
Torrents (2002) defines general systems theory as a complex of interacting
II It results from the current level (at each moment) of the personal performance components (influencing
factors), whose degree of incidence is shown in the result of a task.
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elements and aims to establish general principles for all systems, regardless of their
physical, biological or sociological nature. The understanding of reality will be
based on its totality, and the levels of dependency between the elements will vary
depending on the type of system referred to, thus highlighting the importance of the
whole and the networks of relationships.
García Manso, Navarro and Ruiz (1996:22) and García Manso (1999:31) re
They are taken as a set of interconnected elements that is coherently organized
around the same objective. Thus, the parts that make it up have a level of
dependency that will vary depending on the type of system being referred to.
A system is an entity characterized by at least one input and one output. put
related to the input through a mathematical function (Busso and Tho mas, 2006).
The output corresponds to the response of the system to a stimulus represented
sitting for the input. The function shows the behavior of the system using the
parameters determining sports performance in a specific sport. Figure 2.1A reflects,
on the one hand, the schematic representation of the system in a general way
according to the characteristics established by Busso and Thomas, (2006). On the
other hand, figure 2.1B represents the systemic application to the sports training in
such a way that the input is manifested by the training dose ment performed, the
system is displayed by the athlete and the output is reflected by the subject's
performance. This model is very simplistic in its formulation since the accumulation
of training loads produces a variation in the type of fatigue that is caused, and in the
subsequent adaptation of the organism to a level of performance that is expected to
be higher. On the other hand, it ignores other factors outside the training itself and
that affect performance such as psychological, biological, tactical preparation, etc.
Figure 2.1. Schematic representation of the systemic model applied to

sports training.
In this way, the sports training system considers the individual as a whole,
since he only performs his vital functions in this way, opo thus joining the
reductionist conception of understanding the subject only from its biological side.
However, the development that will allow obtaining maximum sporting performance
is carried out based on positivist scientific knowledge, which is approached from an
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GARCÍA
analytical perspective of each of the elements that make up that whole through the
scientific knowledge of the athlete. However, systems theory attempts to analyze a
dynamic process. co as responses to sports training through a mathematical model
tico (Busso and Thomas, 2006).
The systems have a series of characteristics that are described below. nuation
in relation to sports training (Padial, 1997):
^ The application of sports preparation systems takes into account the concept of
synergy, as a joint action of two or more variables towards a common goal, from
which it is established that only when the components of the en training are
unified and directed into a single whole, the expected results are achieved.
^ Systems are made up of components called variables. These can be essential
(important from the point of view of the task) and non-essential (not equally
important from the point of view of the task). The state of a system will depend
on the magnitude of the essential variables. The concept of system state is
determined by the magni tudity of its essential variables, which applied to the
field of training of sports can be defined as potential training capacity and
capacity ity of sports performance (Weineck, 1994).
^ No system can function without reverse links that account for the degree of
compliance with the programmed objectives. Any deviation between what is
programmed and the real value of the system is called lack of coordination, and
through training control these lack of coordination can be verified. tions.
2.4.1. The systemic model of Banister et al. (1986).
This model is based on the premise of defining training as a pro complex

process. Training approaches, increasingly more sophisticated, have been increasing
and individualized in each sport. The proposed systemic model initially consists of
the interaction of several linked processes, such as physical, technical, tactical
preparation and psychological training, all integrating the athlete's lifestyles. All
these factors ultimately contribute to the optimization of sports performance
(Banister et al, 1986). The model is seen in figure 2.2.
- 42 -
Figure 2.2. Global performance model by Banister et al (1986:8).
These processes range from those that can be manipulated by training, to

those that come from daily life activities and that cannot be modified since they are
considered intangible.
Both positive and negative feedback from the mechanisms involved is

integrated into a whole whose effect (output) is sports performance, so the coach's
main task focuses on how to measure all the variables that are part of the system.
The basis of the construction of the athlete, according to this model, is the
condition physical tion, on which the other elements of a mental nature are based,
optimizing mization of technique, tactical preparation; Therefore, the physiological
dimension of the athlete has a predominant role in relation to the other elements in
this model.
Although Banister et al (1986) argue the convenience of an EVA luation and

constant control of the intervening parameters, because the conduct of the process
must be regulated by the continuous information of the subject's sporting status, in
its cybernetic model there is no such regulatory mechanism. Perhaps it is the only
criticism that can be made of this model.
2.4.2. Manfred Grosser's cybernetic model (1992).
This model is based on two fundamental principles when developing training

planning, taking speed training as a particular case (Grosser, 1992), the foundations
of training as a science and, supported by the theories of cybernetics , as a circuit
planning and regulation process with the aim of achieving the maximum individual
performance capacity.
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GARCÍA
This model seeks the maximum level of adaptation, through a long-term

process that usually comes after 6-12 years of training (Grosser, 1992).
Firstly, a series of steps are established that must be repeated and that are
justified based on the planning and methodology of the training, and are guided
through the practice of what is planned in accordance with a methodology and the
use of the scientific method. .
Grosser (1992) describes each of the steps of this planning and re gulation of
training as shown in figure 2.3.
The process begins as a prerequisite through performance analysis. sports

training. They are studied:
^ The biomechanical, physiological and functional-anatomical conditions of

movements and loads, and
^ The profile of physical, cognitive, psychological, and physical condition
demands tropometric, social and material.
PHASE
1
PHASE
2
PHASE
3
PHASE
4
And 5
Figure 2.3: Grosser's Cybernetic Model of planning and development of the high
sports performance (1992: 160).
Step 1 would consist of studying the level of performance or training (initial

diagnosis) through testing. Step 2 sets short- or long-term performance objectives,
and certain standards can be specified in order to provide guidance. At the same
time, a planned adaptation is established between training phases and the
competition calendar. Step 3 of this model involves ca the execution of the training
sessions, in other words, the implementation of what was planned. The next step
involves the controls that must be applied, if possible, in each training session,
through observation, measurement, and testing. Step 5, the last of the model, means
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the comparative analysis of the control data in order to be able to make immediate
corrections during the training and/or competition. The regulatory model proposed
by Grosser (1992) implies that steps 1 and 3 represent the planning process. cation
and 4 and 5 represent the regulatory process.
2.4.3. Sports training as a management problem (Verkhoshansky, 1990; Siff

and Verkhoshansky, 2000).
Perhaps this is one of the most complete models due to its thoroughness
when it comes to describing in detail each of the elements that compose it. They
define and define a system, as well as its close relationship with the training process
which, as defined above, is one of the key elements that define the concept of sports
training.
To understand the model, a series of established premises must be

established. given in the work of Verkhoshansky translated into Spanish in 1990,
and which serves as a basis for other models such as the previous one by Padial
(1997) or that of Garcia Manso et al (1996).
The essence of the Verkhoshansky model is to understand the training to as a

management problem, understanding this (1990:20): “…as the modification of the
state of the controlled (regulated) subject (a system, a process so) carried out
according to certain criteria of effectiveness of its operation and development llo .”
Thus, to correctly construct the concept of training direction ment, a series of

initial premises related to the system are necessary, such as:
1. Represent the structure of the object that must be controlled.

2. Keep in mind the laws that regulate passage from one state to
another.
The graphical representation of the model is shown in figure 2.4:
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GARCÍA
Figure 2.4. Logical organizational scheme of the training process.

(Verkhoshansky, 1990: 20).
The training process is organized around tasks that pre They tend to achieve
a certain objective, and to achieve it a program is required. mation of training. The
objective spoken of is the “sports result.” vo”, defined as the product of a well-
ordered set of external interactions of the athlete (Verkhoshansky, 1990:20).
Thus, to achieve what this author calls sports mastery (or sports performance
capacity), the direction of sports training must be regulated around the set of
interactions external to the athlete, typical of the competitive activity in the sport
considered. . This would be the first of the three control or direction objects of the
sports training system.
The set of external interactions can be organized more effectively the greater
the athlete's motor potential. This potential determines its level of morpho-functional
quality. Thus the second object of regulation would be the condition of the athlete.
Both the interactions and the condition of the athlete are systematized. given
and regulated in the necessary direction through a systematic motor activity specific
matic, or training load, which is considered the third regulatory object of training. So
these three objects, according to the author, constitute a complex hierarchically
organized whole, which in the training process seeks to modify to meet the
objectives. This process has a cyclical character that is repeated as many times as
necessary. rias to obtain the desired sporting performance.
The input of the system is the training program, which includes a series of
physical, psychological, social, etc. factors.
Regarding training (see figure 2.4) as a process, the characteristics The most
important aspects of this are:
- 46 -
1. The link function between the global object is through the potential of the en
training and load effect
2. The relationship between the input and output of the system is very complex,
and this relationship is determined through two regulatory circuits (see figure
2.5):
a. Training load - training potential of the load - condition of the athlete.
b. Athlete condition - training effect of load - interaction external tions
of the athlete.
3. The need for control arises when a decision has to be made regarding which
activity is most appropriate for the athlete.
A few years later, in the book “Supertraining” or Supertraining in the

Spanish edition, together with Mel Siff, Verkhoshansky proposed a more advanced
model than the one previously explained. For Siff and Verkhoshansky (2000) sports
training is a directed system with a series of logically sequenced components for an
effective organization of sports training. tive, as shown in figure 2.6. The elements
are similar to the initial model but each one of them has been carefully developed to
respond to the new training demands.
Figure 2.5. Logical program for the organization of sports training.

(Verkhoshansky and Siff, 2000).
Training is organized according to specific tasks that translate into a palpable
improvement in sports results, to the point that the degree of improvement in
performance becomes the criterion to assess the effectiveness of the training, and
this sports performance is due, according to Verkhoshansky and Siff, (2000), to the
organization of those sports movements tist who make effective use of motor
potential and strength in the execution of specific motor tasks .
Therefore, the direction of training will be oriented towards the identification
of the components of sports performance, which are:
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GARCÍA
1. The complex of external influences that the athlete encounters in

competition. In multi-year training, athletes train to increase their motor
potential and specific work capacity.
2. The physical state of the athlete (functional and structural qualities that
determine their potential).
3. The training load that regulates the direction of training.
Each component represents a hierarchically organized complex that

undergoes goal-directed changes during sports training.
The organization established in figure 2.6 is as follows:
1. The interaction between the components of the system is determined by the

training potential (potential to promote the adaptation of the body as well as
the corresponding changes to the physical condition) and the effect on load
training (relatively stable adaptation of the body through the use of any
logical training program).
2. The connection between the initial and final points of training is very
complex and is determined by the interconnection of two subsystems:
a. Training load subsystem - training potential on the load - physical
state of the athlete.
b. Training effect of the load - physical condition of the athlete -
interaction external tions of the athlete.
3. The need for effective management appears when a problem arises in
selecting a training regimen, so success depends on the method chosen to
provide an optimal solution.
This model is effectively complemented by developing the training

organization process in parallel, establishing a series of principles. principles and
rules that give meaning to the steps that sequence the training procedure and the
elements that make it up. As stated by Siff and Verkhoshansky, (2000: 412): “ …the
formulation of theories and practical methods for training programming is only
possible through knowledge. ment of the process that leads to acquiring sports
mastery… ”
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This process, which can be seen in figure 2.6, involves the study gave details
of a series of elements, among which stand out: the adaptation tion to intense
muscular work, as well as the quantitative characteristics of the adaptation process
relevant to training programming (adaptation will be substantiated later), structural
specialization and function. tional as a manifestation, and the structure of special
physical preparation (Siff and Verkhoshansky, 2000: 412).
Figure 2.6. Structuring of sports training (Verkhoshansky,

1990:25; Siff and Verkhoshansky, 2000: 409).
2.4.3.1. Adaptation to intense muscular work.
The importance of adaptation entails a process of assimilation of training

loads. Although the concepts of load and adaptation are developed later, initially, for
the understanding of this section, adaptation can be defined as “…the dynamic
maintenance of a level of imbalance between the body and the environment in a
given movement, reason fundamental for the origin and development of
accommodative reconstruction goes… ” (Verkhoshansky and Siff, 2000:414).
The main core of this programming parameter is the development of long-

term adaptation over several years, which requires a series of considerations:
1. The average and absolute level of special strength preparation increases
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GARCÍA
annually.
2. The initial level of force-velocity in each annual cycle is lower than the level
reached at the end of the previous year, although higher than that at the
beginning.
3. The improvement in strength and speed year after year is higher among
sports tas of average ability than among elite athletes.
4. There is a trend in the dynamics of special force preparation, which is
determined by the traditional periodization model and the competition
calendar.
2.4.3.2. Functional and structural specialization in training.
The specific elements of adaptation are determined by the sports work

regime that the athlete follows, which involves a gradual but constant increase in the
workload that is associated with an increase in sports performance. For
Verkhoshansky and Siff (2000) all specialization is achieved by comparing the
athlete's current sporting skill with the ideal performance model in each sport. Thus,
functional and structural specialization tries to provoke a stable adaptation through
specific conditioning. To achieve sporting performance, physiological and motor
specialization is an essential condition.
Physiological specialization will imply in cyclic sports that the Development

will be oriented towards the ergogenic processes that are required for your sport and
the functional hypertrophy of the muscles in each specific case.
Motor specialization refers to the adequate motor control of the technical

gesture required to optimize performance in a given sport. do. To delve deeper into
the development and optimization of sports technique, there are texts that deal with
it from the biomechanical perspective (Enoka, 2002; McGinnins, 2005, Champman,
2008) and from motor control (Schmidt and Wisberg, 2008; Schmidt and Lee ,
2005).
2.4.3.3. Structure of special physical preparation.
Functional specialization is associated with a specific adaptation in the

cardiovascular, respiratory and neuromuscular systems, as well as the effectiveness
of the central nervous system mechanisms that regulate their activities. Therefore,
the direction of training has to carry with it the sequential and concurrent effects of
training, since it is based on the premise that specificity arises from a set of non-
specific physical qualities.
Special physical preparation depends on the development of physical

qualities necessary physical exercises with the same muscles and neuromuscular
mechanisms that are exercised in a sport, so it must be based on a thorough
knowledge of the different types of specificity in a given sport.
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2.4.4. The systemic model of García Manso, Navarro and Ruiz (1996) and
García Manso (1999).
This model, also supported by systems theory, is based on the mechanisms

that occur sequentially during the sports training process and form an order that,
from a method point of view, Logically, this process follows as shown in figure 2.7.
Thus for García Manso (1999:43): “…training consists of the pro process of
applying to the athlete, by a coach, a process of inter vention made up of known
stimuli, which produce in the organ nism a controlled alteration of various
microsystems and achieve different three levels of adaptation that adjust to initial
forecasts, which with "lead to improved performance in a specific sport modality."
Figure 2.7. System model applied to training theory and practice

sports. García Manso, Navarro and Ruiz (1996) and modified by García
Meek (1999).
The model tries to explain the existing interactions between the different
mechanisms involved in sports training (García Manso, Navarro and Ruiz, 1996;
García Manso, 1999).
Thus, it is understood how the training load becomes the mecha nism that
will produce, or not, adaptations in the body, and these adaptations will lead to an
improvement in sports performance. However, if the loads do not produce
adaptation, the body may be doomed to loss of blood. loss due to insufficient
training or overtraining, and can even lead to injury.
The key element of this model is explained through the planes or level
adaptation tasks that are achieved as a result of training loads (García Manso, 1999).
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GARCÍA
Feedback constitutes one of the most important elements, since it allows us

to know the effects of training loads.
The model is represented in figure 2.8, based on the replacement of the structure
concept with a training system. The concept of structure is much more restricted and
describes a series of components that encompass it such as:
1. periodization,
2. cyclical organization,
3. content harmonization,
4. load dynamics,
5. temporary modifications to the contents of the training process to.
It can be seen how the concept structure refers to the organization formal tion
of certain aspects while the concept of training system “…describes an
accumulation of individual processes that act retroactively on each other, thereby
obtaining a common effect…” ( Martin, Carl and Lehnertz, 2001:281).
- 52 -
Figure 2.8. Systemic model of Martin, Carl and Lehnertz (2001).
In this sense, the structuring of the objectives pursued is only achievable

when there is planning and organization of training that follows certain guidelines
and requires conditions focused on an evolution. tion of performance. Therefore, the
starting point of the system is constituted tuned by the conditions, objectives and
planning.
Through training planning, you designate in a very general way neral mental
anticipation of the training program, which implies prior decision-making by the
coach regarding the establishment of partial objectives , the organization, contents
and training methods ment, and all this points to the improvement of sports
performance. Table 2.1 refers to the most important decisional categories regarding
training planning (Martin, Carl and Lehnertz, 2001:37).
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GARCÍA
Table 2.1. Categories and decisional variables of planning and implementation

of training.
Partial
Structuring Organization Contents Methods
objectives
Sports Structuring over Forms of exercise

successes/perfo several years. Realization of the
rmances. between ning Control and Training
Training year - Facilities. training schemes.
States of sports cycles to. - Groups. competitions
performance. - Coach/ Carrying out
Microcycles. preparator. Cognitive topics training in the
Individual - Material. for the strict sense.
components of Training units. transmission of
performance Auxiliary tools for knowledge. Organizational
status. Sports execution and control. process of
competitions. - Plans. Measures that training I lie.
- Performance accompany
diagnosis. training Forms of action
- Training (physiotherapy, of the coach.
documentation I nutrition and
lie. others) Performance
- Observation of evaluation.
the competition.
- Evaluation of
training and
competition.
Search and selection of

TRAINING ORGANIZATION
talents.
Planning must take into account the social and material conditions in which
athletes train, as well as the extra-sports objectives that affect their academic and/or
work world (Youth Sports Trust, 2001).
Planning must refer to the implementation or execution of training on the

athlete, understood as the set of measures put into practice by the athletes, with the
support of the coach (and the physical trainer), to achieve the training objectives.
previously established.
The implementation entails, in turn, a series of factors that have They have to
do with the athlete's performance status, both in training and in competition, which
is analyzed by controlling it.
This model has a certain parallel in terms of its organization with the forms
of programming and planning of teaching models, being very similar to the model of
Goodwin and Klausteimer (1975).
This model, much more simplified and general in relation to the ante
However, it is based on the assumption that sports performance must be controlled
- 54 -
precisely through a dosed manipulation of the training load. I lie.
The starting point of this model is the planning of the between ning, based on
two clearly differentiated aspects; on the one hand, cone foundations based on
subjective experiences of the coach and, on the other hand, the existing scientific
knowledge of sports training to date. Plan car involves adopting a series of decisions
about the future that is desired regarding to various issues related to sports training,
linked to the intended objectives and in line with those contents of the training that
are going to be used to optimize the athlete's performance and how they are going to
be distributed over time so that the athlete can assimilate them much more easily. In
this sense, knowledge transmission mechanisms must be put into play that allow the
athlete to receive the intended ideas and exercises so that the performance
optimization process is a success. Thus for Hohmann et al. (2005:195): “… the
objecti Training methods according to the cybernetic concept are understood as
valid when the adjustment performance achieved occurs through interventions. tions
of the training, that is, when the effect anticipated by the training action can be
verified .
The training regulatory circuit leads to the systematic execution of training

planning, that is, to the implementation of what has been planned. This intervention
towards and on the athlete is based on the premise that the athlete is not in a
position, by his or her own means, whether physical, technical, or tactical, to achieve
the expected performance in the objectives on his or her own and, therefore, uses a
process systematically planned by the coach. The execution of certain competitive
exercises requires complex planning on the part of the coach and a process of
adjustment and regulation of the training in such a way that the coach is a facilitator
of the trainees. jes and the complex process that the athlete requires to achieve the
determined objectives.
The next step, which is responsible for closing the system, is the control of
the training, understood as a process of checking possible deviations in the planning
due to the training interventions. to its effectiveness, in order to modify previous
decisions regarding the planning and execution of training and adapt them to the
objectives and with text in which we find ourselves at that moment in relation to
sports performance.
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GARCÍA
In this sense, sports training methodologists establish training control based

on obtaining quantitative data. tative, which provide detailed information about the
athlete's level in tests carried out in a certain phase of their preparation (Campos and
Cervera, 2001), as shown in photos 1 and 2. In them, a series of parameters are
being evaluated for a swimmer after a training cycle, and with this we verify the
effectiveness of said training cycle.
Photos 1 and 2. Control of maximum stroke power using the Biometer in

swimmers during the EVANAT program.
These data at a quantitative level are nothing more than motor behaviors.
perations that the athlete must achieve within the ergogenic context that arises in the
structuring of a sports program in the field of sports with a predominance of physical
condition, which is what the aforementioned authors refer to.
The objective of quantification based on the control of the loads of Training
allows us to know these values and, therefore, constitutes a decisive control element
in training to guide, reorganize or adjust workloads. Campos and Cervera (2001)
state that control must also serve to collect a series of data about what the athlete has
done during his season, what he has worked on in each of the contents of his training
plan and even the number of competitions held, understand giving these as a more
specific burden. Notable methodologists in this field, such as Navarro (2000) or
Verkhoshanski (1990), propose that the control be carried out with the appropriate
periodicity to optimize its use, in a simple way, without altering the training process
(for more information about these issues, see to the referenced works).
Programming control must be global in nature, so that a record of data is

made in relation to the work carried out, the athlete's perception of said work, and
the means that have been used to optimize the competition. motor at a cognitive,
motor and attitudinal level, the number of sessions, their adequacy to planning, the
adequacy of objectives, etc.
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Figure 2.9. Systemic-cybernetic model of Hohmann et al. (2005).
2.4.7. Tschiene's updated model (2000, 2001).
Peter Tschiene (2001) considers that until now there has not been a
comprehensive and coherent training theory that can truly be considered a systemic
explanation.
All of this, despite initially stating that the systemic approach is an aid to
understanding the expression of sports provision in its aspects. theoretical,
methodological and practical, since always “ the whole is greater than the sum of its
parts ” as Aristotle stated.
Their criticism is based on the fact that the adoption of some of the models
revises two follow obsolete approaches based on the incipient works of training
theory from the 50s and 60s, renewed for the occasion or approach. incomplete
coughs that do not give a current vision of the training.
In the majority of authors that we have reviewed we have not discovered

mode systemic ones that take into account the main function that competition
entails tion, what's more, to a large extent capital importance is given to the
periodization itself without taking this factor into account.
For Tschiene (2000) competition is important because:
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GARCÍA
^ The dizzying increase in competitions for the athlete, derived fundamentally

from the commercial paradigm, which in other times obeys focused on
political-social issues. The competition must be quantified in such a way that
its number allows the athlete to tolerate said stress. It must allow an adequate
recovery process, which improves sports performance, so it must act
synergistically with the adaptation. tation.
^ The adaptation that is necessary to achieve sporting performance, due to the
importance it has as a measure of training and as a transcendent condition
prior to competition.
Criticism of systemic models is aimed, above all, at the absence of

competition as an element that is part of it, and which in turn provides information
about the state of the system (feedback), reinforcing it. The lack of importance of
competition in the models, together with the increase in the number of competitions,
are the justifications provided to dismiss as valid some of the proposed systemic
models.
The training methodology must be reviewed since the subdivision of the

exercises into conditional and technical is absolutely new, since if the model is
integrative it must promote a holistic approach to training and not
compartmentalized.
.o
.o r
r or o
o r r
a
o
Derivation of the
competition and
content of
Training.
.o
r
or
E .o
or r
o
r
L
TRAINING AND
RECOVERY
STRUCTURE OF THE CAPACITY
BENEFIT
Figure 2.10. Control of adaptation in a dynamic system oriented

increase in sports performance. (Tschiene, 2000).
There are two elements that support the model proposed by Peter Tschiene;
on the one hand, the priority in the biological aspect specified in the adaptation of
the athlete and, on the other, the already highlighted importance of the competition.
- 58 -
tion as the element by which adaptation and increase in sports performance are
sought.
Immediate preparation for the competition is considered within the es

training structure as the creation of the maximum form that is shown in the main
competition and that is established immediately after it. It is the most important
element of the training process within its systemic component (Tschiene 2002). It is
considered within the Tschiene model as a prior organizational stage, with contents
that work fundamentally. perhaps specific sessions oriented towards competition,
although it does not provide more objective data regarding how this type of content
should be quantified, what recovery should be like, or the organizational structures
that support it. It simply states that it has to allow the athlete to adapt appropriately
to optimal competition capacity.
2.5. TOWARDS A UNIFICATION AND SYNTHESIS OF THE MOST

RELEVANT ELEMENTS IN THE TRAINING SYSTEM.
The relevance of systems applied to sports training, analyzed ized so far,

reflects a series of defining characteristics that can be summarized in:
1. The sports training system considers the individual as a whole, since the
individual only performs his functions in this way. Although it has usually
been more focused on conditional capabilities, technical, tactical,
psychological preparation, etc., cannot be ignored. Thus, in professional
practice they act jointly, and in most cases it is specific to the competition
they all go together.
2. Sports training is a continuous process, open and in constant review and
transformation, so it has to be continually updated. adjusting (training
control), which allows us to have a dynamic and not static vision of this
process.
3. Each author establishes a series of variables to manipulate to which they give
different importance, although there are concepts that are basic to define the
sports training system such as training direction, performance status, training
control, potential performance capacity, adaptation, conducting training, etc.
4. The state of a system will depend on the potential training capacity ment and
the sports performance capacity of the athlete system.
5. The training objectives are presented as the directing element of the process.
6. Training planning is understood from different perspectives either as the
system itself (Grosser, 1992), as a part of the system (Martin, Carl and
Lehnertz, 2001; Hohmann et al., 2005) or as a pro- biological process (García
Manso, Navarro and Ruiz, 1996; García Manso, 1999; Verkhoshansky and
Siff, 2000).
7. Adequate planning and carrying out the loads that will affect the athlete will
lead to correct adaptation and, therefore, an increase in improved
performance. For this reason, the load-recovery-adaptation triangle becomes
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GARCÍA
the key elements of analysis in sports training that, due to its importance, we
develop. llar in the next chapters.
8. The training process has been overrated. Other factors must be taken into
account within the framework of the system, fundamentally competition nes,
which have achieved great importance due to their volume, and their exi
sociocultural agencies.
2.6. PERFORMANCE MODEL AND TRAINING MODEL.
The analysis of the concept of training, its objectives, and the different
different systems that configure the training process, constitutes a drowsiness basic
conceptual concept when explaining the What?, How?, Why? and the why? of sports
training. All these concepts serve as a foundation ment for the identification of
essential and non-essential variables that cause performance improvement and their
subsequent application to the design of a training program. From this identification
and subsequent application, the concepts of performance model and training
model described by Navarro, (2008) arise from the initial proposal of the concept by
Schnabel, Harre and Borde, (1998). Both concepts show an intimate relationship
with each other, since they are dependent on each other, and establish an essential
subordinate relationship.
On the other hand, at the most practical and methodological level they
constitute the pi lar on which the rest of the elements that the coach must design to
achieve an adequate response to the previously established questions are based.
2.6.1. Performance model.
The purpose of the performance model is to indicate the conditions,

components and factors that influence sports performance, and that are decisive for
achieving maximum performance. Each of these aspects cough requires a detailed
analysis that allows identifying the role and cia, as well as a priority order of the
importance of the essential variables that make them up and that will contribute to
subsequently designing the training model of the sports specialty.
- 60 -
The performance conditions constitute the logistical, human and material

elements that will give rise to the performance, such as facilities, equipment,
adversaries, etc.
The components are the elements that influence performance and that are
unrelated to the sporting performance itself, such as the referee, the spectators, the
weather, etc., or the conditions of the sporting performance itself (difficulty of
exercises, choreography composition).
The factors are configured by the key elements that constitute yen sports
performance and are typical of the athlete. They constitute the element to formalize
where sports training is headed. They are divided into consti tutional, conditional,
technical-coordinative and tactical.
From this model arises the so-called delivery system that hierarchically
distributes and articulates the elements defined in the performance model following
these three criteria:
^ Hierarchy : Classifies the elements of the service by attributing them to

various explanatory levels.
^ Internal order : Determines the elements of the benefit system horizontally.
^ Definition of priority : Establishes the level of importance of each one.
An example of a performance model is shown in Figure 2.11:
GENERAL MODEL OF SPORTS PERFORMANCE
FACILITIES, EQUIPMENT, OPPONENTS…

INDEXES
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE
PRESENTATION
Figure 2.11. General model of sports performance.

FACTORS
INFLUENCERS
EXTERNAL
Judges, referees, Contents

spectators
Navarro, 2008
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GARCÍA
2.6.2. Training model.
From the established delivery system, the training model is designed, that is, the
organization and selection of those training contents that are basic and relevant to
achieve maximum performance in an athlete. This training model is subdivided into
three levels: basic, specific and competitive. The basic level is made up of training
content whose objective is to create the foundations of sports preparation for the
specific specialty whose objective is to guarantee a sufficient base that allows the
development of the training content of the specific level to be faced with greater
guarantees. This is intended, on the one hand, to facilitate better transfer rence to the
specific contents and, on the other hand, create the bases for a good state of health
for the athlete that allows him to be in a better disposition for the requirements
loading rules that you will find in the next level . The specific level of training is
made up of the training contents that are closest to the competitive level and that are
integrated by the contents of among ing of the most relevant performance
capabilities of the specialty, main performance factors. The competitive level
corresponds to the training contents responsible for modeling sports performance
and tapping to achieve the most appropriate state possible for the competition. An
example of a performance model is shown in Figure 2.12:
MODEL
TRAINING
BASICS
Figure 2.12. General model of sports training.
COMPETITIVE
ENDURANCE ENDURANCE
FORCE
FORCE
SPEED SPEED
FLEXIBILITY FLEXIBILITY
TECHNICAL
TACTICAL
TACTICAL
TECHNICI
AN
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3. THE TRAINING LOAD.
Workload is understood, from a general point of view, as the stimulation that

the organism receives from the environment. Every interaction of the individual
with the environment involves a workload (study, domestic activities, work, sports
activity, etc.) that requires a response from the organism.
From the sporting point of view, the training load refers to the stimulations
that come from the activity itself linked to the training and competitions, or to
extreme situations that are caused by the coach himself that complement the
training, such as training carried out at altitude.
Workload is of capital importance in the development of training

programming, since it will determine the trainable effect it has on the organism and
the changes that occur at the cellular level (Viru and Viru, 2001). Most of the most
relevant authors of the former Soviet Union ethics establish that biological
knowledge in relation to the changes caused by the load are the basis for a Training
Theory (Platonov, 2000). Thus, to improve the functional capacity and performance
of an athlete, they must be subjected to progressively more stressful training
stimuli. cient (Gorostiaga, 2000). This increase in training load tolerance This
development will determine the adaptations that will occur in the organism, and the
subsequent increase in the motor potential of the individual in the face of
competition. sports tion. A physical exercise with a specific orientation will request
a specialized response in a specific individual, at an exact moment in time (Edington
and Edgerton, 1976). All these parameters must be controlled sides, as far as
possible, by the coach during the training.
In this way, the training load appears to be one of the elements ments that
must be subjected to a more thorough study, in which limits already exist (and
reasonably founded). The volumes and intensities that have been used until now
have been growing to unsuspected and almost intolerable levels from a human point
of view, so it seems difficult to continue increasing training loads (Verkhoshansky,
1999; Gorostiaga, 2000). . For this reason, other ways are currently being sought to
increase sports performance, the scientific study of training loads being one of them.
3.1. TRAINING LOAD CONCEPT.
The conception of the training load can be understood from two points of
view, from two dominant systems of thought that have addressed sports training and
that, historically, were examples of two completely antagonistic models of society:
which are the Eastern model and the Eastern model. western model.
Thus, the attention given to this issue among Eastern Bloc scientists is
confirmed (Viru and Viru, 2001; Zintl, 1991; Harre, 1987; Platonov, 1994, 1995,
2001; Verkhoshansky, 1990; Siff and Verkhoshanski, 2000; Zhelyazkov, 2001;
Matveiev, 1993, 2001, Bompa, 1999) and from Western bloc positions (Pearson et
al., 2000; Baechle, Earle and Wathen, 2000; Haff, 2004; Smith, 2003; Busso,
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GARCÍA
Carasso and Lacour , 1991; Vollmer, 1997).
Some attempts to define the concept seem incomplete to us since they are
associated exclusively with the magnitude of which the load consists. For example,
Baechle, Earle and Wathen (2000) talk about training load (in the field of strength
training) as the amount of resistance assigned to a set in an exercise, highlighting
that it is one of the most critical aspects of the exercise. strength training. In this
case the load resembles that with concept of exercise intensity. For his part, Haff
(2004), in an article in which he brought together the opinions of prestigious
strength training methodologists such as William J. Kraemer, Harold O'Bryant or
Michael Stone also defines the load from the point of view of the intensity of the
exercise. Pearson et al. (2004) talk about load as the measurable amount of force.
We finalize the definitions of load with the one made by Kraemer (2005) who
associates it with the concept of intensity in terms of resistance that must be
mobilized by an individual viduo.
Other authors propose more general definitions of training load. rales,

although not so consensual. Smith (2003) talks about the concept of training load as
the combination of three elements: intensity, duration and frequency. Intensity is
defined as the qualitative component of training. I lie; It is a function that relates the
activities carried out per unit of time. Frequency refers to the number of training
sessions in a given time. The duration of the training corresponds to the quantitative
component referring to the time or amount of exercise in a session of between ning.
(Bompa, 1999).
Nigg et al. (1984) understand load as the external forces that act on an
individual.
Bompa (1999) speaks of training load as the totality and quality of work that
an athlete achieves in training.
Other authors from Western European countries define the load as a series of
stimuli imposed on the human being during sports training and that represent the
entrance to the system (Busso, Carasso and Lacour, 1991).
Vollmer (1997) indicates that loads must be considered as a pedagogical

process of stimulation, oriented towards an objective and based on the pace of
development of performance capacity (the state of form).
Platonov (1994) establishes a very general definition that is based on the

relationship with Hans Seyle's 1936 concept of stress. This concept establishes that
“…a state of very strong general tension caused by the organism under the action of
a very strong excitant, produces an activation of the pituitary gland that increases
the secretion of the adrencorticotropic hormone, which stimulates the activity of the
cortex of the adrenals. Hormones of the adrenal cortex nal stimulate adaptation
mechanisms thanks to which the organism manages to adapt to the action of the
exciting agent… ” (Platonov, 1994:17). This definition covers extreme physical
loads (cold, heat), illnesses or training loads. sports development, whose importance
- 64 -
and analysis are reflected in this and other works by the same author (Platonov,
1995, 2001).
Harre (1987) conceptualizes load as the demands and conditions that the
athlete has to overcome. The training load has some objectives particulars, and its
content and its structure of demands determine the substance cially the pace and
direction of performance level development.
Viru and Viru (2001) define the load as the sum of the influences of the
exercises performed during the session and depends on the intensity of the exercise
and the rest intervals between them.
Martin, Carl and Lehnert (2001) describe it as the set of training forms
carried out by an athlete.
Zhelyazkov (2001) conceptualizes it as the global influence of the god and

training methods on the organism.
Matveiev (1993, 2001) determines it as a sum of the prerequisites sitting to

the athlete, thanks to which an increase in capacity is obtained work capacity during
the break. The load itself represents the high magnitude of functional activity,
compared to rest, that is produced by the execution of the exercise.
Zintl (1991) defines it as the totality of the stimuli made on the organism, or
in other words, the result of the demands presented to the athlete. The load is
explained as the amount of effects that the effort has on the functional state of the
athlete.
Verkhoshansky (1990) and Siff and Verkhoshansky (2000) conceive the

training load as the quantitative calculation of the training work performed.
From all these definitions, the following questions can be considered: nes:
^ The concept of load can refer to any type of external stimulus rio that is
exerted on the organism, although the specific stimulus that is of interest
is that which comes from human movement and, specifically, from
physical-sports activity.
^ The load represents the stimulation coming from carrying out sports
training by performing physical exercises defined by a series of
parameters that will be analyzed below.
^ The concept of loading in the context of sports training suggests re the
existence of a physiological measure of the effect of muscular work
specialized lar on the body.
^ Loading is understood as a pedagogical process of stimulation, oriented
towards a goal.
^ The load must be adjusted in such a way as to generate quality work ity
(Bompa, 1999).
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GARCÍA
^ The training load represents the input of the system that programs ma the
coach.
^ The load not only presents demands at a conditional, technical or tactical
level, but the psychological effect is present on the athlete (Siff and
Verkhoshansky, 2000; Matveiev, 2001).
^ It is not entirely relevant to understand training load as if synonym for
intensity when it comes to strength training.
To scientifically develop the concept of charge, other ideas arose.

terdependent on each other that reflect its effects on the organism such as carrying
capacity (Martin et al, 2004), training effect (Verkhoshansky, 1990; Siff and
Verkhoshansky, 2000) or residual effect of training (Issurin and Shkijar, 2002;
Issurin, 2003; Issurin and Lustig, 2004) that I will develop we will see below.
3.2. TRAINING EFFECT CONCEPT.
The result of the stimulus produced by the load on the organism is nominate
training effect. This training effect can be considered It can be divided into different
variants: immediate training effect (acute reaction of the organism to the physical
load), delayed training effect (change of state of the organism after a training
session) and cumulative training effect (change of state of the organism as result of
all the effects produced by the training loads). Perhaps the latter is more important
for the sports training process: “ …the cumulative training effect can assume very
diverse expressions, quantitati goes and qualitatively, depending on the current
state of the organism, the order in which the training stimuli of different functional
orientation occur. nal, of the preceding load footprint, of the duration of time of use
of various means (exercises) and other factors…” (Verkhoshansky, 1970, cited by
Verkhoshansky, 1990:85).
The training effect is also known as the residual training effect

(Counsilmann and Counsilmann, 1991; Issurin and Lustig, 2004). When, due to the
action of a concentrated training load, the training effect is maintained for a certain
period of time, if another load is not presented in said period, the effect returns to
the initial level. This concept is very important from the point of view of long-term
adaptation, since the level of final performance of the high-level athlete is
determined accordingly. frequency of said residual effect (Issurin and Lustig, 2004).
Issurin (2006) connects the concept of residual effect to the detraining process, since
one physical or motor capacity can be developed while another can be lost due to no
longer working during that period. From this work approach emerges the block
periodization model.
The residual effect can be short, medium or long term, and has a veil
different decay rate (heterochronism) depending on the organ system only functional
on which the training effect has occurred (table 3.1).
- 66 -
Table 3.1. Modification of organic systems due to the residual effect of

training. According to Issurin and Lustig. (2004: 26)
Modification due to the Approximation to

System effect of training the duration of the
Typology
involved residual effect
Skeletal adaptation ca: Only partially, there
Musculoskeleta change in es bone are no very
l system structure and joints. significant changes
you.
Residual effect of
neuro system Hypertro formation
long-term training. specific fida and adapts Years
muscular
tion of the fibers to the
specific type of stimulus.
Cardio- Cardiac hypertrophy.
respiratory Dimension and volume. Years
system arterial diameter
Cardio- Increase in density
respiratory Months
capillary
system Improvement in
Residual effect of
coordination
medium-term neuro system neuromuscular function,
training. muscular Months
fiber recruitment,
specific muscle balance,
etc.
Increase in enzymes
Maximum more aerobics gadas of
metabolic muscle glycogen A few weeks
(aerobic) metabolism lar.
efficiency
Maximum Increase in energy

Residual effect of metabolic through anaerobic-
alactic and glycolytic A few weeks
training after one efficiency
carried out in a (anaerobic) pathways, capacity and
short time. power
Increased muscle
strength, explosive
strength and
neuromuscular hypertrophy.
Increased muscular
system Few weeks.
resistance. Increased
joint mobility.
Few weeks.
The residual effects depend on a series of factors directly im plicated with the
organization of sports training which are:
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GARCÍA
^ Training time completed : In general, training lasts longer does cause a long-term
residual effect. A high-level athlete has a relatively low level of physical
capacity development. In high-level athletes, the higher the degree of long-term
adaptation, the greater the residual effect. The use of concentrated loads in this
type of athletes maximizes this residual effect.
^ Chronological age and years of training: In reference to the long-term history of
training, the athlete who has had more years of training and is more expert is
much more adapted to the training load. Consequently, the reaction to it is less
evident, so the use of concentrated loads is necessary for improvement. On the
other hand, the higher the level of long-term adaptation, the slower the loss of
physical capacity.
^ Specificity of training and environmental conditions : For example, training at
altitude or participation in competitions causes an au ment of catabolic
processes, so the athlete's muscle mass decreases significantly, thus canceling
the residual effects from strength training.
^ Planning of special measures that prolong the residual effect : Through the use
of training microcycles that allow maintenance ner the trained capacity to the
preceding level, using the so-called my niblocks, thus preventing the decrease in
initial trained capacity mind, as shown in figure 1 for the resistance capacity.
Figures 3.1 and 3.2 show an example of periodization based on a training

structure model called blocks. This model is based on the use of concentrated
training loads. The loads concentrate These are based on the principle of the
residual effect that the stimulus leaves on the athlete's body. The organization of
these charges plans to distance those that have a greater residual effect in time, and
the less residual effect they have, the closer they will be to the competition, as
shown in the example of Issurin and Shkijar (2002) in figure 1.
Figure 3.1. Residual effect of concentrated training loads

following a block model.
As can be seen in Figure 3.2, those capabilities that have a longer-lasting
residual effect over time are located furthest from competition. On the other hand,
this organization also coincides with the fact that basic generic capabilities such as
aerobic resistance and strength are placed first. In a second phase, those more
specific capacities such as anaerobic resistance and strength resistance are placed,
which have a resistant effect. dual smaller than the previous ones. Finally, in the
phase closest to the competition, those capabilities most related to the competition
situation are located; these are the capabilities with a smaller residual effect. To
promote the residual effect of basic and specific abilities, 2-3 day recall mini-blocks
are used to prevent the decrease in previously trained ability. Each selective load has
a certain temporal (residual) effect on the organism, there is a heterochronism in the
- 68 -
loads depending on the type of metabolism requested, Issurin and Shkijar (2002)
establish the duration of the residual training effects of the loads in the following
temporal references:
^ Alactacid capacity: 5 days.

^ Strength resistance: 14 days.
^ Anaerobic resistance: 18 days.
^ Maximum strength: 30 days.
^ Aerobic endurance: 30 days.
competition
30 days 20 days 15
days
Figure 3.2. Prolongation of training effects through
training load miniblocks (Issurin and Lustig, 2004).
These factors derived from the residual effect of concentrated loads provide
the following practical consequences on high-level sports training (Issurin and
Lustig, 2004):
^ The duration of mesocycles varies from 2 to 6 weeks, although for
Verkhoshansky (1988) the ideal would be 3 to 4 weeks. This variable ity
between authors may be due to the lack of scientific foundation of many
of these approaches (Gorostiaga, 2000). For Issurin and Lustig (2004) and
Gorostiaga (2000), a 4-week mesocycle is more advantageous than a
longer one since the residual effects of training are better used and the
biological response of the athlete is more appropriate.
^ In the competitive period, the competition mesocycles are shorter cough
than in the preparatory period, since the stress, resulting from the
competition, reduces the residual effect of subsequent training. you
mesocycles. On the other hand, physiological and emotional stress
increases It slows catabolic processes, causing a reduction in muscle mass
and reduces the residual effect of training on maximum and explosive
strength. In the same way that a very intense activity with a marked
anaerobic metabolism causes a loss of aerobic capacity accompanied by a
- 69 -
GARCÍA
decrease in the anaerobic threshold.

^ The use of reminder miniblocks, for 2-3 days, prevents the decrease tion of
the initially trained capacity, and with it the residual effect dual in the
short term.
^ The athlete with more years of training can perform longer transition
periods than younger athletes.
^ The athlete with the most years of training is capable of doing vo lower
training lumens (15-30% less) than younger athletes. Thus the training
cycle of a veteran athlete is shorter due to a longer transition period. The
greatest du ration of the residual training effect offers the possibility of
doing a smaller volume of load.
3.3. TRAINING LOAD CAPACITY CONCEPT.
The development of sports performance during the training process

Development, especially in the youth stage, represents an important stage in long-
term planning. At this stage of development of the athlete, the ability The body's
load capacity and its conservation appear as an essential aspect that must be
carefully cared for by controlling training. ment (Fröhner, 2001).
The concept of carrying capacity refers to: “…a complex individual capacity
for adaptation and use, as well as for tolerance of loads and applications, which
determines morphological, organic and functional adjustments, without the
organism being damaged or health is endangered…” (Martin et al, 2004:160).
The load capacity can be considered a function of the organism, in
interaction with the training load, which is characterized by the tolerance of the
tissues and biological systems towards the load developed by the sports
performance, as a basis for a subsequent adaptation to it ( Fröhner, 2001).
This ability manifests itself in the same way in which the organism reacts.
tion to the training load. Thus, when we talk about capacity, we are referring to the
organism's potential to develop certain training effects , and this capacity is
modified due to the training effects themselves as a result of the dynamics caused by
the trinomial load-recovery- adaptation. The load capacity brings into play the
availability of the organism to take on certain training stimuli. ment that would
compromise the body, overtraining or injuring it, which is why it is directly related
to the training and development of a sport. tist of lower categories (figure 3). In such
a way that figure 3.3 shows how the load capacity decreases as time passes since the
body adapts to the effects of the training load, which on the other hand continue to
increase, so that during the sports career of a subject there is a time when to
stimulate improvement in sports performance tiva, the subject must be subjected to
stimuli that cause an improvement in their load capacity to continue increasing the
training effect in detrimental ment of the first.
- 70 -
Figure 3.3. Relationship between load capacity and training effect in a

long-term athlete.
Load capacity has a direct relationship with the health of the athlete. ta.
Training loads should not represent a risk to your health. Therefore, this capacity
represents the base (the land) on which the sports performance is built, as
metaphorically exemplified by Fröhner (2001) in figure 3.4.
If there is a health problem, it may be because the limit has been exceeded.
tolerance of the load capacity and, therefore, there is an insufficient recovery
capacity, especially in athletes who are in the growth phase. ment and maturation of
the organism. This precaution must be taken into account even in talented subjects,
since their body, regardless of whether it is better suited for sports performance,
requires the same care as another who is not.
Figure 3.4. The sports performance can be represented as the albero in the
which roots the carrying capacity.
- 71 -
GARCÍA
Breaking down this concept of carrying capacity, Martin et al. (2004) found
two types of different categories specifically related to the training load construct:
^ General organic load capacity: it is the manifestation of the work of the

loads and the application throughout the organism. It is characterized by
the ability to recover after loads of different magnitudes.
^ System load capacity, related to pressure capacity specific sports tation of
a sport and its increase, product of specific loads.
3.4. ANALYSIS AND CLASSIFICATION OF TRAINING LOAD.
The analysis of the loads is raised as a basic issue when establishing

adaptation mechanisms, especially in relation to the specificity. ity of sporting
activity and the systematization of the specialization process of the athlete's body.
To this end, there are numerous studies related to the analysis of training load, so a
synthesis of those will be made. The most relevant aspects by the various authors.
Perhaps the use of a single classification makes the vision of the concept somewhat
reduced. Considering various classifications, the training load and its possible
effects on the body are analyzed below in a more comprehensive way.
Initially, two classic concepts of load can be distinguished, external and

internal. In a biological model every stimulus produces a response. The stimulus
that is exercise is called external load. The external aspect of the load is represented
by work indices, such as total volume of work in kilometers or hours, and also by
intensity indices such as speed of execution, time to overcome sections, resistance
with which a series, etc., in such a way that the external load corresponds to its
appearance descriptive to (components, methodology). On the other hand, the
response is what the organism produces to generate adaptation, called in the context
of training as internal load (Verkhoshansky, 1990, Manno, 1992; Plato Nov, 1994,
2001; Martin, Carl and Lehnertz, 2001; Vasconcelos, 2000). The internal load, or
the effect on the organism, is what generates adaptations that can be considered
acute or short-term, and that after a time causes adaptation. general chronic tions due
to its own specific action towards the athlete's organs and structures (Viru, 1995).
External and internal loads are highly interrelated; This is not a new idea, it is based
on the fact that modifying a parameter in a task alters the reaction it produces in the
body. For example, reducing recovery time when faced with a task close to an
intensity that corresponds to maximum speed (Platonov, 1994, Platonov, 2001).
For Tschiene (1997), an analysis and classification of training loads is

necessary according to the athlete's possibilities of adaptation to them. In actual
training practice, workloads are frequently on the border between effective training
and overtraining as shown. sitting on the continuum of Armstrom and VanHeest3
(2002), although progress in performance will depend on the percentage of
regeneration of certain organs. nos and tissues (Viru and Viru, 1999).
Loads according to Smith (2003), Viru and Viru, (1999) or Viru and Bosco
(2000) are classified according to the trainable effects they can generate. In this way,
- 72 -
in a microcycle of 3 to 5 days you can find:
1. Excessive loads (exceed the body's functional assimilation capacity, resulting

in overtraining).
2. Trainable loads (resulting in a specific training effect, specifically favoring
protein synthesis in the desired direction).
3 Shown in figure 13 of chapter 4.
3. Maintenance loads (sufficient to avoid detraining, e.g. insufficient to

stimulate adaptive synthesis in the desired direction gives)
4. Recovery loads (favoring the promotion of recovery processes after the use
of excessive loads)
5. Loads that are not useful (below the value necessary to achieve any of the
effects mentioned with the previous loads).
Taking this list into account, the criteria for determining the load level in a
session would be the following:
6. A criterion for the highest possible training load. Thus, the highest load vada
that does not cause manifestations of overload is the largest load in possible
train. For Viru and Viru (1999) and Viru and Bosco (2000) there is still no
reliable method to determine the highest load that has been reflected in the
existing literature.
7. A criterion for the training effect of the session.
8. A criterion for the minimum load that produces a maintenance effect I lie.
These training loads are also classified according to the sport in which they are
applied. Thus we have in the following two tables a model applied to swimmers and
another to long-distance runners (table 3.2). In the case of nothing The greatest
possible load is determined by a loss in the coordination of swimming ability:
Table 3.2. Levels in the swimmer training session (Modified from Viru and Viru,
2001:173).
Burden Action
Main features
light 10-20%) of the total workload recovery charge
without exceeding fatigue.
Moderate 40-60% of the total workload Maintenance charge
Heavy 60-75%) of the total workload Trainable load
- 73 -
GARCÍA
Causes pronounced fatigue (des

Very heavy census pronounced in the capacity Highly trainable load
working capacity). Imbalances in
sports technique.
- 74 -
Another way to understand load classification is in a more qualitative way.

tative, in which each degree of intensity is “labeled”, and characterized according to
the recovery time (Zatsiorski, 1995), this model serves to quantify training sessions
based on the load intensity of said session (table 3.3 ):
Table 3.3. Classification of training sessions following the criteria

of the load level (Zatsiorski, 1995).
Degree of intent
Session objective loading capacity Recovery time (h.) Load assessment.
Extreme 72 5
Development High From 48 to 72 4
Support From 24 to 48 3
Maintenance Half From 11 a.m. to 2
12 p.m.
Reinstatement Limited 12 1
Also qualitatively, the load can be classified in relation to the symptoms they
produce in the body based on the fatigue symptoms they present, as stated by Harre
(1987: 83-84) in table 3.4.
Table 3.4. Relationship between load and fatigue symptoms (Harre, 1987).
Symptoms
Light load Optimal Load Limit load resulting from
limit load
red The paleness
slight redness pronounced persists for a
Skin tone Marked redness ciated or pali
foundation long time you
dez consider ble days
Light to Strong Very strong,
medium, perspiration
Perspiration even below the Night sweat
depending on from the waist
waist
temperature up
Safe, control at
the level Lack of
Execution of Secure Reduction in
coordination
the movement already execution precision
achieved nation. Failures
Lack of Inability to
Normal, the attention tion, Considerable correct
instructions are reduced movements
loss of
Concentration followed, there receptivity in
concentration, even without
is no learning after 24-48
nervousness
nervousness technical hours
clearance cas
- 75 -
GARCÍA
Symptoms
Light load Optimal Load Limit load resulting from
limit load
Difficulty
sleeping,
Muscle continuous pain
Without weakness, in muscles and
Very heavy joints, high
discomfort, you considerable
muscles, joint
General health can still satisfy breathing heart rate, clear
and muscle
I know all the difficulties, decrease in
pain, dizziness
demands drop in performance to
performance
Desire to take
No changes, longer breaks, Desire for Aversion to
desire to willingness to
Willingness to complete rest resuming
continue continue
train and interruption training the
between between of work next day tea.
swimming swimming
Aggression Depressed,
with each other doubts about
emotional Happy and Rather subdued swimmer and the value of
disposition lively but lively member group training
bros
3.5. APPLICATION OF THE CLASSIFICATION OF LOADS TO

SPORTS TRAINING.
Smith (2003) or Viru and Viru (1999) understand the load as the sum of all
two exercises performed in a session, taking into account the organization of a
certain number of sessions, the training structure called microcycle is developed that
determines the level of load to which an athlete will be subjected and is one of the
fundamental tasks of the coach in the design of the training programming (Viru and
Viru, 1999; Gorostiaga, 2000). For a microcycle to be constructed correctly, it must
meet these premises (Viru and Viru, 1999):
^ Take into account the subsequent objectives of the training session to.
^ Determine the load-rest ratio.
^ Ensure complete restitution before starting the next microcycle.
Taking into account these elements, Viru and Viru (1999) classify
microcycles based on time for adaptive synthesis and supercompensation of the
energy deposits used. The types of microcycles are:
^ Development microcycles : the objective is to ensure the desired result of

training. These microcycles can be divided into:
- 76 -
o Ordinary microcycles: the difference between the total work load

low realized between this one and the previous one is minimal.
o Shock microcycles (blow): the total charge of this is very slight
superior compared to previous microcycles.
^ Application microcycles : they try to adjust the athlete's body to the
beginning of the training period or to new training conditions (for
example: transition from indoor to outdoor track) or to ensure a good
predisposition for competition.
^ Competition microcycles : they would correspond to the days prior to the
competition and the competition period itself.
^ Restitution microcycles : “recovery” days or weeks introduced after a
competition or after a crash microcycle.
These briefly described microcycles are intended to cause three different

effects due to the total amount of workloads that have been scheduled in them. So:
^ When the total sum of the training loads causes fatigue in the last days of
training, in the following days of recovery the recovery processes ensure
the recovery of energy reserves and the functions of the body. Recovery
occurs through moderate stimuli, for example, slow continuous running.
^ When the sum total of training loads causes a void ment in the athlete's
energy resources, placing him on the limit of exhaustion, this situation is
a strong stimulus for the development of adaptation processes, causing
improvements at a structural, metabolic and functional level for the
beginning of the next microcycle.
^ When the total sum of the training loads creates a situation of exhaustion
characterized by a state of overload, for what is This situation does not
generate an irreversible state that impairs performance. sports training it
is necessary to have a few days of rest, accompany after a microcycle in
which the load level is below the work capacity previously performed
(restitution or recovery microcycle).
As can be seen, the references in the construction of microcycles require

more information. Tschiene (1997) proposes that their elaboration be structured on
the basis of data derived from the adaptation reactions. tion at functional levels of
the organism to subsequently develop mode those of training and planning methods
adjusted to the individual needs of each subject, although this requires constant
monitoring of the athlete. That is, a training load generates a response from the
body, and this response must be known to provoke a better adaptation. tion. As a
consequence, training must be oriented in the appropriate direction and generating
the expected result, or increasing the intended response.
3.6. NATURE OF THE TRAINING LOAD.
The nature of the charges refers to the specificity of the demands agencies
that will be worked on during training, these being training ment or competition
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GARCÍA
(Platonov, 1995). The specificity of the loads is set according to training content ,
with two criteria being used: The specificity to which reference was made and the
training potential of said load (Siff and Verkhoshansky, 2000: 424).
Specificity indicates the greater or lesser similarity of the exercise with the
manifestation of the competition with regard to the structure of the movement and
the functional systems requested. This specificity gives rise to the distinction
between general and special means of physical preparation (Siff and
Verkhoshansky, 2000:424). The specificity of training loads must be determined
based on the following indicators:
^ Neuromuscular:
- The region where force production is accentuated.
- The muscle contraction regime.
^ Metabolic-energetic:
- The dynamics of effort.
- The rate and time of force production.
^ Kinematics-kinetics:
- The amplitude and direction of movements.
Thus in classical periodization, the load descriptors ge neral and/or specific

were based exclusively on the similarity of the exercises with the specific
competitive one, exaggerating the external similarity of these and infrava analyzing
the muscular work regime and the energy production mechanism gy, in addition to
the factors mentioned above (Siff and Verkhoshansky, 2000; Navarro, 2000).
However, the specificity of the organism's reactions to a stimulus training mule can
be observed through the metabolic trace me by controlling the indicators expressed
above, for example, the accumulation of metabolic waste products that immediately
induce protein synthesis after muscular effort. Therefore, the metabolic trace is in
relation to the adaptation that the stimuli cause on the metabolism, so we are going
to focus on adaptation as a concept that allows us to explain changes at a metabolic
and structural level. In this sense, Matveiev's classical theory has given more
relevance to the preparation tion than what contemporaries do, who only admit this
type of general preparation as a means of recovery, as preparation for the training
load or as a compensatory means (Navarro, 2000).
In establishing the specificity of the charges it is equally necessary It is

important to distinguish between training loads and competition loads (Platonov,
1995:25). It is evident that the competition burden comes from this activity itself,
despite the fact that it is differentiated between various types of competitions
throughout a season. If training loads are those that are carried out in ordinary work
sessions in order to develop sports performance tive of the individual, the burdens of
competition are those of the specific context of sporting activity, and these represent
in many cases the subject's own fitness. Two types of competitions can be
distinguished that will give an idea of the magnitude of the competition load:
- . The preparatory competitions that aim to adjust this setting ma.

- . The main competitions that try to put all the pressures into play tations
acquired in a season or during the cycle.
- 78 -
Currently, the number of competitive loads reaches very high values: 50-60
annual competitions in middle-distance runners, 120-140 in swimmers (Platonov,
1995), although certainly, in sports with professional leagues, the number of
competitions is much higher. The presence of competitions throughout the year
means that the athlete has to perform optimally 365 days a year; This fact leads to
more and more overload phenomena (Digel, 2001). The athlete's goal is to obtain
one or more fitness sessions in important competitions, followed by prophylactic
runs for functional recovery. Therefore, year-round competitions do not ensure
optimal performance throughout that period; on the contrary, what is achieved is a
decrease in performance at different times.
Training potential is the way the load stimulates the athlete's condition.
Reduces with increasing performance capacity I lie. Verchoshanskij and Siff
(2000:427) define it as the influence of the load on the physical form of athletes.
This concept has special relevance vance in contemporary models through the
adaptive potential of the organism The higher the training potential relative to the
current physical form of the athlete, the greater the probability of increasing the
special work capacity of the athlete (Verchoshanskij and Siff, 2000). The potential
between The amount of means used decreases at the same time as the special work
capacity increases, therefore, it is important to preserve it by introducing more
effective means into training. Based on this, an athlete's training potential will be
greater at the beginning of the season than at the end, and thinking about long-term
preparation, the potential between training will be greater at the beginning of the
sports career than at the end of it.
Figure 3.5 shown below exemplifies a season preparation model oriented to

the development of speed-resistance through different loading sequences, in the
following stages (Siff and Verkhoshansky, 2000): aerobic, mixed anaerobic ( ATP-
PC), high energy phosphagens and anaerobic glycolysis.
No details are provided in this diagram regarding the magnitude of the loads
or their chronology. The aim is to verify how throughout the season the training
potential is reduced through an approach to special preparation through different
sequences of loads, since the preceding means provide favorable conditions for the
use of the subsequent ones.
Speed
Cardiovascula Force Speed
Endurance
r
- 79 -
GARCÍA
Figure 3.5. Organization of loads with different emphasis to develop the

speed-endurance. Adapted from Siff and Verkhoshansky (2000:366).
3.7. MAGNITUDE OF THE LOAD.
This concept, coined by Martin, Carl and Lehnertz (2001) or Navarro (2000a,
2000b), suggests how descriptive magnitudes provide a series of data about the way
in which a type of exercise is performed: volume, intensity. ity, frequency, duration
and with what type of rest, as set out in table 6 for the conditional capacities. It
represents the requirement of the load described by its components.
Zintl (1991:12) establishes as components of the magnitude of the load:

intensity, duration, density, volume and frequency of loading. Platonov (1995,
2001), Martin, Carl and Lehnertz (2001) and Schnabel, Harre and Borde (1998)
extend these components to the type of exercise, although the type of exercise will
be considered as a specific section linked to the components of volume menu,
intensity, frequency, duration and density.
The magnitudes of the training load provide us with very valuable reference
elements when it comes to knowing the effectiveness of the load, and the quality and
quantity of stimuli that are present in the training and the
- 80 -
wear and tear that this entails on the athlete (Fowler, 1983). Table 3.5 shows
an application of the load magnitudes oriented to each of the capacities. ities of
resistance, strength and speed.
Table 3.5. Determination of load requirements in force, speed and

resistance according to Martin, Carl and Lehnertz (2001: 108).
strength training speed training Endurance training

(1) the length of the
paths (m.), series and
(1) the weight (kg) repetitions performed (1) the length of the
Load volume. displaced in a session given in a session with routes (m., km), their
It was with a deter mined a certain form of series and repetitions
determined na exercise. exercise. performed in a session
through. (2) Number of (2) repeat number with a deter undermined
repetitions of certain determinations two form of exercise.
exercises cios (jumps, forms of exercise cio.
throws lies, etc.)
1. force production
(N). (1) the percentage
2. percentage of referring to the (1) the speed of
Load maximum concentric maximum speed values movement (km/min;
intensity. It force (%). in a form of exercise m/s).
was 3. percentage of (maximum, (2) average heart rate
determined na maximum isometric submaximal) (lat/min).
through . force. (2) the frequency of (3) the percentage (%)
4. the express power movements within a of a given performance
sada when performing stable time acid. on a journey or other
the exercises. value
(1) the time to travel a
given distance.
Duration of 1. the duration (sec,
(2) the time for a certain
charging. min) of a series of
or indeterminate (1) the time to travel a
It was exercises with or
number of repetitions of given distance
determined na without established
the movement.
through. frequency gives.
(1) the rest time (1) the rest time between

between distance partial distance partial sessions,
sessions, repetitions repetitions tions or
Load density.
1. The rest time tions or series. series.
It was
between repetitions or (2) a certain ratio (1:2, (2) a certain ratio (1:2,
determined na
sets. 1:3) between load 1:3) between load
through.
duration and rest time. duration and rest time.
3.8. LOAD VOLUME.
The volume of the load is defined as the quantitative aspect of the load with
which it is intended to add all the homogeneous elements among themselves and
thus reflect the total amount of activity carried out by an athlete or team during
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GARCÍA
training (Bompa, 1983; Schnabel, Harre and Borde, 1998; Zintl, 1991).
Verkhoshanski (1990) and Siff and Verkhoshanski (2000) call volume the load
magnitude. This conceptualization is due to the fact that these authors consider
volume as a concept that encompasses the magnitude of the load, its duration and
intensity. The magnitude of the load is what has usually been called in the context of
training as volume, the quantitative measure tive planned or actual, which is
calculated during each specific microcycle or stages cos or during each annual cycle
as a whole, (Matveyev, 1977).
The volume is easily measured, the sum of the parameters being quantitate.
tives used in the training session or cycle; That is, adding the equal magnitudes of
what an athlete does will give the volume of the athlete's training in question. The
units of volume measurement must be defined appropriately for each specific type
of sport and depending on the training content. the most common stable units ced by
Bompa (1999), Martin, Carl and Lehnertz (2001) or Zintl (1991) are:
^ Time or duration of training . As a general universal measure for all

disciplines (Harre, 1987).
^ Distance made. It is very common for endurance and speed disciplines
according to Harre (1987).
^ Weight lifted in a given time. Used for strength disciplines according to
Harre (1987).
^ Repetitions of an exercise or a technical element that an athlete performs in
a given time (Bompa, 1983). The exercise number tions, elements or
attempts and also the number of sessions in a given cycle is common for
technical sports (Harre, 1987), and we must also add situational ones.
Verchoshanskij and Siff (2000) refer to volume as the quantitative aspects of

training, indicating that it plays an important role in the body's long-term adaptation
to intense muscular work. Training volume has increased significantly in
contemporary training, although too large an increase in one session could lead to
injury or excessive fatigue, so it is preferable to increase the number of sessions per
microcycle when the level of volume is deemed sufficient. men (Platonov, 1995;
Navarro 2000). However, it seems that the premise on the part of the methodologists
is that the greater the athlete's performance capacity, the greater the volume of load
imposed each year, although a high volume of work does not play a decisive role in
obtaining sporting results. (Bompa, 1999, Verkhoshanski and Siff, 2000). Said
increase in volume must be adjusted to optimal parameters above which no
improvement will occur, and be in close relationship with other load factors such as
intention. ity, in order to guarantee the health of the athlete (Schnabel, Harre and
Borde, 1998) and not overexpose him to overtraining conditions. The volume
influences the length of the shape maintenance period; Thus, the longer the
preparation period during the season, the longer the time spent The athlete will need
to be in shape, although the subject's age and level of preparation also influence this.
Siff and Verkhoshanski (2000) propose the establishment ment of the annual volume
of the training load through an examination of the characteristics of the athlete's
preparation during the previous stages of training, making a calculation as objective
- 82 -
as possible in the different phases of each cycle and adhering to the principles of
effective organization of training loads. In this way the volume would be established
individually for each athlete.
The evolution of training volume between the late 60s and early 80s can be
seen in tables 3.6 and 3.7, which show the change in the volume of work of athletes
over time (Platonov, 1995). These data contrast with those of Issurin and Shkijar
(2002) more updated from 1985 to 2001, where a recessive effect of volume occurs
as shown in table 16 of this chapter.
Table 3.6. Evolution of the modification of training volume over the course of the
year among middle-distance and high-level distance athletes (Platonov, 1995:227).
Distances (in meters) and Years
parameters. 1968 1972 1976 1980
800 (women)
Number of training sessions 330-360 370-400 400-450 450-500
I lie 700-750 800-900 900-1000 1000-1100
Working time, hours 2.800-3.200 3.200-3600 3700-4000 4500-5000
Volume (kms)
800 and 1,500 (men) 400-450 440-470

I lie 3.500-4.500 4500-5500 1000-1100 1100-1200
Working time, hours 5000-6000 6500-7500
Volume (kms)
440-480
5,000 and 10,000 900-1000 470-500
I lie 5500-6500 1100-1200 1200-1300
Volume (kms)
470-500
42.195 1000-1100 500-530
I lie 7500-8000 1200-1300 1300-1400
Volume (kms)
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GARCÍA
Table 3.7. Evolution of the modification of training volume in the

course of the year among high-level swimmers (Platonov, 1995:228).
Distances (in meters) and Years
parameters. 1968 1972 1976 1980
100 and 200 (women)
Number of sessions between 450-500 480-520 500-550 550-600
ning 750-850 1000-1100 1100-1200 1200-1300
Working time, hours 1300-1400 1400-1600 1800-2000 1900-2100
Volume (kms)
450-500 480-520 450-500 550-600
100 and 200 (men)
800-900 1100-1200 1000-1100 1300-1400
Number of sessions between
1400-1500 1700-1900 5000-6000 2100-2300
ning
Working time, hours
Volume (kms)
400 and 800 450-500 480-520 500-530 540-580

ning 1400-1500 1700-1900 2100-2300 2400-2600
Working time, hours
Volume (kms)
1000 (men) 450-500 480-520 500-550 550-600

ning 1500-1600 1700-1900 2700-3000 3000-3200
Working time, hours
Volume (kms)
1500 (men) 450-500 480-520 530-550 550-600

ning 1600-1700 2100-2300 2900-3200 3300-3500
Working time, hours
Volume (kms)
3.9. LOAD INTENSITY.
The intensity would be the qualitative aspect of the load executed in a pe

period of time (Bompa, 1983, 1999). The intensity of the load controls the power
and specificity of the stimulus on the organism; Thus, the more work per unit of
time, the greater the intensity. Intensity is established as the strength of the nervous
impulse that the athlete uses when developing his work capacity, that is, a greater
recruitment of fibers, produced by greater activation and/or a greater frequency of
impulses transferred by a neuron. For Harre (1987:75): "...the intensity of movement
is related to the different degree of application of force, varied frequency of
movement, variable weights and various “ble speeds… ”
The intensity of the load depends on two complementary aspects. The

intensity of the movement and the density of the load (Harre, 1987; Schna bel, Harre
and Borde, 1998).
- 84 -
Intensity as well as volume is measured according to the type of exercise.

cio, so we can talk about intensity of the movement. This exercise can be performed
with different degrees of force application (jumping, throwing cough), different
overloads, different speeds, etc. (Harre, 1987; Schnabel, Harre and Borde, 1998).
For Bompa (1983, 1999) and Harre (1987), speed exercises are measured in
meters/second or in percentage/minute depending on the maximum level of specific
activity (eg 90% of the maximum speed achieved in 100 m.), indicated especially
for speed disciplines. The intensity in strength activities is measured in the number
of kilograms with respect to a maximum repetition, as seen at the beginning of the
chapter (Baechle, Earle and Wathen, 2000; Kraemer, 2005). For team sports, the
pace of play determines the intensity (Bompa, 1999). For jumps and throws, the
height or distance reached is used (Harre, 1987).
For Navarro (2000:61): “…the greater intensification of training has been

one of the most characteristic aspects in the change from classical periodization to
current models. In certain periods of the annual cycle, an intensification of training
loads is allowed, although only after preliminary preparation, based on a high-
volume but low-intensity load... ". The load intensity, although not only by itself,
largely determines the main direction of the training effect, for example, maximum
strength capacity in strength training can be optimally developed with very high
intensity loads and small cargo volumes (Baechle, Earle and Wathen, 2000;
Schnabel, Harre and Borde, 1998). An example of the different forms of load
classification based on intensities can be seen in tables 3.2 and .3.3 of this chapter.
The body's response is another of the most used ways to control the intensity
of the load, with the parameters most used being the heart rate and the concentration
of lactate in the blood. There are numerous studies god in which the intensity of the
training or competition load is based on a percentage of the heart rate (Berry and
Moritani 1985; Wilmore and Costill, 1998; Llana et al, 1999; Calderón et al. 1999),
specific expanded works ically to studies carried out in team sports (Moras and
Zurita, 1999; Álvarez et al, 2002; Barbero, 2002) although articles such as Calderón
et al (1999) state that caution must be used when determining intensities exclusively
based on recovery heart rate when comparing three forms of intermittent exertion:
aerobic, aerobic-anaerobic, and anaerobic.
Bompa (1999) proposes the energy system used by the athlete as a criterion
for quantifying intensity in cyclical sports. Saying
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GARCÍA
The author establishes 5 zones of intensity in activities with a specific

duration (table 3.8).
Table 3.8. Work intensity zones for cyclical sports

(Bompa, 1999:82).
Ergogenesis
Zone Time of the pro system energy
Intensity level
no. work duction guide for
work anaerobic aerobic
1 1-15 sec. In the limit ATP-CP 100-95 0-5
2 15-60 sec. Maximum ATP-CP AND LA 90-80 10-20
3 1-6 min. Submaximal LA+ AER 40-30 60-70
4 6-30 min. Half AER 40-30 60-70
More than 30 Low AER 5 95
5
min.
ATP: adenosine triphosphate; CP: creatine phosphate; LA: anaerobic glycolysis,
AER: aerobic system.
As an example, two other mo intensity models are shown. vision. Both

correspond to a situational sport like basketball, the first is a classic 1985 study by
Colli and Faina, which determines the intensity ity of the game through the
measurement of heart rate in specific positions fics from the most common actions
that occur in this game (table 3.9).
Table 3.9. Heart rate during different basketball game actions. According to Colli
and Faina (1985).
TYPE OF ACTION BASE EAVES PIVOT
Pause 150 158 153
Defense on the ball 172 171 169
Slow progress 167 162 161
Medium advance 174 171 170
Fast forward 175 175 177
Fast forward with ball 195 - -
Jump for the shot 208 207 204
Jump for the rebound 178 174 180
One on one without the ball 169 166 167
One on one with the ball 183 178 178
The second corresponds to a study by Galiano (1987) in which it was

observed It is noted that most of the movements (95%) are carried out at a speed
speed between 1-3 meters per second while only 5% of movements are carried out at
a speed greater than 5 meters per second. It must be kept in mind that a speed of 7-8
m.sec -1 is equivalent to a time between 12, 5- 14.3 sec in one
- 86 -
100 meter race, which seems very far from what a ball player basket must be
able to perform at these distances. Furthermore, these actions occupy only 0.14% of
the total distances made during the match (table 3.10).
Table 3.10. Running distances covered at different speeds in basketball. According
to Galiano (1987).
Position Distances 0-1 1-2 2-3 3-4 4-5 5-6 6-7 7-8
m.sec 1 m.sec 1 m.sec 1 m.sec 1 m.sec 1 m.sec 1 m.sec 1 m.sec 1
Bases 5913 801 1648 1531 1052 579 227 62 13
Eaves 5655 857 1674 1410 986 495 195 35 3
Pivots 5567 785 1510 1416 1051 544 191 62 8
Total 5711 814 1610 1452 1029 539 204 53 8
3.10. LOAD DENSITY.
The load density indicates the temporal relationship between the effort and
the recovery phase, although it is also determined from the number of repetitions of
the movement in the unit of time, in the case of an interval training load (Harre,
1987; Schnabel , Harre and Borde, 1998; Vasconcelos, 2000). Vasconcelos (2000)
graphically establishes the training density in relation to the metabolic processes
prevailing in physical-sports activity as shown in figure 3.6:
Job Recovery
Close to 100% best time Emphasis on speed
1:5 work/recovery ratio.
Job Recovery
Emphasis on speed
About 90% of the with aerobic limit
best time (VO2 max.)
About 80% of the Speed = resistance AE

best time
Job Recovery
About 70% of the Resistance with speed
best time factor limit

Job Recovery
- 87 -
GARCÍA
About 60% of the best Emphasis on

time AE resistance
Figure 3.6. Density, its work/recovery relationships and objectives of the

training (Vasconcelos, 2000:59).
3.11. DURATION OF THE TRAINING LOAD.
The duration of the load is a very important element in the dynamics of

athletes' performance (Verchoshanski and Siff, 2000). It refers to the period of
influence that the stimulus has on conditional capacity. The effects can also refer to
longer periods in which the duration of supercompensation is verified after
stimulation (training load). to) with the same orientation.
The volume of a set of repetitions influences the direction and degree of

effect of the load. (Harre, 1987). The duration of training is a very important concept
in relation to the volume of load, since there is a limit beyond which the load does
not exert any more beneficial effects and only means a useless loss of time and
energy on the part of the athlete (Verchoshanski, 1990). ). The study of the benefits
of load duration should be a notable field of research at present since there are few
experimental studies on the topic in question (Verchoshanski, 1990; Siff and
Verchoshanski, 2000), although there is a series of methodological proposals that
have already been validated such as:
^ In the development of explosive force, the more abrupt its growth The
sooner you reach a plateau in your development.
^ Aerobic loads (located in a zone between 120-170 bpm) produce There
will be significant increases within the same month of training to,
although it remains linear during the first 2-3 months.
^ At least 4 months are necessary to achieve good results in anaerobic-
glycolytic productivity.
^ Increasing the volume of anaerobic work only produces a positive effect
when a significant volume of aerobic work has previously been
performed.
The duration of the load will be conditioned by its distribution, whether

regular or concentrated, a concept that will be defined in the load orientation section.
3.12. ORIENTATION OF TRAINING LOADS.
The orientation of the load is defined by the quality or capacity that is

enhanced (strength, speed, etc.), by the energy source requested and by the
organism's resources that are required (coordination, tactics, etc.) (Platonov, 1995 ).
This orientation can be classified into two types:
^ Selective type loading: focused on a certain capacity or functional system.
- 88 -
Platonov (1995) and Platonov and Bulatova (2001) modified post primarily the
term selective due to privileged orientation or exclusive purpose siva or
predominant. This change is based on the fact that the development of isolated
entities, not only brings into play certain specific functions but also weakly
mobilizes the others.
The selective orientation of the load can be established by the contribution of

the energy system to the training load. In this way, the Russian school and the
former GDR establish 5 zones of work intensity (Platonov 1995; Platonov and
Bulatova, 2001):
o Anaerobic alactacid
o Glycolytic anaerobic
o Mixed (anaerobic aerobic)
o Aerobic (maintenance)
o Aerobic (recovery).
However, in recent years a more fractional classification of loads has been

established:
^ Anaerobic type loads, which include maximum anaerobic power, mixed

anaerobic power, and anaerobic-aerobic power . The ca Characteristics of the
different loads are shown in table 3.11.
Table 3.11. Characteristics of anaerobic loads

(modified from Platonov and Bulatova, 2001.13).
Anaerobic Record
Record
component of maximum Examples of sports
CLUSTER power
energy duration in specialties
kcal/min
production. the race
Maximum Races up to 100 m.

anaerobic 90-100 120 Up to 20 sec speed cycling in
power. (up to velodrome. Up to
15-20 sec) 50m. in swimming
200 races 400.
Swimming up to 100
Mixed
meters.
anaerobic
75-85 100 20-50 sec speed skating 500 m.
power.
1000m time trial. in
(20-45 sec)
c
8 i 0 c 0 lis m m e o tr .
Anaerobic- careers. Swimming
60-70 40 60-120 sec
aerobic power. 200 m.
(45-120 sec)
- 89 -
GARCÍA
^ Aerobic type loads, which include maximum aerobic power, almost maximum
aerobic power, submaximal aerobic power, low power aerobic cia. The
characteristics of the different loads are shown in the ta blah 3.12.
Table 3.12. Characteristics of aerobic loads

(Platonov and Bulatova, 2001: 15).
O2
Record Record Examples of
Main consumptio
CLUSTER power duration, sports
substrates n. % VO 2
kcal/min min specialties
max.
Maximum 1500m races. and

aerobic muscle 3000 m.
95-100 25 3-10 Cycling 4 km in
power. (3-10 glycogen
minutes) velodrome. 400-
800m. in
swimming
Almost Muscle 5000m races. and

maximal glycogen, fat 10000 m.
85-90 20 10-30
aerobic and blood 1500m. in
power ma. glucose swimming
(10-30 min.)
Submaximal
20 km walk.
aerobic Fat, muscle 70-80 14 120-140
.
power. (120- glycogen and
240 min.) blood glucose
50 and
Low aerobic Fat, muscle under 12 240 Marathon.
power. (more glycogen and
than 2 hours) blood glucose
The selective nature of the load has a direct correlation with the specificity of
the adaptation reactions to the athlete's body, since the purpose of training is to seek
a specificity of an energetic and functional nature towards a certain sporting
specialty (Platonov, 2001).
^ Loading can also be complex : when different capacities are requested
functionalities and systems. When carrying out complex sessions, there are two
types of variants that are suggested in the ordering of the loads that are
introduced therein. The first is that the sequence of each session is divided into
two or three relatively independent parts. For example, in the first part you work
on speed, and in the second you develop aerobic endurance. In this case the
session is complex, non-consecutive. The other goes riante involves a parallel
development of several qualities (usually two). For example, work on speed
together with tactics through specific counterattack exercises occupying the three
- 90 -
lanes and in two waves.
In the case of complex loads, some alternatives have been suggested for
combining loads in an order that produces positive interaction between loads aimed
at the development of resistance (Volkov, 1975 cited by Siff and Verkhoshansky,
2000 and by Navarro, 2000), These alternatives, related to the concept of
interrelation of charges, are:
- Aerobic after alactic anaerobic.

- Aerobic after glycolytic anaerobic (with low volume).
- Glycolytic anaerobic after alactacid anaerobic.
Issurin (2003:33) proposes the following positive combinations of sessions that

will produce compatible effects. Under these conditions, the training load The above
procedure creates favorable circumstances for the successive load and for increasing
the effect of the training session:
^ Aerobic endurance with:

o Alactacid capacity (sprint).
o Resistance to force.
o Maximum strength due to hypertrophy.
^ Anaerobic glycolytic resistance with:

o Resistance to force.
o Aerobic recovery exercise.
o Aerobic-anaerobic resistance.
^ Alactacid capacity (sprint) with:

o Aerobic resistance.
o Explosive force.
o Maximum strength due to hypertrophy.
o Aerobic recovery exercise.
^ Maximum strength due to hypertrophy with:

o Maximum force-nervous activation.
o Joint mobility.
o Aerobic recovery.
^ Learning of new technical elements:

o Any type of training, followed by main competition.
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GARCÍA
Selective targeting is very difficult to achieve because all actions Physical

activity promotes a series of regulatory mechanisms, so it seems more appropriate to
talk about the concept of privileged orientation. Contemporary models use to a
greater extent selective loads that privilege a certain work of a conditional capacity,
overloading that metabolic system and subsequently achieving a greater adaptive
response.
While classic models have mostly opted for complex type sessions. In these
cases, the concern for achieving effects accumulates tives of different orientations
has set the standard in load orientation, the problem is that it takes much more time
to achieve them. The characteristics The statistics of both are shown in figure 3.7.
• More possibilities of load concentration with specific

Selective orientation.
session. • Less chance of negative interaction with other Targets.
• Greater number of sessions/microcycle to satisfy training
needs.
• It is necessary to select the objectives based on their

interaction.
• It is necessary to adapt the training order with the different
Complex session. orientations.
• Requires a greater extension of the session to satisfy the
objective.
The previous training load creates favorable conditions

for subsequent loading.
Ortive
Figure 3.7. Characteristics of the complex and selective session.
3.13. ORGANIZATION OF TRAINING LOADS.
The organization consists of the systematization and regulation of the load in

a specific period of time in order to achieve a cumulative positive effect of loads of
different orientation. The basis of this orientation aims to achieve the best sports
performance through the cution of the cumulative effect of training load with
different objectives you. In the organization, a distinction is made between the
distribution of loads over time and their interrelation (Verchoshanskij and Siff,
2000).
The distribution of loads refers to their dynamics and organization in the

different cycles of the training structure, being the way in which the different loads
are placed in a session, microcycle, mesocycle or macrocycle (Verkhoshansky,
1990; Siff and Verkhoshansky, 2000 ; Navarro, 2000).
- 92 -
The load can be distributed evenly throughout the cycle (regular or

distributed loads), which determines a uniform distribution of the means during the
annual training cycle, or concentrated in defined phases of the annual cycle
(concentrated loads).
The structure of concentrated loads is later than that of regular or distributed

loads. This structure comes in response to the new demands of the current high-level
sports structures. The old and immobile theories of training based on the
assumptions of the classic periodization of Matveiev of 1965 and Harre of 1957 and
1969 are beginning to be questioned (Selujanov, 1999; Tschiene, 2001; Issurin and
Shkijar, 2002).
For Issurin and Shkijar, (2002), sports training has undergone a series of
modifications in recent years due to a list of causes such as:
^ The radical modification in the economic, social, organizational conditions paths

and professionals in which the high-performance athlete is immersed.
^ The current circumstances force training supported by science and a deep search
for reserves to improve performance; cooperation between trainers and scientists
being necessary.
^ The bibliographic discussion began in Russia (Verkhoshanski, 1998 a;
Matveiev, 1998; Platanov, 1998; Selunov, 1998; Suslov & Filin, 1998) and later
It is later found in other European publications (Issurin & Shkliar, 2001;
Matveiev, 2001; Tschiene, 1999; Zanon, 1999). Through the periodization of
sports training (Matveiev 1964), on the one hand, the methodological foundation
of the structuring of the training of the portistas and, on the other hand, the
terminological concepts.
The concentrated load structure aims to reduce the volume training load
menu, on the one hand, and respond to the greater number of competitions that the
current sport has that does not seem to fit with the structure ture of distributed or
regular loads that Matveiev proposes in his periodization. Training volume, as
shown in Table 3.15, has decreased decreased considerably in recent years. This
decrease is due to mu several factors such as the collapse of the Soviet sports
system, the lack of means that this entails, the obscurantism around the adaptation of
such training volumes through pharmacological measures by sports tists that in most
cases turned out to be illegal (Issurin and Shkijar, 2002). This last idea is also shared
by Platonov (2001).
Table 3.15. Annual volume of training loads in high-level athletes

level. Platonov data. (2001 ).
Total kilometers in
Sport Overall training time (h) training
1985-1990 1993-2001 1985-1990 1993-2001
Swimming 900-1250 900-1100 1400-3000 1250-2700
Athletics (middle 900-1200 800-1100 5500-6700 5000-4700
distance)
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GARCÍA
Rowing 900-1200 800-950 5500-6700 5000-6300

Canoe/kayak 900-1200 800-1100 4500-6200 4000-5500
Synchronized swimming 900-1200 800-1100
Artistic gymnastics 1100-1400 1100-1250
Volleyball 800-1300 800-1200
Fencing 800-1200 800-1100
Greco-Roman wrestling 800-1200 800-1100
However, Tschiene (1997) does not share the benefits of concentrated

training loads since he states that an excessive increase in the volume of
concentrated loads in sprinters causes an increase in catabolism and generates
overtraining syndrome characterized by a decrease in strength and running speed in
testing and competition, although this statement is only a hypothesis that needs to be
corroborated through experimental research.
This controversy between both types of loads and their usefulness is again
addressed by Navarro (2000) who, without entering into this conflict, proposes that
both models can be complementary. Thus, the classical theory advocates the use of
regular loads that provoke short-term functional reactions, which do not guarantee
the conditions for the development of long-term adaptive changes in the organism;
and contemporary theories preferentially use concentrated loads that provide deeper
functional changes in the athlete's performance. Both can and should be used
depending on a series of factors such as the age of the athlete and the number of
competitions. Thus, in lower categories it is possible since in many cases the
construction of the adaptation must be done on regular loads. res so as not to reduce
the adaptation reserve, and on the basis that there are fewer competitions than in
absolute categories.
The interconnection of charges indicates the relationship that charges of

different different orientation they have with each other when they are combined
over time (Siff and Verkhoshansky, 2000:430). The combination of charges can give
positive or negative effects depending on how it is done. A rational mixture ensures
an optimal cumulative effect. The problem of load organization is closely linked to
the choice of an optimal recovery interval. ration-loading stimulus, and the
alternation of these.
In order to obtain load performance, two types of methods are used in their
interconnection, parallel-complex and sequential. with the prime ro workloads have
different priorities, and a monotonic quantitative effect, despite the increase in
volume and intensity. At the same time, the body's reactions to specific components
are insignificant.
On the other hand, the sequential method introduces the loads in the form of a
block. ques, there being a successive order in these, so that they allow adaptation
morphological conditions that favor the desired effects in the interconnection of
charges.
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3.14. FORMS OF THE TRAINING LOAD.
Once the loads have been analyzed from different points of view, it is
advisable to establish a series of methodical organizational processes for their
correct application by the coach. These processes are aimed at the design of
methods, means or exercises for training. It is not, in any way, a question of
reformulating again what has been raised during these lines, but rather that in some
way the trainers carry out sessions, program exercises, in a wide range of variants
and conditions that allow the application of loads. The systematization of all these
processes is known as cargo forms.
The most common forms that will be established in this chapter in relation to
tion to the load are based on the synthesis that has been made from the proposals of
Harre (1987), Martin, Carl and Lehnertz, (2001), Platonov and Bulato va, (2001),
Matveiev (1977; 1983; 1993, 2001), dividing the forms of charge into:
- Training methods.
- Training media.
- Physical exercises.
3.15. TRAINING METHODS.
The method is a way of doing an activity, it is the path or process that the
activity must follow to achieve an objective (Sierra, 1993). Training methods are
planned procedures for transmitting and configuring content, within forms of
training directed at an objective (Martin, Carl and Lehnertz, 2001). In similar terms,
Zintl (1991) speaks of programmed procedures that determine the contents, means
and training loads depending on the objective.
Grosser, Starischka and Zimmermann (1988), Platonov and Bulatova (2001)

and Zintl (1991), in a more restricted sense of the concept method for the
development of physical conditioning, technique and tactics, refer to the following
methods :
^ Duration methods (continuous and with intensity changes).

^ Interval methods (extensive, intensive, repetitions).
^ Competition and control methods.
^ Finally, ideomotor methods for the development of the technique ca
and tactics would close the set of training methods. The methods in
this case talk about strategy in practice, technique cases and teaching
styles (Platonov and Bulatova, 2001).
Therefore, the method is a procedure, a mode of action, with constituted by a

series of operations, which constitute the ordered forms of the training load,
materialized in operational techniques, described in actuality concrete tions, in order
to obtain an adequate direction of the training. In the specific context of sports
training, training methods Movement must be based on a clear knowledge of the
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processes that underlie every sports movement so that it is, as far as possible, as
close to its nature as possible.
However, talking about methods implies giving a broader sense of the

concept, within which training is approached from a global point of view, relating
the methods to all those principles of training that direct the training, standardize and
put the principles into play. pedagogical and methodological, although always from
the perspective that the main means of training is represented by exercise (Matveiev,
1983,1993; Hohmann et al, 2005). In this way, sports training is observed from a
biological but also pedagogical position, where it addresses The concept of method
has been usually implemented in non-formal contexts of teaching Physical Activity
and sports. Decision-making regarding the method is established around the question
“ how ” to train, that is, it is the way in which coaches “teach” or develop content to
carry out their sessions. The trainer thus connects the objects tives with the contents
(media) through the maintenance training method ning a relationship of
interdependence with each other.
Platonov and Bulatova (2001) speak of methods in a broad sense, and limit
the methods to the work of the coach and the athlete through which an assimilation
of knowledge, skills and habits is achieved, and indispensable qualities are
developed. In practice, all methods are divided They are divided into three groups:
oral, visual and practical.
From Sports Sciences, visual and oral methods are addressed given from
pedagogy, since they correspond to those teaching processes teaching-learning that
are linked to the coach-athlete interaction mediate techniques and teaching styles,
and not from sports training , due to the empirical-analytical nature of our Science,
so the methods that are the object of our field of knowledge correspond more to
practical methods. cos of development of motor qualities.
It is important not to confuse it with the concept of methodology among

training, an aspect much broader than the theory and training practice itself sports
development from its own definition, which will carry out: “… the study of the
methods that are followed, to appreciate their suitability, relevance and validity, in
addition more of its adaptation and permanent development for its successive and
consequent application ” (Martin and Vittori, 1997a: 8). From this perspective, the
concept of performance methodology is analogous to the concept of sports training
since its axis of study is based on the empirical knowledge that both try to study,
therefore the methodology is responsible for the unitary process of training-
education-training. and much broader than the set of procedures called “methods”
(Martin and Vittori, 1997a, 1997b, 1997c).
3.16. THE TRAINING MEANS.
The means of training are: “ …the different physical exercises that exert a
direct or indirect influence on the development of the motor qualities of athletes,
while physical exercises must be considered rated as a set of motor actions aimed at
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solving a problem ma …” (Platonov and Bulatova, 2001:10).
Grosser, Starischka and Zimmermann (1988) or Martin, Carl and Lehnertz

(2001) when talking about the totality of exercises or activities that serve to increase
tar the sports performance carried out in the training they call them contents two
training. The content of the training is the type of activity that occurs during the
training, by carrying it out, attempts will be made to follow certain objectives
(Martin, Carl and Lehnertz 2001).
3.17. PHYSICAL EXERCISES.
Physical exercise is “ …the regulated reproduction of rational actions

(separately or jointly), which is regulated by the principles of achieving the effect of
the preparatory activity of the effect of the preparatory activity...which are
expressed in the performance of the actions and in the increase, conservation and
recovery of the level of the ability to act…” (Matveiev, 2001:147).
The importance of training exercises is given because their effect has a direct
relationship with the load objectification factors: volume, intensity, quality of motor
execution, duration of exercise.
training (Harre, 1987; Berger and Hauptman, 1996; Schnabel, Harre and Borde,
1998).
“… physical exercises have the particularity of being main means and,

simultaneously, elements of the training structure. In addition, I figured They also
rank among the training load factors. This universal character is due to the fact that
with few exceptions, sports training is only possible in the form of using physical
exercises… ” (Berger and Hauptman, 1996:32). Therefore, it is very important to
characterize the exercise in such a way that it lends itself to the functional request of
the organism for which the trainer proposes said training load.
There are a series of factors that must be taken into account when
characterizing tion of the exercise:
1. Muscle group to which it is directed.

2. Percentage of muscles involved in performing this.
3. Coordinative difficulty of the exercise , a product of the degree of
complexity that the athlete has to control it, since an exercise that is not usual
presents a greater request or psychic intensity for its control.
4. Position of the body in space during its execution , because an exercise
performed in a position different from the specific one of the competitive
gesture can facilitate or add (“constraints”) to its execution, even menting the
difficulty and as a consequence, the burden (Schnabel, Harre and Borde,
1998).
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3.18. CLASSIFICATION OF PHYSICAL EXERCISES.
The classification of exercises was one of the systematizing elements that

have characterized physical activity in the 19th century, especially from its different
schools: Swedish, German and French. Thus, for example, Swedish gymnastics
organized them into exercises without apparatus and exercises with apparatus; and
the structure of the class was divided into: preparatory exercises, fundamental
exercises such, exercises derived and interspersed in the lesson and final exercises
(Lan glade, 1986).
This systematization of exercise continues in the field of sports training

based on the training objectives themselves and the principles that regulate it
(Matveiev 1977; 1983). The positions regarding the classification of exercises come
from the Russian school, from authors such as Platonov (1995; 2001), Platonov and
Bulatova (2001) or Matveiev (1977; 1983; 1993), who adopt as a classification
model the one Divide the exercises between training exercises and competition
exercises.
Another of the Eastern Bloc schools, the former GDR, distinguishes between
general development exercises, special or sport-specific exercises, competitive tion
and control or test, stating that these exercises have to do with the spheres of
physical condition, technique, tactics and personality (Grosser, Starischka and
Zimmermann, 1988).
The group of training exercises can be subdivided into general preparation,

auxiliary and special preparation exercises . In the classification tion of Mateveiev
(1983) those of special preparation are not included, although they are in Matveiev,
(1993), Weineck, (1994) and in Platonov and Bulatova (2001).
General preparation exercises are those that serve to develop functional

development of the athlete's body, are multifaceted in nature and aim for a
harmonious development of the physical condition. In this sense, all those who
effectively influence the development of all physical qualities are necessary
(Matveiev, 1993; Platonov and Bulatova, 2001). Thus, the importance The strength
of general preparation exercises lies in the fact that they are the basis for the
development of special preparation, being considered an essential premise to
subsequently improve in a specific sport modality through special preparation
exercises.
The auxiliary preparation exercises include elements of the actions

competitive nes and also movements and actions very similar to them due to the
form and character of the capabilities manifested. These exercises presuppose
actions that create a special basis for the subsequent improvement of one or another
sporting activity (Matveiev, 1993; Platonov and Bulatova, 2001). The objective is to
create a base to support the large volumes of work that the athlete will have to
perform in pursuit of the development of special motor qualities.
Special preparation exercises “…occupy a very important place te in the
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physical preparation system of high-level athletes and encompass a set of means

that include elements of competitive activity, as well as actions very similar to said
activity, due to their form, structure and even the character of the qualities involved.
and the activity of the functional systems of the organism…” (Platonov and
Bulatova, 2001:10). The objective of special preparation is to develop specific motor
qualities. cas required by the sport in question, according to the competitive demands
it poses. For the exercises to be of special preparation, the following must be taken
into consideration:
^ That the muscle groups that support the competitive action and their
antagonists must have a leading role.
^ That the choice of exercises is similar to a greater or lesser degree with
the gestures of competitive activity.
Finally, competitive exercises are “… complete motor actions tas (or the set of
motor actions), which constitute the object of sports specialization in full
correspondence with the conditions of the competitions of the sport in question... ”
(Matveiev, 1977,1983, 1993). The competitive exercise has a diverse orientation
depending on the type, distinguishing between:
^ Cyclic exercises whose forms are relatively stable: this group includes
speed and strength exercises for spears movements or jumps, or cyclic
locomotion for endurance.
^ Exercises of alternate forms that vary according to the competition
conditions, which include sports games and fighting sports.
^ Relatively independent competitive exercise series, you run inclined to
certain sports such as combined events or triathlon.
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4. ADAPTATION IN SPORTS TRAINING.
The nature of the adaptation that occurs at an anatomical-functional level in

the organism in response to sports training has been widely studied in the context of
sports training (Harre, 1987; Platonov, 1988, 1994, 2001; Verkhoshansky, 1988;
Verkhoshansky and Siff , 2000; Tschiene, 1997, 2000;
Although the concept of training analyzed in chapter two is global in nature

and integrative of both biological and psychosocial perspectives, logical and
sociocultural aspects of training, the knowledge of adaptation in this is limited to the
study and development of it from a biological point of view, with some sporadic
relationships with other disciplines that are dedicated to the research of this
knowledge such as sports psychology. , the sociolo gy of sport, or the pedagogy of
sport. Likewise, it is not intended to overlap with subjects such as exercise
physiology, although support is necessary. This is used to explain some related
concepts and to have the most objective view possible of the increase in sports
performance as a product of training and how said increase in performance is a
reflection of the adaptations in the athlete.
Thus, the adaptation that is of interest in the field of sports training is

phenotypic (Platonov, 1994; Zhelyazkov, 2001), understood as that acquired through
the stimulation of social and environmental factors, conceiving training as a
continuous interactive process, and a system that integrates several sub-systems.
The training approach presented comprises two types of re adaptive actions

(Zhelyazkov, 2001:61):
^ Adaptation as a process: reflects the cause-effect relationships between

external and internal load (fatigue and recovery of bioreserves energy).
^ Adaptation as a state: it emerges gradually and reflects the stable results of
this interaction known as the state of training and sports form.
4.1. CONCEPT OF ADAPTATION.
Based on the characteristics presented, the adaptation will be contextualized.

tion in training following Harre (1987), Grosser, Brüguemann and Zintl (1989),
Álvarez del Villar, (1992), Zintl (1991), Bompa (1999) and Dick (1993).
For Harre (1987), adaptation is considered the change of physical and

psychological functional systems to a higher level of performance, which occurs ce
under the influence of external loads and as a reaction to specific external
conditions.
For their part, Grosser, Brüguemann and Zintl (1989) understand it from the
point of view of sports training as a detectable change in the kidney. improvement at
the level of physical condition in a metabolic and morphological sense, accompanied
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by technical-coordinative changes (due to adaptations in the central nervous and

cognitive system), all complemented by changes at a psychological level.
Álvarez del Villar (1992) defines adaptation as the ability of living beings to
maintain a constant balance of their functions, thanks to the functional modification
that occurs in each of their organs and systems, due to the demands of the stimuli on
them. such systems.
Bompa (1999:13) speaks of adaptation as the sum of transformations.

mations carried out through systematically repeated exercise.
It is also known as the elevation of the athlete's functional capacity due to

external loading and/or adjustment to specific environmental conditions (Dick, 1993:
369) or the functional and morphological modification of organic systems in the face
of effective loading stimuli. (Zintl, 1991:12).
From a sports training perspective, this means adapting tion to a new level
of sporting performance on a physical, psychological, technical and tactical level.
The adaptation due to training constitutes a self-regulatory response of the organism
due to the demands of the stimulus and its power. training, modifying at a functional
and structural level in relation to the demands organized in training, which lead to an
optimized tion of the organism's global processes towards performance.
4.2. THE ADAPTATION MECHANISM.
Adaptation is an element that, together with load and recovery, constitutes

the core that makes up the sports training process, in such a way that the increase in
sports performance is subject to the interaction and regulation of all these
components.
Training load and recovery are the most important elements tants with which
the coach plays to provoke adequate adaptation in the athlete's body, therefore,
training load, recovery and adaptation are inextricably linked.
The rhythms and magnitude of adaptive transformations in the or ganism are

conditioned by the character, magnitude and tendency of the load (Platonov, 1993).
Conveniently planned training loads each by the coach must have as their purpose
the development of the adaptations tions necessary in the body to be able to produce
an appropriate effect in the sports specialty practiced (Manno, 1992).
Adaptation from the environment is another contributing factor in the

development of sports performance, as can be seen in relation to altitude training.
Man's adaptation to hypoxia and its subsequent consequences These benefits in the
development of endurance in competition is perhaps one of the most studied and
used lines in the development of performance (Platonov and Bulatova, 1998;
Feriche, Delgado and Alvarez, 1998).
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Adaptation, as a concept to be developed in this chapter, includes the

processes of heterostasis as an alteration in the balance of organs and systems and
homeostasis . The homeostasis process occurs due to the load to which we subject
the organism that produces a stimulation that carries with it an imbalance, or
heterostasis, in the anabolic and catabolic processes that the organism tends to
rebalance again, and this rebalance manifests itself. party in an increase in anabolic
processes in order to protect the structure from excessive depletion (Fry et al., 1991).
This means that regenerative processes seek not only to recover the initial level from
which the athlete started but to surpass it, this phenomenon being understood as a
protective mechanism to prevent a new emptying of reserves in the case of repeated
higher loads, this phenomenon is known as supercompensation ( Grosser,
Bruguëmann and Zintl, 1989; Fry et al., 1991). In principle, supercompensation can
only be experimentally related to the processes of glycogen metabolism, so the
transfer of the supercompensation model to other areas of metabolism does not seem
admissible (Martin Carl and Lehnertz, 2001). Figure 4.1 graphically represents these
processes. In the most current literature, the term supercompensation can be replaced
by recons. adaptive truction , since adaptation to training loads does not occur in the
same way in all the systems that make up the organism (Siff and Verkhoshansky,
2000).
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UNIFACTORIAL MODEL OF TRAINING

Increased
adaptation Capacity increase
of performance.
Decrease (after at least

three days)
Initial level of
performance.
Training Time
(days, weeks,
months...).
Depletion of
energy
substances
Duration of regeneration (a
biochemical renewal is carried
out up to and above the initial
level)
Duration of effort (decisive
stimuli for adaptation
processes)
Fatigue
Figure 4.1. Explanatory diagram of the adaptation processes in the organism.

(Yacovlev, 1977, cited by Grosser, Bruguëmann and Zintl, 1989).
This adaptation process subsequently defines a theoretical model of sports

training called the Unifactor Training Model (Siff and Verkhoshanski, 2000).
Based on the principle of supercompensation, it proposes how the organism
hypothetically adapts to a higher level of performance in response to a repeated
training load. This model poses the following situations already described previously
in the work of Schmolinsky (1985:27) to explain the principle of system training.
zation, and that try to expose the same fact from different points of view,
considering how training cycles imply a rhythmic alternation between effort-
recovery. In this way, according to the proposals of Schmolinsky (1985) or Siff and
Verkhoshanski (2000) in figure 4.2, the following cases of alternation arise:
^ In the first case, the use of an isolated load has caused a delayed effect,
increasing the initial levels of performance, although the lack of other
stimulation causes the body to return to its normal levels (a).
^ Using a subsequent load too early during the recovery period (point A)
does not cause supercompensation and results in worsening performance
(b).
^ If the series of loads are widely spaced (infrequent or too late, point C),
supercompensation is minimal and performance It tends to stagnate.
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^ Finally the load is optimal when the supercompensation has reached a peak
(point B) allowing the load to be increased regularly lar, without the
previous situations occurring.
Figure 4.2. Applying supercompensation to produce a workout

optimal (Schmolinsky, 1985; Siff and Verkhoshanski, 2000).
This model has been in force for many years among many in trainers.
However, many of the theoretical foundations have not been shown in their entirety,
since the structural descriptions are very simple. training courses, based on
theoretical principles oriented towards adaptation tion, and the adaptation processes
in a comprehensive training model do not respond to the increase in performance on
the continuous basis of superposition. session (Siff and Verkhoshanski, 2000;
Gorostiaga, 2000; Selujanov, 1999).
4.3. LAWS OF ADAPTATION.
Harre (1987) formulated a series of principles in relation to the development
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process. training that aims to increase performance in one direction systematic tion,
taking into account that the input is the training load, the process that occurs in the
organism is the recovery after the cessation of the load, which is manifested as a
functional unit jointly by it, and which entails adaptation, whose output is
represented by the increase in performance, as shown in figure 4.3.
Figure 4.3. Dynamics of the systemic process of sports training

adaptation-oriented.
These laws are:
Law number 1. Adaptation processes only occur when training reaches

an optimal intensity, which depends on the individual level. dual performance
and minimal workload volume. In this way, when the training load produces
heterostasis in the organism mo, homeostasis is restored at a higher level or through
functional reserves additional ends. The training load must have a volume and
intensity sity adequate to generate this situation , since adaptation is produced by the
assimilation of the optimal stimuli, which are those that are located between the
threshold intensity and that of maximum tolerance. A very high volume, without the
necessary minimum intensity, does not produce adaptation, in the same way as high
loads and low volume. Gorostiaga (2000:21) states that: “…the high-performance
athlete has a very limited margin for improvement in his physical condition and
performs increasingly intense and frequent training to improve his sporting record,
thereby risking recovery. is insufficient and the sports brand stagnates or returns is
very big… ”. Therefore, the individual prescription of volume and intensity in the
session based on biological responses is very important (Gorostiaga, 2000).
Law number 2.The adaptation process is the result of a correct interaction

of loading and recovery . As shown in figure 4.1 in relation to adaptive processes, a
training stimulus, which can be an exercise or a session, initially generates a fatigue
process that temporarily mind reduces functional capacity, and it is during the
recovery phase when the adaptation process occurs that regenerates beyond the
initial level. Bompa (1999) proposes, depending on the type of load, the following
recovery times to obtain a positive adaptation:
^ Aerobic capacity: 24-48 hours.

^ Aerobic power: 48-72 hours.
^ Anaerobic alactic resistance: 5-8 hours.
^ Lactic anaerobic resistance: 48-72 hours.
^ Strength-endurance: 24-72 hours.
^ Maximum strength: 24-72 hours.
^ Explosive strength: 24-72 hours.
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In relation to a strength session, the correspondence in the duration of rest

between series and their intensity is shown in table 4.1 (Kraemer, 2006):
Table 4.1. Relationship between duration of rest periods between series
(Kraemer, 2006: 78).
Duration of the Comments

rest period (sec).
Very, very short rest.

0-30 There is almost no recovery from previous sets and force production
is characteristically reduced on subsequent sets. The loads are
necessarily very light (12 RM or higher). Usually, these short breaks
are not They are used when heavy loads must be lifted.
Very short rest.
By increasing the rest to 60 seconds, it allows the movement lization
31-60 of higher loads (e.g. e.g. 10 RM) can be tolerated, showing an
intense physiological stress response and stimulates tion of the
glycolytic pathway versus the session protocol.
Short rest.
61-90 Allows you to move heavy loads. Usually the break is 90 seconds. It
is applied as a starting point for program progression towards shorter
rest periods.
Moderate rest.
91-120 It is a very popular rest period in many training programs that
employ moderate loading patterns.
Long rest.
It is usually used when the load in the training program begins to be
121-180 heavy, for example 10RM or less. rior.
Very long rest.

>180 It is used when very high loads must be lifted or when you want to
obtain great speed and power in each repetition. Rest periods of
more than 7 minutes can should be applied to ensure complete
energy and nervous recovery before starting a new series.
New training trends emphasize the importance of co objective knowledge
regarding the time it takes for an athlete to recover after training sessions. The
acceleration in the recu peration has developed the use of regenerative techniques
that cause a decrease in time, thus increasing the volume and intensity of training.
ment without risk of fatigue (Gorostiaga, 2000).
This correct interaction between load and recovery raises the second
theoretical training model called the Entrena Bifactor Model. ment raised by Busso,
Carasso and Lacour (1991), later synthesizes done by Zatsiorski (1995) and
collected by Siff and Verkhoshanski (2000) and Norris and Smith (2002). This
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model has also been called the fitness-fatigue model, and establishes the
relationship between fitness work (workload) and the fatigue response to obtain
performance as the output of the system, due to the balance of these two.
components.
A similar model was initially proposed by Banister and Hamilton (1985);

Banister (1991) and Banister et al. (1986) emphasizing the complexity of the
interaction between physical condition and fatigue.
This model proposes the superposition of two delayed effects that follow the
application of a training load:
^ A long-term delayed effect that produces an increase in physical fitness

special sica.
^ A delayed effect of short-term fatigue that generates a specific type tiredness.
Both effects constantly interact and are the regulators of the au ment of
physical fitness; The first is a slow, progressive and delayed change in it, while the
second is a negative factor of shorter duration that decreases it. In this way, the
training effect can last three times longer than the fatigue effect. (Norris and Smith,
2002; Zatsiorsky and Kramer, 2006;).
Thus, as Norris and Smith (2002:129) state: “ This model, which is based on
the construct that the physical condition component takes three times longer to
return to normal levels than the fatigue component, demonstrates the need for
“Systematic and appropriate recovery planning .”
For Siff and Verkhoshanski (2000:113): “…the increase in conditional

capacity at a given moment (P (t) ) is equal to the initial preparation of the athlete
before the training session plus the improvement in preparation P, produced by the
sum of the delayed effects of physical form and can Sancio… ”. (Figure 4.4).
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Figure 4.4. Two-factor model of training (Zatsiorsky and Kraemer,

2006:13).
Law number 3 . The process of positive adaptation is only achieved due to

the variation of loads . Loads that are repeated over and over again cause fewer
adaptations each time. Modifying loads during training is one of the premises that
will help positive adaptation; This variety in loads is linked to the concept of
periodization. Periodization is the cyclical and gradual ordering of training
exercises. following some principles of specificity, volume and intensity with the
objective tive of achieving high levels of sporting performance in the most important
competitions (Wathen and Roll, 1994; Fleck, 1999). Plisk and Stone (2003) define it
as a planned distribution or variation of training methods through time cycles. In this
sense, it seems that periodization is a fundamental concept to achieve sports
performance. The objective in periodized models is to try to maximize the overload
principle and ensure find the correct relationship between stimulus/recovery. The
principle of overload in sports training is described as the process in which stress
must be mulate the neuromuscular system to greater loads, causing an adaptation to
them. Periodized programs in their nature try to maximize this adaptation by
changing the magnitude of the loads and thus expanding the response capabilities of
the neuromuscular system. (Howley and Franks, 1986; Stone, O'bryant and
Garhammer, 1981).
It appears that periodized training programs produce more res gains than non-
periodized programs of one or multiple series (Stone, O'bryant and Garhammer,
1981; Fleck, 1999; Rhea et al, 2003).
The new trends in sports training propose knowledge objective analysis of

the effects that occur in the different physical qualities after a phase of several weeks
of training (Gorostiaga, 2000), according to this author, most of the studies by
Russian trainers are mere conjectures without a scientific basis to affirm that a or
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other suitable planning cation is more appropriate for an athlete. To ensure correct
adaptation, it is suggested that a year of training should be divided into four large
periods called macrocycles that should have a duration of approximately gives 12
weeks. To prevent overtraining, each macrocycle is divided into four-week cycles in
which it is recommended to alternate 1 to 3 weeks of intense training with weeks of
light training, even that Gorostiaga (2000) does not specify the ratio of weeks of
light training to weeks of intense training, justifying it in the imprecision that results
from the biological response of the athlete and the type of load, so the most
appropriate solution is the systematic control of training. through the anabolic-
catabolic hormonal blood balance, since many times it may take 2 to 5 weeks of
lighter training to reach the supercompensation phase.
Law number 4.An elevation to a performance level is only achieved to

with the introduction of unusual loads that cause stimulation in the body . In the
case of young athletes, training results in a rapid increase in performance, however
in athletes with a longer history in training the adaptation reserve is increasingly
reduced, so only the accumulation of training effects or the The use of training loads
that generate a greater impact on the body will be responsible for causing a positive
adaptation.
Law number 5. Training adaptations decrease if re load demands are

excessively reduced or detraining occurs. For Mujika and Padilla (2000)
detraining can be understood in two ways, short-term detraining (less than 4 weeks
of insufficient training stimulus) or long-term detraining (more than 4 weeks). The
effects vary depending on the type of detraining, but in general it can be stated that
the adaptations produced are lost, although these losses These days are different over
time depending on the parameters being treated, thus VO 2 max decreases from 6 to
20% in long-term detraining, heart rate increases by 5% after 84 days without
training, etc. (Mujika and Padilla, 2000).
Law number 6. The adaptation of the organism always occurs in the di

direction proposed by the load structure. The type of load that regulates the
athlete's condition influences the direction of sports performance, since the athlete's
condition will intervene in the training effect of the load (Verkhoshansky, 1988; Siff
and Verkhoshansky, 2000).
Many of these laws have served to develop the principles of training, which
serve as a guide to the methodical approach to the training process. ment and that
ensure the unitary development of the athlete's construction and their sporting
performance.
4.4. ADAPTATION IN RELATION TO THE PROCESS OF THE

SPORTS TRAINING.
Although the original approaches to adaptation derive from the principle

homeostasis method described by Roux in 1895 (Hohmann et al, 2005), the first The
sketches about the structuring of sports training that were proposed by Matveyev in
the late 1950s were based on Selye's General Adaptation Syndrome, as argued by
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Czajkowski (1977), which he presented as the initial arguments about the

importance of adap tation begin at the moment when it is the key to achieving
maximum performance in the main competition. Relying on Selye, Delanne (1952)
and Mitolo (1951) applied the general syndrome of adaptation to physical exercise.
At the same time, Yakolev (1955, cited by Verkhoshansky and Siff, 2000) is
already In the early 1950s, the relationship between adaptation and recovery and
exhaustion processes with different types of load was discovered.
In 1959 Prokov (cited by Viru and Viru, 1999), stressed the importance of the
dynamics of undulating loads as a basic element for improving performance, since
the progressive increase in loads would ultimately lead to overtraining and
consequently to loss. of performance.
For Czajkowski (1977), the planning designed by the coach had the objective
that the best results would occur in the most important competitions, however, they
are then obtained in secondary competitions in some cases and never when it has
been planned. This process is usually due, according to this author, to incorrect
planning.
To try to solve this problem, Czajkowski (1977) proposes ra rationalize

training taking into account the following guidelines:
1. The most accurate knowledge of the endocrine glands during the

training of athletes.
2. The consideration of the phenomena that arise in the light of H.'s
stress theory. Selye.
3. The consideration in planning of the sympathicotonic and vagotonic
types.
For Álvarez del Villar (1992): “...the science of training has found provided
in Selye's theory a rational basis to explain doubtful problems in relation to training
and the organism's reactions to them... " Selye, an endocrinologist, considers stress
as the disturbance of normal homeostasis and adaptation as an effort to recover
normal balance after the alteration of homeostatic balance. (Selye, cited by Álvarez
del Villar, 1992).
Currently, the phenomenon of adaptation must be understood as a pro cess

and as a result. Process during which the cause-effect relationships between the
external and internal load and the result or state understood as the final product of
the process are explained in the organism (Platonov, 1993; Zhelyazkov, 2001).
Platonov (1994:13) proposes adaptation in a less biological and more global

way in reference to the different training loads: “ The manifestations tations of
adaptation in sport are multiple. During training you have to adapt to physical
loads of different tendencies, complex coordination, intensity and duration and use a
large arsenal of exercises aimed at “designed to educate physical qualities, perfect
technical and tactical mastery, and psychic functions.”
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In this way, sports training is understood as a lasting elevation of the

physiological function of the organs as a result of modification. structural nes
induced by stimuli of the same type (Hohmann et al., 2005). Adapting means, for an
athlete, adapting to increasingly higher load stimuli, or that specifically produce a
response in the body that allows maximum performance towards a competitive
stimulus. Each stage of the long sports improvement involves going up a step in the
requirements of the subject's sports performance, the structure of the preparation
Sports training requires many years, depending on the specificity of each sport, it
ranges from 6-8 years to 20-25 and more. To illustrate this issue more clearly, table
4.2 shows the age at which an athlete acquires the maximum more benefits, and the
estimated time of maintenance of the results (Platonov, 1993, Platonov, 1995).
Prolonged training over several years leads to the conclusion that the training loads
carried out on athletes must have a gradual consideration in the different forms of
classification, so that the highest level of adaptation of the functional systems of the
organism In elite athletes it can only be maintained if hard training loads are applied
but, be careful, these training loads training carried out in earlier phases will never
guarantee improved performance. ment at those ages, but they can be
counterproductive for the development of the athlete. This concept is incardinated
with long-term sports training planning.
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Table 4.2. Ages at which sports results occur (for example

sports) (Platonov, 1995)
Age (years)
Athletic
Maintaining high
discipline.
First results results
Distances in
Optimal possibilities
m.
Men Women Men Women Men Women
Swimming
100,200,400 17-18 14-16 19-22 17-20 22-25 21-23
800,1500 15-17 13-15 18-20 16-18 20-25 19-20
Athletics
(racing) 19-22 17-20 22-26 20-24 27-28 25-26
100,400 23-24 20-23 25-27 22-26 28-30 27-28
800,1500 24-26 26-30 31-35
_ _ _
5000, 10000
Canoe rowing, 18-20 16-18 21-24 19-23 25-28 24-26

kayak canoe 18-21 23-26 27-29 -
_ _
Track cycling 17-20 16-19 21-24 20-23 25-29 24-27

On reel- 17-19 20-24 25-28 -
ra
In sports training, adaptation plays a fundamental role, since the most current
trends consider that the main role of training loads is the adaptation of protein
synthesis , a product of adaptation. tion, as the fundamental basis of the morpho-
functional improvements at the cellular level that ultimately produce sports
performance (Verkhoshansky, 1988; Viru and Viru, 2001). Platonov (1994) states
that training intensifies protein synthesis in the myofibrils, mitochondria,
sarcoplasms and microsomes of skeletal muscles and the heart; This entire process is
accompanied by an increase in enzymatic activity. On the other hand, the
accumulation of metabolites formed during muscular activity, as well as the decrease
in ATP and PC levels, could signal the activation of the genetic system of muscle
cells (Siff and Verkhoshansky, 2000:108). Another of the changes operated by the
body for protein synthesis comes from hormonal activation (Siff and
Verkhoshansky, 2000:108). Tschiene (1997) states that these adaptation processes
do not occur simultaneously (heterochronism) in different tissues and cells. This is
why the recovery and resynthesis of the body's material and energy resources do not
occur at the same speed, but there are some with faster regeneration and others with
slower regeneration, as shown in Figure 4.5. For Platonov (1994:164): “ …after
performing 30-second exercises at 90% intensity, recovery of work capacity usually
occurs after 90-120 seconds. The relative parameters ioned with the vegetative
nervous system they return to the previous level after 30-60 seconds. Recovery of the
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remaining processes can take up to 3-4 minutes or more... ".
Another example of the heterochronism of recovery processes is how in the

face of extreme anaerobic workloads, accumulated lactate is generally eliminated in
1 hour or 1 and a half hours, while the recovery of glycogen reserves from working
muscles can last several hours. days (Platonov, 1994).
This fact has a direct relationship with the training praxis, insofar as the
successive and repeated loads must respect an adequate every regeneration of the
athlete's resources, avoiding carrying out successive training loads that lead to
overload situations. training and therefore have a negative transfer on sports
performance, linking this idea with the second law of adaptation already explained.
Figure 4.5. Graphic dynamics of heterochronism after a load of

training. (Hohmann et al 2005).
The optimal adaptation, product of the appropriate synergistic strategy of the

training loads carried out by the coach, has a direct relationship with the long-term
development of the athlete's functional capacities, since every training intervention
increases their functional capacity, and that This increase contrasts with the decrease
in their adaptive reserves, thus reducing the protected autonomous reserves that
acted as protective mechanisms, reaching a limit value known as adaptive capacity ,
determining genetically undermined by the athlete (Hohmann et al., 2005). As the
subject achieves greater sporting performance, the rate of improvement of the
individual decreases, which is why the adaptation reserves become smaller and
smaller, which is why training loads must be continuously increased and oriented.
increasingly specifically to the competition tion, which coincides with Adaptation
Law number 4.
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At a physiological level, Hohmann et al., (2005) explain (figure 4.6) this fe

phenomenon because the catabolic phase causes wear and tear in the structure. ra
and in the use of substrates results in a long-term decrease tion in the capacity for
new reconstruction of structures (anabolic phase).
Individual adaptation capacity
Time
Figure 4.6. Progressive training load and decreased energy reserve

Sports performance explained according to Hohmann et al (2005).
4.5. ADAPTATIONS IN RELATION TO THE EXPOSURE TIME OF

TRAINING LOADS.
Training loads cause adaptations that can be considered der acute or short-
term, which generate general chronic adaptations after a time due to their own
specific action towards the organs and structures of the athlete (Verkhoshansky,
1988; Viru, 1996). It is going to differentiate between adapts acute, short-term and
chronic conditions. Acute adaptation is understood to be the influence that an
exercise or session has on sports performance in isolation at that moment, while
short-term adaptations can be defined as the effects that a microcycle or mesocycle
has on performance. sports. The responses or adaptations are fundamentally
determined by the training effect. Thus, acute responses will carry with them an
acute training effect that is nothing more than the momentary reaction to the physical
load of the individual, short-term adaptations will generate a delayed training effect
(observed alteration of an athlete in time after the session) and Chronic adaptations
are nothing more than the result of the cumulative training effect, defined as the
consequence of the subsequent agglomeration of all the training effects that
manifested themselves during the sports training process.
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4.6. ACUTE RESPONSES OR ADAPTATIONS TO A TRAINING LOAD.
Adaptation has its origin in the initial stress caused by physical exercise,
causing a disturbance in homeostasis, and the body's response to exercise is linked to
its recovery and its return to equilibrium levels in reference to a single stimulus
( Lamb, 1989).
The exercises performed by athletes during training sessions ment or

competition itself cause adjustments belonging to the group of acute adaptation
processes (Viru and Viru, 2001). These processes include homeostatic regulations,
and in some cases, such as resistance exercises, activation of the oxygen transport
system and use of energy reserves (Viru and Viru, 2001).
The proposal of Viru and Viru (2001), in reference to the acute reactions of the
organism to a stimulus, contrasts with the more classic notion described by several
authors such as Hegedus (1988), Álvarez del Villar (1992), Marcos Becerro (2000 )
or Platonov (2001) outlined in three phases, as levels of reaction to a stimulus that
manifests itself with more certainty the longer the exercise lasts, and that is based on
the reaction levels of the General Adaptation Syndrome :
^ The first phase, related to the start of activity, tries to ensure that the appropriate
functional response occurs through a sudden increase in heart rate, lung
ventilation levels, and oxygen consumption. gene, lactate accumulation…
^ The second phase arrives when the activity of the functional system occurs under
stable parameters between the organism's response and the needs coming from
the workload.
^ The third phase is characterized by alterations in the balance established in the
second phase, mainly due to the fatigue produced by the nervous centers that
ensure the regulation of movement and by the resources energy sources available
to the body.
4.7. PARAMETERS THAT REGULATE ACUTE RESPONSES TO

EXERCISE.
Acute responses are determined, according to Platonov (2001), by the

volume of the stimulus, the athlete's degree of preparation, his or her availability
for the execution to which the athlete's body is subjected to perform a specific job,
and the ability of the body's functional systems to recover effectively . In most
cases, after a short exercise, recovery is usually rapid, so exercise analysis tion
around that of acute responses is proposed as an indispensable reference ble to know
the body's reactions. Interesting in this sense are the contributions of Crewther,
Cronin and Keogh (2005) who show how strength exercise will give a response in
the body depending on the intensity expressed as a percentage of a maximum
repetition. Thus, based on the percentage of load with respect to which a maximum
repetition (RM) is performed, strength exercise can be oriented towards neural or
structural type improvements. tural- hypertrophic. It is well known that
improvements attributed to changes in muscle cross-sectional area are obtained by
working with loads around 70% of one repetition maximum (McDougall, 1992). On
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the other hand, intensities close to 100% (85-100% of 1RM) seem to be designed to
improve strength through neurological factors (Kraemer et al, 2002; Komi and
Hakkinen, 1988). With light loads it is considered that there are similar effects to
other types of loads such as heavy loads in relation to the development of strength
and power as argued by Lyttle et al (1996) and Dahl et al, (1992).
Other factors that Crewther, Cronin and Keogh (2005) highlight in relation to
the characteristics of exercise as a determinant of the acute response are:
^ Duration of muscle contraction time: The muscle's ability to develop a given

tension or force production is greatest at slow speeds during muscle shortening
actions; This is how crossed bridges have more time to generate tension
(Herzog, 2000; Enoka, 2002).
^ The speed of movement of the load: The power is considered co mo a product
of force and speed, in this way there is a relationship inversely proportional
relationship between force and speed in concentric actions, or in other words,
during actions carried out at high speed, less force production arises and when
a loss occurs carrying heavy loads, the speed of movement is slower (Hunter,
2000), as seen in figure 4.7 in which the As the quality of contraction
decreases, the production of force increases, reaching a moment in which the
appropriate proportion of speed and force generates maximum power, since
power is established as a product of force and speed (Harman, 2000). ). In the
case of ac Eccentric tions speed and force are directly proportional
(Hortabachy and Katch, 1990; Hunter, 2000).
Figure 4.7. Schematic representation of the force-power relationship

speed.
There are numerous studies that show how increasing the load (percentage of
1RM in one repetition) in exercises such as bench press, thrown bench press,
squats or semi squats, triggers a longer time. type of exercise execution and,
therefore, muscle tension (Newton et al 1997; Cronin et al 2001).
^ The type of contraction of the load: The type of contraction contributes to
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developing greater or lesser force depending on the speed of contraction. tion

and the neural activation that occurs. The muscular actions with Centric cells are
capable of generating greater metabolic expenditure than eccentric cells. cas
(Carey et al, 1997). While eccentric contractions seem to cause greater gain in
strength and hypertrophy than concentric contractions, although these types of
statements are very controversial and cause for debate. sion by the scientific
community, since there are studies that affirm that concentric training has the
same effectiveness as excenic trico (Mayhew, 1995; Carey et al, 1997). In any
case, in most exercises both types of contractions are used to improve strength
and in most sporting activities the isolated use of one type The type of
contraction is very limited.
^ The rebound effect vs. do not rebound: The use of the stretch-shortening cycle in
an exercise seems unhelpful when mobilizing training loads. to heavy, because
there is a longer duration of the eccentric action and a lower coupling time
(Newton et al 1997; Cronin et al 2001). The enhancing effect of the stretch-
shortening cycle has been demonstrated compared to concentric actions alone,
specifically there is an improvement of 14.1% in the increase in strength and
11.7% in power (Cronin et al, 2001), although this movement generates a
decrease in the duration of muscle contraction (Cronin et al, 2003) but the elastic
energy at combined with the myotatic reflex allows maximum activation to be
achieved prior to concentric muscular action (Manno, 1998; Crewther, Cro Nin
and Keogh, 2005)
^ Single series vs. multiple series: Along these lines, studies such as those of Star
Key et al (1994) showed that a series of high intensity strength training 3 days
a week for 14 weeks was as effective as real perform 3 series of the same.
Acute responses also depend on the level of pre-training. of the subjects

(degree of preparation of the athlete) , since when faced with the same stimulus
different responses can be had depending on whether the subject is between swam
specifically in that type of load, trained but not specifically or sedentary (Gullich and
Schmidtbleicher, 1996).
In the scientific literature, numerous studies have emerged in reference to the

acute effects applied to power and explosive strength work showing the positive
effects of acute responses to strength training on vertical jump performance (Baker,
2001; Young, Jenner and Griffiths ,1998; Baker and Newton, 2005; This type of
effect is called post-active potentiation and is defined as the increase in the capacity
of a muscle after having made previous contractions, thus post-active potentiation
has become an effective method for increasing explosive strength (McBride,
Nimphius and Ericsson, 2005; Gullich and Schmidt-bleicher, 1996; These principles
of post-empowerment active have been applied to athletes to improve their
performance both in training and in competition (Scott and Docherty, 2001).
Various strength training methods have been developed for the improvement
of explosive strength, using heavy or light loads, plyometrics or “ballistic” training
(Smilios et al., 2005). Training to improve power is commonly used with light loads
(40-60% of 1RM) that are performed at high speed (Baker, 2001). Training with
heavy loads (close to 1RM or 1RM, between 80-100%1RM) and performed with
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few (1 to 3) repetitions is accompanied by long periods of rest and induces increases

in muscle power. This type of work taken to the field of practical application of
training, justifies, for example, that in a calen In training for trained athletes,
exercises of this type should be included to improve power in competition, as shown
by the results of the study by Young, Jenner and Griffiths (1998), which suggest that
the inclusion of a series of 5 RM in a warm-up (4 minutes before a
Countermovement Jump [CMJ]) could improve performance in activities whose
main performance factor is the power of the leg extensors. Duthie, Young and
Aitken, (2002) examined performance in SJ and concluded that contrast training is
very advantageous for improving power but only when athletes have high levels of
strength. The study by Smilios et al (2005) on short-term effects of training showed
how performance in the CMJ is greater when ballistic methods with moderate loads
(30-60% of 1 RM) are alternated in training.
4.8. LONG-TERM ADAPTATIONS TO THE LOADS OF

TRAINING.
When there is repeated stimulation through sis training thematic, a lasting

elevation of the physiological function of the organs occurs as a consequence of the
structural and energetic modifications in the athlete's body (Hohmann et al, 2005),
and said adaptive capacity of the organism is carried out at different levels
(molecular, cellular, tissue, in the organs and in each subsystem of the body), adding
new peculiarities to the athlete. Achieving high levels of sports performance is the
result of many years of methodical, well-programmed training, and above all of hard
effort for the athlete, so the sports performance capacity of a subject is nothing more
than a reflection of their degree of adaptation. to the specific requirements of the
sport (Bompa, 1999: 13).
When a load is repeated for a certain time, they go successively producing a

series of changes and transformations in the individual and adapting to the load
stimuli in periods of at least one year as postulated by Verkhoshansky (1988:39). In
a way, adaptation has two types of clearly defined curves (figure 4.8), the first (curve
A) represents sports performance as a stable long-term adaptation process. The
second (curve B) would be all the physiological processes that occur in the
organism, although the functional modifications, according to Verkhoshansky
(1988:39), have a more temporary, unstable and, to a certain extent, reversible
character. sible.
“…adaptation cannot be considered as a process of balance or com thought, but

rather the active maintenance of a certain level of imbalance between the organism
and the external environment, which represents the main causes parameters that
cause or disturb the development of adaptive transformations in the organism..”
(Verkhoshansky, 1988:39).
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Performance
Sports
Figure 4.8. Dynamics of adaptation processes

(adapted from Verkhoshanski, 1988).
To seek this long-term adaptation, it is necessary to develop the or ganismo a

series of stimulations with repeated loads that increase the motor potential of the
athlete. The formation of long-term reactions occurs in parallel in relation to
environmental stimuli and between formation, and the effect that these cause on the
genetic apparatus of the cells involved in the organs. Stimulation for a certain period
of time generates chronic adaptations depending on the training load (type, intensity,
duration, repetition, etc.), in such a way that the amount of RNAi (information about
the genetic apparatus of the cells) causes a synth protein synthesis that acts on the
muscles, cardiovascular and respiratory system, as well as the endocrine system, to
ensure specificity of the protein synthesis of the stimuli to which the athlete is
subjected (Tschiene, 1997; Navarro, 2000). Although not only adaptation is of a
protein type since other authors also speak of adaptation as a resynthesis in enzyme
concentration and energy reserves (Hohmann et al, 2005).
The accumulation of training effects due to the continued stimulation of

training loads is not reduced to the sum of the separate effects, but constitutes a
synergistic effect that must take into account the order of the loads for better and
greater positive adaptation to training (Siff and Verkhoshanski, 2000). The training
effect depends on many factors, much more complex than those of an acute reaction,
among them we have the current physical form of the athlete, the order in which
the training regimes ment succeed one another, the delayed effects of the load and
the hardness tion of the given training means .
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4.8.1. The physical form of the athlete (current level of sports performance).
The current level of sports performance also has a direct relationship with long-
term adaptations. When faced with the same work of equal volume and intensity, the
reaction it produces in a high-level athlete (master of sport in Soviet terminology
used by authors such as Platonov, Verkhoshansky or Matveyev) is not important,
fatigue or deviations in the Activity in the functional systems that support the main
load is not great and recovery occurs quickly. On the other hand, in lower level
athletes, the same work provokes a much stronger reaction, with fatigue and
deviations in the state of functional systems manifesting more emphatically, with the
recovery process being longer (Platonov, 1994). (Fig. ra 4.9).
RECOVERY
Burden
Figure 4.9. Reaction of the body of athletes of different levels to it

training load.
4.8.2. The duration of sports training.
The objectives of long-term training are in relation to the training and

competition loads required to achieve sporting performance, and the time it is
necessary for the subject to carry out said training to achieve this, as shown. table
4.3. In such a way that the specificity of adaptive reactions in different sports is also
manifested in the maintenance time of chronic adaptation indices that allow
competing at the level of high sporting achievements (Platonov, 2001).
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Table 4.3. Age of start of practicing the sport and duration of the
training until reaching high sports performance. (Platonov,
2001:182).
Training duration (years)
International sports
Athletic
Sports Performance performance stage nal.
discipline. Age
Scope Stage
Women Men Women Men
short distance
races 12-14 5-6 6-7 6-7 9-10
Long distance 13-15 6-7 7-8 9-10 10-11

running
8-10 5-6 6-7 7-8 9-10

Swimming of
medium and
long distances.
13-15 6-7 7-8 8-9 10-11

Cross country
ski.
Athletics 13-15 5-6 6-7 7-8 8-9

throws.
Weightlifting 13-15 _ 6-7 _ 8-9
Boxing 12-14 _ 6-7 _ 8-9
Different types
of fighting _ _
13-15 6-7 8-9
Sports artistic
gymnastics.
7-9 6-7 7-8 7-8 10-11
Basketball 12-14 7-8 8-9 9-10 10-11
Handball 12-14 7-8 8-9 9-10 10-11
We speak, therefore, of processes based on scientific work that explains can

how an athlete undergoes, for a prolonged time, intense training efforts through
which modifications are made. nes and physiological, biochemical and
morphological adaptations, characteristics of an athlete to obtain results
(Theodorescu,1997).
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4.8.3. The delayed effects of training loads.
For Verkhoshansky (1988), there are two types of variants (figure 4.11) to
generate adaptation in the athlete, the first (A) consists of the application tion of
loads of notable volume that cause a great mobilization of energy sources, and that
produce a prolonged and profound alteration of homeostasis. This type of training is
temporarily organized in meso-cycles of 3 to 4 weeks, after which it is necessary to
take a rehabilitative break of 7 to 10 days, and using it for 18 to 22 weeks. These
types of strategies are mainly used in high-level athletes with fast strength. This
variant is related to concentrated loads (Issurin and Shkijar, 2002; Issurin and Lustig,
2004), a variant that began to gain strength in the 1980s as a criticism and alternative
revision to the model of regular loads that existed around periodization. of Matveiev
(Issurin and Shkijar, 2002). Concentrated loads are closely related to the
particularity of their effects, called residual training effects (Issurin and Lustig,
2004).
The second (B) consists of the gradual increase in functional indices and is
expressed in the case of a moderate and continuous volume of training loads. In this
variant, periodic and short-term alterations are caused. Thus, the body's homeostasis
and energy reserves are compensated during the training cycle. This type of training
is temporarily organized in cycles of longer duration in time compared to
concentrated load systems, specifically 5 to 6 weeks, after which it is also necessary
to take a rehabilitative break of the same duration as with the first variant. . This
form of adaptation corresponds with the traditional idea tional periodization of
training by Harre (1987), Matveiev (1977) or Stone, O'bryant and Garhammer,
(1981).
Each variant presents completely different adaptation rates in terms of the

time it takes to achieve sporting performance and are graphically represented in
figure 4.10.
CONCENTRATED VARIANT (A) REGULAR VARIANT (B)
Figure 4.10. General scheme of the different types of adaptation reactions of the
organism to the load according to its distribution.
4.8.4. The order of training regimens.
The proper organization of training loads is a section that deserves great

interest in the chapter referring to training loads. The important thing in the entire
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process is the appropriate direction of the loads towards the optimization of the
sports performance in question, and this direction is only obtained through the
optimal combination of training loads during a given period (weeks, months, years)
to obtain the effect of between desired formation. The cumulative training effect of
the preparation Long-term tion can be of two types according to Siff and
Verkhoshanski (2000:423):
^ Transient: immediate reaction to a complex of influences from among

training with different emphasis, imposed in a session or in mixed
sessions, together with the simultaneous and prolonged use of loads with
different to emphasis.
^ Accumulated: stratification of the training load footprint of different
emphasis, followed by a certain order and in prolonged stages of training.
These two effects in turn can be positive (when the load imprint creates
favorable conditions for adaptation to others) or negative (when the load imprint
interferes with adaptation to the next one).
This question has great practical importance when determining the

components and organization of training in microcycles, mesocycles, macrocycles,
based on a rigorous analysis of the characteristics of the sport in question.
The order of the training loads is regulated by the program tion of training,
although Verkhoshanski (2002) speaks of the training process as a matter of
programming, organization and direction of training. The programming addresses
specific aspects not of organization of the load, but of adaptation of the organism, of
morphofunctional specialization of the organism to the sporting activity. In this way
the organization of the Training is regulated, as stated by Armstrom and VanHeest
(2002), as a continuum in which a series of training states are manifested that the
athlete demonstrates within a season as shown in figure 4.11. These training phases
range from a period of low loads that would correspond to the transition or rest
phase between competitions, to overtraining that induces disadaptations and loss of
competitive form. titiva. The optimal training regimen would be found between the
two dashed lines and represent a large area of overload that decreases with the
passage of time and the improvement of the athlete's performance. On the other
hand, an adequate combination of concentrated loads must be taken into account.
days and short recovery periods. The circles or effects of training loads highlight two
facts, the first is that adjacent training loads (two successive rectangles) can give
similar results (circle). the), depending on the nature of the training and the correct
adjustment of the stress generated by the load with recovery and regeneration. The
second question tion is the fact that the athlete's optimal sporting form is close to the
overtraining threshold, so the border between optimal performance and its
deficiency due to overtraining is very subtle.
Increase in intensity, duration and frequency of training
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Figure 4.11. Continuum of training states (Armstrom and

VanHeest, 2002).
The development of adaptation processes in the athlete's body is seen as a

very long evolution in time that can last years, and is only possible under an
organization and structuring of training that allows increasing the difficulty of the
program at each stage of the training. multi-year preparation. This long-term
organization links directly to the proposals These are reflected in the works of
Platonov (2001) and Tschiene (1997) in relation to the stages of long-term sports
adaptation that the athlete's body undergoes:
1. Stage related to a systematic mobilization of functional reserves organization

during the execution of the training program to certain types and degrees of
load. In any case, it is necessary It is the accumulation of the effects of short-
term adaptation repeated multiple times (in daily training units). Here it was
produced ce a nonspecific adaptation.
2. Stage in which with methodically increasing and repeated loads matically
during a certain period of time, an intense structural and functional
transformation of the organs and tissues occurs. directly related to sports
performance. At the end of this is Afterwards, the necessary hypertrophy of
cells and tissues is achieved, as well as coordination of the different
mechanisms responsible for the functional motor system under the new
conditions.
3. Stage characterized by a stable adaptation with a prolonged duration. It
manifests itself in the existence of a greater reserve to gure a new functional
level of the athlete. Now the structures function tionals have greater stability,
even with negative influences.
4. This stage only occurs with irrational planned training. mind, insufficient
nutrition and poor recovery. It manifests itself in a structural and functional
worsening of the functional motor system, its stability is weakened, further
development is no longer possible. rio, the result clearly decreases.
This evolution proposed by Platonov (2001) and Tschiene, (1997), applied
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directly to the field of sports training, leads again to long-term planning that would
coincide with the development process of an athlete , coinciding with the
appearance of the first results matter cia, optimization of the best results , coinciding
with the Mat phase veyev (1983) of maximum realization of sporting possibilities,
reaching se the best results of the athlete, maintenance of these sports results , and
decrease in sports performance , where the athlete co progressively begins to
abandon competition and enter normal life, thus showing a reduced outline of what
would be the phases in the career of a highly competitive athlete.
It is very important to consider that the adaptation process does not last to
infinity, but rather that each time the stimulus is repeated, its action on the capacity
performance decreases (Verkhoshanski, 1988), this aspect is linked to the concept of
current adaptation reserve or adaptation reserve.
Issurin and Lustig, (2004: 26) also point out how this capacity to adapt tation
has its counterpart in the speed of loss of adaptation that manifests itself party at
different speeds, so heterochronism is also evident in the loss of the residual effects
of training.
Synthetically, the specialization of the long-term training process is shown in

two different ways (Verkhoshansky, 2002:157):
^ First, the muscle groups and physiological systems that perform the main
volume of work acquire very pronounced adaptive changes.
^ Second, the functional improvement of the organism in general is
characterized by the development of specific physical abilities that will be
essential for the success of the specific sporting activity. ta. For this
reason, there are two types of specialization, of the organ nism and motor
capacity.
Therefore and summarizing the main concepts in relation to adap tation and
its applicability to sports training it can be established that:
1. Adaptation is understood as a process and as a final state of the organism's

adjustment to training loads.
2. The restructuring of the adaptation must be as specific as possible in terms of
the sports specialty itself, and that specificity is in It is regulated by the
training load.
3. In the adaptation process, a heterochrony of the moments corresponding to
functional specialization occurs.
4. The training model that best fits the current training configuration parameters
is the bifactor model.
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5. THE PRINCIPLES OF SPORTS TRAINING.
The general orientation of the action of sports training makes many long time
that was regulated through the development of a system of training principles.
Various publications already exist, either in the form of monographs (Matveiev,
1977, 1983, 1993; Platonov, 1995, 2001; Manno, 1992; Grosser, 1992; Dick, 1993;
Bompa, 1999; Martin, Carl and Lehnertz, 2001; Hoh Mann et al. 2005) or from
articles (Stone et al. 2000, Dollard, Pontell and Hallivis, 2006) that have established
the guidelines and have founded the schemes on which these principles have been
based. In this sense, highlight the existing problem of lack of consensus on the part
of the different authors when establishing a single scheme that determines general
principles for everyone. Navarro (2000) shows us that the current literature on the
theory of sports training does not coincide in terms of the number or naming of
training principles. This is why it is considered necessary to focus the selection of
principles based on two basic approaches: biological foundation and pedagogical
foundation.
In the field of health-oriented physical conditioning, these principles are

replaced by the so-called prescriptions or recommendations towards the practice of
exercise (Simons-Morton et al, 1988; Cale and Harris, 1993; ACSM, 1988, 1990,
1999), that more than principles, they are concrete rules that regulate the magnitude
of the training load and recovery, prescribing adequate doses for the child or adult to
continue with their physical activity practice, regardless of whether or not the child
is an athlete with talent.
5.1. GENESIS AND VALIDITY OF THE PRINCIPLES OF

TRAINING.
The scientific validity of training principles raises certain questions.

terrogants. In this sense, Hohmann et al. (2005) make an open criticism of them,
doubting in many cases their experimental verification: “ …If the structure of the
assertion of the training principles is observed, it becomes evident that these
statements, formulated with abstract concepts, are not directly accessible for
scientific examination…” In many cases, the scientific weakness comes from the
first publications on training. sports training as stated by Tschiene (2000, 2001,
2002). In its genesis, many of the principles are formulated as rules of action or
training planning (Hohmann et al., 2005); that is, as rules coming from practice and
the coach's daily work, these have become his scientific positions and are nothing
more than “artisanal” rules, which over time have been transformed into hypotheses,
some of them not scientifically proven. physically still, but they solved, with a
certain solvency, problems that were generated in daily practice. On the other hand,
these principles have had their origin in the formulation of rules that had to be
respected for correct planning of sports training.
With which it can be stated that the principles of training are as follows:
verifications, at times of a pseudo-scientific nature, that must somehow change to
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become research hypotheses that can be tested.
5.2. CONCEPT AND SCOPE OF THE PRINCIPLES OF

TRAINING.
Classifications of training principles differ substantially mind as well as his

arguments between authors from the Eastern and Western bloc. Western authors
develop these principles based on the concept of adaptation of the organism and the
regulation of loads to improve performance. sports training. (Dick, 1993; Stone et al,
2000; Hoffman, 2002; Young Sport Trust, 2001; Dollard, Pontell and Hallivis, 2006;
Fry and Newton, 2006, Bompa, 1999).
For their part, the authors of the Eastern Bloc stand out for developing main
methodological principles of sports training (Grosser, Starischka and Zimmer Mann,
1988; Grosser, Brüguermann and Zintl, 1989; Platonov, 1995, 2001; Harre, 1987;
Hegedus, 1988; Matveiev, 1977,1983,1993 Verkhoshansky, 1990 Martin, Carl and
Lehnertz, 2001, Zhelyazkov, 2005; Hohmann et al, 2005).
Without taking into consideration membership in any of the blocks, the concepts
The most relevant details regarding the principles are reflected below.
These principles are theoretical generalizations of primary importance for to

develop the methodological recommendations that are the basis of the work of the
coach and the athlete, organized in order to form the high school system ration for
competitive activity (Platonov, 2001).
They are rules that provide a guide for the methodical approach that does
not be considered in isolation. They include all aspects and tasks of the training, and
determine the content, means and methods, as well as the organization of the
training (Harre, 1987).
Likewise, they are general guidelines that reflect the regularities in m of

axioms, of practical orientation, demands and rules of the activity with the purpose
of systematically ordering the adaptation processes and determining the guidelines
of the training method (Grosser, Starischka and Zimmermann, 1988).
As training principles, a series of hierarchically superior instructions are

defined for the activity of sports training, understood as general guidelines for the
action of coaches and athletes when developing the activity schemes (Martin, Carl
and Lehnertz, 2001 ).
They are angular pillars in the sense of training and are intended to ideally
reflect its main regularities and, together with this, give direction. tation as exact as
possible on how they must be fulfilled in the typical conditions of sports practice.
(Matveev, 2001).
They are also general norms that guide the pedagogical process of training in
multiple facets, and that are divided into two groups: pedagogical and training-
specific (Zhelyakov, 2001).
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Training principles refer to practical experiences obtained through individual

sports, they are biologically founded applications, in accordance with the adaptation
processes of the organism and intervening directly in the phases of performance
planning (Grosser, Brüguermann and Zintl, 1989).
As a synthesis of all the concepts, it can be stated that the principles of training are
general rules, based on knowledge. physiological and pedagogical foundations that
serve as general guidance in the sports training process and provide information
regarding the coach-athlete interaction, organization, structuring and planning of
sports training, as well as the biological laws that regulate adaptation in sport.
As has already been explained, there are several classifications of principles

that group them according to different criteria. The most common groups them
mainly jects of a pedagogical nature, on the one hand, and biological, on the other
(Harre, 1987; Zhelyazkov, 2005; Matveiev, 2001). The authors of the western bloc
understand as principles, only those whose essence responds to increased
performance. sports development respecting the principles of adaptation, like some
Eastern authors such as Grosser, Starischka and Zimmermann (1988) or Grosser,
Brüguermann and Zintl (1989).
The principles established by Grosser, Starischka and Zimmermann, (1988)

are interesting, based on the laws of biological adaptation, and well known in our
country thanks to the translation of their specific monograph on the Principles of
Sports Training. These principles are the following:
PRINCIPLES OF EFFORT.
- Principle of the optimal relationship between effort and rest.
- Principle of constant increase in effort.
- Principle of irregular increase in effort.
- Principle of load versatility.
PRINCIPLES THAT ORDER THE TRAINING CYCLES.
- Principle of repetition and continuity.

- Principle of periodization.
PRINCIPLES OF SPECIALIZATION.
- Principle of individuality.
- Principle of regulatory alternation.
- Principle of preference and systematic coordination.
- Principle of periodic regeneration
On the other hand, highlight the classification established by Martin, Carl

and Lehnertz (2001) into three categories:
- General pedagogical principles.

- Principles of structuring and organizing training.
- Principles of the methodological configuration and contents of the study
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ning.
In total, these authors establish 25 principles that regulate training sports

training. A reference to all of them is offered in table 5.1.
Table 5.1. Classification of principles of Martin, Carl and Lehnertz (2001 )
PEDAGOGICAL PRINCIPLES
1. Principle of social conditioning of decisions about activity.

2. Principle of the primacy of personal evolution over evolution tion of
sports performance.
3. Principle of rationality of the training activity.
4. Principle of maintaining and strengthening health
5. Principle of orientation of training tasks towards the needs and interests
of athletes.
6. Principle of adaptation of the activity to the evolutionary age.
7. Principle of increasing the own responsibility of sports tists.
8. Principle of clear presentation and feasibility of decisions nes about the
activity.
PRINCIPLES FOR ORGANIZATION AND PLANNING

OF TRAINING
1 Principle of mutual harmony of decisions regarding the ning

2 Principle of effectiveness
3 Planning principle
4 Principle of harmonization between the evolution of general and specific
performance
5 Principle of specificity
6 Principle of progressive increase in training load to
7 Principle of individualization
8 Principle of direction and permanent regulation of training I lie
PRINCIPLES FOR METHODOLOGICAL STRUCTURING

AND TRAINING CONTENT
1 Globalizing principle between conditional, technical-coordinative-motor

and tactical-sports contents
2 Principle of the primacy of the complexity of training effects
3 Principle of the specificity of the adequacy between the trains ment and
competition
4 Principle of creating optimal guiding foundations for to carry out the
activity planned
5 Principle of optimal psycho-physical dynamization
6 Principle of optimal quality of exercise execution
7 Principle of increasing training load
8 Principle of continuity
9 Principle of clinical condition of training activity to
Taking into account these and other classifications, they will be presented in
the following sections the most relevant principles in order to better understand Zion
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5.3. PRINCIPLES RELATED TO THE PHENOMENA OF

BIOLOGICAL ADAPTATION.
For a training program to be designed correctly, it is important that the goals

and objectives are very clear in their approach and development. If the determination
of the components of the external load among Training is done through the analysis
of the internal load itself, and its modulation generates adaptive effects. The
optimization of all these processes and the correct implementation of the objectives
require a series of foundations called training principles (Hoffman, 2002)
The principles of training aim to make it effective as much as possible,

through understanding the factors that develop the best sporting performance. These
principles are intended to ensure that the Training is specific, at an adequate and
varied level of load, training with sufficient regularity and with adequate rest time to
allow the athlete's body to recover and benefit from training (Stone et al, 2000;
Young Sport Trust, 2001). The principles developed by the Young Sport Trust
Association (2001) aim to optimize sports performance, based on biological
principles and those that organize training media in temporal structures. For their
part, Dollard, Pontell and Hallivis (2006) adjust the training principles to the load-
rest levels, with the aim of preventing injuries and increasing specific motor skills,
all based on knowledge about motor development and physiological of the
individual, on which there are numerous review studies at the national level (Ruiz,
1987; 1995: Delgado, 1990; Delgado, Gutiérrez and Castillo, 1997).
Dick, (1993), Stone et al, (2000) and Fry and Newton, (2006) establish only
three principles in order to improve performance in strength training: overload,
specificity and variation. This section has included the most relevant principles in
relation to adaptation and also refers to those that are very similar in their approach
and that in many cases only differ in a nuance that makes them have been considered
different.
5.3.1. Overload Principle.
It was initially formulated by DeLorme and Watkins in 1948. This prince pio
constitutes one of the 3 specific for strength training. Overload consists of providing
the appropriate stimulus to achieve adaptation tion or improvement in performance,
for this these stimuli must be increased progressively, although these must be
accompanied by the principle of variability, accompanying periods of overload with
periods of rest (Kraemer and Fleck, 2007). The stimuli must go beyond the subject's
normal performance levels to achieve the overload effect (Dick, 1993; Stone et al,
2000; Young Sport Trust, 2001), in such a way that when higher external loads or
these are not presented are equal in magnitude will not occur adapts tions and,
consequently, improved performance. To continue increasing performance, an
increase in the load by 20-40% annually is required, although in high sports
performance these percentages decrease considerably (Grosser, Starischka and
Zimmermann, 1988; Grosser, Brüguermann and Zintl, 1989). In strength training,
overload refers to the request of the neuromuscular system to develop levels of force
higher than those executed during daily activity. Furthermore, the greater the
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overload, the faster and greater the magnitude of the biological changes. (Fry and
Newton, 2006).
The following routes of intensification are highlighted in the principle of

overload that allow ensuring gradual progress from the first stages of training to high
sports performance (Platonov, 2001):
- Increase in annual work volume from 100-200 to 1,300-1,500 hours.

- Increased the number of training sessions during the weekly microcycle
from 2-3 to 15-20 and more.
- Increase in the number of training sessions during a day from 1 to 3-4,
depending on the sport. (These first three points should with considered
during the construction of the high-level athlete and not when training in
high competition is carried out)
- Increase in the number of selective counseling sessions that caused can
the deep mobilization of different possibilities works those of the athletes'
organism.
- Increased role of training in intense regimes within the workload in a
season; These regimens help to increase special resistance.
- Increase in the volume of competitive activity.
Kraemer and Fleck (2007) establish the following guidelines for strength
training:
- Increase the number of repetitions using the specific gesture.

- Increase the speed of concentric execution of the movement if the
objective is the development of power.
- Shorten the rest periods between sets and exercises, and try to ensure that
the total work is done in the same amount of time as the session lasts, if
the objective is the development of muscular resistance.
- Increase rest periods between sets and exercises, increase menting the
intensity of the exercises, if the objective is the development of maximum
strength.
- Increase training volume in sets and repetitions up to a “reasonable” limit.
- Use several training methods simultaneously.
In any case, the increase in the load must be accompanied by an adequate

direction of the training, since the disproportionate increase in overload can lead to a
decrease in the speed of execution of some sports movements that require power, so
said increase would not have a lot of sense. Therefore, overload in sports must be
adjusted to the needs and requirements of the sport in question (Newton and
Kraemer, 1994, Baker, 1996, 2001).
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5.3.2. Variation Principle.
To provide an overload and, therefore, continue stimulating the body to

adapt, training must be novel, modifying its characteristics, and the newer the tasks,
the greater the changes in performance capacity in the face of this new task (Fry and
Newton, 2006). The variation concerns the appropriate manipulation of some of the
variables of the training load, such as intensity, speed of movement and volume, as
well as the adequate selection of exercises, constituting a basic foundation in the
construction of training programs at the level microcycle, in relation to sessions or
short-term effects (Kraemer et al, 1997; Kraemer, 1997) or when talking about
annual training units related to the concept of periodization (Stone, O'Bryant and
Garhammer, 1981; Fleck, 1999; Rhea et al, 2003). The effectiveness of periodization
also depends on the subjects to whom it is directed. Thus González Ravé et al (2007)
did not find significant differences in power gains between periodized models,
where the volume and intensity of training is changed, and non-periodized, where
the same training is always performed, in Sports Science students during five weeks,
estimating that the results in untrained subjects show limitations in their applicability
to highly trained athletes. In this sense, Scott and Docherty, (2004) or Gullich and
Schmidtbleicher (1996), indicate that periodization is more applicable in trained
athletes, since the responses of these and untrained subjects are completely different
due to the specific adaptation and caused by training in the former.
To put this principle into effect, the dynamics of the volume and intensity of
work during annual preparation, or the percentage of exercises of a general, special
and competitive nature that are developed in each stage, gives an idea of how the
variation principle is implemented. materializes in training programs and in the
effectiveness of sports performance.
This principle is closely related to the principle of cyclical nature in the

preparation process, through the systematic repetition of the structural units of the
training process.
In addition, it is also related to the principle of periodization of training.
5.3.3. Principle of Specificity.
For Kraemer and Fleck (2007) this constitutes one of the three principles on
which strength training is based. Training effects are specific to the type of stimulus
used in the tasks in relation to the competitive gesture (Fry et al, 2003). This training
specialization is specified in the muscular action carried out in the sporting gesture,
in the range of movement used in carrying it out and in the energy source used in the
competitive gesture. Specialization represents the main element required to achieve
success in sport. Specialization and specific exercises in a sport lead to anatomical
and physiological changes related to the needs of the sport in question (Bompa,
1999). Specificity is considered, at least, at the mechanical and energetic level of the
exercise (Stone et al. 1998, 2000). This principle is tremendously related to the
transfer effect of training according to the degree of adaptation to the competitive
gesture. Specificity includes motor patterns, maximum strength, explosive strength,
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acceleration or speed in sports whose performance capacity implies their

optimization (Behm, 1995). The principle of specificity has been scientifically
demonstrated in endurance sports such as triathlon for the prescription of aerobic
training zones based on the specific performances obtained in evaluations that
simulated motor gesture and work time (Carey et al, 2009). It has also been studied
in the area of speed, as shown in the work of Kristensen. Van den Tillaar and Ettema
(2006) in which the improvement in speed is more noticeable when working with
specific short sprints than using other means such as strength training, among others.
Finally, in the field of strength training, Morrissey's work. Harman and Johnson
(1998) positively verify this principle.
As an example, maximizing the effects of strength training is achieved with

(Stone et al, 2000; Fry and Newton, 2006):
^ Development of useful strength through conditioning of the groups

muscular poses involved in sports technique. There will only be an
increase in strength in the muscle groups involved in the training.
^ Effort dynamics (characteristics of the movement and the power required
in it). In the initial stages of the force adaptation process, gains are
produced by a change in neutral activation. ral of the acting muscles so
the further the exercise is movement, the lower the specific gain from
strength exercises.
^ Amplitude and direction of movement. Specific strength gains are
specific to the joint angle at which it was practiced.
^ Percentage and time of maximum force production.
^ Muscular work regimen (concentric versus eccentric, isometric). Strength
increases are specific to the type of muscle action cular applied during
training.
This principle is also called the specialization principle .

5.3.4. Principle of Continuity.
For Kraemer and Fleck (2007) this constitutes one of the three principles on
which strength training is based, and is found in the literature Anglo-Saxon ra as “
training frequency ”. This principle is based on the regularity in the impact of
training loads on the body, trying to ensure long-term adaptation. It depends on
numerous factors res such as the volume and intensity of training, selected exercise,
level of sports performance and recovery capacity of the athlete. Many international
class lifters train 2 times a day for 5-6 days a week, which constitutes a training
frequency of 12 sessions per week. nals, although Zatziorsky and Kraemer (2006)
have reported 18 weekly sessions for these athletes. To maintain adaptation over
time, it is necessary that optimal efforts be repeated continuously, taking into
account the periods two of supercompensation if we start from the unifactor model
of training, or taking into account both training loads and recovery, as proposed by
the two-factor or physical fitness-fatigue model of Busso, Carasso and Lacour
(1991), Zatsiorski ( 1995), Siff and Verkhoshanski (2000) and Norris and Smith
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(2002). To do this, you must know perfectly what rest times different types of
physical efforts require. This principle is very well documented in law number 2,
linked to the general adaptation syndrome (Harre, 1987). For Zhelyazkov
(2005:142), the practical meaning of this principle pio materializes in the following
approaches:
- Sports training is a process that lasts many years, whose unity over time
guarantees high effectiveness of sports specialization and obtaining
maximum sports results.
- The relationship between the different training loads, organization and
interconnection guarantee the presence of an accumulated metabolic
trace. lative due to training influences.
- The alternation of work and rest in the training process must create the
optimal conditions for the progressive development of the training state
and a maximum manifestation of the capabilities. of the athlete's
potential.
This principle is also related to that of systematic alternation of loads with

rest and to those of periodization and cyclical alternation in effort .
5.3.5. Individualization Principle.
This principle refers to how athletes respond differently against the same
training stimulus. This variability in the response can be due to many factors, among
which the previous training status, genetic predisposition and gender must be
considered (Hoffman, 2002).
Manno (1992) adds to these factors the general state of health and the body and
functional constitution of the subject.
In sports training, although the workload is an objective and quantitatively

definable fact, individualization aims for the coach to observe the physical and
psychological reactions of the athlete in order to adapt their training load (Manno,
1992; Bompa, 1999). .
According to Bompa (1999), the determination of loads at the individual

level will depend on the following factors:
^ Biological and chronological age: especially in children and adolescents

whose bodies have not yet reached maturity.
^ Experience, starting age in the sport : the load demands proposed by the
coach must be appropriate to the experience in the sport.
^ Individual work and performance capacity : not all athletes have the same
work or performance capacity. Biological and psychological factors
determine this work capacity.
^ Health level : the training load must always be balanced supported by the
maintenance of the athlete's health. You cannot plan training that is
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detrimental to this and exposes the individual to accidents, injuries or

illnesses.
^ Percentage of training and rest load: already explained how much When
we talk about charge density, and whose graphical representation ex
clearly establishes several models of temporal relationship between
effort zo and the recovery phase (see figure 5 of Vasconcelos, 2000 in
chapter 3).
5.4. PRINCIPLES RELATED TO THE TEACHING-LEARNING PROCESS.
Perhaps the most relevant contribution of the authors of this block has been
the concern for the principles of training considering the between training not only
as a process of biological adaptation, but also as a pedagogical process and the
direction and control of training. If it is considered According to the proposals of
Schmolinsky (1985), these principles also carry a moral and social orientation
around the athlete and their participation within the socio-political system in
accordance with the classic models of sports participation. However, it must be
thought, in a broader sense, that the teaching processes Teaching-learning key
affects the coaching-training interactions, and the teaching-learning methodology
put into practice and developed.
Sports training is considered as a pedagogical process in which general

principles of learning and education are applied. Aside from ideological and
doctrinal considerations regarding sports training, its organization and final
objective is to guarantee and optimize the interactions and the teaching-learning
methodology used, based on factors such as material and human resources, group
disposition, the degree of directivity used, etc. Authors such as Abraham and Collins
(1998), Harre (1987), Lyle (1999), Matveyev (1977, 1983) and Schmolinsky (1985),
have highlighted the need to investigate the problems and realities of human
interactions that are associated with the training processes, these processes being
constituted by a series of methods used in training.
The pedagogical principles generated by the Soviet authors, mentioned

above, have evolved thanks to research focused on systematic observation to be able
to quantify the strategic instructions of coaches and their effectiveness both in
training and in competition (Bloom et al., 1999), in addition to works focused on
knowing the pedagogical styles used by coaches, forgetting about the social and
contextual factors that are directly determining the coach's behavior (Kahan, 1999).
At the national level, the studies by Crespo and Balaguer (1994) and Delgado
Noguera (2000) are relevant.
The pedagogical principles have been highlighted by several authors from the
former DDR and former USSR, highlighting the importance of teaching and
learning during the training process, given the role that the coach plays as a
pedagogue, there are several authors who state various pedagogical principles.
related to training. Given that conditional abilities are developed and motor skills are
acquired through a methodological approach that adapts to the athlete through
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adequate communication and the most accurate didactic instructions and guidelines,
these authors consider the creation of a good pedagogical process to be essential. ,
motivation of the athlete, particularly in the young athlete. Therefore, it is possible
to identify, within the pedagogical and teaching relationship, some principles that
will favor the effectiveness of the coach and, consequently, the training of the
athlete.
Among the principles related to the teaching-learning process, the following

can be highlighted:
5.4.1. Principle of the Conscious.
Established by Harre (1987), rather than conscious, it should be called

“voluntary”, in the sense that this principle speaks of the involvement of the athlete
in the development of the entire training process, of the planning of objectives
together with the coach and the motivation to achieve them. The athlete is actively
involved in training because he is convinced that he can achieve the objectives and
voluntarily participates in all sessions to try to achieve them.
5.4.2. Principle of Planning and Systematization.
Harre (1987) raises this principle about the orientation and construction of
the athlete in the long term, paying attention to the ordering of the exercises.
Systematization is a process linked to the mental planning of training. based on
scientific knowledge about training, analysis of the sport in question, control of the
athlete and previous marks, and this system Nuance entails the elaboration and
structuring of the training according to a series of parameters that will direct it,
adjusting to the reality of the context.
For Chelladurai and Quek (1995) and Jones (2000), the coach's behavior in
decision-making is not the only process to take into account, but the importance lies
in investigating and interpreting the processes that determine the way of acting and
of thinking of the coaches, to be able to reach an understanding of these actions and
create currents that are increasingly oriented towards the achievement of the coach's
educational process. We must not forget that the coach's work is subject to a
complex reality (Cote et al., 1995) and that contextual factors impact the coach's
instructions in training sessions (Jones et al., 2001) and, consequently, , on the
athlete's performance.
5.4.3. Principle of Mental Representation.
According to Harre (1987), it means mentally representing a series of

circumstances abstract substances so that the athlete becomes aware of the demands
of the load and develops his maximum capabilities towards achievement. In this
sense, the coach's communication as well as the motivation to correctly carry out the
training session appears to be a fundamental parameter when it comes to obtaining a
positive response for the understanding of objects and phenomena with creets.
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Visualization or mental rehearsal is a psychological technique applied to training

that is based on the efficient mental representation of the practice to be developed
(Lorenzo, 2000).
This principle is fundamentally directed towards technical learning and its

quantitative and qualitative components. Muscular adaptation in relation to
technique is a very important parameter since, developed based on very specific
joint angulations, it conditions muscular adaptation. As an example, it is not the
same if the individual performs jumps with an initial jump to shoot a ball or block
than the one who performs a jump for a high jump, or for a shot at the basket with
two supports, that is, the quantitative component requires analyzing ergogenesis
based on the technique. The component
Qualitative refers to the degree of coordination and difficulty of movements of the

gesture, thus, the greater the degree of coordination required by a motor task, the
more difficult it will be to perform it and the more complex its learning will be.
5.4.4. Feasibility Principle.
For Harre (1987), feasibility implies respect for the particularities of age and
sex in the level of development of the athletes, so the demands of the load must be
adjusted. It is about adapting the physical and psychological load requirements to
avoid causing phenomena related to overtraining, individualizing the load demands
based on each athlete, considering the different performance capacities, as well as
the tolerance to loads.
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6. THE PERIODIZATION OF TRAINING.
6.1. INTRODUCTION
Training loads and their proper organization constitute one of the most
important tasks for the coach to achieve an adaptation proper regulation of the
athlete's body, and therefore, means optimizing the athlete's maximum sporting
performance. Although an ex-analysis has already been exhaustive of the training
loads in chapter 3, in this chapter he makes We emphasize their interconnection and
distribution. The distribution of loads refers to their dynamics and organization in
the different cycles of the training structure, being the way in which the different
loads are placed in a session, microcycle, mesocycle or macrocycle
(Verkhoshansky, 1990; Siff and Verkhoshansky, 2000 ; Navarro, 2000). The notion
of interconnection of charges indicates the relationship that charges of different
orientation have with each other when they are combined over time (Siff and
Verkhoshansky, 2000:430), these concepts represent a very interesting approach for
research in our field since the transition from one training load to another must
involve the passage to different levels of performance than the one the athlete was
at, so research in this field means advancing in the control of these directions. tions
of training.
The conceptual development of this chapter will highlight the process of

training and its periodization as an element to highlight within the distribution
bution and interconnection of training loads, and will show the possible gaps in the
research that have been established for this purpose in the scientific literature.
6.2. THE PERIODIZATION OF TRAINING.
Periodization is one of the most important concepts in training I lie. The term
has its origin in the period, which is a portion or division of time within which we
find other smaller and easier to manage ones. called training periods (Bompa, 1994).
The periodization concept has its origins in Eastern Europe and was adapted
to modern training planning in the 1960s by scientists. sports groups such as
Matveyev in the Soviet sphere or Bompa in the Czechoslovak sphere (Norris and
Smith, 2002, Wathen, 1994). Later, American scientists such as Stone and O'Briant
modified Matveyev's work by adding different phases to the preparatory period
(Norris and Smith, 2002, Wathen, 1994, Wathen and Roll, 1994).
Periodization is the cyclical and gradual ordering of exercises in training

following principles of specificity, volume and intensity with the aim of achieving
high levels of sports performance in competitions nes most important (Wathen and
Roll, 1994; Fleck, 1999). Plisk and Stone (2003) define it as a planned distribution
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GARCÍA
or variation of training methods. ment through time cycles. In this sense, it seems
that periodization is a fundamental concept to achieve sporting performance. Hof
Man (2002) considers two different types of periodization to achieve performance,
such as linear models, considered the classic form of periodization design, and
nonlinear (wavy) models, in which the volume and intensity of training is varied.
session by session as shown in table 6.1.
Table 6.1. Example of non-linear periodized training.

Rest between sets.
Series Repetitions
Day 1 3-4 RM8-10 2 min.
Day 2 4-5 3-5RM 3-4 min.
Day 3 3-4 RM12-RM15 1 min.
The rational, deliberate and studied organization of the contents of Training

is a key factor for good periodization. The distribution of training content within the
different training structures Training is an area of planning that has been little
studied and that coaches carry out based on recommendations or practical
experience obtained on a day-to-day basis.
There is a third periodization model established by Brown (2002), called

fractal. According to the RAE dictionary (23rd edition), a fractal is a flat or spatial
figure, composed of infinite elements, which has the property that its appearance
and statistical distribution do not change whatever the scale with which it is
observed, in this way the volume and intensity manifest so in the same way in an
annual cycle, in a mesocycle, in a microcycle or in a session.
A recent study by Kendall et al (2009) shows an example of fractal

periodization over 4 weeks of interval training and creatine supplementation to
improve power measured on a cycle ergometer at a university. physically active
athletes showing significant changes after the combination of interval training-
ergogenic assistance.
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Figure 6.1. Volume and intensity according to a fractal periodized model for a
cycle of one year, 3 months, and 2 weeks (Brown, 2002).
6.3. TRAINING STRUCTURES IN RELATION TO PERIODIZATION.
All periodization implies short, medium and long-term planning, which is

usually structured in macrocycles, mesocycles and microcycles, although Norris and
Smith (2002) state how the terminology used to describe the structural components
can lead to confusion on this issue.
Sports programming orders the planning structures from highest to lowest in

terms of timing that allow achieving in a coherent way between the training
objectives, in this way, on certain structures The training loads are ordered to allow
a logical sequence of adaptation (García, Navarro, and Ruiz, 1996; Navarro, 1998).
In this way and from a methodological perspective we will organize these structures
into:
- Training sessions.
- Microcycles.
- Mesocycles.
- Macrocycles.
- Multi-annual cycles.
In this way, each one is included in the other, forming a coherent structure of
training objectives and contents as shown in figure 6.2.
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Cycle
Year 1 Year 2 Year 3 Year 4
Macrocycle
competitive preparatory
mesocycle mesocycle
Figure 6.2. Training programming structures.
The entire training period is defined as a macrocycle, with Conventionally,

this refers to an entire year of training, although it can also be referred to as periods
ranging from many months to 4 years, as stated by Wathen (1994). The macrocycles
that will be seen in this chapter will be the conventional and the contemporary ones.
The macrocycle is divided into different phases called mesocycles, each

mesocycle emphasizes a specific aspect of training. For Hoffman (2002), the most
appropriate mesocycles for athletes whose performance model is oriented towards
strength/speed are the mesocycles of hypertrophy, maximum strength, maximum
strength/power and high competitive form, as shown in table 6.2.
Table 6.2. Volume and intensity in a strength training program

periodized. (Hoffman, 2002).
Mesocycle Series Repetitions %1RM
Hypertrophy 3-5 8-12 60-75%
Force 3-5 6-8 80-85%
Maximum 3-5 4-6 85-90%
force/power
3-5 2-4 <90%
High sporty shape
In this way, the periodization of strength training for a period porada

presents various options, from them we extract two models of periodization.
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tion of 12 months, one in which there is only one tune-up, and another for team
sports as proposed by Hoffman (2002) as shown in figures 6.3 and 6.4.
Figure 6.3. Volume and intensity in a strength training program

periodized following a conventional model with a single set-up
(Hoffman, 2002).
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Figure 6.4. Volume and intensity in a strength training program

periodized for team sports (Hoffman, 2002).
Wathen (1994) states that the duration of each mesocycle is different; they
can last from weeks to months, depending on the type of sport and the athlete's level
of performance, competitions, objectives sought in each one, as well as the time
between competitions. Each mesocycle contains several microcycles, which are
generally periods of one week, although they can also be fewer days of training.
Classically, Matveyev (1977, 1983) distinguishes a series of mesocycles following a
conventional model:
1. Introductory Mesocycles : They are distinguished by a type of load whose

intensity follows a fairly gradual increasing trend, while the volume can reach
very high magnitudes.
2. Basic type mesocycles: they constitute the main class of mesocycles within the
preparatory period. In them the most important training load is faced, which
increases the functional potential of the or ganism; in them learning in new ways
is carried out or laughs structure those learned previously. These mesocycles can
be subdivided into development mesocycles and stabilization mesocycles.
3. Preparatory control mesocycles: they are an intermediate point between the
basic and competition type mesocycles, their character is control or between
training and are subordinated to the task of preparing for the main competitions
of the season.
4. Polishing mesocycles: they are usually used after control ones when it is
necessary to correct defects that have appeared or perfect this or that facet of the
athlete's training status.
5. Competitive mesocycles : this mesocycle is structured oriented towards the main
competitions. The main competition, its immediate preparation ta and the brief
unloading phase after the competition form the competition mesocycle.
6. Intermediate mesocycles : they are necessary along with the competitive
mesocycles tives, intermediate mesocycles, very important in some sports such
as team sports, given the impossibility of maintaining a high degree of
performance for a long time. Álvarez del Villar (1992) establishes two types of
intermediate mesocycles, recovery and preparation, always preceded by
unloading work in the form of active recovery. We also have regeneration and
maintenance mesocycles, which are made up of softer training loads.
7. Precompetitive mesocycle : it will be a mesocycle in which all performance
factors and their stabilization are optimally manifested. Preparation for the
competitive cycle occurs.
On the other hand, the development of other mesocycles associated with

specific loads triads (accumulation, transformation and realization) are developed
later in the section “ Contemporary macrocycle model”. Its conceptual foundation
is established by the works of Issurin and Shkijar (2002) and Issurin and Lustig,
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(2004) presented in the training load chapter.
Microcycles are defined as a series of training sessions, organized rationally

in a short period of time (García, Navarro and Ruiz, 1996). They are not completely
finished processes but represent organizational structures that will finalize processes
with the mesocycles. An option in the type of microcycles can be found in the
chapter referring to the training load where Viru (1999) classifies these according to
the time for adaptive synthesis and supercompensation of the energy deposits used.
The microcycles are: development (divided into ordinary and shock), application ,
competition and restitution . Each of them is explained in the training load chapter.
6.4. THE STRUCTURE OF MATVEYEV'S CLASSICAL MODEL.
Periodization theory was originally defined by LP Matveyev in 1965, as an

update of work published in 1962. The annual training cycle is conventionally
divided into three main phases: preparation river, competitive and transition
(Bompa, 1994).
The preparatory period is subdivided into general preparation phases and is

special The main purpose of general preparation is to establish the functional
foundation nal for training, therefore we cause an improvement in physical
condition (Navarro, 2000. Applied to sports with technical components, we must
also, apart from raising the functional possibilities of the organism, in technique
apply the range of fundamentals and motor skills, and in team sports in strategy-
tactics make an introduction to the systems that are intended. perform and basic
theoretical aspects of the game (Hdez Moreno, 1988). In special preparation, the
objectives to be achieved in physical preparation are oriented towards the
development of specific physical qualities; the bases of motor and technical
capabilities must be created according to the specific requirements of each sport.
Regarding technique and tactics in team sports, we begin to introduce these actions
into the real context. The theoretical aspects follow the same orientation (Hdez
Moreno, 1988).
The competitive period must be subdivided into three parts:
Early competition phase in which the aim is to develop the skills specific
motor and technical skills, an increase in the athlete's potential is sought so that he
can take part in a series of competitions, but without reaching the maximum in them
but rather as preparatory to the next period, which is that of main competitions.
The main competition phase is the most important part of the season, training
in this period is characterized by intensity
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GARCÍA
maximum, specific and similar to the competition, the main part of the
exercises is the modeled training. There may be competitions prior to the important
one.
The final competition phase is not a component of the macrocycle, but it
may appear because the competition calendar can continue after the main
competition, it is about maintaining form as long as we continue competing but
taking into account the fatigue of the phase major.
The transition period will be a rest interval to establish the appropriate

recovery means to begin the next season.
Traditional periodization can be established based on one, two or three shape

peaks, taking into account certain competitive periods in which we want to establish
an adequate set-up. Although the premises on which this design is based mean that
only one peak can be established in a unique way, while the others are minor.
Three cycle periodization
Two-cycle periodization
Periodization of a cycle
I
□ II □ PPG III IV V VI VII VIII IX X XI XII
PPE
Preparatory period Competitive Period

period Transitio
Prof. Dr. José M González Ravé n
Figure 6.5. Different options of the load periodization model

regular.
6.5. THE APPLICATION OF THE EASTERN MODEL BY AMERICAN

RESEARCHERS IN THE FIELD OF FORCE.
Classical Eastern European writings on asu periodization men a long-term

perspective of the organization of loads and development llo of the athlete who
improves as a consequence of said periodization (Cissik, Hedrick and Barnes,
2009). The modification of the Matveyev model applied to strength training was
established by Stone, O'Bryant and Garhammer (1981) by dividing the preparatory
period into three phases within the preparatory period that outlined in a more refined
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way the differences that exist within it. thus leaving a model of 4 mesocycles of 2-3
months duration depending on the sporting level of the subject (figures 6.6 and 6.7).
Thus, the preparatory period is divided into phase 1 of hypertrophy in which there is
a high volume of training and low intensity aimed at increasing muscle mass and
resistance. Its objective is to help prepare the athlete for more intensive training.
Phase 2 of strength aims to increase the intensity of training and reduce its volume.
Phase I and II take place in the preseason and phase III is developed in preparatory
competitions in which the previous work is transformed into power work, while
phase IV is the main competition period, where competitive strength is worked, This
is followed by the transition phase according to Wathen and Roll, (1994) and Fleck
and Kraemer (2004). For a better understanding of the comparison between the
different periodization models for strength/power, Fleck and Kraemer (2004) carry
out This figure shows and compares each of the three terminologies. most frequent
periods of periodization in scientific literature (figure 6.7).
Figure 6.6. Single peak strength periodization model (competition

major). Stone, O'Bryant and Garhammer (1981).
The objective in periodized models is to try to maximize the principle pio of

overload and ensure the correct relationship between stimulus/recovery. The
principle of overload in sports training is described as the process so in which the
neuromuscular system must be stimulated to greater loads calling for an adaptation
to these. Periodized programs in their nature try to maximize this adaptation by
changing the magnitude of the loads and thus expanding the response capabilities of
the neuromuscular system. (Howley and Franks, 1986; Stone, O'Bryant and
Garhammer, 1981).
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Figure 6.7. Comparison between the three periodization terminologies for

strength and power (Fleck and Kraemer, 2004).
6.6. THE PERIODIZATION OF STRENGTH TRAINING:

CHARACTERISTICS OF STRENGTH TRAINING CYCLES.
The adaptation processes that must be respected in training for the

development of strength occur through cycles that are repeated periodically. These
cycles are made up of different phases, each of which must be directed towards
achieving a specific manifestation of strength and whose arrangement allows
training to be directed towards improving the manifestation required by the sport in
question. The recommended duration The objective of these phases, as well as the
priority objective in each of them, are the following (González Badillo, 2000):
1st Phase : Objective, basic content and duration: improvement of maximum

strength due to the effect on hypertrophy and ex-strength training
plosive (3-8 weeks).
2nd Phase : Objective, basic content and duration: improvement of
maximum strength due to neural effect and improvement of explosive
strength (3-5 sec. manas).
3rd Phase : Objective, basic content and duration: maintenance of strength
maximum strength and improved explosive strength (3-5 weeks)
4th Phase : Objective, basic content and duration: optimal manifestation of
strength and maintenance of maximum and explosive strength (hard
variable tion).
5th Phase : Objective, basic content and duration: transition phase (1-6
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weeks).
This model, of a sport with a preferential demand for explosive strength and
maximum power, can be extrapolated to sports that require strength resistance by
introducing this objective in all phases.
The number of complete cycles that a season of It depends fundamentally on

two aspects (González Badillo, 2000):
^ Requirements of the competition calendar and type of sport.

^ Possibilities of adaptation of the athlete.
The annual periodization of the cycles depends on the moments in which it is

desired to place the athlete in an optimal state of form, distributing the season into
one (neither usual nor recommended), two, three, four or more cycles. These cycles
will not have the same characteristics, it will depend on the type of sport, the
competitive calendar. Based on these variables, the number and duration of cycles
will be modified:
^ In sports with several competitions throughout the year, a complete cycle

must be done before each competition.
^ The shorter and more explosive the competition gesture, the shorter and
more frequent the cycles will be.
^ In sports with a long period of competitions (collective) two cycles can be
made with the following characteristics (González Badillo, 2000):
^ The maintenance phase of both cycles is prolonged,
producing a long active rest at the end of the competitions.
^ The microcycles of lifting loads and recovery occur
alternately during the competition period.
^ The character of each phase is slightly accentuated in
period two shorter periods of time, but without abandoning
the specific work of the sport in question.
^ This makes it possible to permanently maintain a
sufficient te maximum strength level and a continuous
transfer to the specific strength.
^ The moment to prioritize one or another manifestation of
strength za depends on the importance of the competition,
as well as mo of the excessive decrease in performance in
za, observed in competition or through opportunities you
test us.
6.7. THREE BASIC CRITERIA RELEVANT WHEN ORGANIZING THE
STRENGTH TRAINING OF A SEASON IN ANY SPORT.
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When scheduling strength training, it is necessary to take into account various

factors, highlighting the following (González Badillo, 2000):
- The order in which we will introduce the exercises will depend on their
long and short term effect, the recovery time they require and the speed.
quality of execution that they allow.
- We must adequately combine compatible training methods to achieve
better effects, as well as the alternation of strength development methods
through hypertrophy and neuro activation. nal.
- Strength training should always be in connection with the specific
technique or gesture of the competition exercise.
6.8. PERIODIZED MODELS VS. NOT PERIODIZED TO IMPROVE

PERFORMANCE.
This seems to be a debate that has not yet been concluded, there are authors
who claim that periodized strength training programs produce greater gains. nces
than non-periodized programs of one or multiple series (Fleck, 1999; Stone,
O'Bryant and Garhammer; 1981; Rhea et al, 2003). The first of the studies classics
in this field date back to the early eighties in which a periodized program was
compared with a non-periodized program for 6 weeks, performing 3 weekly
sessions improving 1 RM in the squat and power in the vertical jump (Stone,
O'bryant and Garhammer; 1981). Other studies compare periodized wave and linear
programs, demonstrating that inverse linear programs in which volume is increased
and intensity is reduced is more effective than wave or linear incremental programs
(Rhea et al, 2003). In Willoughby's (1993) study, during the first 8 weeks there were
no significant differences in the total volume of work between the periodized model
and the two multiple series training programs. After 8 weeks, the training volume
was reduced compared to the other programs, and from there until week 16 there
were significant differences. You go 1RM in the bench press and squat between the
periodized model and the other models, despite the fact that performance was also
improved in these. Baker (1994) found no significant differences in maximum
strength in squat and bench press as well as in vertical jump between wave-like and
linear periodized models, during 12 weeks where the total volume and intensity (%)
were similar in both programs, which allowed that the variations that existed
between one and the other were attributed to the difference between the programs.
In other studies, despite not finding significant differences in maximum strength
between periodized and non-periodized models, improvements were found
exclusively in the group that worked following a periodized model (Plisk and Stone,
2003). However, there are also some studies in which no significant differences
have been observed (Baker, 1994), so the differences found in other studies may be
due to the application of a different volume and intensity by the subjects training.
following a periodized model and those who do so following a non-periodized
model (Baker, 1994).
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Some authors have stated that periodized programs are not necessary.
caesaries in untrained subjects who do not have a basic level of training strength
(Fleck, 1999), this idea being refuted by other authors (Rhea et al, 2003). Thus, the
applicability of the results of studies using untrained subjects has some limitations
in its application to trained athletes, mainly due to neural factors (Fleck, 1999).
González Ravé et al (2007) compared the effectiveness of periodized

programs with respect to non-periodized programs during 5 weeks of training in
physically active participants with the intention of improving maximum execution
power in the bench press exercise. The results showed how the power in the
intermediate measurement at 2.5 weeks increased significantly (p<0.05) by 13.26%
compared to the pretest measurement in the periodized model, while in the non-
periodized model the significant percentage increase was 19.83%. However, in the
final measurement compared to the intermediate one, only the power in the
periodized model increased by 2.86%, although not significantly, while in the non-
periodized model the power decreased significantly (p<0.05) by 10. 21% compared
to the intermediate measurement. With We conclude that there are no significant
differences in maximum power gains between both groups, also estimating that the
results in untrained subjects show limitations in their applicability to highly trained
athletes.
6.9. PERIODIZATION OF RESISTANCE TRAINING.
Potteiger (2000) establishes for resistance training the classic phases of a

sports season, off season (out of regular season or base training); pre-season
(preseason), season (regular season) and post season (active rest). A typical program
is summarized in table 6.3:
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Table 6.3. Season goals for endurance.

Weekly
Aim Duration Intensity
Season phase frequency
Development of
Off season Base general
5-6 Long Low- moderate
training cardiorespiratory
fitness
Improve the most Long-

Pre season important factors 6-7 Moderate-high
moderate
related to specific
resistance
performance.
Short (in
Maintain the most Low (between
Season training)
important factors 5-6 nation) High
(competition) Distance of
related to specific (stroke ra)
career.
endurance
performance.
Active rest Recovery of the 3-5 Short Low

competitive season
As can be seen, the American approach to periodization has also been applied
to resistance training and has not been limited only to strength training, although it
has been the most studied (Cissik, Hedrick and Barnes, 2009). For Cissik, Hedrick
and Barnes, (2009) the periodization of resistance in a year of training without
taking into account the sports season. va is based on guidelines to follow without a
clear temporal delimitation. Kurz et al (2000) propose the following guidelines:
foundation work (construction to support heavier loads in volume and intensity);
high-volume, low-intensity training progressively leading to low-volume, high-
intensity training until reaching purely competitive work. Many coaches claim that
intensity work is achieved with fartlek and interval training and competitive work
with interval and tempo training (Kurz et al. 2000). Santhiago et al (2009) gives
clearer guidelines for resistance training for 14 weeks in swimmers: in general, they
establish three phases:
^ Resistance training phases (3 weeks).
^ Quality phase (7 weeks).
^ Taper phase (4 weeks).
Within each phase, a specific type of training is introduced, emphasizing some

over others, as shown in table 6.4:
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Table 6.4. Specific contents of resistance training.

AVERAGE DAILY VOLUME (m.)
KIND OF
EP QPP T.P.
TRAINING
Regenerative 950 983 458
End 1 3955 3489 2508
End 2 1519 1462 350
End 3 630 608 375
Speed 1 - 737 -
Speed 2 - 540 275
Speed 3 - 185 267
Average total volume 7054 8004 4233
Regenerative training consists of swimming work at low speed ity, End1:

resistance training at low speeds below the anaerobic threshold, End 2 resistance
training at anaerobic threshold, End 3 resistance training at speeds above the
anaerobic threshold. Vel 1 lactate tolerance training, Vel 2 lactate production
training, Vel 3 power training.
In specific sports in which Endurance constitutes a primary capacity such as

triathlon, Wallmann (2001) establishes the following periodization model (figure
6.8):
NOV DEC JAN FEB SEA APR 1 MAY JUN | JUL AUG SEP OCT
ANNUAL TRAINING PERIOD
Training Off Season (Base Training) Pre-season Competition T
Phase
Strength H' 5 Q AND Maintenance (40-60% of Strength Phase) Yo

Phase
Weight 2-3x/Week 1 2x/Week Yo

Raining
Mesocycl
e
Microcycl
e
Macrocycle
Aerobic/
III 3-6xMeek
..Lil
Prepar on
5-7x/eek
Y II II
Competition
5-7x/eek
Hl Yo T
Anaerobic
Phases
Off Season • Non-specific to specific T
Aerobics activities
• Intensity @ 60-80%
■ Volume low Io med
Pre-season Threshold training T
Primarily Specific strength
Aerobic Specific power
High intensity speed
work
brickwork
Competiti Peak specific power T
on Peak speed work
Primarity Maintain O2 base
Anaerobic Maintain specific strength
H - Hypertrophy
S - Strength
P - Power
E ■ Explosiveness
T Transition
Figure 6.8. Periodization of a triathlon season (Wallmann 2001).
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GARCÍA
In this model, the phases of the sports season are combined with Matveyev's
periodization model, previously explained, in such a way that the base training and
the preseason coincide with the prep period. For the time being, in base training
activities that are not specific to the sport are carried out. te at 60-80% of VO 2 max.
With a low-medium workload. In the pre Season content focuses on the
development of the anaerobic threshold, specific strength and power, and speed
above competition pace. In the competition macrocycle, which coincides with the
season, specific-competitive resistance is worked on.
6.10. THE CONTEMPORARY MACROCYCLE MODEL.
If an example developed by Issurin and Shkijar (2002) was already shown in

the chapter referring to training load, we will briefly develop the contemporary
structure of a macrocycle completing what was seen in said chapter. tulo. The
concentration of loads allows highly concentrated training to be used instead of a
complex development of many capacities, this training allows more selective,
immediate and cumulative effects than using the conventional model.
For Navarro (2000) the idea of the contemporary concept is based on:
1. The concentration of training loads on specific abilities cas or specific

training objectives (capabilities/objectives).
2. The consecutive development of certain capabilities/goals in specialized
training blocks or mesocycles.
In this concentrated training model, the number of trainable capacities in a

mesocycle must be reduced, leaving it at two moto capacities. ras and a
characteristic of the technique.
On the other hand, the capacities to be worked on must be established in such a

way that simultaneous work is established between each mesocycle and taking into
account the effects that are produced in it through the interaction of loads (see the
mesocycles section). Zatsiorsky and Kraemer (2006) and Jeffreys (2008) state how
each mesocycle has a specific objective within the macrocycle:
3. The cumulative mesocycle tries to raise the technical-sports potential and

physical capabilities of the athlete.
4. The transformation mesocycle is used to transform the condition non-
specific physical tion obtained in the cumulative mesocycle in con
specific physical condition improving specific sports ability.
^ The accomplishment mesocycle is about achieving maximum results
within the work performed. It is characterized by a low training volume.
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ment in relation to physical condition, limiting the time between training

assigned to specific “quality” work.
This arrangement of mesocycles, and consequently of their microcycles, is based
on the residual cumulative effect that the previous work has produced, that is, the
work of accumulation must be maintained longer than the work of transformation.
mation and this longer than the realization time in relation to its training contents
and the duration of the effects it causes. In this way, each mesocycle will be based
on work that develops the following capabilities:
MESOCYCLE ACCUMULATION:
^ Aerobic training.
^ Maximum strength.
Greater residual effect.
MESOCYCLE TRANSFORMATION
^ Strength resistance.
^ Anaerobic glycolytic capacity.
Medium residual effect.
MESOCYCLE REALIZATION
^ Alactic Anaerobic Training.
^ Training in competitive situations
^ Concrete tactics.
Smaller residual effect.
In this way, the mesocycles run during the season in the form of several
macrocycles that constitute the ATR model, as can be seen in the figure shown
below.
T
A1 A2 T1 T2 R A1 A2 T1 T2 R T1 T2 R TO T R
O
Yo II III IV
I
] II III IV l V ■ SAWVII VIII IX x — XI XII
Y
N.
T
TO T R TO T R T R TO T R TO T R TO T R
O
Yo II IIII IV V SAW
Yo
II III IV rV VI nVII VIII IX x r XI XII
Prof. Dr. José M. González Ravé

Figure 6.9. Different options of the load periodization model
concentrated.
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GARCÍA
This figure represents how in an annual cycle there are several macrocycles
that occur during the year. On the other hand, we can obtain longer macrocycles by
consecutively placing two accumulation mesocycles and two transformation
macrocycles, achieving precise and longer combinations of between ning. In that
case, what we must do is involve a capacity in each mesocycle, and we ensure the
residual effect for longer.
The predominant types of training if we use several mesocycles of the same

type consecutively could be this proposal by Navarro (2000:155):
Table 6.5. Organization of mesocycles in the ATR model (Navarro, 2000).

GOALS
MESOCYCLES
ADDITIONAL
MAIN TRAINING TYPE
Maximum strength
Accumulation 1 Aerobic resistance
General development
Aerobic endurance General
Accumulation 2 Maximum strength
development
Transformation 1 Resistance force

Aerobic-anaerobic resistance
Perfecting the technique
Strength-endurance
Transformation 2 Aerobic-anaerobic resistance
Anaerobic resistance
Improvement of technique
Anaerobic resistance
Realization Competitive modeling tition. Technique
Speed capabilities Tactic
Finally, the competitions in this model are preferably located in the

mesocycles of realization, and always at the end, hence the situation of the
competitions conditions the planning design. However, in the case of minor
preparation competitions, these can be distributed in the realization or
transformation mesocycles.
Of course, the number of competitions will depend on the type of sport and
its level of implementation and popularity, and the level at which the athlete is
located, in such a way that an elite athlete must attend more competitions. tions, and
these must then have a greater number of microcycles.
6.11. VERCHOSHANSKIJ PLANNING MODEL.
It was not until 1980 when Verchoshanskij established his training model
ment in blocks. The proposal for concentrated loads in blocks meant that “special”
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work, as he calls it (Verchoshanskij, 1996), is based on the following premises:
^ The goal is not only the development of muscular strength but also the
increase in the body's energy potential and the ability to use it in specific
competition conditions.
^ The improvement must be structural, covering all muscle properties. res
(contractile, oxidative and elastic) that, depending on the specificity of the
sport, will favor an increase in maximum, explosive or resist strength.
force cia.
Applied to the organization of macrocycles by Verchoshanskij, (1996) it is

established how the concentration of workloads reduces the functional parameters of
work capacity, which in turn prevents the improvement of technique and speed of
movement. But it is a temporary phenomenon since when these are reduced, the
delayed effect of training appears and in the long term it produces an increase in
functional parameters.
“ Consequently, concentrated training loads prepare special training and

loads aimed at improving technique or speed of execution tion of the specific
exercise in competition, they should not be applied simultaneously te ..."
(Verchoshanskij, 1996:132).
On the other hand, in elite athletes it is very convenient to use it, to continue
to further increase their specific performance, since regular loads do not stimulate
athletes with years of training behind them as much.
Verchoshanskij's (1996) macrocycle encompasses three independent phases:
^ Preparatory phase : its predominant purpose is to develop, Due to special

physical preparation, the motor potential of the athlete, which is a
prerequisite for preferential work at the speed of execution tion of the
specific competition exercise.
^ Special phase : it is aimed at improving the athlete's ability to perform
perform the competition exercise at a high speed (power) imitating the
conditions (loads) of competition.
^ Competition phase : the objective is to achieve the highest speed by
possible way of executing the competition exercise and strengthening the
skills motor skills of the athlete.
What we are trying to do is achieve a multifunctional preparation of the

athlete, to later perfect it, and finally model it to the competition conditions and
obtain maximum speed.
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6.12. SCIENTIFIC STUDIES ABOUT PERIODIZATION

OF TRAINING.
As we will discuss in more detail in Chapter 7, the investigation tion around

periodization has been nourished by abundant descriptive studies. You, and pre-
experimental type in which a group of athletes, in most cases university or lower
levels of competition, are subjected to a training program. However, studies with
elite athletes that use long-term periodized models that are controlled by scientist-
coaches have recently begun to emerge (Marques et al, 2008; Hrysomalis, 2008;
González-Ravé et al, 2008, Prestes et al, 2008). al, 2009).
Marques et al (2008) described the changes in physical condition levels

during a season in female volleyball players, analyzing the differences in power and
strength of lower and upper limbs. The results ted show an improvement in strength
and power during the competitive period thanks to the weight training and
plyometrics work carried out. Similar results were described by Kraemer, (1997) in
American football and Kraemer, (2000) in tennis.
Newton et al (2006) evaluated whether short-term training using ballistic

exercises could attenuate the loss in jumping ability in play. volleyball res at the end
of the season. 14 university volleyball players trained for 11 weeks following a
traditional periodized model accompanied by ballistic exercises, there was an
increase of 5.3% ( p < 0.05) in jumping capacity but these values were not different
from those at the beginning of the season.
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Stanganelli et al (2008) identified the adaptations induced by the training on

jumping ability in three specific moments of the macrocycle of preparation for the
men's volleyball world championship. After 9 weeks of training, significant
adaptations occurred in specific volleyball skills related to jumping, such as blocks
with and without prior running.
Caldwell and Peters (2009) investigated variations in physical condition ca

for 12 months (including competition) in semi-professional soccer players. From the
preseason to midseason, the parameters of vertical jump, body fat percentage, speed,
agility and aerobic resistance improved. On the other hand, significant decreases in
aerobic resistance were recorded, and the parameters of vertical jump, body fat
percentage, speed and agility were not modified from mid-season to the end of the
season.
González Ravé et al (2008) analyzed the changes in jumping ability in

women's super league players during the 2007-08 season, measured with SJ, CMJ
and Abalakov in preseason and during the season in four moments: beginning of
preseason, at four weeks, at 8 weeks (beginning of the season) and at week 22. The
results show that there were significant differences between the four moments in SJ,
CMJ AND ABA The SJ increased from the first to the second measurement by
2.55%, from the second to the third by 11.74%, and from the third to the fourth by
16. %, showing significant differences between the first and last measurement and
the second and last. The CMJ increased by 3.31% from the first to the second
measurement, 13.20% from the second to the third and 15.61% from the third to the
fourth measurement, showing significant differences between the first and last
measurement. The Abalakov increased from the first to the second measurement by
0.58%, from the second to the third by 11.4%, and from the third to the fourth by
15.49%, showing significant differences between the first and the last measurement
and the second and the last The training cycle was divided into 4 mesocycles. The
preseason included mesocycle I and II and the season included mesocycle III and
IV. These progressed from mesocycle I of general conditioning lasting 4 weeks to
mesocycle II with the goal of hypertrophy lasting 4 weeks. Mesocycle III that began
at the beginning of the season with a duration of 8 weeks emphasized maximum
strength and power while the last 8 weeks had specific playing power as its primary
objective. The reverse period tigado covered 80 strength sessions, 4 sessions a week
in preseason and 3 during the season.
In any case, Cissick, Hecrick and Barnes (2008) raise the questions
Following limitations in research regarding the periodization of training based on
the work of the last 25 years:
- Research has focused exclusively on strength/power sports, as most studies

examine the effectiveness ity of strength programs as Fleck (1999) also
states.
- The use of volume and intensity is conflicting. Since comparing a program
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with one series and another with multiple series does not guarantee that the
gains are due to this difference but to the characteristics of the sample.
- No long-term research is carried out.
- It is not taken into account that periodization in elite athletes is aimed at
improving many qualities and not just one, since an athlete's periodization
does not deal with a single capacity, but rather work is done to develop
performance. many qualities consecutively.
However, and despite these examples in relation to the limitations around

periodization and its exclusive focus on force, in the field of between specific
development of resistance the absence of long-term studies also It is also a problem,
since as can be seen, only these god of short duration that also limit research on the
periodization of training (Berg, 2003). There are few publications on this topic,
generating a debate about whether periodization models are better than non-
periodized ones within resistance training. (Berg, 2003). The changes that occur
during several years of training are not evident (Berg, 2003), but most studies
advocate the search for rapid alterations produced by training in the following these
lines:
– Increased plasma volume (Sawka, Convertino and Eichner, 2000).
– Increased mitochondrial enzymes (Tonkonogi, Walsh and Svens son,
2000).
- Work that increases VO 2 max., in the short term, specifically the
study by Hickson et al, (1981) obtained an improvement after 3
weeks
Many studies have described the acute and chronic effects of interval
training or the comparison of said method with other continuous ones and their
effects on speed (Christensen, Hedman and Saltin, 1960; Acevedo and Goldfarb,
1989; Berg, 2003). Berg (2003) states that a combination of training programs is a
plausible line of research at present, since information is very limited so far.
There are some longitudinal studies on resistance such as that of Rusko,

(1992) with data from cross-country skiers that indicate continuous improvements in
VO2 max with age and training (from 15 to 25 years of age an increase in the
volume of training from ~50 km/week at 15 to ~140–150 km/week at 25. High
volumes of resistance training have been associated It is currently associated with
high performance in elite athletes, although the benefit caused by this additional
volume has not been adequately evaluated experimentally (Scrimgeour, Noakes and
Adams, 1986; Sjodin and Svendenhag, 1985).
Midgley et al (2007) highlight that it has been the trainers using the trial-
error procedure rather than the scientists (whose contribution has been scarcer,
according to the aforementioned authors) who have contributed to the development
of the resistance training methodology. . Misgley et al (2007) state in their
conclusions that there is little scientific evidence that allows identifying ficate those
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resistance training methods that improve VO 2 max., lactic threshold and running
economy in long-distance distance runners, therefore the recommendations that can
be given are very limited, only those methods that include long-distance races High
intensity and strength work can be effective in optimizing performance. The
limitations found in these studies are those shown in table 6.6:
Table 6.6. Potential limitations established in some studies in which
a certain training is applied, which makes the
interpretations of the results obtained (Misgley et al 2007).
Factor Interpretation of results
Previous training not It does not allow us to know the previous training, and
described. therefore we do not know if the changes are due to the
intervention program.
A single experimental It does not allow us to identify if the increase is due to the
group. independent variable.
Small sample size. Low statistical power that increases when there is only a
single group.
Degree of compliance
with the program training Since we do not know the degree of compliance, we do not
(neither monitored nor know how much training has been completed, therefore we
presented) do not know the cause-effect relationship.
Inappropriate tests
Decreases the possibility of detecting changes in the
Interaction between variable dependent if this occurs.
various dependent bles.
The lactic threshold in relation to VO2 or running speed
Preparation of the subjects depends on running economy.
for the uncontrolled
pretest. Increases interference when analyzing changes bios in the
dependent variable, since we do not know if the variation in
Familiarization of subjects the dependent variable is due to the treatment.
with the procedures
evaluation methods A change in the dependent variable may be due to the
learning effect rather than the training effects. I lie
In conclusion to this chapter, I would like to emphasize that there is still

much to be learned. research in the field of sports training, and that the limitations
shown are nothing more than challenges for researchers as soon as they are able to
combine the development of scientific knowledge through good practices with
coaches. On the other hand, we must look for bridges between those trained res and
scientists so that this symbiotic relationship has an impact on the improvement of
knowledge in both worlds, so close and so far at the same time.
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7. RESEARCH IN SPORTS TRAINING.
7.1. INTRODUCTION.
This chapter aims to offer an overview of the state of the research around
sports training, the designs used in the development of knowledge and its variables.
Nevill, Atkinson and Hughes (2008) made a historical review of the research
carried out on sports performance in 25 years of history of the Journal of Sport
Sciences , and concluded that the most published and studied aspects had been
statistical and mathematical evaluation in sports competition, sports performance in
general, match analysis, applications from analysis systems to competition, talent
identification, networking Team building and organization.
The most cited articles on this topic in said journal are: Leger et al (1988),
which describes the course-navette protocol as one of the most popular tests in the
Western world that assesses aerobic physical fitness. This article has been cited 154
times. The next most cited article (73 times) is that of Noakes, Myburgh, & Schall,
(1990) which investigates the importance tance of speed in a VO 2 max test in the
prediction of aerobic performance in running. Another article worth highlighting is
that of Rutherford et al (1986) which demonstrates how the specificity of a task will
condition the improvement in a training of strength, thus supporting the principle of
specificity in sports training.
Hohmann et al (2005) consider training as an empirical science, since it

acquires its knowledge through experience. As Popper (1971) states, that is, in many
cases the training practice itself has generated a series of hypotheses that have had to
be demonstrated through the use of scientific methodology. We therefore consider
that research in the field of sports training is applied . This applicability implies on
the one hand that the object of the research is a form of manifestation of human life
within a context of social practice, understanding that the objective is the immediate
application of the results and their applicability to the training praxis (Schnabel ,
Harre and Borde, 1998).
On the other hand, we can also find the opposite case, or in other words, as a
series of theories that have formed a corpus of knowledge. ments that must be
refuted through research activity, as is the case with the principles of training. We
therefore talked about how the investment gation in sports training can be basic ,
theoretically oriented and that tries to produce new knowledge (Hayman, 1991;
Hohmann et al,
2005) . The knowledge that is produced is of the scheme: “if a subject performs
hypertrophic-oriented maximum strength training with certain conditions “In certain
conditions, hypertrophy and development of said strength will occur.”
In sports training, both research on the laboratory and field, field research is
that carried out outside the laboratory, in the real environment, where the events in
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question occur naturally. derar (Hayman, 1991), this research is increasingly

frequent due to portable measurement technologies that are increasingly objective,
valid and reliable, and that allow data to be obtained without excessively modifying
their training conditions. Laboratory research is what is carried out, as it could not
be otherwise, in this facility. This type of investment Tigation allows for high
control and provides high internal validity. da, but its lack of realism harms its
external validity (Hayman, 1991). In the specific case of the Faculty of Sports
Sciences of Toledo, the Sports Training Laboratory is linked to some of the sports
spaces (swimming pool) and field and laboratory work can be carried out jointly,
since while the individual is in his training habitat (swimming pool) data may be
being taken from the laboratory.
The structure of this chapter will be developed following the different

existing research design models, as well as their specific development cific in the
field of sports training.
7.2. REQUIREMENTS FOR AN INVESTIGATION TO BE

LISTED AS A SCIENTIST.
Starting from the sense of research, which encompasses both models and
titative and qualitative, Eco (1993) states that an investigation is scientific when it
meets the following requirements:
1. It deals with an object that is recognizable and defined in such a way that
it is also recognizable by others.
2. You have to say things about this object, things that have not yet been
said, or review things that have already been said from a different
perspective. chas.
3. It has to be useful to others. Therefore, it should add something new to
the scientific community and be taken into account for future work on the
topic.
4. It must provide elements for the verification and refutation of the
hypotheses it presents, and therefore it must provide the necessary
elements for its public monitoring.
However, there are many perspectives from which this chapter can be
approached, starting with the different research themes that have been adopted in
our field. Without intending to establish a conceptual framework tual that guarantees
the compilation of each and every one of the research carried out and its conceptual
spectrum, we will follow Schnabel, Harre and Borde (1998) and Hohmann et al
(2005) who speak of six major lines of research tion:
1. Description, analysis and construction of a performance and construction

model of the competition.
2. Preparation and practical verification of competition programs, which will
lead to scientific elaborations of the data obtained.
3. Improvement of the training methodology, as a method of data acquisition, in
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particular, the improvement in the ad procedure data collection, assessment

and interpretation, from complex projects that combine quantitative and
qualitative approaches.
4. Description, analysis and systematization of the training process, and its
effects in the various fields of action of sports training.
5. Development and improvement of a conceptual system that combines pres
sports tation, sports training and sports competition.
6. Preparation and verification of sports provision models.
7.3. RESEARCH AS A SOURCE OF KNOWLEDGE.
Research is generically defined as a human activity aimed at discovering

something unknown, and its origin is based on the individual's curiosity to
understand the world around him (Sierra, 1993). To understand everything that
surrounds you, you need a procedure, a method. so that when put into practice in a
homogeneous way, data that increases scientific knowledge is obtained.
Advancement in knowledge about sports training requires this research activity,
from the point of view of the coach as a researcher, or with the researchers
themselves externally analyzing the coach-athlete context and the needs that are
required to achieve greater knowledge for the performance improvement to.
For the development of scientific knowledge we need the method appropriate

ology that responds to a form of action on the part of the researchers dores that help
increase scientific knowledge of the reality that surrounds us. Therefore, scientific
methodology gives us an action procedure based on a series of stages that form its
content and a series of techniques specific to each object of study. The methodology
has the particularity of having the same way of proceeding in all cases, we cannot
use one method ology to advance the knowledge of the effectiveness of periodized
models in one case, and another type of methodology in another, the result would be
different and could not be compared. Therefore, there is a single procedure and said
procedure This training must be implemented when renewing, updating or seeking
new knowledge within the framework of sports training.
The scientific method has a series of characteristics that are inherent to it. tes,
as proposed by Sierra (1993), and that are specified in a series of features that give it
complexity such as:
1. The method is theoretical in its origin and in its end . When a doubt
arises from training practice (is the sequence of loads used in this
programming the most appropriate to achieve maximum explosive
strength in this basketball player?), the first thing we do is go to
documentary sources. for cone If there are publications that have echoed
this doubt, if they exist and are adjustable to the approaches made, we do
not have to investigate it unless we want to go one step further. If, on the
contrary, they do not exist, we must find a body of knowledge that
substantiate our doubt, and then write about it and publish Carlo thus
adding new knowledge around the topic.
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2. The scientific method is based on scientific doubt. I discovered

everything scientific belief can be reconsidered, with a reasonable doubt
about its credibility. New technologies promote increasingly accurate
measurements that make previous knowledge whose measurements tions
were obtained in a rudimentary way be reframed and even questioned
thanks to new technologies.
3. The scientific method is problematic-hypothetical. It is based on the
form relation of problems to reality and in advancing conjectures or
positions ble solutions to these issues.
4. The scientific method is empirical. It's based on reality, it takes its da and
bases its conclusions on orderly and systematic observation. matics of the
reality of sports training.
5. The scientific method is inductive or deductive. From both deduction and
induction we obtain scientific knowledge obtained from experience in the
field of sports training. Induction starts from the observation of a certain
number of particular phenomena to to reach universal approaches and
statements that make up the theory and, therefore, works from the
particular to the general and from the data to the theory, following the
stages of data collection, analysis of and drawing conclusions,
generalizing the associations of tected between the facts. The deductive
or rationalist method would follow the completely opposite sequence:
starting from theoretical abstractions that set the tone for data collection
and trying to establish a universals to derive particular statements, that is,
locks from the general to the particular and from theory to practice.
6. The scientific method is self-critical. In the sense that everything is
questions tionable and self-correcting, both in its methodology and in the
results obtained .
7. The scientific method is circular. Provide feedback, to continue in
investigating new theories from scientific observation fic.
8. The scientific method is analytical-synthetic. Study the different reality
guiding and separating each of the components, as an example For
example, if performance in the pole vault test depends on a series of
factors linked to physiological, mechanical, or psychological parameters,
these are studied in isolation from the physiology of exercise, the
biomechanics of sports techniques and the psychology of sports
performance. , but it is the coach who must bring together the knowledge
to optimize the athlete's performance.
9. The scientific method is selective. You must concentrate your action on
what is most relevant. We cannot study several things at the same time,
since in many two cases to study the cause-effect relationship of a type of
training to involves isolating other elements that disrupt the investigation
(it goes polluting variables).
10. The scientific method is precise. It aims to obtain knowledge and
measurements of reality that are as accurate as possible. Science has a
voice tion of accuracy, so it can be said that the more exact a science is,
the more science it is.
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According to Bunge (1972), the research methodology consists of an ordered

series of operations that are:
1. State well-formulated and productive questions, in such a way that they

generate new scientific knowledge.
2. Arbitrate well-founded conjectures that can be contrasted with
experience, to answer the questions.
3. Derive logical consequences from conjectures (hypotheses).
4. Arbitrate techniques to submit conjectures to contrast.
5. In turn, subject these techniques to verification to verify their relevance.
vance and faith they deserve.
6. Carry out the verification and interpret the results.
7. Estimate the truth claim of conjectures and the fidelity of techniques.
8. Determine the domains in which guesses and techniques are valid. cas,
and formulate the new problems caused by the research.
Any research methodology carried out around training sports development

orbits around these steps so that it is considered as scientific fic. These operations in
their usual practice entail a series of phases in the scientific method that we will
briefly describe below: documentation, empirical research and elaboration, as shown
in Figure 7.1.
Figure 7.1. Phases in the research process (Sierra, 1993: 35).
7.4. DOCUMENTATION PHASE.
The documentation phase tries to give theoretical consistency to the question

asked, in such a way that reading and reflecting on the contents precedes dentes is
proposed as the starting point prior to any investigation with the objective of
verifying whether the fact in question has already been investigated and where we
start from in reference to previous knowledge through prior documentation work.
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About the bibliography and bibliographical sources We will expand our overview in
a specific chapter linked to the documentary sources of the subject. The compilation
of ideas and knowledge constitutes the theoretical framework of all research work
and that is where it is described. be all prior knowledge, and the knowledge gap that
constitutes our search for future knowledge.
7.5. RESEARCH PHASE
In this phase, the two elements included in it are analyzed, which are: the ti
design and data collection. When obtaining data, we consider that measurements are
a fundamental element to guarantee the validity and objectivity of all research and,
in most cases, the advancement of new technologies. Applied ologies have allowed
greater objectivity when measuring what was really intended. The research phase
itself corresponds It refers to the observation and collection of data of the reality
studied and obtaining from it the data that we wanted to resolve our doubt. In this
phase, the design or research plan must be specified and the obtaining and effective
treatment vo of the data.
7.6. PREPARATION PHASE.
Finally, the process of organizing all the results, bibliographic review, etc.
begins. Thus, this phase culminates with the writing and presentation of the research
project in each of its logical parts: theoretical framework, material and method,
results, discussion, conclusions and bibliography.
7.7. THE CONSIDERATION OF MEASUREMENTS IN SPORTS

SCIENCES.
The measurement results from assigning a number to the character of what is

being measured (Morrow et al, 2000). In sports training, we usually work with a
large amount of data and of very different types: biochemical parameters (cK, urea,
glucose, lactate...): biomechanical (speed, strength, power...), anthro pometric (skin
folds, muscle mass...), etc. These data constitute the information we extract when
performing our tests, and we subsequently make a judgment and make a decision
about them, usually in reference to the state of an individual in pursuit of greater
performance after undergoing training.
The measures depend fundamentally on the validity and reliability with

which they have been taken and recorded, and, above all, on the statistics that show
the consistency, reliability and validity of the measures. Some works have addressed
this topic about the importance of statistics in sports sciences; for example, a
physical trainer needs to know if the strength gains in the quadriceps as a result of
rehabilitation are due to improvements in strength themselves or to a statistical error.
In this way, researchers in sports training have the need to know the influence of
measurement error through the power that statistics has to know these errors and
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know what the objective magnitude of the experiments is. cough they make.
Validity is the ability of a measurement tool to reflect the measurement dida

for which it has been designed (Nevill, 1996). Reliability: can be defined It is
defined as the consistency of measurements, either in the performance of an
individual on a test, or the absence of measurement error (Safrit and Wood, 1989).
In reality, a percentage of error is always present when we make measurements, so
reliability takes numerous forms in its implementation. Baumgarter (1989) identified
2 types of reliability: relative and absolute. Relative reliability is the degree of
consistency by which individuals maintain their consistency in a sample of repeated
measurements and is evaluated by some type of correlation. Absolute reliability is
the degree by which repeated measurements vary between individuals. This type of
reliability is expressed as a proportion of the measures evaluated you give.
Currently, the new technologies prevailing in sports training, and the

development of new devices mean that the measurements taken from our athletes
are increasingly objective, valid and reliable, thus reducing the measurement error
thanks to these devices is becoming less and less.
7.8. THE RESEARCH DESIGN OR PLAN.
The design can be defined as: “… the way of carrying out the test that all
specific scientific research entails, both in the aspect of arrangement and linking of
the elements that intervene in it and in the plan to follow in obtaining and treating
the data. necessary data to verify it…” (Sierra, 1993:322).
To give a clear perspective of research in the training of Portivo, our study

script will be based on the different investigations offered from the different
research designs that exist, in this sense, this chapter will be divided into:
^ Non-experimental designs.
^ Pre-experimental designs.
^ Quasi-experimental designs.
^ Experimental.
^ Factorial.
^ Meta-analysis.
7.9. NON-EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS.
In this type of designs there are no independent variables susceptible to

manipulation or dosage. These studies have the advantage that they are based on the
observation of the research objects as they exist in reality without the possibility of
intervening in or manipulating them. This characteristic is very useful in sports
training, since in many cases the researcher has few options to alter the training
content proposed by the coach, and even less so in high-performance athletes, whose
programming is very tight towards their maximum performance and a change in this
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could cause pear the work of many years. The saying: “…experiments are done with
soda…” would outstandingly reflect the coach's position regarding the manipulation
of training variables by the researcher in his athlete.
This type of work corresponds to evaluations and controls by laboratories in

relation to athletes, specific measurements in competitions. tion, post-competition
performance analysis, sports training control tive, etc.
Within these we distinguish:
7.9.1. Sectional designs.
Sectional designs do not include diversity of observations, groups, or

experimental variables; they are limited to a single observation of a single group at a
single moment in time (Sierra, 1993). This type of design is very common in
educational research (Cohen and Manion, 1990), this type of research being known
as descriptive research. In the field of sports training, these investigations have been
used with the objective of studying the existing trends in the dynamics of loads in
children and young people, evaluating the “ quality ” of the loads in the youngest
(Marques, 1993; Marques et al. , 2002). Descriptive studies are used when the
phenomenon occurs naturally and this prevents use it to subject its variables to
manipulation and control (Gutiérrez and Oña, 2007).
Both Thompson (1996) and Bleakley and MacAuley (2002) affirm that they
are the most used research in sports training. Proof of this are the studies that we
have extracted for this purpose as an example and that clarify which are the most
common descriptive studies. in training sporty:
Example: Measurement through a maximum anaerobic power test in

different sports disciplines (Popadic, Barak and Grukic, 2009). Measured the
average power and peak power in 145 athletes from different disciplines to verify
the variations in different sports in relation to these parameters. tros.
Another example is that of Thomas et al (2004) who measured the

conditional profile of 43 American army cadets using the Army Physical Fitness
Tests (APFT), which are: 2-mile running test, push-ups. up) and abdominals (sit-up)
for 2 minutes.
Other sectional designs are the cross sectional ones that have lu gar when
the investigated group is a sample of different ages in order to infer the evolution
over time of the observed variable or variables. An example of this type of study in
this area is that of Matsudo, Rivet and Pereira (1987) who used a normative
evaluation system in Brazilian children. boys from 7 to 18 years old practicing
basketball and volleyball, establishing a criterion of effectiveness and not comparing
it with international level players using anthropometric and performance
characteristics as variables subject to evaluation, trying to know the evolutionary
status and sports performance. where they are in relation to their age group.
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7.9.2. Longitudinal designs.
These designs differ from sectional ones in that instead of a single

observation and data collection, they include more than one of the same group over
time, studying the temporal evolution of the measured variables. an ahem Example
of this type of measurements can be controls carried out throughout a season on the
athletes' state of form or a post-competition control. tion.
Studies of this type can be the following, which to illustrate this type of designs
and their application to sports training we quote:
^ McGuigan, Cormack and Newton (2009) made speed measurements ity, jump
height, and power in twelve soccer players for 3 years (December, March
and July of each year) increasing both their speed ity as well as its power
over the 3 years and concluding that it is po The improvement in several
seasons in Aus National League players is notable traliana.
^ Hakkinen (1993) evaluated the differences in physical condition in basketball

players during the regular league (22 weeks) reaching the conclusion sion
that there are no variations in maximum oxygen consumption, isometric
strength and anthropometry, and there are significant variations improving
the results of the continuous Bosco test for 15 seconds, CMJ, and SJ.
7.9.3. Comparative designs.
In this type of design, they comprise two different groups that are measured
only once and comparisons are made between them.
An example of a comparative design is that of Bartha et al (2009) which

compares The physical fitness levels of 2,459 referees from Hungary and FIFA
International referees from different countries measured speed using the 50- and
200-m sprint test and the 12-minute continuous running test (Cooper test). The
results show how the 12-minute test is the one that discriminates between elite and
national referees, which is not the case in the other tests.
Another example is that of Metaxas et al (2005) who compares the aerobic

capacity of two different tests, one in the field and the other in the laboratory,
comparing the validity of both results in soccer players.
Within these we have cohort designs, this allows us to separate in groups the
variations due to the passage of time from those due to changes. bios in the
measurements due to the different ages at which they are taken. These designs are
very complex and require long-term studies.
7.10. PREEXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS.
Within this type of designs in which a treatment is already applied or is
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independent variable we have:
7.10.1. Design of an experimental group with a single measurement.
Within this group we have a single sample to which a va independent

variable and we measure the result obtained with it. These types of studies present a
high degree of imprecision since we do not know what the baseline was and
therefore we do not know the specific effects of the treatment in question. The
scientific value of these studies is almost null, nor do they allow comparison unless
they are complemented with other observations.
7.10.2. Design of an experimental group with pretest and posttest.
It differs from the previous one in that we carry out a previous measurement
before the treatment called a pretest or baseline that serves as a comparison once the
treatment has been carried out. In this case, the measurement of a group prior to the
inclusion of new training content is an example applied to this type of designs.
The study by Marques et al (2008) is a good example of this, it consists of

knowing the changes in performance in measured ball throwing, CMJ with loads
and 4 RM in bench press and squat in 10 elite volleyball players after a 12-week
strength training, which coincides with the sports season, in order to know the
effects of physical preparation.
Other studies of this type are those by Wallmann et al (2005) who

investigated the effects of static stretching on the electromyographic activity of the
gastrocnemius in a vertical jump by performing a measurement before and after a
series of stretching exercises.
7.11. QUASI EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS.
For Cohen and Manion (1989): "...in educational research, it is often not
possible to undertake true experiments, when it is not possible to achieve the
characteristics of a pure experiment, such as randomly selecting groups (in sports
training, the groups are already are selected when we talk about teams with a closed
squad, or federated training groups in most cases at medium and high levels of
competition), or when there is no control group but we do have groups identical to
each other because it has been had this possibility.
In the event that there is no control group we have the following studies God:
Wilkerson et al (2004) evaluated 6-week performance between plyometric

training in two groups of female university athletes, one group in which the
plyometric work was governed by the principle of overload and another in which the
plyometric work was unstructured, the results show show how performance was
superior in structured work vs. I don't structure rado. This work is quasi-
experimental, due to the absence of the control group.
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7.11.1. Chronological series design.
Several pretest measurements and several measurements are carried out on a

single group. tions after the application of the treatment or independent variable.
The repetition of measurements before and after the test provides greater isolation
to, and greater validity, reliability and objectivity of the baseline. In this case, the
multiple reproducibility of the previous baseline is not a very common technique
prior to the application of the treatment.
Stanganelli et al (2008) evaluated the performance in SJ, CMJ and net

blocking jumps, of the Brazilian national team, in three moments in the macrocycle
of preparation prior to the World Championship, applying a training 9 week strength
training.
For their part, Newton et al (2006) assessed jumping performance during the
11 weeks of the season in 14 volleyball players at the beginning, middle and end of
the season to know the evolution of this capacity.
There are other types of measurements such as those repeated after the
application of several treatments such as that of Yamaguchi and Ishii (2005) in
which the same group (11 university student subjects) carried out three different
types of flexibility training and therefore three measurements were carried out.
different, to check if it has an effect on the development of leg power. A similar
protocol was followed by Burkett et al (2005), which determined which type of
warm-up (general or specific) is most effective for improving performance in the
vertical jump. For this, 19 subjects performed four types of warm-up followed by
the jump test. vertical on four different days. Young and Elliot (2001) also used a
single group, to which they performed four different measurements. tes or that of
Moir et al (2004). In this type of work we have to take into account ration return to
the baseline, after carrying out/application of a treatment, an aspect that has been
ignored in all the studies perhaps because they have started from the previous
measure, but it must be considered that the increase in performance ment subtracts
training potential from the subject, with which subsequent measures can be
contaminated by the initial one.
7.12. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS.
This type of design includes, in addition to the group to which the

independent variable is applied, a control group to which the treatment is not
applied. The groups are divided homogeneously following a mating technique ment
at random (Martínez, 1999). This type of design is a way to control the possible
contaminating variables when the treatment is introduced, in such a way that when
the pretest measurement is carried out, the experimental group and with troll must
be homogeneous and therefore are equal in the dependent variable.
Among the studies carried out from this type of research, there are many
used in sports performance, although the main drawback is the availability of large
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populations with homogeneous characteristics to be able to make interpretations of

the dependent variables, assigning them to the influence of the independent
variables used. . One of the most used types of research in training, and which
serves as an example of what we are talking about, is to select subjects from a
certain sport, with certain characteristics. homogeneous techniques in terms of data
on age, sex, height, weight, body fat and sports level, etc., and subject them to a
special type of training of a specific component or quality (independent variable) or
to the classic type of training (variable independent) and check how each of them
affects a certain parameter (dependent variable) at the end of the training period. If
we control all the external factors that can influence the response of the dependent
variable, we can deduce that it modifies them. tions in said variable are due to the
effect of the independent variable on the sample of subjects, which may be
significant or not significant. tive, depending on the difference that exists between
both groups.
A study with two groups, one experimental and the other control, is the one
carried out by Knudson et al (2001), in which they measure the effectiveness of a
warm-up using “stretching”, with another group that does nothing about the
performance in the vertical jump. .
7.12.1. Multigroup experimental design.
An initial measurement is carried out and the groups are divided

homogeneously following a random pairing technique, in this way possible
contaminating variables are controlled when the treatment is introduced. Of this type
of designs we highlight the works of:
Schlumberger, Stec and Schmidtbleicher (2001) who compared the effects of

a strength training program using three randomized groups on maximum strength:
the first performed 1 set of 6-9 repetitions until fatigue, the second performed 3 sets
of 6-9 repetitions until fatigue. 9 repetitions until fatigue with 2 minutes of rest and
the third group did not perform any type of training (control). The training was
carried out for 3 weeks 2 times a week. Another study that uses a similar design to
test muscular adaptations to a between eccentric type training of different intensity
is that of Schroeder, Hawkins and Jaque (2004).
Other multigroup experimental studies, but in this case with four groups in
which a treatment is applied to three of them and there is a control group, is that of
Hennessy and Watson (1994) in which they compare the effects during the
preseason on resistance. , strength and speed. The first group had a running program
4 days a week, the second a strength program 3 days a week, the third a combined
program 5 days a week, and the fourth was the control group. The results show that
isolated strength training alone causes improvements in strength and speed and
maintains their endurance level, combined training shows improvements in
endurance and strength, but does not improve speed. Resistance training specifically
improves mind this but there is no other type of improvement.
There are other studies carried out with three groups but in this case a control
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group was not used like that of Harris et al (2000) who used a training group with
heavy loads, another group with light load training, and another group with a
combined training, and different variables related to the force-speed curve were
measured. The training was carried out for 4 weeks 4 times a week.
7.13. FACTORIAL DESIGNS.
McGuigan (1996) includes factorial designs as experimental designs. mental

and defines them as those in which all combinations are used possible nes of the
selected values, therefore it consists of establishing the interaction of two
independent variables with different levels to compare bar their combined effects.
Factorial designs would address, for example, the effect of information

format Coach training and the moment of application in improving free throw
shooting in basketball. The independent variable would be established as follows
depending on the possibilities of combining the treatment (Martínez, 1999):
V I a1: Visual information.

V I a2: Auditory information.
V I a3: Kinesthetic-tactile information.
V I b1: Simultaneous information.
V I b2: Terminal information.
V I b3: Delayed information.
The dependent variable will be the effectiveness in launching free shots. bres.
In this way the design is configured in the following way, they apply do and
combining the following possibilities:
a1 a2 a3
b1 a1 b1 a2 b1 a3 b1
b2 a1 b2 a2 b2 a3 b2
b3 a1 b3 a2 b3 a3 b3
Factorial designs can be established in such a way that even They would
temper other types of interactions, for example those of three or more types of
independent variables with different levels.
Example: Effect of hypoxia on the volume and intensity of the between ning
in a medium distance test.
The independent variable would be established as follows depending on the

possibilities of combining the treatment (Martínez, 1999):
V I a1: altitude training.

V I a2: training at sea level.
V I b1: resistance training.
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V I b2: combined strength and resistance training.

V I c1: training with emphasis on volume and lower intensity.
V I c2: training with emphasis on intensity and lower volume.
The dependent variable will be performance in the 1500 m test.
In this way the design is configured in the following way, they apply do and
combining the following possibilities:
a1 b1 c1 a1 b2 c1 a1 b1 c2 a1 b2 c2
a2 b1 c1 a2 b2 c1 a2 b1 c2 a2 b2 c2
7.14. OTHER TYPES OF RESEARCH: THE META ANALYSIS.
The literature review is made difficult by the number of articles written.

Cough that requires throughout numerous studies to be synthesized to determine the
underlying conclusions, agreements or disagreements. This is even more
complicated when we use data collection from a number of subjects by simple
observation of said data. For this reason, an average quantity called meta-analysis is
proposed that will help us analyze the number conclusions. his studies (Glass,
McGaw, & Smith, 1981). Formulas for trans are provided form means, standard
deviations and other statistical data that affect the magnitude and that allow us to
obtain means for those populations that serve as a control group and that we will
apply to the experimental groups. The steps followed in the meta-analysis are: 1)
Identification of the problem, 2) Search given in the literature of specific means, 3)
Review of the type of studies to include or exclude them from the work, 4) A careful
review and evaluation to identify and code the important characteristics of the study,
5) Calculate the measured effect, 6) Apply the appropriate statistical techniques, and
7) Obtain results from the application of these steps to publish (Thomas & French,
1986).
As an example of this type of research, we have those studies that have been
carried out with large populations to determine means in some characteristics (such
as the application of the Cooper test) that is then used to make a table applicable to
similar populations (Cooper , 1979), or those tables prepared with this type of
studies that are used to evaluate physical abilities in many training sessions (Bar-
Garapon & Van Hoecke, 1984; Cazorla, 1984; Cazorla, Léger, & Marim, 1984;
Szczesny, 1984 ).
Other more contemporary studies such as those by Rhea (2004). They have
used The meta-analysis was carried out with strength training and physical
conditioning as the object of study.
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8. CONTROL AND MARKERS

TRAINING. EVALUATION OF FATIGUE AS A FORM
OF MONITORING
OF SPORTS TRAINING.
8.1. INTRODUCTION.
The objective of monitoring the training process is based on the need to obtain
feedback about the training effects at the moment we want, knowing that the training
design that we have carried out provides a specific state of form that causes an
adaptation pattern. specific based on the athlete's possibilities (Viru and Viru, 1999).
Based on this proposal by Viru and Viru (1999), we consider the following
objectives that training control should have from the perspective of sports performance:
^ Verification of the scope of the objectives set at that time ment of the
season (Pyne et al, 2001; Marques et al, 2008).
^ Detection of fatigue and overtraining (Kuipers and Keizer, 1988;
Lehmann et al, 1991, 1992).
Although the physiological and biochemical symptoms are effective in treating

sign overtraining syndrome, have not been useful for the prevention and control of this,
in fact one of the main problems that affect performance Sports failure is overtraining
that has produced more than one sports failure (Morgan, 1994). In training monitoring,
the main objective is to establish the limit between chronic fatigue and optimal
stimulation that leads to adaptation processes.
An important aspect within the training process is to adjust the appropriate

recovery based on the demands that the training microcycles have produced, since
incomplete recovery between sets, or between competitions, will ultimately lead to a
reduction in performance.
The difference between supercompensation and overtraining fundamentally

depends on the overall result of all the elements that interact in the process. As a
general rule, Bompa (1999) establishes that supercompensation after an aerobic work
session can occur approximately after 6-8 hours and a session that involves more
intense activity that requires great demands on the CNS requires more than 24 hours of
recovery for supercompensation to occur. If an athlete takes more than 72 hours to
recover ration has presumably overtrained, for the athlete to return to his normal state
he must undergo a recovery process to pro lead to supercompensation (Kenttä and
Hassmen, 1998). For these authors, if the athlete needs more than 72 hours to recover,
there is a failure in the training programming that can lead to overload syndrome.
training.
The fundamental aspect in this chapter must address, on the one hand, how
coaches can be sure that their athletes recover completely before causing the next
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stimulation, and on the other hand, analyze zar the main indicators of fatigue that can
lead to knowing in what state the external load has left the body. In general, we
consider that development, adjustment and competition microcycles create a situation
of fatigue during the last days of training, so subsequent recovery processes must
ensure the filling of energy deposits and recovery processes. functional through mode
stimuli loading rates that will favor these processes.
In shock (or impact) microcycles the sum of charges causes a deep There is a
vacuum in the energy deposits and in the functionality of the systems to the point of
reaching the limit between chronic fatigue and subacute fatigue that allows
supercompensation after a long period of rest. In this case it is cover mental a
microcycle of recovery that allows avoiding states of chronic fatigue ca and
overtraining. A first element over which the coach must have basic control is the
programming of the loads and the recovery time required for them.
The key concept on which programming must be established in Training is the

training/recovery balance , controlling the training loads that make the athlete
progress, with regeneration periods that avoid excessive fatigue that leads to a state of
overexertion. training (Terrados and Fernandez, 2000). The important thing is to
minimize the “residual” fatigue that leads to states of overtraining, in this way
controlling We know the state produced by training loads, preventing excessive stress
from leading to a decrease in performance. In this sense, both the work of the coach
and the doctor are very important, since the former detects signs of fatigue through the
primary marker of decreased performance, apathy, constant fatigue... and the latter
performs the most appropriate invasive tests for the diagnosis. confirmation of this.
For example, if our sport requires a specific type of resistance such as short
duration resistance (SDR), the characteristic of said is Effort generates certain
metabolites and requires a specific energy substrate, and a time of maximum
availability of this for its efficiency. Energy in the RDC is determined by phosphate
degradation and anaerobic glycolysis, although the size of the muscle glycogen store is
negligible, in medium duration resistance (MDR), despite the high energy need per unit
of time and that it is depleted quite a bit, it is never completely emptied. We have
aerobic capacity (VO2 max) as an important factor in the RDM while this is not
considered as a factor in the DRC. In the DRC, we also have a high production of
lactate, so it is necessary to have the ability to withstand subsequent overacidity,
despite the constant production of lactate (it depends on the buffer system at the cell
and blood level), while in RDM lactate tolerance is more significant tive than the
ability to produce large amounts of lactate. The motor technique in the RDC is more
focused on intermuscular coordination while in the RDM it acquires different
intervention as a decisive factor for performance, depending on the percentage of
strength or speed. The characteristics of each of the different types of resistance are
shown in table 8.1.
DRC RDM RDL I RDL II RDL III RDL IV
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35sec-
Charging 2-10 min 10-35 min 35-90 min 90min-6h + 6 hours
2min
Duration
% VO 2
100 100-95 95-90 90-80 80-60 60-50
max
Lactate
10-18 12-20 10-14 6-8 4-5 -3
mmol/l
Main Glycogen
Glycogen
energy Glycogen muscle (muscle + Fats, Fats,
(muscle +
substrate phosphates glycogen liver co), glycogen proteins
liver)
fats
Predomina
nt energy 60-40 30-70
10-90 5-95 1-99
pathway Anae 80 20 40-60 20-80
nante Aero 65 35
Table 8.1. Characteristics of the different types of resistance. Zintl (1990).
As an example, if our athlete has performed a uniform selective session in

which he has been asked to do interval training until fatigue, recovery from acute
fatigue should be oriented towards reestablishing the oxygen debt (oxygen recovery),
replenishment of myoglobin, replenishment of phosphagen reserves, muscle glycogen
reserves, elimination of lactic acid from the muscle in the blood. Recovery times vary
based on the concept of the bifactor training model that assumes heterochrony between
recovery and performance, as well as the suggested limits for recovery established by
Bowers and Fox (1997) for an exercise of this nature. Taking this into account, we
should not provoke another stimulus of the same nature until 24 hours have passed,
which does not mean that the athlete cannot train more, but rather that the following
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session must stimulate other functional elements so as not to create even

greater fatigue (table 8.2).
Recommended recovery time
Minimum Maximum
Recovery process
Restoration of muscle 2 min 3 min

phosphagen (ATP and PC)
Cancellation of alactacid 3 min 5min
oxygen debt
Restoration of oxygen 1 min 2min
reserves
10 hours 48 hours (after prolonged
Restoration of muscle exercise)
glycogen 24 hours (after intermittent
5 hours
exercise)
30 min
Removal of lactic acid 1 hour (recovery with
from muscle and blood exercise).
1 hour
2 hours (recovery with rest)
Cancellation of the compo
recovery lactacid nent 30 minutes 1 hour
peration
Table 8.2. Recommended recovery times after exhausting exercise. (Bowers and Fox,
1997:95)
The recovery time will determine when the next load with similar
characteristics should be applied, the recovery processes are a function of the wear and
tear carried out by the athlete. Exercise at the neuromuscular level also produces
fatigue; this type of fatigue induces a reduction in the maximum voluntary force that
the subject generates and in the power developed, as stated by Vollestad (1997).
Neuromuscular fatigue pathways can be of 2 types according to Gardi ner (2001), the
first type refers to the synapse produced when nerve signals are not transmitted easily,
the second route affects the innervation of motor neurons. In the first, the causes can be
of several types: failures in the action potential generated in the axon and not
propagated by the branches of the neuron towards the muscle fiber, due to emptying of
the neurotransmitter, failure in the postsynaptic membrane.
That is why when organizing and sequencing the sessions between training
within a microcycle we must keep in mind that a high level of load will require 48 to
72 hours of recovery, and among them use session nes with different metabolic
orientation and with different intensity, volume and charge density. We have an
example of this in the figure shown below in which we have introduced 3 sessions with
a high load level, among them we have introduced sessions with a lower load level and
with different metabolic orientation so as not to overload the systems involved ( figure
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8.1).
Figure 8.1. Organization of training loads in a microcycle.
An area of research that currently has an impact considers ble on sports

performance is the evaluation of internal loads to achieve positive overcompensation,
which results from a loss of performance. short-term loss due to fatigue (Kreider, Fry
and O'Toole, 1998). The importance of these investigations lies in knowing what is the
external load limit that we can reach at a given time, without exceeding it. sar that
barrier that leads to states of overtraining.
The regeneration processes involved in the development of the load They

constitute a basic pillar in the construction and organization of sports training, since the
biological process load – fatigue – recovery adaptation that we alluded to in the
adaptation chapter is specified in some procedural principles that the coach must
comply with. Zintl (1990) divides the regenerative process into early, late and
supercompensation phases, in the first we talk about rapid regeneration processes, in
the second we refer to later processes while the third establishes an increase in the
systems more functional through protein synthesis as established by Viru and Viru
(1999) and Flueck (2007), not being isolated phases but overlapping each other.
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Global distribution
Regenerative processes Duration Necessary load
in phases
Maximum loads
PC Restitution (Super 3-5 min.
(alactacids) 10-12
Compensation) 20-30 min.
sec.
Intensive anaerobic
Early phase (0-6 Blood lactate degradation 1-3 hours load
hours) (degradation time half). Approx. 15 min. (lac >10-12
mmol/l)
Beginning of glycogen Anaerobic lactate
restitution, especially in Up to 30 min with stress on FT
FT fibers fibers
Compensation of Burden aerobics
the 24-36 hours intensive (45-60
glycogen, especially in ST min)
Prolonged charging
Late phase (6-36 Electrolyte balance ca
6 hours with fluid losses (>1
hours) (Na,K)
hour)
Synthesis of contractile
Maximum muscle
proteins (actin, 12-48 hours
loads
myosin)
Enzyme compensation
Highly intensive and
muscular 48-60 hours.
extremely long loads
losses
(RDL III and IV)
Resynthesis of structural Frequent training of

48-72 hours.
proteins (mitochondria) lactate in the muscle
(surplus dez)
2-3 days (high Burden aerobics
Overcompensation of
carbohydrate intensive (60-90
glycogen stores
diet dratos). min)
Overcompensation Electrolytic 2-3 days
phase (2-5 days to compensation tica (Mg, (replacement Prolonged charging
weeks) Fe) tution). with fluid losses.
Compensation of
the Anaerobic-lactacid
balance endocrine: 2-3 (5) days. load, frequent
resynthesis of changes in intensity,
catecholamines. psychological stress
Marathon and Ultra
Cortisone resynthesis 2-5 (7) days.
RDL Loads
New protein synthesis
Long loads and
structural nases (enzi
Days-weeks. relatively
more, mitochondria,
intensive.
ligamentous and tendon
Table 8.3. Average times of recovery processes after effort
correspondent. Zintl (1990:189).
The duration and intensity of the training load becomes a key factor in assessing
the time it takes for the body to regenerate and therefore serves to organize the loads.
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Zintl (1990), systematizing these loads from the point of view of resistance
development methods, proposes the following recovery times:
- Extensive loads (less than 2-3 mmol/l) of less than 1 hour of du ration,
neither glycogen reserves nor hormonal regulation are used up. monal, used
as a regenerative means, can be performed daily mind without problems. If
we exceed an hour in this type of load, there can be a strong wear of the
glycogen stores and loss. fluid doses that will require 1 to two days of
recovery.
- Intense training in the area of the anaerobic threshold or a little above it is
again feasible after 24 hours with a specific diet based on carbohydrates since
glycogen stores will be almost compensated. Although the hormones involved
require more recovery time, - a E p n r t o re x n im a d ie a n m to en i t n e te d n o s s o
d
c ía o s n . anaerobic-lactacid loads (intensive interval methods and medium and
short repetitions), during the exercise tion of this produces large concentrations
of lactate, it requires a time of 2-3 days.
- After endurance competitions due to strong nervous and hormonal stress, we
must wait at least 2-3 days in short-duration endurance competitions and
medium-duration endurance competitions (especially if there have been
qualifying competitions), in marathon events or more demanding, wait 5 days to
work with intensive loads.
Therefore, there is a need to organize training sessions I operate in such a way

that a series of aspects are met:
1. Respect for the interconnection of loads, in such a way that they produce
positive effects on the direction of training (seen in the car chapter gas).
2. Appropriate organization of loading-recovery processes to avoid call for over-
training that negatively affects performance taking into account recovery times
in the design of the ex load terna.
8.3. CONTROL OF TRAINING LOADS.
During the periodization of sports training, there is a need to control the

adaptive response to exercise and the direction in which we want it to go. In the
English-speaking world the term “monitoring training” is the most used for this issue
and there are numerous references in the literature in relation to this issue (James,
1988; Jeffreys, 2004; McGuigan and Foster, 2004).
Sports training methodologists establish training control based on obtaining

quantitative and qualitative data. tives that provide detailed information about the
athlete's level in tests carried out in a certain phase of their preparation (Campos and
Cervera, 2001).
Data at a quantitative level are nothing more than specific motor behaviors.
radas that the athlete must have achieved within the ergogenic context that arises in the
structuring of a sports program in the field of sports with a predominance of physical
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condition, which is what the aforementioned authors refer to.
The objective of quantification based on the control of the loads of Training

allows us to know these values and, therefore, constitutes an ele decisive feedback
element in training to guide, reorganize zar or adjust the training loads, or in other
words, what relationship exists between the decisions made in relation to the external
load by the trainer and the real practice expressed in the form of motor behaviors-
adaptive responses of the organism?
Campos and Cervera (2001) state how control must also serve to To collect a
series of data about what the athlete has done during his season, what the athlete has
worked on in each of the contents of his training plan and even the number of
competitions held, understanding these as another load of specific character.
In this section we have four features that should characterize the control of the
athlete's performance:
^ It must be a systematic activity that evaluates the process, and that requests
information about the readjustment or corrections of what was programmed
during the season. For this reason we must be very clear when the training
controls should be carried out, as a general rule they should be done at the end of
the mesocycle, and in the supercompensation period, since here I am really
evaluating their performance, in another phase it can give me a mistaken idea of
the athlete's performance.
^ It must be integrated into the training itself so that dedicating sessions to the
evaluation does not cause interruptions in the process. To ensure standardized
testing conditions and to be integrated into the process, Bulgarian weightlifting
coaches suggest the use of a special microcycle for training control . The
microcycle consists of two stages, the purpose of the first stage is to standardize
the conditions. conditions of the athlete in which the test will be performed . The
first two-three days the volume and intensity of the exercises will be low, looking
for ample rest intervals to allow recovery. The second stage of the microcycle, in
the following two days, the tests will be carried out using a pro standardized
protocol for this purpose. On the first day, it is suggested that athletes perform the
test at the maximum power they can express, on the second day it is suggested
that the tests be repeated at 75% of the maximum power expressed, performing
the maximum number of repetitions. (Matveyev, 1980, cited by Viru and Viru,
1999).
^ Establish an appropriate protocol for collecting information, so that we do not find

mismatches in the implementation of the tests and this therefore represents a
contaminating variable. Furthermore, to achieve the results, the test must be
administered in a manner that is safe for sports. tist, and that does not pose a risk to
his health. Therefore, when administering the test we must take into account:
o Considerations about the health and safety of the athlete: Although athletes
must first be required to recognize medical foundation that allows them to
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train and compete, we must ensure ensure that health conditions must be
adequate, especially when performing strenuous exercises that can reveal
“hidden” cardiac pathologies. On the other hand, you have to Provide
adequate environmental conditions for carrying out the test.
o Selection and training of professionals who will carry out or the tests: Those
individuals who are going to carry out the test must know the protocols for
carrying out the test to ensure that the scores that are recorded meet the
conditions of validity, fia adequate bility and sensitivity, it must also have a
high correlation test-retest tion between the examiner.
o Test registration forms: the test registration forms must be known, easy to
perform, so that it is done in an eco-friendly manner nomic and reduce the

incidence of errors in the registry.
o Test format: a well-organized data collection session, in which the stations are
well designed, the athlete knows that and co How to do so are guarantees of
success when collecting data. Co Know how many times the test will be
performed during the course or time rada, number of attempts, time of the
course or season, time of day to be done, etc. On the other hand, the
realization of multiple The tests should allow the athlete to fatigue as little
as possible between performing each test. Thus, when faced with a battery
of tests, the sequence These should be as follows (Kraemer and Fleck,
1982):
- Non-fatiguing test: height, weight, folds, or vertical jump.
- Agility test. T test.
- Maximum power and strength: 1RM bench press, 3RM.
- Localized muscular resistance test: wingate test.
- Anaerobic capacity test: 400 meters.
- Aerobic capacity test: 12-minute race, course- navette.
^ Finally, training control must be adapted to the individual characteristics of the
athlete. Therefore it is criterial.
To achieve this, we set the following objectives for training control from the
perspective of sports performance:
1. Verification of the scope of the objectives set at that time of the season.
2. Detection of fatigue and overtraining.
3. Fine-tuning of physical, technical and tactical form in the peaks of ren key
tapping (tappering).
4. Check if the quantification of the training coincides with what is real lized at
a physical, technical and tactical level.
Before carrying out and choosing a battery of appropriate tests, a series of prior
considerations must be established about the meaning of control of the training. I lie,
what can I get from it:
1 .- Information that comes from the athlete about his emotional state mic ,
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his attitude to the changes and effects of training, and his is general
condition, both physical and emotional.
2 .- Information about the athlete's behavior , magnitude and character ter of
increased performance in training and the evolutionary execution of the
technique.
3 .- Information on immediate effects , magnitude and process in the training
4 .- Information on cumulative effects by qualities, and in the specific
structures and/or the competitive model.
We establish at our discretion the following factors that the teacher of must be
taken into account when selecting the tests as established by Harman and Pandorf
(2000):
1. Metabolic specificity : A valid test must adapt to the energy profile tic of sport
for which skill in sport must be evaluated, keeping in mind that in no effort can
we isolate a single system ma, but they all act at the same time, one or the other
predominating depending on the type of effort, called the “energy continuum”.
In other words, when in a sport the energy profile is anaerobic with pre
dominance in alactic power, it makes little sense to use a test that measures
aerobic capacity or efficiency.
2. Specificity of the sport: the test must be very similar in relation to the mo
specific to the sport, if the test differs in relation to the physical or technical
demands of the sport, it may not be as specific and therefore not help to
understand what we are looking for. For example, the Counter Movement Jump
has a manifest specificity with the layer jumping ability shown in sports such as
basketball or volleyball.
3. Subject experience and training status : for subjects with extensive training
experience, a very technical and high-intensity test. sity may be appropriate for
this one. However, for a subject who does not have that technical skill it does
not seem very appropriate. On the other hand, the great The training process
also represents a factor to take into account since in the first phases of training
the subject has a physical, technical and tactical condition that has nothing to do
with an athlete in the full competitive phase, therefore the evaluation and tests
must adjust to the level of sport of the subject taking into account the season
4. Age and sex : Age and sex can affect the validity and reliability of a test, since a
given test may be useful for an adult but not so useful for a child or adolescent.
On the other hand, in relation to tests such as pull-ups, it may not differentiate
between levels of strength among girls when there are variations for this that
allow us to detect more sensitivity. ity among girls (Harman and Pandorf,
2000).
5. Environmental factors: Environmental temperature and humidity must taken
into account when we perform a test. Altitude is also a factor to consider when
carrying out a test or competition, especially in sports whose demand is
fundamentally aerobic. For Harman and Pandorf, (2000).
These factors, prior to carrying out the test, must be taken into account for
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success when implementing it. However, there are singularities that mean that each test
has its own particular way when it comes to administration and selection. For example,
when carrying out an ergometric test in the laboratory we have to take into account a
series of factors on the part of the subject who is going to perform the test and on the
part of the person who is going to direct it (López and Fernández, 1998). :
On the part of the athlete:
1. Absence of infectious processes.

2. Not having eaten food 2-3 hours before.
3. Not having made significant efforts since the day before the test.
4. Not having taken stimulants (coffee, tea, cola...).
5. Do not significantly modify your diet in the preceding days.
By laboratory staff:
1. Quiet laboratory environment with the presence of specialized personnel do

exclusively.
2. Explain to the subject the development of the test
3. wear appropriate clothing
4. Have a well-ventilated room, with an ambient temperature between 20-22º C
and a relative humidity of 40-60%
5. It is advisable that before starting the test the person rests sitting, or even better
lying down, for about 10 minutes.
6. The time of the ergometric test must be indicated, taking into account that when
tests are compared, it must be carried out at the same time of day.
The research and work developed in this field has led to the development of
evaluation instruments and protocols since the first published training methodology
manuals, constituting an essential concern to know what the effects of programmed
loads are on the body, and Matveyev in his The first works formulated how the control
of training could be carried out in two ways, one called pedagogical and the other
medical-scientific , the first revealing the preparation of the sport. tist regarding the
qualification of sporting performance manifested in competitions, this orientation
towards the final product does not reveal the circumstances cies that have been
produced during the process, but at the end of it we know if the work has been correct
or not thanks to the result in competition tion we expect. Controls and tests during the
training process are also included within the so-called pedagogical methods. All of
them give us an evaluation of the product without knowing what the influence of the
external load on the internal load is.
The medical-physiological aims are to know the optimal level of adaptation and
fatigue of the athlete's systems that ensure motor performance in a certain direction of
training. In this case, I put them Current technologies allow us to know what the state
of the organism is in reference to the stimuli to which it has been subjected. Although it
is still considered extreme extremely difficult to measure and quantify all the input
factors to the system that affect the subject's body and assess how each stimulus is a
determinant of a change in the ability to perform sports, the reality is that the advances
in this matter have been notable. The training responses are oriented from laboratory
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research towards genetics, the researched res of this matter around sports training we
must continue investigating talking about the responses that allow us to control validly
and objectively. increase the internal training load without the need to use invasive
methods (Smith, 2003; Kenttä and Hassmén, 1998).
As we have commented previously, pedagogical methods are centered tran in

the development of the training product, understood as a final mark obtained after a
competition or a control test, without additional information about the process.
However, we can find more control and training monitoring methods that can
be obtained quickly, which do not provide information about the process but which can
be useful for a more subjective control of the internal load. These control methods
come from the information The information that we can extract from the training
sessions quickly and often not objectively in relation to the medical-physiological tests,
can be day-to-day information through training diaries , this information being
partially subjective for our final purpose, which is the control of the internal load of the
training, since the information comes from the subject's perception of their state and
the quantification of the external load, not from the effect they cause on the organism.
Synthetically we can extract information from the following parameters:
^ State of the athlete (health, previous desire to train)

^ Simple physiological data (body weight, resting heart rate) The training session
(speed, technique, strength endurance)
^ Quantitative indicators of load in relation to volume (kilometers completed,
series and repetitions, attempts made, etc.)
^ Quantitative indicators of cargo in relation to volume and (kilogram mos,
percentage of VO2 max, heart rate...)
^ Environmental conditions (humidity, wind, heat, etc.)
^ The response to training (work performed compared to what was programmed,
recovery of heart rate, state of fatigue after the interval ning, etc.).
^ Information on what was done compared to what was scheduled. From informs
tion of the session to specific information from a test performed. If the test is
repeated during the season, it will be used to measure progress within the
season. An example of these tests are:
o Time in series in relation to a sports provision capacity specific tive or to a
metabolic specificity that we want eva luar: speed, speed-stamina,
endurance
o Muscular resistance based on a certain percentage manifestation referred
to the maximum dynamic force (% FDM), force-time curve or force-
velocity, strength resistance: manifestation nes of explosive strength,
power, number of repetitions in an exercise, time in an exercise.
o Maximum dynamic strength: 3RM, 1RM
o Explosive strength: power tests, vertical jump, throwing implements.
o Range of motion: measure the range of motion of a given joint.
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o Preparatory competitions that serve to give an approximate measure of

performance in the main competition and that serve They are going to
training for this one.
8.4. THE CONTROL OF EXTERNAL LOAD: ANALYSIS OF THE

ORGANIZATION OF TRAINING STRUCTURES IN A SEASON.
External load is defined as the measure of work completed independently

depending on its internal characteristics (Wallace, Slattery and Coutts, 2009). The
control of the training load can be carried out at a micro level (sessions or microcycle)
as proposed by Achten and Jeukendrup (2003) , Day et al (2004) or Foster et al, (2001),
or at a meso and macro level, as proposed. Campos and Cervera, (2001), Platonov
(2001), Viru and Viru (1999), Marques et al (2008) or Pyne et al (2001), the latter in
the specific field of swimming. This control of the load through its quantification must
necessarily be accompanied to have greater validity in its measurement of the
physiological or psychological response of the subject, since the greatest interest on the
part of the trainer or researcher involves establishing cause-effect relationships
between what was done and the adaptive response of the athlete.
8.4.1. Analysis of training structures: macrocycles, phases, mesocycles and

microcycles.
The first control element involves the calculation of the programmed load,
carried out before the training session itself. It is assessed through the calculation
carried out in the established programming in which we define from the beginning the
characteristics of the training loads and their organization in microcycles, mesocycles
and macrocycles sessions, showing an example below. nuation (figure 8.2):
Weeks 34 35 36 37
38 39 40 41 42 43
test test com com
ATR – BLOCK 4 (10)
ESSENTIAL. SPECIFIC COMPETITIVE
ACCUMULATION. TRANSFORMATION REALIZATION REALIZATION
AJU CAR CAR IMP AJU CAR COMP RECO ACTI COMP
Figure 8.2. Planning following an ATR model (concentrated loads) inVER
which we show a
macrocycle that goes from week 34 to 43 of the annual programming.
We organize the load in four mesocycles: accumulation, transformation and two realization, and
in turn in the microcycles shown below: AJU (adjustment), CAR (load), IMP (impact), COMP
(competition). In the macrocycle we also show the controls to be carried out (just in week 35 and
38) and two competitions (week 40 and 43), corresponding to a junior category athlete.
From this programming example we can extract information from the or
organization of training structures up to microcycles. In any case, we can even analyze
each microcycle and see what happens within each day, checking what objectives and
what level of load exists in it, as shown in figure 3.
8.4.1.1. Analysis of the training session.
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If we want to analyze the session, the daily use of invasive procedures to check the
effect of the external load, even a drop of capillary blood, can be annoying for the
athlete carried out daily, so the procedures for verifying the impact of the loading
through training diaries are the most appropriate. The training diary allows you to
verify car both the external load and the perception of the impact of it on the organ
nism (internal load). Training diaries must contain at least this information for their use
to be relevant for adequate control of the athlete's performance and fatigue (Terrados
and Fernandez, 2000):
- Dream. Hours and quality thereof.

- Appetite
- Weight: before and after training
- Training scheduled for that day (or week)
- Training performed
- Subjective perception of fatigue
- Other sensations: mood.
- Pains, discomforts.
As an example, we present a training diary model in which a coach can insert the
information that he considers most appropriate for his athlete. These diaries can be
modified depending on the type of sport, specialty, etc...
The fundamental purpose of the diary is the early diagnosis of those elements
that can cause overtraining, as well as detailed monitoring of the elements that act in
the training process.
In this first template we offer a data collection model for a selective training
session and another diversified or complex one, in which data is collected about the
quantification and order of the loads in a session.
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Training session: Number:

Mesocycle: Macrocycle:
Selective Session Charge level: EX(5) ^

GR(4) ^
Main objectives): IM(3) ^
ME(2) ^
BA(1) ^
Task Contents Goals Vol. Approx.

No. approx. time
Complex Session Charge level: EX(5) ^

GR(4) ^
Main objectives): IM(3) ^
ME(2) ^
BA(1) ^
Task Contents Goals Vol. Approx.

No. approx. time
c) Deficit between what was programmed and what was carried out: Vol
Int
Figure 8.3. Training session models to quantify load
external used in the subject Theory and practice of training
sports of the Faculty of Sports of Toledo.
Another more simplified diary model adapted to weight room training is the one
shown by Bompa (1997), in which the exercise to be performed, the load to be moved
in kilograms and the number of repetitions per series are recorded (for example).
example: 108 X 6) as shown in figure 8.4:
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series
No. exercise 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
1 Semi-squat 100/6
TOTAL
REPEATS
TOTAL
KILOGRAMS
Figure 8.4. Session control sheet (modified from Bompa, 1999: 197).
In the second sheet that we show, subjective and obstructive information is

collected. subjective of a training microcycle, in which daily information is recorded
on how we have finished after the training session that makes up the microcycle, and
the perception we have regarding it referring to different parameters, both
physiological and psychological that regulate our level of fatigue (Terrados and
Fernández, 2000).
Physiological parameters in training control.

Microcycle No.:
Weekdays l M x J. V Y d
Heart rate when getting up es
Heart rate at the beginning of training
Heart rate at the end of training
Appetite
Fatigue after training
Aches and pains
Pre-workout weight (if applicable)
Weight after training (if applicable)
Psychological parameters in training control.
Desire to train
Hours of sleep
Morning mood
General mood
Observations :
Sleep, mood and appetite: B- good, R fair, M bad .
Figure 8.5. Training control sheet. Modified from Terraces and

Fernandez (2000).
These examples of training diaries give us information about the programmed

external load and about subjective parameters that come from the athlete's perception.
These procedures are widespread and with current computer technology (spreadsheets,
Fatigue : 6.7 Very, Very 8.9 Very

Comfortable. - 195
Comfortable.
12, 13 Somewhat Tired. - Tired.
14, 15, 16 10, 11 : Slightly Tired
19 Very, very tired. 20 Out of stock 17, 18 Very Tired.
GARCÍA
databases, etc.) they allow the collection and analysis of information in an objective
and thorough manner.
8.5. TRAINING CONTROL THROUGH THE

SPORTS PERFORMANCE IN MOTOR TEST.
Hoffman and Kaminsky (2000) propose as a primary performance indicator

ment and overtraining a significant increase in sports performance vo. The controls
must guarantee that what we measure is an increase in the sporting performance
capabilities in a certain specialty, which will be the assets we have to face the
competition itself. Specifically, for the monitoring of junior basketball players of the
Israeli national team, when there is a worsening of 0.15% of the marks obtained in a
test, or on the contrary a stagnation in their progression as shown by Kuipers and
Keizer, (1988) there is a problem in the organization tion of loads that can lead to a
state of overtraining.
Thus, the main interest when studying these phenomena has focused on
recognizing markers that diagnose incipient phases of overtraining. This aspect is vital
for coaches since it allows us to recognize initial stages of this phenomenon that allow
us to prevent this situation. tion by adjusting training loads.
Classically, invasive tests performed too frequently to control training due to

moles have been ignored. problems that cause as we have already mentioned on
occasion, so the use of specific performance through tests has been fundamental for
monitoring the training process, since the principle on which it is based is that the
primary indicator of overtraining is a decrease in performance (Hoffman and
Kaminsky, 2000). The principle on which this training load control approach is based
is the comparison of the effects produced by variations between training volume and
intensity and performance specific reaction that occurs in certain tests.
Starting from figures 6 and 7, which graphically represent the volume

(quantified in hours/week) of training and its intensity (expressed sated in load level,
where 1 is a light load and 5 is an extreme load), and based on these variations in
volume and intensity, progress in performance is controlled in a series of tests, in the
specific case shown by Hoffman and Kaminsky (2000) tests were 1RM in bench press
and squat and maximum speed test in 27 meters. The results of these tests are shown in
figures 8, 9 and 10, a small decrease in performance when not appropriate may be
cause for reflection as it may be due to an error in the test or a
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process of accumulated fatigue or overtraining in the player, so based on these data,

more in-depth analyzes of the training process must be carried out, in relation to the
established volume and intensity (Hoffman and Kaminsky, 2000), making use of
other tests. more specific.
Figures 8.6 and 8.7. Volume and intensity indicators

(Hoffman and Kaminsky, 2000).
Figure 8.8. 1RM bench press (kg). Figure 8.9. 1RM squat (kg).
Figure 8.10. Results in 27 meters (sec.).
In the scientific literature there are numerous tests developed for the evaluation
of physical condition and fatigue, all of them representing a wide variety of sports and
physical activities. The different methodologies used to evaluate sports performance
capabilities are very broad, and will depend fundamentally on the availability of
equipment and personnel. nal, as well as the subject's sporting level (Australian Sport
Commission, 2000).
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8.6. SUBJECTIVE PERCEPTION OF EFFORT (RPE).
The Borg scale has been developed as a simple, reliable and valid estimation
method of the intensity of aerobic exercise (Borg, 1998). It has also been shown to be
an effective method of measuring perceived effort. done in strength training (Gearhart
et al 2001). Day et al (2004) bought Baron showed that the RPE was sensitive to the
intensity of effort measured in % of 1RM, in such a way that the greater the % of 1RM,
the greater the perceived effort the subjects showed, as shown in Figure 8.11.
Figure 8.11. RPE depending on the intensity of the strength exercise.

(Day et al 2004).
Borg verified how physiological factors have a greater influence on the

perception of fatigue than psychological ones (Borg, 1982). In a study in which
different forms of training control (TRIMP, HR and RPE) were compared, it was
observed how the RPE provided reasonable evaluations. accuracy of the training load,
although the accuracy decreased the more time was spent performing high-intensity
(90-100% of max HR) or low-intensity (50-60% of max HR) training (Borresen and
Lambert, 2008). RPE is a valid tool for quantifying load in competitive swimmers
compared to heart rate (work zones), blood lactate and distance covered (Wallace,
Slattery and Coutts, 2009).
8.7. OTHER LOAD CONTROL RECORDS

TRAINING.
Other methods of quantification of training loads have been developed from

mathematical models (Tschiene, 1997; Busso, Carasso and La Cour, 1991; Busso et al.,
2002) In these, the training components are related through a mathematical equation
through two models, one equation for the input and another for the output, each with an
equation according to second degree, the result being the balance between physical
condition and fatigue, the input is the amount of training performed by the subject,
while the output is the level of performance achieved. Variables susceptible to
introduction produce in the equation are those shown in Figure 8.12.
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Figure 8.12. Response to a training session (Busso et al., 2002).
Where Pg is the maximum performance gain; K1 – K2.difference in terms of

profit between the positive component (K1) and the negative component vo (K2) Tn:
time necessary to reach supercompensation after finishing the training.
Tschiene, (1997) includes the response to a load at different levels and organs
of the athlete (hormones, muscle fiber, mitochondria, etc.). Busso, Carasso and Lacour,
(1991) or Banister et al (1986) propose a classification of loads as a function of three
components based on performance, fatigue generated by stimulation and physical
condition. The works of Banister and Hamilton (1985) and Banister et al (1986) are
based on the concept of training impulse (TRIMP in English) determined as the pro
product of training duration and intensity where the average heart rate (HR) is
multiplied by a non-linear adjustment factor resulting from the lactate curve and the
duration of the training session. In such a way that:
Training impulse = training duration (min) x proportion tion of exercise HR,

where:
Exercise HR ratio = exercise HR/HR duration, and
HR duration = maximum heart rate - resting heart rate.
Therefore for Banister et al (1986) the training impulse = lasts tion of training X
(exercise HR – Resting HR/Maximum HR – Resting HR).
To this is added a correction factor (y) based on the increase in lactate in men
and women, and it is generated from the following equations:
Y=0.64e 1.92x (man)

Y=0.86e 1.67x (woman)
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Where y is the multiplying factor, x= the proportion of the HR in the exercise

cio ye is the natural logarithm that has a value of 2.712.
8.8. LOAD CONTROL THROUGH FREQUENCY

CARDIAC.
The recording of heart rate (HR) is one of the most common forms of control
both in the field of health and in sports performance for the assessment of effort
intensity (Navarro, 1998; Bouzas, 2003). Its use as a form of intensity control has
several functions: maintenance tion of a certain work rhythm, since this is where the
sports performance of the specialty moves (we are going to work on counterattacks in
basketball at 180 bpm), as well as at a certain intensity of the maximum heart rate
(MHR), such as to maintain a determined training frequency, since that threshold
allows us to improve a certain resistance component.
In normal practice, the use of means such as the heart rate monitor has made it
possible to monitor and control sessions and training loads in a more or less reliable
way. One of the most widespread HR control technique devices is the use of wrist heart
rate monitors, among which those from the company Polar ® stand out. By using these
devices, the HR is immediately read during exercise, which is also more reliable than
the manual technique (Karvonen and Vuorima, 1988). The use of heart rate as a control
procedure has become one of the most popular due to its simplicity, and the existing
correlation with VO2 max values. (Froelicher et al, 1998). Which makes it possible to
establish a physical activity program that takes heart rate as an element to control the
intensity of exercise on an individualized basis (Wilmore and Costill, 2001). Another
advantage is the control through the heart rate of the training zones as shown in table x
(calculation of training zones).
The maximum heart rate (MHR) is one of the parameters most used to control
exercise (Fletcher, 1997). Starting from this and subtracting the resting heart rate, we
obtain the reserve heart rate, another very useful parameter. intensity control. Karvonen
et al (1957) establishes the training heart rate by applying the following equation:
FCE. = [(HRmax - RHR) x % effort] + RHR.
If we want to go to an intensity of 60-70% for an individual whose frequency

maximum heart rate is 184 and his resting heart rate is 56, this subject should train
between 132 and 145 beats per minute (bpm)
If we want to find the theoretical maximum heart rate, there are numerous equations
that determine it, regardless of whether a maximum test allows it to be established,
whether in the field or laboratory. The FCM prediction equation that shows the greatest
reliability is that of Tanaka et al (2001) according to Bouzas (2003):
MHR= 208- 0.7x age.
Although we must consider the numerous equations that exist for determining
the MCF (Whaley et al, 1992; Sheffield et al, 1978; Johnson and Prins, 1991; Miller et
al, 1993), although it is not the purpose of this chapter to develop talk more about this
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topic.
In sports performance, depending on the sport and its characteristics, the heart
rate behaves differently because the effort zo is not of a single nature, thus, the studies
carried out in basketball show tran like the level of heart rate (HR), does not remain
constant but oscillates with very high intensities. Which, together with the observation
of the players' actions, confirms that basketball is an eminent sport. explosive mind.
Through the data obtained by López Calvet and L. Calvet, (1997) corroborated that
basketball is a fundamentally alactic anaerobic, lactic anaerobic, and minimally aerobic
sport in lower categories. res (cadets from 14 to 16 years old). The average HR in a
basketball game according to the data obtained by these authors is 188 p/m, thus
demonstrating that the competition load is high. Such a high average sustained for so
long is characteristic of intermittent efforts. What happens is that the difference for
specific positions in basketball makes the FCs different depending on their position on
the field. Although all this information is very valuable for the basketball coach, it is
not sufficient because the intensity of the effort or the type of action during the periods
of activity is not specified. To have access to this information, Colli and Faina (1985)
empirically determined the heart rates that correspond to each of the basketball actions.
TYPE OF ACTION BASE EAVES PIVOT

Pause 150 158 153
Defense on the ball 172 171 169
Slow progress 167 162 161
Medium advance 174 171 170
Fast forward 175 175 177
Fast forward with ball 195 - -
Jump for the shot 208 207 204
Jump for the rebound 178 174 180
One against one without 169 166 167
ball 183 178 178
One on one with
ball
Table 8.4. Heart rate during different game actions according to Colli and Faina
(1985)
Scientific advances around heart rate mean that there are other related
parameters for study such as heart rate variability (HRV). The analysis of variability is
studied as a powerful non-invasive tool to evaluate the degree of fatigue and
preparation of the athlete, and as a marker of the parasympathetic activity of the
nervous system, since the nervous system is a regulator of rhythm variability. cardiac.
Parasympathetic activity in the nervous system is accepted by the literature to describe
variations in heart rate and fatigue, as shown by the “Task Force of the European
Society of Cardiology” and the “North American Society of Pacing and
Electrophysiology” in 1996 or Lehmann et al. al (1992). In turn, the discharge rate of
the sinoatrial node can vary with the respiratory rate (De Meersman, 1993). The
analysis of heart rate variability can be carried out with different mathematical analysis
methodologies (García Manso, 2006), however there are already devices such as the
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Omegawave sport ©, easy to use that allow the analysis of heart rate variability without
the need to resort to to complex statistical methods or the analysis software created by
Niskanen et al (2002)
Recent studies have found an increase in sympathetic tone in endurance athletes

at the end of shock training performed for 6-9 weeks (Uusitalo, Uusitalo and Rusko,
1998). On the other hand, not only resistance training causes variations in heart rate,
Pinchot et al (2000) showed how 3 weeks of strength training with weights modified
the balance of the autonomic nervous system with a predominance over
parasympathetic drive (Pinchot et al. . 2000). In the latter study, during a week of
recovery following heavy training, there was a precipitous return marked by a dramatic
increase in HRV, associated with a relative increase in parasympathetic nervous system
activity. There is already a decrease in sympathetic activity (Ribeiro, 1993).
The assessment of the variability of cardiac activity is done through

mathematical transformations of cardiac cycles into “power spectra.” cia”, is a test
commonly used as non-invasive, and helps distinguish sympathetic from
parasympathetic regulation of the sinus node (Ori, et al , 1992, cited by McCraty,
1995).
The variability of heart rate can be analyzed by using two different criteria: the
criterion called “time domain”, that is, analyzing the duration of the interval between
beats, whether short or long term, and another criterion based on the frequency domain
that is based on the spectral analysis of heart rate, which informs about the frequency
with which these variations occur (Fernandes, 1992).
To calculate them, various types of mathematical analyzes are used such as the
fast Fourier transformation, the calculation of entropy and many others defined by
Garcia-Manso (2006). Three different frequency bands can be distinguished in each
cardiac signal (Pigozzi et al., 2001):
^ Very low frequency (VLF) band: corresponding to frequencies less than 0.04 Hz.
^ Low Frequency (LF) band: corresponding to frequencies between 0.04Hz and
0.15Hz.
^ High Frequency Band (HF): corresponding to frequencies that are between 0.15
and 0.4 Hz.
There is no consensus on the physiological meaning of the frequency bands,

each author gives a different value, thus Leicht, Allen and Hoey, (2003) or Melanson
and Freedson (2001) admit that frequencies greater than 0.04 Hz but do not exceed the
0.15 Hz is related to sympathetic activation, and frequencies above 0.15 to 0.40 Hz is a
reflection of parasympathetic activity. Pichon et al, (2004) establish the VLF between
0.02-0.05 Hz, the LF between 0.05-0.15 Hz, and the HF between 0.15 and 0.5. Pigozzi
et al (2002) sets the LF at 0.10 Hz and the HF at 0.25 Hz.
The variability of HR is sensitive to changes in body position, which makes it

necessary to determine the data collection protocol in a specific position, as well as the
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duration of the test, normally the position is usually supine.
8.9. LOAD CONTROL THROUGH BIOLOGICAL PARAMETERS OF

RESPONSE TO TRAINING.
The importance in the training process to achieve great results Management is

not only based on achieving adequate programming and organizing tion of the training
loads, but we must also ensure that these loads produce adequate stimulation to
generate adequate protein synthesis through adjustments to the transcription that occurs
thanks to the messenger RNA that will subsequently produce the subsequent protein
modification. At a biochemical level, the waste products of the chemical reactions that
occur as a consequence of training loads appear to be objective physiological markers
of the effect of external load on internal load.
An example applied to sports in which multiple fast sprints occur such as tennis,
or a speed training session with several repetitions at maximum speed, produces a
decrease in general power. rada, this being one of the markers of fatigue control,
however this fatigue is nothing more than the representation of an internal process at a
neuro level muscle accompanied by the following reactions:
- Lack of ATP for actin-myosin coupling and in the Na+/K+ pump, and a
consumption of Ca2+ in the sarcoplasmic reticulum.
- An inhibition of functionality or the reactions caused in the previous section
due to waste metabolites
- Alterations in the excitability of actin-myosin coupling, due to the variation
in the Ca2+ release potential from the sarcoplasmic reticulum.
The truth is that these controls are currently very difficult to realise. ized in the
field, and are still a preferential field of action for the researcher. laboratory that has the
appropriate technology and protocols for this. However, another step forward has
already been taken and we have gone from the era of biochemical assessments to that
of molecular assessments (Flueck, 2007), a leap that has not really yet been
consolidated at a practical level and whose knowledge remains locked in. in the
laboratories. The step towards becoming a useful element for sports practice will really
go through a definition of what are the genetic markers that influence the correct
direction of training towards the capacity for specific motor performance, research
currently located at the frontier of knowledge. .
From this paradigm that contemplates sports training from a molecular

perspective, a series of linked concepts emerge that explain these theories such as
window of adaptation, muscle plasticity or microadaptations. The adaptation window
emerges as a paradigm that considers that muscular adjustments to training are a
consequence of the accumulation of micro-adaptations in the post-session recovery
phase. Muscular plasticity lar is a concept that talks about the microadaptations that
occur due to genetic-dependent processes as a regulatory response to physical exercise.
We are already talking about possible lines of research that investigate the role that
messenger RNA has as an element that transmits information. encoded mation from the
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transcription of the stimulus that causes exercise on the DNA and that generates a
modification that can be at the mitochondrial level or in the sarcomere (Flueck, 2007).
In this way, protein synthesis and metabolic regulation are regulated by the messenger
RNA from the genome that has caused that response due to a stimulus called exercise.
Microchips inserted into the muscle are not far away. about athletes who give us
information on the amount of transcribed RNA that will help us direct training in an
objective way, although we are still talking about the...future?
8.10. BIOCHEMICAL MONITORING OF TRAINING.
Biochemical markers are established, especially as markers of acute fatigue

rather than as markers of sports performance. In training monitoring we find substrates
that serve as indicators of training (for example, lactate, ammonium and urea),
enzymes (for example cK), or hormonal indicators in the blood. (Testosterone/cortisol
ratio). Both urea and cK are common markers to control training loads, as shown in the
study by Hartmann and Mester, 2000). The main means for this control are found
mainly in blood, and in some cases in saliva or urine (Viru and Bosco, 2000). Viru and
Viru (1999:57) and Viru and Bosco (2000:301) summarize the main metabolites used
for the biochemical control of training, which we define as markers of sports training
and which we show in table 5.
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Possible training control area.

Metabolite Origin
Evaluation of the anaerobic

threshold
Final product of the anaerobic Anaerobic-glycolytic or anaerobic-
degradation of glycogen and aerobic exercise intensity index.
Lactate glucose. Anaerobic work capacity utilization
Substrate for glycogen oxidation rate.
and synthesis
The maximum level is used for the
evaluation of anaerobic glycolytic
power.
Rate of ATP resynthesis by
Result of AMP degradation in FG combination of 2 ADP and form
(fast) fibers Possible additional AMP tion.
Ammonia source of oxidation of branched Indirect index of FG fiber activity.
amino acids
Exercise influence index prolonged

End product of protein degradation aerobic exercise.
Urea (amino acids) Recovery process index tion.
Protein degradation, mainly from Catabo intensity index muscle

Tyrosine muscle tissue lar proteinism.
Contractile protein turnover index.

Product of the degradation of
3-methyl-
myofibrillar proteins (myosin, Evaluation of the trainable effect in
histidine strength and power sessions.
actin).
Evaluation of the percentage of
Product of the combination of glucose-alanine cycle, which acts
NH3 groups (released in the as a link between carbohydrate and
To the girl oxidation of branched chain amino protein metabolism in the
acids) and pyruvate in muscles. maintenance of muscle activity.
branched chain amino acid Branched-chain amino acid

Leucine oxidizable gives in muscles metabolism index
Diagnosis of central fatigue and a
Precursor for the synthesis of the central fatigue mechanism related
Tryptophan neurotransmitter serotonin. to overtraining I lie.
Amino acid, essential for the Diagnosis of fatigue and

optimal functioning of various overexertion training, mainly gives
Glutamine tissues as well as for normal information about changes in
immunoactivity. immunoactivity.
free fatty acids
Lipolysis product; used in the liver

Glycerol in gluconeogenesis
Carbohydrate usage rate
Glucose Metabolic control factor.
Normal constituent of blood
Table 8.5. Metabolites used for the biochemical control of training.
Viru and Viru (1999:57) and Viru and Bosco (2000:301).
Acute training markers usually leave a short-term imprint that lasts hours (it can
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reach up to 100 hours), in this way, we can control the post-stressful stimulus
responses generated by the training sessions, as explained in the chapters of the book
dedicated to loading and adaptation. In this way, the heterochronism of metabolites is
produced and explained since some are recovered much earlier than others.
On the other hand, the use of portable technologies for measuring blood lactate
has also allowed training control, in this way the internal load of training sessions can
be controlled. An example of this is manifested in the classification of training zones
defined by Racek (1989, modified from Viru and Viru, 2001) for the development of
the capacity for endurance sports performance (table 8.6):
Blood
Energy Exercise Heart rate training
Goals lactate
substrate duration (bpm) medium
(mmol/L)
(min)
Regene career
1. Regeneration, 1.5-2-5 130-150 ratio
maintenance, and 45-120
adaptation to long-
term exercises and 150- above Extensive
Aerobic improvement of continuum
180-above
the economy 1.0-2.0 100-130
2. power and cape 15-45 Fartlek
development Cross country
aerobic city. 2.5-4.0 150-180 Intensive
continuous
Intensive
3. Intensive continuous
Aerobic- methods to 8-20
Fracture
4.0-7-0 170-190
anaerobic improve methods tioned
1-3
performance I lie (intention sitive
and repeat tions)
Continuous
Aerobic- 4. very intensive 2-8 extensive,
7.0-10.0 180-200
anaerobic exercises 1-3 interval intensive
5. intensive 40s.
Anaerobic >10.0 Over 200
exercises II
15-40s
Development
careers llo speed
6. maximal Short repetitions
Anaerobic Over 15s. Individual at speed
exercises
maximum or
submaximal
Table 8.6. Classification of training zones.
This table provides information about the intensity of the training sessions, in
this way it is achieved that a high intensity session using this type of parameters can be
easily controlled for resistance work. There are other types of comprehensive HR
assessments swims with biochemical parameters such as lactate.
There are other metabolites in the blood that function as indicators of responses
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and adaptations to exercise and training (González Ravé, 2001). In this section, four
metabolites will be explained: creatine, urea, creatine kinase and creatinine.
8.10.1. Creatine.
The degradation of energetic phosphates (ATP and CP) occurs in the anaerobic
alactacid pathway (Zintl, 1991). This form is applied when large amounts of energy are
required per unit of time, that is, in the face of maximum contraction intensities, given
that the degradation of phosphate develops with its maximum levels of energy
translation, as shown in Figure 1.4. Due to the immediate resynthesis of ATP from the
degradation of CP, the ATP deposits are not emptied, but there is a slight decrease in
its concentration (up to 40%). The CP deposit, however, can be almost completely
depleted, but after 3-5 minutes of rest, most of the CP deposits are recovered. This
reaction is catalyzed by the enzyme creatine kinase. The constant emptying and
refilling of the CP reservoir (applied in training of the type used in this contrast loading
study) causes an increase in the size of the reservoir and greater activity of the
enzymes. more ATPase and CK. ATP demands hardly increase.
Creatine is found mainly in the muscles, as it acts intimately in obtaining

energy. In them we find about 125 millimoles of creatine for every kilogram of muscle
mass. The main characteristic of this substance is that it is capable of joining with a
molecule of phosphoric acid, forming a high-energy bond with it. The resulting product
is phosphocreatine (PC). In the muscle, 40% of creatine is found in isolated form and
the remaining 60% in the form of phosphocreatine, that is, in the energetically charged
form (Barbero, 2000).
Creatine is a compound that has become very fashionable in recent times, since
it has been studied a lot in relation to sports performance. Initially it was postulated
that it accelerated the resynthesis of ATP from an increase of phosphocreatine. A little
later it was also proposed that it fulfilled an anabolic function since an increase in body
weight could be observed without an increase in the fat compartment (Leibar and
Terrados, 2000). Urbanski et al. (1999) conclude that the ingestion of creatine taken for
5 days in doses of 20 g/day produces an improvement in strength in large muscle
groups. lares, but not in the small ones. The same intake of creatine increases the time
to fatigue in repeated submaximal exercises, both in knee extension and manual grip.
In humans, 95% of creatine is found in the esque muscle. letic.
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Figure 8.13. Release of energy and transformation of ADP into ATP through the
anaerobic alactacid.
8.10.2. Urea.
Urea is another indicator of effort intensity, Hartmann and Mester (2000)

propose 8.3 mmol x L(-1) for men and 7.0 mmol x L(-1) for women as limit measures
that indicate overtraining. Therefore, if the values in a microcycle reach these
quantities, it is advisable to reduce the training load. to.
Urea can be measured in both urine and blood. Urea in urine can also be a
symptom of a high protein diet or fever. On average, 20-40 g are excreted in urine in
24 hours. Blood urea has normal values of 20-30 mg/100 ml on average. The
production Urea concentration increases during prolonged physical efforts, therefore it
is an indicator of volume loading. The urea cycle is a process that develops in the liver
and is capable of clearing ammonia and other compounds from the blood (López
Chicharro, Fernández Vaquero and Lucía, 1999), although other possible places of
formation have also been located. of urea such as muscles (Pardridge et al, 1982, cited
by Bosco, 2000) and kidneys. The synthesis of urea is a process associated with the
deamination of amino acids. two (Bosco, 2000). A significant correlation has been
demonstrated between the increase in serum urea and the decrease in ^ -amino
nitrogen. This relationship suggests an increase in protein oxidation during prolonged
exercise. gado.
There is a tendency to use blood urea to assess the load of a training session and
recovery processes. It is thought that a notable increase in urea concentration could
show the stressful effect of a training session. On the other hand, the normalization of
the blood urea level is considered as a signal to be able to return to maximum
workloads that produce fatigue. The use of urea as an indicator of workload intensity is
limited when performing exercises that produce high concentrations of lactic acid,
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since its production is suppressed under these conditions (Litvinova and Viru, 1996). It
is also thought that the altered elimination of urea during and after exercise may have
an effect on the level of urea in the blood. Thus, the retention of urea above the level of
renal excretion may cause or facilitate the exercise-induced increase in blood urea
concentration. On the contrary, in rats, in the post-exercise phase after swimming
sessions of different durations, it is characterized by increased renal clearance of urea.
After only 10 hours of swimming, the increase in urea excretion and the elevation of
the clearance percentage took more than 12 hours to occur. The increase in renal urea
elimination in the post-exercise phase depends on glucocorticoids: in fact, in
adrenalectomized rats this does not occur (Litvinova et al, 1989).
8.10.3. Creatine kinase.
The parameters of urea (as a final product of protein metabolism) and creatine
kinase (as an enzyme of phosphocreatine metabolism) can indicate whether the training
load is too high compared to the regenerative capacity. va existing (Zintl, 1991).
Enzymes can reach the blood due to disturbances in the per meability (greater
ease of passage) of the muscle cell membrane in case of intense efforts or directly
through the metabolism produced by the load. Urea and CK as biochemical parameters
are formed by an irreversible reaction. Urea values indicate more the loading volume,
CK values more the loading intensity. Both urea and CK values will be elevated after
(a few hours) the training load (Zintl, 1991).
Hurley et al. (1995) when measuring muscle hypertrophy after strength training,
they simultaneously assessed the rupture of the muscle cell membrane. lar, by
associating this physiological process with the release of creatine kinase into the
bloodstream from the muscle. After the first exercise session, CK levels doubled
compared to the baseline, and the maximum peak was reached 8 hours after training
and then decreased. do. At the end of the study, CK levels had decreased compared to
the first measurement, confirming the hypothesis that an intense training program
Strength training produces a substantial increase in strength and muscle hypertrophy,
generating very high levels of CK at the beginning of the program as a result of the
breakdown in the muscle cell. However, the CK values at the end of the strength
training program are lower, since there is a mechanism of positive adaptation to
training that could consist of alterations in the properties of the cell membrane, or in a
reinforcement of the muscle fiber. lar with connective tissue, which make the muscle
fiber more resistant to the rupture of muscle cells.
Creatine kinase levels reached their maximum peak 8 hours after the first
exercise, these values remained high until 24 hours after exercise, and were
significantly reduced after 48 hours. In our study, we performed pre- and post-test
creatine kinase measurements, therefore, the results can indicate possible adaptations to
training, since maintaining high levels of CK during the 16 weeks of the effort can lead
the study subjects to the appearance of overload (occurs after one or several relatively
intense training microcycles and/or few recovery sessions). That is, when the subject
performs training levels slightly higher heights than I was previously accustomed to
(Terra two and Fernández, 1997).
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An increase in CK should occur in the first few weeks between ment and could
be detected together with the performance of assessment tests. tion of the subject,
which is when the subject may present symptoms of acute fatigue (Calderón et al,
2006) and the first muscle injuries occur after strength training to which he is not
adapted. These types of markers require invasive tests since we need a quantity
(although very little) of blood to control these biochemical parameters. For Calderón et
al (2006), values greater than 200 U/l can mean that the load has been excessive. siva,
so it seems advisable to carry out recovery training tion. Balcells (1991) states that
normal serum Ck values are up to 1 mU/ml (international units) and activated Ck up to
50 mU/ml. In any case, this type of markers have very rapid clearance kinetics within a
few hours (between 12 and 24 hours), and also reflects individual variability. dual very
high, since Hartmann and Mester (2000) there are maximum values in men that can
reach 3000 U x L(-1) and 1150 U x L(-1) in women and are considered markers of
overtraining, although the consideration of High values for these authors range
between 250-350 U x L(-1) and 1000-2000 U x L(-1).
The high CK activity and myoglobin levels are inter preted as a sign of muscle
damage. Thus, levels of CK, and physical ailments, decrease when the level of fatigue
increases. Therefore, CK is not a good predictor of overtraining or stress but can be
used together with uric acid as an indicator of load and acute response (damage) to
training (Steinacker et al, 1998).
8.10.4. Cretatinine.
Creatinine is an end product of the degradation of phosphocreatine (Lehninger,

1988). Creatinine is a creatine anhydride that is formed by a spontaneous and
irreversible reaction (Woo, Treuting and Cannon, 1984). During glomerular filtration,
urea and creatinine are not reabsorbed and their concentration gradually increases as
urine circulates through the tubules (Lehninger, 1988). This increase causes its
excretion through the tubules (Balcells, 1991). In the blood it is found in a normal
range of 1-2 mg/100ml although it varies by gender, ranging between 0.5 and 1.3 mg in
men and between 0.4 and 1.1 mg in women. Creatinine has a strictly endogenous
origin, independent of diet and with a constant daily production; only muscle atrophies
lares, very pronounced, reduce the production of creatinine. Increased creatinine is
related to muscle mass or lean body weight (Woo, Treuting, & Cannon, 1984).
8.10.5. Study of urine sediment.
Although urine sediments are used to detect cases of infection tions and other
pathologies, we are going to use it as an indicator of exercise intensity.
8.10.6. Leukocyte sediment.
Some leukocytes can be observed in the normal leukocyte sediment. cough, up

to five per field (Ruiz, 1998). In most kidney disorders it may appear increased. They
can also be increased in case of fever or after intense exercise (Bradley, Schuman and
Ward, 1984). The leukocyte count is an alteration of the urine sediment that has been
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little studied during exercise, although no relationship has yet been found between the
leukocyte count and the intensity of exercise (Ruiz, 1998).
8.10.7. Red blood cells.
Normally, there are no red blood cells in the urine, or only a very small
amount. ity (1 or 2 per field). The verification of a greater proportion constitutes
pathological microhematuria (Balcells, 1991). The mechanism of passage of these cells
into the urine is unknown. The ratio between leukocytes and red blood cells is much
higher in urine than in blood. Excessive exercise may temporarily increase red blood
cell excretion (Woo, Treuting, & Cannon, 1984).
8.10.8. Ph study.
Normally the reaction of urine swings towards the acidic or alkali side. No,
depending on the composition of the diet, pH values ranging from 4.5 to 8 are reached
in extreme circumstances. (Balcells, 1991). Changes in urine ph river during and after
exercise have been described by many researchers. During intense exercise, small
decreases in urine ph are observed. river. This decrease in pH may be due to a decrease
in urinary flow that results in a higher concentration of acids or a decrease in the
filtration of sodium bicarbonate. In contrast, moderate exercise tends to cause There
are increases in pH with a certain tendency towards alkalinity, due to a competitive
situation of potassium and hydrogen ions of the tubule cells (Ruiz, 1998). Age
produces physiological changes in the kidney, including a partial function in
vasodilation through the action of the hormone prostaglandin (Farquhar and Kenney,
1999). Exercise produces renal vasoconstriction that is partially cushioned by the
vasodilation of prostaglandin, although in older people this hormone is not very
important during exercise and hydration itself is more important (Farquhar and
Kenney, 1999).
8.10.9. 3 Methyl-histidine in urine.
The urinary excretion of 3 Methyl-Histidine (3-Me-H) is an indicator of muscle

destruction and subsequent compensatory mechanism of muscle hypertrophy. cular as
shown in the works of Frontera et al (1988), Miller and Blyth, (1952) and Tzankoff and
Norris, (1977).
Smith and Norris (2000) have suggested that the ratio of glutamine (Gm) to
glutamate (Ga) in blood may be a good indicator of training tolerance. to. Athletes who
have low Gm/Ga ratios with low training volumes at the beginning of the macrocycle
and having had a rest period are more susceptible to overtraining than athletes with
high ratios. Most well-trained endurance athletes have high Gm/Ga ratios and have
high training tolerance.
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8.10.10. Other biochemical markers of training.
8.10.10.1. Immunoglobulin A
Immunoglobulin-A (IgA) in saliva is identified as a marker to identify athletes

prone to respiratory tract infection, as a consequence of open window syndrome,
therefore it serves to identify fatigue and possible overtraining. Endurance athletes are
more likely to suffer from this syndrome than strength-speed athletes or other sports
(König et al, 2000). Immunoglobulin A ( IgA ) is a protein with an antibody function
produced by B lymphocytes located in the seromucosal secretions of the body such as
saliva, tears, colostrum and respiratory secretions.
8.10.10.2. Testosterone and Cortisol.
Another relationship between training and biochemical markers, in this case

hormonal ones, is briefly shown in this tour of the trajectory of training controls. There
are extensive studies on hormonal regulation and exercise (Kraemer, 1992; Kraemer,
Hakkinen and Newton, 1998; Kraemer, Fleck and Dziados, 1998; Hakkinen and
Pakarinen, 1995; Volek, Kraemer and Bush, 1997). Classically, both testosterone and
cortisol have been used as markers of anabolic and catabolic processes in strength
athletes, although these processes have a very acute phase. A stimulus directed towards
improving maximum strength and/or hypertrophy as well as strength endurance makes
the con Testosterone concentration rises and remains above resting levels for 10-15
minutes after exercise, then drops and remains at lower levels until recovery and
supercompensation. Likewise, cortisol levels are also increased (Hackney, Premo and
McMurray, 1995; Tabata et al., 1990). A stimulus aimed at improving basic strength
(that is, medium-low volume and intensity stimuli) keeps testosterone and cortisol
levels unchanged, so health-oriented work does not have to vary these levels.
The testosterone/cortisol ratio, which should increase when the training effect
has been positive, when it remains unchanged allows us to deduce that no improvement
has yet been manifested in the development of strength. These responses are not only
modulated by different training stimuli, but hepatic and renal clearance can alter these
ratios. (Leveritt et al, 1999). In concurrent training (simultaneous strength and
resistance) responses of different magnitude can occur, since the endocrine response of
resistance training can cause a catabolic predominance over the anabolic predominance
of strength work. High levels of testosterone stimulate not only protein synthesis by
acting on cellular DNA and RNA, but also increase muscle glycogen synthesis, acting
on glycogen. non-synthetase and increase phosphocreatine deposits, favoring increased
muscle strength (Sánchez, 2003). The study by Sánchez (2003) in 15 veteran
endurance athletes specializing in long-distance running showed how concentration
increased before a race and after the competition. tions of testosterone compared to the
previous day. Testosterone values within normal range between 10.4 and 38.2 nmol/l in
serum.
Balcells (1989) states that the normal values of testosterone and

dihydrotestosterone are the following (table 8.7):
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Testosterone Dihydrotestosterone
Man 4-11ng/ml 0.4-0.8ng/ml
Women 0.3-1.1ng/ml 0.03-0.17ng/ml
Table 8.7. Normal testosterone and dihydrotestosterone values.
Cortisol values are as follows: 2.75- 550 nmol/l cortisol or 5- 20µg/100 ml. In
plasma, what is important is the secretion rate that reaches its minimum at night.
However, this secretion rhythm can be modified. ced by stimuli such as training or
variation in the sleep-wake cycle. Hormonal values undergo upward or downward
alterations a few hours after the end of exercise, so it is very important that blood
extractions are always done under the same conditions and at the same time
(Gorostiaga and Badillo, 1995; 2000). Testosterone and cortisol have a variable nature
with a tendency to decrease throughout the day, the highest values usually occur during
the last hours of sleep. The testosterone/cortisol ratio, which should increase when the
training effect has been positive, when it remains unchanged allows us to deduce that
no improvement has yet been manifested in the development of strength.
The level of the training stimulus has different effects on the two hormones, as
a summary we can say that:
^ Excessive stimulation causes testosterone levels to drop and cortisol levels to

increase.
^ An ideal stimulus increases testosterone levels and, with recovery, improves the
testosterone/cortisol ratio with the corresponding anabolic benefit, requiring
fewer days to recover (24-48 hours) depending on tion of the pursued objective.
^ A stimulus that is too low does not obtain improvement and does not influence
the concen trations of both hormones.
Urhausen and Kindermann (2002) state that an increase in cortisol levels and a
decrease in testosterone levels can indicate that we are close to a very high training
load that can cause overtraining syndrome, so we must adjust the workloads.
8.10.10.3. Adrenaline and norepinephrine.
Adrenaline, also called epinephrine, is a vasoactive hormone created in alert

situations by the adrenal glands. Adrenaline has the following physiological effects:
^ Increase, through its action on the liver and muscles, concentrates tion of
glucose in the blood. This occurs because, like glucagon, adrenaline
mobilizes liver glycogen reserves and, unlike glucagon, also muscle
glycogen reserves.
^ Increase blood pressure: this occurs in the arterioles, where vasoconstriction
takes place, causing an increase in pressure.
^ Increase heart rate.
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Norepinephrine is specific for basal sympathetic tone and activation of the

autonomic nervous system (Steinacker and Lehmann, 2002).
Zintl (1990:182) states how the level of load can be controlled through the
adrenaline/noradrenaline (N/A) ratio. High ratios (N/A>3) indicate a calm initial state
prior to a competition, low psychological stress or little motivation towards training.
On the contrary, low values of the quotient imply high nervousness, or high
psychological involvement in training.
In summary, the clinical diagnosis of the state in which an athlete is located is

necessary through a blood or urine control that evaluates the parameters. other
biochemicals that interest us most to control the load and training status of the
individual. This information can reveal distortions in the athlete's regulation systems,
which makes us reconsider what stressor mechanism is causing these anomalies and
what consequences it may have for sports performance.
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Block 2.
TRAINING OF
THE SPEED AND THE
FORCE
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9. SPEED TRAINING.
9.1. INTRODUCTION.
Speed is one of the sports performance capabilities on which numerous

interpretations have been established in its classification, since there are authors who
understand this as a pure conditional capacity (Harre, 1987; Bompa, 1999); and others
who speak of it as a resulting capacity, because they consider that it does not exist as an
isolated capacity, but is accompanied to obtain maximum performance along with other
elements such as technique, strength, or coordination (Grosser, 1992; Verhoshansky,
1996; Weineck, 2005).
Speed is a concept that is very ambiguous due to the different ways in which it
manifests itself and to which we are going to try to respond. Its manifestations range
from speed understood as speed of movement to forms such as speed or team speed, in
which a player can be very fast when moving, but when playing as a team, be very slow,
since he is not able to attend to the different stimuli that condition said game effectively.
This ambiguity in terminology also carries over to classi Determining speed,

therefore, reviewing concepts and classifications is a necessary exercise to know the
state of the art before addressing an appropriate training methodology.
As Verhoshansky (1996) states, the results in any species Sports qualities are
determined by the speed of movement and locomotion in competition as shown in figure
9.1. This execution speed tion in the movement has as its main characteristics:
1. Being a fundamental feature of sporting skill.

2. Come as a consequence of the overall result of the training process.
3. Be the main criterion to evaluate the effectiveness of the training process.
Therefore, speed for Verhoshansky (1996) is one of the pillars on which sports
performance is built, since it is a trait that defines the elite athlete, and therefore
constitutes a topic of special interest.
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Figure 9.1. Factors that determine and limit sporting achievements.
Historically, talking about speed training was not liked by coaches, since the
consideration that this ability was had was that the existence of predetermined genetic
limitations could not alter performance. ment of athletes, this belief occurred both in
Europe (Vittori, 1996) and in the United States (Seagrave, 1996; Dintiman, Ward and
Tellez, 2001; Dintiman and Ward, 2003). From the 50s to the late 60s he trained speed
training was relegated to training in speed events city of cyclical sports and was not
considered for team games.
Speed is closely linked to success in indoor sports. termitents where changes of

direction and continuous accelerations, jumps, blocks and other motor actions are very
important for success in competition. tition (Hoffmann, 2002). The ability to provide
speed in team sports is related to motor activities that are not standardized in their
duration, since in sports such as football, basketball or hockey, short sprints with
continuous changes of pace depend on factors such as explosive strength and speed.
power in the muscle groups involved in these acts. some car res such as Fry and
Kraemer (1991) confirm that the performance factors of speed and agility differentiate
expert athletes from novices in college football players. More classic authors from the
Anglo-Saxon world are much less methodical when it comes to classifying speed
training. ity since they focus more on the specific environment for their development
through exercises to improve stride length and frequency, and improve technique and
power (NBCCA, 1997). This type of training from movement speed applied to team
sports cannot be valid, since in intermittent sports, the perception-decision-execution
cycle constitutes an inseparable element from the speed improvement exercises
themselves.
9.2. DEFINITION OF THE CONCEPT OF SPEED
Speed has been conceptualized in very different ways and forms, although almost
all of them have a common factor, which is why in this section we carry out We take a
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tour of the different authors who have contributed some characteristics ethics to the
concept of speed. In Western Europe, Pradet (1996: 160) defines it as the ability to carry
out motor actions causing a movement. movement of the body or one of its parts as
quickly as possible and for short periods of time, avoiding the onset of fatigue. For Le
Deuff (2003) it is the ability to execute a movement in a minimum and realistic time. To
achieve the greatest number of movements in the shortest time possible, Manno (1992),
when conceptualizing the term, establishes that it is initially necessary to distinguish
between speed and speed, although he establishes that they are complementary and
defines the former as the ability to perform motor actions. in a minimum time and the
second as the ability based on neuromuscular processes to develop a force or to perform
motor actions in a minimum time. mo. Patregnani (1990: 125) defines it as the ability to
perform motor actions in a minimum time without producing fatigue that leads to a
reduction in sports performance. Mirella (2001) talks about distinguishing between
speed and speed, the first refers to the rapid contraction of a single muscle or a muscle
group when performing a certain movement, it is typical of collective games and
fighting sports, speed refers to to the relationship between espa distance traveled and the
time spent moving the human body.
In Eastern Europe, Platonov and Bulatova (2001: 197) define it as a set of

functional properties that allow motor actions to be executed in a minimum time.
Grosser (1992:14) defines it as the ability to achieve, based on cognitive processes,
maximum volitional strength and functioning ity of the neuromuscular system, a
maximum speed of reaction and movement ment under certain established conditions.
Furthermore, Grosser (1992) It establishes a differentiation between motor speed and a
speed of action, what other authors in this section conceptualize as speed and rapidity.
For Hohmann, Lames and Letzeier (2005) it is the ability to react and act, under
conditions free of fatigue, in the shortest possible time. Martin, Carl, and Lehnertz
(2001) conceptualize it as the ability to react as quickly as possible to a stimulus or
signal and/or execute movements as quickly as possible in the face of little resistance.
Harre (1987:166) speaks of the conditional capacity to perform motor actions in the
shortest possible time. ble. Zhelyazkov (2001) conceptualizes speed as the distance
traveled per unit of time, while speed is a motor quality of the human being that allows
him to perform certain movements in the shortest time, that is, with the greatest possible
speed, under the conditions specifics of the activity motor skills.
Finally, the North American authors consider speed as the measure of how fast
an athlete can sprint over short distances, while they estimate that speed is the ability of
an athlete to perform movements. specific actions in the shortest possible time
(Dintiman, Ward and Tellez, 2001).
9.3. CLASSIFICATION OF SPEED IN RELATION TO THE

CHARACTER OF MOVEMENTS: CYCLIC SPEED AND ACYCLIC
SPEED.
Starting from the different concepts and ways of understanding speed, the
classifications around it have been approached either from an empirical point of view, or
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from a more theoretical-scientific approach. This approach to the classification attempt

comes from the proposal of Martin, Carl, and Lehnertz (2001) that establishes a
distinction between reaction speed and action speed and in this we distinguish between
maximum acyclic speed and maximum cyclic speed. This classification is shared with
Harre (1987).
Delving into these classifications, perhaps the most complete and most used has
been that of Grosser (1992) and Weineck, (2005), to which we will allude in this topic,
clarifying some of its concepts with the proposals of Cometti (2002). , said classification
is based on the manifestations that speed has, in such a way that we distinguish between:
- Pure manifestations of speed.

- Complex manifestations of speed.
Pure (or elemental) manifestations of speed are those that occur in the face of
low resistance and for a short time, they only occur in simple movements or, for
example, reaction movements in a handball goalkeeper, in combination with the
individual's volitional capacity. . The pure forms of speed are: the speed of reaction, the
speed of movement ment and frequency speed.
Complex Manifestations of speed are those that, together with pure forms, act
together with other conditional capacities such as strength or resistance, rationally
coordinating their movements depending on the external conditions in which the motor
task is performed. The possibilities of improving performance against pure forms are
almost unlimited through a training process. The complex forms of speed are: force-
velocity, force-velocity endurance, and maximum velocity endurance.
We establish the representation of this classification in figure 9.2:
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“Pure” forms
(with little
participation of Reaction
force speed
Simple reactions
Selective reactions
“Complex” forms
(with greater
involvement of With several Continuously
repetitions. prolonged.
force or longer
completion time.
Force resistance^ Maximum resistance

speed of speed.
Figure 9.2. Speed classification.
To this end, it is convenient to describe each of the existing elements in di cha

classification to later clarify the most appropriate training methods in its development.
According to Farfel (1988) an "acyclic" movement is defined as a movement

unitary character with a determined beginning and end and a sequence fixed execution
capacity, this type of task consequently always has a highly organized structure. While a
"cyclical" movement is one composed of a chain of "acyclic" actions, well defined from
their beginning to their end. This type of task has, therefore, a highly organized structure
as expressed by Farfel (1988).
The execution at high speed of a movement, both cyclical and acyclic clico adds
a greater degree of complexity. The limitation will not come from the amount of speed
that the individual can impart to the movement, but from the capacity for neuromuscular
control of the movement itself. The precision with which a task has to be performed is
another important component, which determines the level of difficulty of neuromuscular
coordination it involves. The greater the degree of precision required by a task, the
greater the difficulty of execution.
9.3.1. Pure (or elemental) manifestations of speed.

9.3.1.1. Reaction speed.
It is the ability to respond in the shortest possible time to a situation. mule

(Grosser, 1992). Reaction speed is a manifestation of reaction time (Grosser, 1992;
Cometti, 2002). This speed is divided into simple, which is a manifestation of the simple
and selective reaction time, which is influenced by other factors in addition to the
reaction time, such as attention. selective tion or anticipation.
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9.3.1.1.1. Simple reaction time.
The subject can only give one answer. Faced with the same stimulus, I held
them coughs respond the same (Cometti, 2002). The simple reaction time is determined
ned by a series of factors such as the perception of the stimulus, the conduction speed of
the afferent stimulus, the processing of information, the conduction efferent tion and
motor time when muscle contraction occurs. Training this type of speed is
fundamentally determined by selective attention. The auditory reaction time is one of
the fastest two (Mero and Komi, 1990). In sprint starts (100 meters) Omega (2006)
establishes that the minimum physiological reaction time according to IAAF rules is 100
milliseconds. A recent study by Pain and Hibbs (2007) shows how elite athletes can
manifest lower reaction times res to 100 milliseconds, specifically they have revealed
reaction times of 85 milliseconds.
9.3.1.1.2. Complex reactions.
They occur when there is the possibility of several responses or when where the
corresponding decisions must be made in the face of various possible signals. bles. In
these cases the individual must attend to and discriminate only those stimuli those that
are relevant to sports performance, we are therefore talking about the concept of
selective attention. Woods (1990) considers it as “…the process or processes of
preferential detection, identification and recognition of certain stimuli.” those selected in
an environment composed of multiple sources of information tion.” This author
emphasizes three basic aspects, such as detecting, identifying and recognizing stimuli
from different sources. In a collective sport Vo, the detection, identification and
recognition of the trajectory of the mobile phone, the opponent and the teammates
becomes essential to make a decision as to what is the most appropriate behavior.
Anticipation is a related factor Combined with attention, key in team or situational
sports, it makes the player have all the time in the world, guess the future and stay ahead
of what is going to happen. The coach must provide the athlete with the ability ability to
know and analyze the factors involved in anticipation. In sport so-called closed
exercises such as a long jump, a lift in weightlifting, the capacity for anticipation is null,
since there is no opponent who participates simultaneously with its performance, and the
important thing is the execution to lift the weight with the appropriate technique, or
jump further using a certain style. In the field of so-called open sports, such as sports in
which there is the presence of a mobile phone that two teams try to keep in order to
reach a goal, anticipation is a very precious process because we must process all the
situational information.
9.3.1.2. Speed of movement.
It is defined as the ability to perform acyclic movements. at maximum speed

against low resistance (less than 30% of maximum force), an example of this is handball
throws or racket hits, although in reality these movements in the competitive field are
presented together with high intensity efforts that In the case of racquet sports, they
range between 4.0 and 16.6 seconds (Glaister, 2005), with rest intervals whose density
ranges between 1:1 and 1:5. In these cases of multiple speed work the decisive role falls
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on the resistance to the explosive force. if you.
9.3.1.3. Frequency speed.
It is the ability to perform cyclic movements at maximum speed against low

resistance (less than 30% of maximum force). Frequency speed is required in sprint
modalities in athletics, cycling, speed skating and swimming. In most cases this type of
speed manifests itself associated with other forms, for example, in a 100 meter race we
find simple reaction speed, acceleration capacity, maximum speed and resistance to
speed, all of these forms occur. in this type of cyclical acts.
All these manifestations of speed can be seen in competitive movements in

combination with other conditional capacities such as strength and endurance, giving
rise to the complex forms of speed to which we have previously alluded.
9.3.2. Complex manifestations of speed.
9.3.2.1. Strength-speed.
Solé (2002) defines it as the capacity of the neuromuscular system. The ability to
overcome external loads (your own body weight or artifacts) with great rapidity in
contraction. At the strength level it involves the combination of initial strength and
explosive strength. Grosser (1992) defines it as the force exerted in the shortest possible
time caused by the speed of muscle contraction. ture against cyclical and acyclic
movements . Acceleration capacity and initial speed are synonymous with this concept.
In this case, the resistance to be mobilized will be above 30% of 1RM, so the maximum
force impulse must be provided during the time established by the sporting gesture.
Fundamental factors in its execution are: intramuscular coordination and the speed of
muscle contraction, in addition the force-speed is narrow. Mindfully linked to the degree
of mastery of the movement, the better the movement technique, the more effective the
strength and speed developed (Plato nov and Bulatova, 2001).
The evaluation of strength-speed in some sports is a characteristic essential for

sports performance. Yamauchi and Ishii, (2007) evaluate analyzed the force-velocity
curve in knee and hip extension, finding positive correlations between maximum
speed/leg length with the vertical jump test, and they did not discover correlations
between the maximum strength/body weight ratio with performance in vertical jump,
strength maximum and maximum speed. They also did not find correlations between the
maximum strength/body weight ratio and maximum speed/leg length. The conclusion
they reached is that speed is a fundamental determinant of jumping ability.
9.3.2.2. Strength-speed resistance.
It is the resistance capacity against the decrease in speed caused caused by

fatigue when contraction speeds are maximum in the face of acyclic movements in the
face of greater resistance (Grosser, 1992). It should be noted that this ability is
manifested in fundamental sports games. mentally, in which it is necessary to perform a
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certain expression of strength-speed and at the same time preserve that capacity for
other actions in dened or preceded by a rest time in which one stops or recovers by
walking, and this capacity must withstand the duration of an encounter without
becoming excessively fatigued or losing effectiveness (Bosco, 2000; Balî^nas et al,
2006). .
9.3.2.3. Resistance at maximum speed.
It is the ability to resist the decrease in speed in the face of fatigue (Solé, 2002).
Normally this occurs in cyclical movements of speed of maximum contraction. The
importance of maximum speed endurance spans the range of sprints between 6 and 20
seconds (Grosser, 1992).
Synthesis: Importance of speed manifestations in relation to the performance

model.
Of all the manifestations of speed presented, only some will be more important
than others in terms of optimizing performance in a sport. and on these emphasis will be
placed in your training in order to improve performance. I lie. For example, tennis
performance capabilities according to Le Deuff (2003) in relation to speed are more
linked to three parameters: improvement in reaction time (linked to cognitive factors:
acquisition information and adequate decision making in the response), speed of
movement (rapid chaining of runs) and duration of the execution. tion (gestural
organization), and it is on these three parameters where we will emphasize the training
when it comes to improving speed in tennis.
9.4. SPEED IN TEAM SPORTS.
Speed training in team sports requires treatment. special development that differs
from individual sports, since the result is not defined by a specific behavior, but is based
on a sum of specific motor acts that are possibly defined by the interaction between the
teams during the trajectory of the game.
The application of the sports training methodology in relation to individual sports

is insufficient to meet the needs of these sports (Seirul lo, 1998; Martín-Acero, 2000).
Therefore, the dynamics (evolu result) of each of the competitions is unique and
unpredictable, since the interaction (struggle) between the players generates behaviors
and performance. variable and random conditions. Each competition (match) presents
some characteristics characteristics and their own evolution that distinguishes them from
other competitions (Álvaro, 2001).
Team player talent does not depend exclusively on your condition. physical
training as can happen in some individual sports, but it must be accompanied by other
abilities such as coordination for the execution of the desired movement (technique) and
others that have traditionally been dealt with by motor learning and control, such as
cognitive abilities. For the processing of information, in this way the physical trainer has
dealt more with the abilities linked to physical condition while the remaining two were
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competencies that were left to the player or that were trained together with tactics by the
coach. However, the current demands in the game mean that the physical trainer must
attend to all of them in a global and integrated way to stimulate the individual in a
global way.
Therefore, any task that develops speed in team sports must establish certain
working conditions that ensure a differentiated action on some conditional capacity
(physical condition), in addition, the coordinative capacities that support the specific
technique of the athlete must be jointly developed. (coordinative), and propose relevant
information that must be processed (involve cognitive structures) as stated by Seirul lo
(1998).
The manifestations of speed in team sports differ from the classification

previously stated, since there is no speed of movement, speed gestural speed or
resistance speed, but there are speeds in the categories that we define below and that
must be described in order to plan your training. The classification, in team sports such
as football, is as follows te (Seirul lo, 1998):
Speed of entry into action or speed of exit . The game needs it gator to start the
race from a standing position, with or without the ball. In a movement of 3-5 meters in
the minimum time. In this movement you can make different technical actions,
unmarking oneself to receive a pass, anticipating to intercept take a pass,...
Intervention speed . You need it in all 1v1 actions when you are fighting for a
ball that no one has. He needs to move very quickly in 2-3 meters, brake, turn, support
very quickly and unbalanced, in short, everything necessary to gain possession of the
ball.
Pace change speed . It appears when the player is moving at a certain speed and,
at a certain moment, changes abruptly. Mind your speed, reaching the maximum and
maintaining it for as long as deemed necessary. During this global performance the ball
can appear in any of the two speed phases, and the total meters traveled can be between
20.30 meters.
Execution speed . It is put to the test when the player executes a certain action,
or chains several technical actions at the highest speed, in very short and negligible
spatial movements (control, turn, kick,...) in 2 meters.
Intermittent speed . It is necessary to carry out successive actions at maximum

speed with intermediate stops or large decreases in travel speed. It should be considered
as a single action, a chain of several successive technical actions, separated by very
short stops, which cover distances between 6 and 15 meters, subdivided into a phase of
movement in one or more directions, of 3-5 meters, and at maximum speeds. or
submaxi further.
All these forms of speed manifestations in Football are necessarily accompanied

by technical and tactical components, with the great variability that this specialty allows
(Seirul lo, 1998).
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Speed is one of the abilities that requires the most attention. tell him,
probably due to the search for efficiency in overcoming an opponent together with
an adequate technique, which allows giving an effective response and making a
correct decision thanks to the ability to obtain information. specific information in
the game situation in which he finds himself. Speed in the field of team sports has
received important attention from researchers such as Seirul·lo (1998) or Martín-
Acero (1995, 2000) who have sought an interpretation of physical condition in
relation to the improvement of performance. game. This author's proposals revolve
around the structural analysis of sports games in terms of the determining roles and
sub-roles in the game and their interrelation with the development of conditional
capabilities.
For Martín-Acero (2000), two aspects stand out when analyzing acyclic
speed in sport: the maximum potential speed that each athlete has over technical
gestures (player speed) and the ideal game speed based on the tactical development
of the game. action (team action speed) as shown in figure 9.3.
Figure 9.3. Components of speed in sports games.

(Martín Acero, 2000).
Regarding the first aspect, speed of the technical gesture (Martín Acero,
2000), he distinguishes two determining factors of the effectiveness of the action (of
the fast motor act): the energetic ones (the production and use of energy and force as
an element that transmits energy. in specific gestures) and informational ones
(sensation and perception of movement, control and regulation of action,
coordination and technique).
The second aspect, team speed, is fundamental in collaborative-opposition
sports (football, handball, basketball, etc.). As the author points out, on these
occasions, issues such as selective attention, information analysis and decision
making take on greater importance over aspects of physical condition (M. Steel,
2000). The speed of the team determines the speed of play over the speed of any of
its players. Game actions are almost never determined by the speed with which the
players move, but rather this is normally conditioned by the speed with which the
mobile device (ball or ball) moves, as expressed by Harre (1987).
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If we review how player movements occur in team sports, we see that, of the
total number of meters traveled, two during a match, few are those that are traveled at
“high” speed, these routes being very dangerous and effective, but very far from what
is the maximum potential speed that these athletes could.
Let's look at the following example:
In basketball we will start from the work carried out by Galiano (1987) in
which it is observed that most of the movements (95%) are carried out at a speed
between 1-3 meters per second while only 5% of the movements Movements are
carried out at a speed greater than 5 m/s (table 9.1).
Positio 0-1 1-2 2-3 3-4 4-5 5-6 6-7 7-8

Distance s
n m.sec-1 m.sec-1 m.sec-1 m.sec-1 m.sec-1 m.sec-1 m.sec-1 m.sec-1
Bases 5913 801 1648 1531 1052 579 227 62 13
Eaves 5655 857 1674 1410 986 495 195 35 3
Pivots 5567 785 1510 1416 1051 544 191 62 8
Total 5711 814 1610 1452 1029 539 204 53 8
Table 9.1. Running distances covered at different speeds in the
basketball. Galiano (1987).
We must keep in mind that a speed of 7-8 m.sec-1 is equivalent to a time

between 12.5-14.3 seconds in a 100-meter race, which seems very far from what a
basketball player should be able to perform at these distances. Furthermore, these
actions occupy only 0.14% of the total distances made during the match.
Sometimes it would be more accurate to talk separately about the speed with
which the group of players evolves on the field of play and the speed at which they
evolve. speed with which the ball or mobile moves. However, it is thought that both
actions nes are closely linked, so their foundation can be addressed jointly (García
Manso et al. 1998).
The only way a cell phone can move quickly is by I achieved perfect technical
and tactical mastery of the game, adjusting to the conditions. regulatory agents.
However, this is not the only factor that will intervene, since an adequate
understanding of the game and the positions is also required. abilities that exist to
achieve the effective result. This last aspect is determined by the decision making
Motor abilities are expressed only when a movement is performed (that is, in
specific motor acts) and do not exist by themselves. The concepts of speed also
include the specific conditions in which the reaction speed, acceleration, speed or
maximum segmental speed, or the maximum global displacement speed, must be
achieved. (Martín Acero, 2000).
Part of these conditions are the different types of locomotion typical of the
different competition exercises (in this case basketball, dribbling, throwing, passing,
movements without the ball, feints, cuts, etc.). Speed is defined as the performance
factor that “allows actions to be carried out.” motor skills, under the given
conditions, in the shortest possible time, guaranteeing anticipation, precision,
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optimal application of force... enabling the desired competitive performance”

(Martín Acero, 1987).
The importance of developing a good physical conditioning program

Physical training based on the specific physiological demands of each sport is
considered a key factor to success (Taylor, 2004). In some team sports, the most
frequent type of race is not sprints, the work of Krustrup et al (2005) in soccer
shows how sprints are 26 times the motor gestures that quantitati vally occur, while
the total number of activity changes is 1459, high-intensity running represents only
4.8% of the total, while low-intensity running or walking represents 94% of the
total activity, although this 4.8% is where the unbalancing actions that generate
goals are located. In basketball, however, high-intensity motor acts represent 85%
of the total efforts (McInnes et al., 1995).
Speed in team sports is specific to the motor act involved. trene, Venturelli,
Bishop and Pettene (2008) carried out two training sessions to improve speed with
and without the ball, one specifically for sprinting with speed exercises between 10
and 20 meters on the soccer field, and another for coordination with exercises of
change of pace, lateral running, skipping, etc., twice a week for 12 weeks, the
results show how the first group obtained changes in 20-meter sprint without a ball,
but there were no significant differences. ficant in the same exercise with the ball,
while the second group obtained improvements in the two sprint tests, with and
without the ball. However, there are also results that corroborate that the use of
specific training does not have a significant effect on handball players, although in
this case the dependent variables were linked to conditional abilities: vertical jump
test, time in 10 seconds, and time performed in interval training as shown by
Buchheit et al. (2009). Balî^nas et al, (2006) present a study in which they
compare two different training models: strength-speed resistance (intermittent
exercises) and resistance (continuous exercises) both using specific situations with
the ball.
9.5. SPEED TRAINING METHODOLOGY.

In the development of speed we consider three essential elements:
- the time of the motor reaction.

- the speed of a simple movement.
- the frequency of movements.
These elements are relatively independent of each other, that is, there may be
an individual with a high simple movement speed who does not have a high
frequency of movements (Patregnani, 1990).
There is no doubt that numerous studies show the benefits of between

training through different work means to improve speed (Mendoza and Schoellhorn,
1993; Rimmer and Sleivert, 2000; McBride et al 2004; Reyment et al, 2006;
Huci^ski et al, 2007; Cronin et al 2007; Ross et al, 2009). Ross et al (2009) verified
that the combination of work media with the objective different tives may be even
more beneficial than using them analytically. To do this, he used a combined
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method of sprint and strength work and compared it with two groups (one only used
sprint training, and another only used strength training). The gains were very
significant in the first group compared to the other two. In this section we are going
to break down the different means of development of each of the speed
manifestations that we have established previously.
9.5.1. Reaction speed training methodology.
Within reaction speed training we will distinguish between simple and

complex reaction speed training. In general, Solé (2002) establishes the following
training magnitudes (table 9.2):
Characteristics of the interval method adapted for reaction speed (Solé, 2002).
Snooze Duration From tenths to 1-2 seconds
Intensity Maximum
Rest between repetitions About 30”
Reps per series 5 to 10
Number of series 3 to 6
Rest between sets 3´
Table 9.2. Load magnitudes for training.
Mero and Komi (1990) established that the total reaction time is blece from
promoter and motor reaction time. The promoter reaction time is the time from the
output signal to the start of the EMG activity, while the motor reaction time is the
“delay” between the start of the electrical activity and the production of force by the
muscle. , your studio is established that to improve reaction outputs, the prior
activation of the main muscles involved in speed output is important. Therefore,
acute responses through prior force activation work will improve reaction speed;
Sleivert and Taingahue (2004) established this force work between 30% and 60% of
1RM to improve reaction outputs in 5 meters.
9.5.1.1. Training of simple reactions.
Specifically for simple reaction time , Grosser (1992) established three

methods for its development, in all of them attention plays a fundamental role in the
execution of motor tasks, at an active level. tion not only of cognitive processing of
information, but also as a controller or internal regulator of cognitive activity (Ruiz
and Sanchez, 2001):
^ Repetitions method. Simple movements are repeated competitively

(maximum 10 repetitions of 10-30 meters); With this, reaction capacity,
sprint strength and starting technique are formed. In addition, weaker
signals should be used. competitive ones since these improve the ability
to concentrate tion.
^ Partial method. It focuses primarily on increasing speed. ity of certain
partial movements of reactive movement. In addition, the concentration
can be increased in the speed of the mo movement if the exercise is
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executed without a start signal. The exercise is carried out exercise with
stimuli that increase or not concentration.
^ Sensory method. Try to form the perception of the time required for the
exit at the level of tenths and hundredths of a second in order to achieve
an improvement in the reaction.
The position of the start influences the reaction speed time. Studies such as
that of Mendoza and Schoellhorn (1993) show that the 5-meter time can be
improved after a start from blocks with a modification in the position of the blocks
since improves the power produced and said improvement is individual dual, the
study by Cronin et al (2007a) analyzed the reaction times before 3 different types of
exits, parallel feet, one foot forward, and with previous swing, the results show how
the parallel exit was significantly slower than the other two in 5 and 10 meters.
Other studies such as Guissard, Duchateau and Hainaut, (1992) show if there are
variations in the time of the exit of blocks after modifying the angulation of the
block in the exit blocks, these studies reflect the enormous variability in the exit
position for the improvement in reaction time.
9.5.1.2. Training complex reactions.
As we have seen previously, the magnitude of the load will be what we have
proposed in a general way, however, there are a series of elements to consider in its
methodology and implementation in relation to the simple reaction speed that
deserve to be considered. Grosser (1992) states that the most efficient methods for
optimization are based on carrying out situa tions specific to the sport in question.
We can proceed in two different ways:
1. Develop the breadth of vision, these types of situations focus on perceiving

the object or players within the field of vision and foreseeing po sible
movements of the elements that participate in the game and that are critical
for performance in the sport. The development of the field of vision sion has
been a line of research in our country for the development of performance in
team sports (Fradua, 1996, 1997).
2. Another aspect to develop is anticipation . We must consider the type of
anticipation in relation to the speed of the complex reaction. Sánchez and
Ruiz (1997) cite Poulton (1957) in their classification of the an ticipation,
whose characteristics are summarized in the following table, which also
exemplifies anticipation in the forward bounce gesture in basketball (table
9.3):
GUY CHARACTERISTIC DRIBLING

- Prediction of the time that will - Choice between dribbling or
Effector
be spent on the task tion of a passing in the last seconds
Anticipation
technical gesture. according to two of the
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- Prediction of the time that an - Adjust dribbling,

event will take determined anticipation taking over the
Receiving to happen. occupation of the peace for a
Anticipation - Enables the player to make contrary.
cognitive and motor - Decide to end the dribble
adjustments. according to the movement
- Anticipate stimuli even when
they are not provided feel.
- Anticipate the action of a
Perceptual - Ability to interpret the
known defender, due to his
Anticipation irregularities of the stimuli.
usual way of acting.
Table 9.3. Types of anticipation. Example of the basketball dribble.

For his part, Schmidt (1986) divides anticipatory processes into two
modalities, in terms of their spatio-temporal component. The following table, in
addition to specifying its approach, presents an example of both types of
anticipation in forward dribbling.
GUY CHARACTERISTIC DRIBLING

- Know what types of stimuli - Anticipate your opponent's
are going to be present sit moves and choose suitable
Space down and… yectory.
Anticipation - Know the type of response - Know all the possibilities
tasks required for solution change of address details
nar the problem posed. tion, etc.
- The player knows the res exact
Temporary setting, so the response time - Know when to oppo things are
going to pressure and the
Anticipation is me nor.
way to overcome them.
Table 9.4. Examples of anticipation in forward dribbling.
The exercises to be performed must be of this nature to develop the an

ticipation in any of its forms and therefore, the speed of complex reaction.
Therefore, the complex reaction exercises must aim at some of the characteristics of
the different anticipation models proposed for improving the speed of complex
reaction. As you manifest According to Grosser (1992), demands must be
systematically increased regarding the perception of the environment and covert
information linked to anticipation. tion of the different players.
9.5.2. Training speed of action or movement.
The speed of movement in most cases must be carried out in conjunction

with a refined movement technique that allows the athlete to It has a high sporting
performance and a precision appropriate to the motor act itself, in some articles we
can find this concept as psychomotor efficiency (Zhelyazkov, 2001; Huci^ski et al,
2007). Therefore, there must be a coordination prior intermuscular tion that allows a
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high speed of movement. In this case and as Zhelyazkov (2001) suggests, this
characteristic is typical of the development llo of competitive exercises with
orientation to the speed of movement, since during the workload the volitional
efforts and attention must be directed at the speed of execution, therefore the
technique must guarantee maximum action of the motor actions. For its
development we can also perform exercises at a speed lower than the competitive
speed, in which the resistance to be overcome is greater than in competition
(resisted training), or lower than this (lightened exercises or assisted training). These
exercises usually use be used as a special preparation.
Training exercises must have the following characteristics (Grosser, 1992):
^ They must be carried out at maximum or sub-maximum speed.

^ They must be short (6 seconds maximum).
^ They must not contain additional loads or they must be very small.
^ The most effective method is the competition itself, since it is carried out at
maximum speed and motor stereotypes are avoided due to the multiple
number of situations that may occur.
Below we detail the characteristics of each of the methods in tables 9.5 and
9.6:
Features of the method at submaximum speeds.

Snooze Duration Execution of the gesture
Intensity submaximal
Rest between repetitions None or few seconds
Reps per series 6-20 (1 set)
Number of series 2-3 (beginners)
3-6 (high level athletes)
Rest between sets 2-4 minutes.
Table 9.5. Features of the method at submaximum speeds.
Features of the method at maximum speeds.

Snooze Duration Execution of the gesture
Intensity Maximum- supramaximal
Rest between repetitions None or few seconds
Reps per series 6 maximum
Number of series 3-5
Rest between sets 2-4 minutes.
Table 9.6. Features of the method at maximum speeds.
Sometimes contrast training occurs using resisted exercises and then under
normal competition conditions, to produce greater recruitment of fibers and
therefore, greater activation in the muscle fibers, producing greater development of
speed.
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This type of effect is called post-activation potentiation and is defined as the

increase in the capacity of a muscle after having performed previous contractions,
thus post-active potentiation has become an effective method for increasing
explosive strength (McBride, Nimphius and Ericsson, 2005; Gullich and
Schmidtbleicher, 1996;
9.5.3. Frequency speed training.
As we already defined, frequency speed responds to performing cyclic

movements at maximum speed against little resistance (below 30% of maximum
force). Frequency speed is usually trained through the specific method of repetitions
at a given speed (Bompa, 1999), as is the case with action speed, the technique must
guarantee the maximum action of the sporting gesture, and in addition both Bompa,
(1999) and Grosser (1992) emphasize the importance of the athlete's mental
concentration when reaching maximum speed. There are a series of basic
considerations when designing training media (Grosser, 1992):
- The exercises must be performed at the maximum speed of movement.

- Exercises with symptoms of fatigue should not be performed during their
execution. tion.
- You should not exceed 12-16 repetitions in series.
- They should be applied 1 to 3 times during the week (with 72 hours of rest
between sessions with the same orientation).
The methods proposed for its development are (Navarro, 2008):
- Flying sprints.
- Alternating sprints.
- Supramaximal sprints.
These are shown in tables 9.7, 9.8 and 9.9:

Features of the repetition method: flying sprints
Snooze Duration Less than 10 seconds. Execution of the
sports gesture
Intensity Maximum
Rest between repetitions less than 2 minutes
Reps per series 2-4
Rest between sets less than 2 minutes
Table 9.7. Features of the repetition method: flying sprints.
Features of the as method print alternating (in and outs).
Snooze Duration Less than 10 seconds. Simple sport-
specific movements
Intensity Submaximal-Maximum
Reps per series 2-4
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Table 9.8. Characteristics of the alternating sprint method.
Characteristics of the method at supramaximal sprints, they are 10% above
the frequency speed. (hills)
Snooze Duration Less than 10 seconds. Simple sport-
specific movements
Intensity Supramaximal
Reps per series 2-4
Table 9.9. Characteristics of the supramaximal sprint method.
Postactivation potentiation improves frequency speed as previously verified

with movement speed. McBride et al (2004) used a protocol based on a series of 3
repetitions at 90% of 1RM, and other subjects performed 1 series of 3 repetitions at
30% of 1RM, 4 minutes before performing a 40-minute sprint. meters in university
soccer players, the results of the study show how the subjects who performed the
training at 90% of 1 RM ran 0.87% faster for 40 meters than the control group,
while the group that performed the work at an intensity at 30% of 1RM had no
significant effect.
9.5.4. Strength-speed training.
Acceleration capacity is synonymous with force-speed when speaking mos of

this sporting benefit (Grosser, 1992:126), it is required in all sports modalities, both
cyclical and acyclical, where there are actions of explosive force (starts, starts, beats,
throws, hits, hits, etc.) in the face of resistance greater than 30% of the current
maximum force (Grosser, 1992). The means for its development are varied and not
exempt from scientific conflict, since there is a lot of controversy regarding the
benefits of some methods for its development, so we are going to establish a state of
the matter. initial tion that provides a global vision of those who are in favor as well
as those who are against some of the methods that we detail below. It can be seen
how the consensus in this case is not well defined by the scientific literature, and
this lack of agreement entails a detailed study of the real effects of these methods on
the acceleration capacity and is therefore a line of research to be developed. The
means for the development of force-velocity described in the literature are defined
through the systems following contents:
1. Maximum strength development.

2. Development of explosive force.
3. Multi-jumps over long and short distances.
4. Running exercises without resistance.
5. Running exercises with resistance.
Strength-speed can be trained through running (resistance training running, hills,
weight training, or short races), through the development of maximum and explosive
strength, or through plyometric exercises.
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9.5.4.1. Development of maximum and explosive strength.
Acceleration in linear races is closely related to maximum strength (Mero et

al, 1981, Moir et al, 2007) and explosive strength (Mero et al, 1981, Moir et al,
2007), so the methodology of Maximum and explosive strength training will be
content that should be worked on to improve acceleration capacity, although this
statement is not always supported by the scientific literature that finds that strength
training can interfere with the development of speed (Rimmer and Sleivert, 2000) or
remain cer unalterable (Reyment et al, 2006). For Solé (2002), at a methodological
level the relationship between acceleration speed and maximum force is manifested
when the athlete starts from a static situation and must begin movement as quickly
as possible. Likewise, once the center of gravity has already broken its inertia, the
levels of explosive force will determine whether the speed increases. For the
development of maximum strength, the methods developed on the topic of strength
must be established regarding the development of maximum strength via neural
pathways and maximum strength via hypertrophy. Likewise, in explosive strength
training, the methodology established for this purpose on the subject of strength will
be used.
Moir et al, (2007) carried out 8-week strength training, 3 days a week using
two strength cycles with different orientations (resistance strength, and maximum
strength-power) improving maximum and explosive strength and worsening
acceleration capacity. since the time from 0-10 meters increased, which was
attributed to incorrect coordination due to strength work, so it seems to conclude
that strength work must be accompanied by coordinative work of the technical
gesture to once again have a correct stride efficiency index (stride length and
stride frequency) . Therefore, it is recommended that maximum and explosive
strength work be accompanied by correct development of the technique through
coordinated exercises. tives well integrated within the work itself, either after the
strength work generating a positive transfer so that it generates a conversion to
specific force of the motor act in question.
9.5.4.2. Running exercises with and without resistance.
Cronin and Hansen (2005) found a positive correlation between acele ration
and plyometric and power work, although as they state, this causal relationship must
be investigated by adding more factors, for example, the technique, both in races
and in the accelerations that occur in sports games. tives.
Zafeiridis et al (2005) investigated the effects of resistance training

performed with a sled and an overload of 5 kg and another without a sled
performing 4x20 m and 4x50 m (3 times a week for 8 weeks), the results show how
resisted strength training had a significant effect on the acceleration phase but not
on the maximum speed phase while training Training without a sled improved the
maximum speed phase in intermediate level athletes. Spink et al (2007) showed
contradictory results with the previous study since the improvements using similar
training were established only in reactive strength and did not improve speed in 20
meters. The training resisted is accepted as a working method to increase the
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capacity acceleration capacity (Newman, 2007), means such as sleds, weight vests
two, parachutes, slopes, sand constitute an excellent means for the development of
acceleration although perhaps the most accepted since it allows a more adequate
control of the load is the sled. Seagrave (1996) states that resistance should not be
placed on the sled greater than 15% of the body weight, although he also points out
that the moment there is a worsening of the mark above 10% or a deformation in the
technique there is to stop adding resistance tendency to sled, so this will be
individualized to the athlete. On the other hand, there is no consensus on the
appropriate distance to improve acceleration; it varies from 0-20 m, 0-30 m or 30-50
m, depending on the subject's level of sports performance (Kafer et al, 1993). ),
Newman (2007) recommends the distance of 30 meters to improve acceleration,
taking into account that a high-level athlete will reach maximum speed sooner than
an untrained athlete.
Therefore, as a summary, it is recommended:
^ Accelerations without resistance: from 0 to 20-50 meters.

^ Hills over short distances (10-20% incline) and from 0 to 20 50 meters, or
combinations flat + climb, or climb + flat + climb.
^ Accelerations with resistance: from 0 to 20-50 meters in which no A
resistance of more than 15% of the body weight must be put on the sled,
as long as there is no deterioration in the mark above 10% or a
deformation in the technique.
^ Accelerations with resistance: from 0 to 20-50 meters with and without
changes of pace using weights and integrating the technique of the sport.
9.5.4.3. Multi-jumps over long and short distances.
Plyometric training in young people does not seem to have positive transfer
on the acceleration phase, as shown by Kotzamanidis (2006) who used a 10-week
plyometric training program (60 jumps per session at the beginning of the program,
until reaching 100 jumps per session). session), its results ted show an improvement
in SJ and running speed especially in the maximum speed phase but not in the
acceleration phase over 40 meters.
Plyometric training improves the response to the vertical jump (New ton,
Kraemer and Hakkinen, 1999), although it does not seem to improve speed in a
sprint, Herrero et al (2005) compared performance in a 20-m sprint. in plyometric
training (2 times a week for four weeks, using-
as exercises: drop jump and horizontal jumps, with a total of 109 jumps per session)
a training using electrostimulation and a combined training (electrostimulation and
plyometrics), the results showed how the time in 20 meters worsened compared to
the pretest, the explanation for worsening The mark is attributed to the low number
of sessions. In the combined training there was a decrease in time in 20 meters,
concluding that complex training can improve sprint performance. Sea Kovic et al
(2007) compared training using only sprints and another using only plyometric
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training (drop jump and horizontal jumps) (3 days a week for 10 weeks). The results
showed a decrease in time in a 20-meter sprint, but Only in the group that used
sprint training was the improvement statistically significant, which we must
conclude. conclude that more studies of this type are necessary to verify the benefits
of plyometric training on acceleration.
Solé (2002) and Navarro (2008) establish two types of multijumps for the
development of acceleration:
- Jumps over short distances: (with both legs, with one leg singles, triples,
pentasults or decasults), the number of jumps per repetition is li half to 10.
- Jumps over long distances: jump race, 30 m, 60 m, 100 m, it is about
completing the distance in the fewest number of jumps.
- Combinations in session of short and long jumps.
9.5.4.4. Strength-speed resistance training.
Speed strength endurance training can be programmed trained in two ways,

through interval training (12-24 x 15 sec. running/ 95% maximum speed, 15 sec
active recovery) or specific training through reduced forms of play (reduced
handball game using the same volume, work density and trying to achieve the work
intensity). Both forms are equally effective, as shown by Buchheit et al. (2009)
since there were no significant differences in vertical jump, time in 10 seconds, and
time performed in interval training using these two forms of task organization.
9.5.5. Resistance training at maximum speed.
As stated above, it is the ability to resist a decrease in velocity. ity due to

fatigue produced by maximum contraction speeds in cyclic movements (Dare and
Kearney, 1988; Grosser, 1992). Verkhoshansky and Lazarev (1989) establish that
the first step is the development of the aerobic zone close to the anaerobic threshold,
but always below it, this work is very important in terms of adaptation to training
loads in intermittent sports.
Speed endurance training focuses on the following objectives:
^ Depletion of phosphate deposits to increase capacity anaerobic alactacid

and to a lesser extent lactacid, although in reality the energy deposits that
are depleted are predominantly ly ATP and phosphocreatine (PCr) as
established by Gaitanos et al (1993) in “pure” speed. Dare and Kearney
(1988) talk about resist cy to lactic speed in long sprints that would be
200 and 400 m runners. in athletics.
^ Involvement of FT fibers and metabolic differentiation towards fi FTG
bras.
Therefore, for the development of resistance at the maximum speed used We
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use the short repetition method or short intensive interval.
9.5.5.1. Repetition methods with short intervals.
They have the following characteristics:
The training load intensity is from submaximal to maximum, in between 90-

100% of competition speed. The charging duration ranges between 20-30 seconds.
The pause to recover between stimuli is complete, about 6-8 minutes, with a heart
rate less than 100 to restore all parameters to their initial level. The training volume
in this method is 6-8 repetitions. In very trained people it can reach 10.
This method produces the following effects on a physiological level:
- Improvement of the anaerobic-alactacid energy pathway.

- Involvement of FT fibers and rapid production of lactic acid.
- Increase in phosphate deposits.
- Execution of all essential regulatory mechanisms.
For what training objectives do we use this method? :
- . Expansion of the functional area of the short duration resistance.

- . Persistence against strong phosphate wear.
9.5.5.2. Short Intensive Interval Method.
It has the following characteristics:
The training load intensity is between 90-95% of the speed competition city.
The charging duration ranges between 20-30 seconds.
The pause to recover between stimuli is 2-3 minutes, with a tired between
sets of 10-15 minutes.
The training volume in this method is 9-12 repetitions, dis distributed in 3-4
repetitions and 3-4 series, about 25-35 minutes of effective work including active
breaks.
This method produces the following effects on a physiological level:
- Production of PLA lactate.

- CLA lactate tolerance.
- Cardiac hypertrophy.
- Some capillarization.
- Involvement of FT fibers.
The objectives are the following:
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^ Increased anaerobic lactic power (lactate production).

^ Increased anaerobic lactic capacity (lactate tolerance).
^ Maximum VO2 increase (central factor).
In summary we show the characteristics of this method in the ta blah 9.10:
Dura- Pause Volum %

Meta rac. Pause Repeat HE Lacta
Repeat e m. VO2 Speed F.C.
Fi-siol. Es- ries . ries te
. Total max
force.
90
PLA 20”- 95% 190
2’-3’ 10’15’ 3-4 3-4 25’30’ 100%
CLA 30’’ compe >8 work
te. work 2 120
off off.
Table 9.10. Short Intensive Interval Method.
Additionally, other methods can be used such as uphill races, races with
weights, on sand whose duration is between 10" and 20".
9.6. SPEED TRAINING PROGRAMMING.
9.6.1. General considerations regarding training programming ment of speed.
Maximum speed training must be placed in recovery conditions, so it should

take place in the first three days of a microcycle.
Sprint resistance training should be performed both in the middle of the week
and in the second half, with incomplete recovery.
A brief but intense maximum strength work, performed immediately before

speed work, seems to exert a positive influence on the muscles (greater availability
of neuromuscular performance). It therefore refers to the previously established
concept of post-activation potentiation (Gossen and Sale, 2000; Gonzalez Ravé et
al, 2009).
The positive effect of strength work on speed work lasts from 5 to 20

minutes. Therefore, a short but intense strength block should precede speed work
once or twice in the first half of the microcycle.
The principle of specificity should be one of the main arguments when

programming speed training (Murray and Brown, 2006; Kawamori and Newton,
2006; Markovic et al, 2007), the adaptations are more specific in both speed
exercises. Training is carried out close to competition speed. Using light resistance
(<45% 1RM) that allows such high-speed movements, the specific speed can be
improved since it has great transference to competitive gestures, although this type
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of nations improve muscle power (Crewther, Cronin and Keogh, 2005). The
principle of specificity even affects the type of exercises to be used, Markovic et al
(2007) carried out two different training sessions, one of plyometrics and another
using speed exercises (movements of 10 to 40 meters) for 11 weeks (3 sessions per
week). Results show that there are no significant differences between both types of
work in SJ, CMJ, standing long jump and 20 meter sprint.
Specific speed training in short cycles of 4 weeks (8 training sessions using

Biodex ®) improves speed, especially in poorly trained subjects; these gains are
usually due to nervous and non-structural adaptations to said training (Murray et al.
2007).
Some studies indicate that the effects of speed training Competitiveness is

achieved when previous work on muscle strength and power has been previously
developed (McBride et al, 2002).
Non-periodized programs for speed development ity are more effective than
periodized ones. Bloomfield et al. (2007) carried out two different physical
conditioning programs, one based on a program periodized with speed, agility and
quickness exercises, and another random one performing reduced modified games
to improve speed and quickness for 7 weeks measuring acceleration with a 10-meter
test, the results of the study reflect how a periodized program shows decreased tion
in acceleration time with respect to a random program, although improvements are
also observed in the latter.
The periodization of speed is established in two different ways. From a

general point of view, the accentuation of loads for a correct periodization must
establish an adequate transition from the general speed to the specific one (figure
4.A). The articulation of the basic and specific speed load fica will be based on the
specific guidance provided by the different performance subfactors (figure 4.B),
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Figure 9.4. Velocity periodization model following a development of

accentuated loads (Navarro, 2008).
Specifically, the transition of general speed loads to is specifics will depend

on the main objective of sports provision that is going to be addressed. In such a
way that when the objective of the sports performance focuses on speed resistance,
the general loads will be maximum speed with orientation to alactic power while the
transition to specific speed is given by the loads of resistance to speed. maximum
speed (figure 9.5).
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Figure 9.5. Periodization model in speed endurance sports

predominant.
When the main objective of sports performance is maximum speed, the

general loads will be resistance to speed with orientation to alactic capacity while the
transition to specific speed is given by maximum speed loads (alactic power) (figure
9.6 ).
Figure 9.6. Periodization model in maximum speed sports

predominant.
On the other hand, the treatment of strength-speed resistance training

programming can be in two ways as established by Bosco (2000): classical and
simultaneous.
When referring to the classic model, Bosco (2000) organizes the contents of
the training as a succession in the organization of the loads between formation as
shown in figure 9.7:
CLASSIC TRAINING MODEL

FORCE-SPEED RESISTANCE
(Bosco, 2000)
RESISTANCE TO
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SPEED
SPEED AND EXPLOSIVITY

TRAINING OF THE
FORCE
Figure 9.7. Successive model of training loads with orientation to

Strength-speed resistance improvement.
Regarding the simultaneous load model, the characteristics of said or

ganization establish a concomitance of these, obtaining an optimal effect in the
development of resistance to explosive force, since this is worked on throughout the
cycle, in parallel with other contents to obtain a greater residual effect, as shown in
the figure 9.8:
SIMULTANEOUS LOADS MODEL FOR THE

DEVELOPMENT OF RESISTANCE TO
STRENGTH-SPEED (Bosco, 2000)
Resistance Training
force. speed.
Figure 9.8. Simultaneous model of training loads with orientation to

Strength-speed resistance improvement.
9.6.2. Speed periodization model with concentrated loads.
Without making a complex approach to the model, since it is subsequently

translated The different planning models will affect a specific topic,
Verkhoshansky's (1996) proposal regarding the periodization of speed is established
based on his block training model. This model divides the season into 3 mesocycles
(basic, special and competitive). The proposal for concentrated loads in blocks meant
that the “special” work, as I call it, mine (Verkhoshansky, 1996) is based on the
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following premises:
^ The goal is not only the development of muscular strength but also the
increase in the body's energy potential and the ability to use it in specific
competition conditions.
^ The improvement must be structural, covering all muscular properties.
lares (contractile, oxidative and elastic) that, depending on the specificity
of the sport, will favor an increase in maximum, explosive or strength
resistance.
Applied to the organization of Verkhoshansky's macrocycles (1996), it is

established that the concentration of training loads reduces the functional parameters
of the athlete's work capacity, which in turn prevents the improvement of technique
and speed of movement. . But it's a phenomenon not temporary in nature since when
these are reduced the delay effect appears training and in the long term produces an
increase in functional parameters.
“Consequently, concentrated training loads prepare special training and loads

aimed at improving technique or speed of execution tion of the specific exercise in
competition, they should not be applied simultaneously you..." (Verkhoshansky,
1996:132). On the other hand, in elite athletes it is very convenient to use it, to
further increase their specific performance, since regular loads do not stimulate as
much athletes with years of training behind them.
Verkhoshansky's (1996) macrocycle encompasses three independent phases

(figure 9):
^ Preparatory phase : its predominant purpose is to develop, Due to special

physical preparation, the athlete's motor potential, which is a prerequisite
for preferential work at the speed of execution of the specific competition
exercise.
^ Special phase : aimed at improving the athlete's ability to perform perform
the competition exercise at a high speed (power) imitating the conditions
(loads) of competition.
^ Competition phase : the objective is to achieve the highest speed by

possible way of executing the competition exercise and strengthening the
skills motor skills of the athlete.
It is about achieving multifunctional preparation of the athlete, for post

Finally perfect it, and finally model it to the conditions of competition. tion and
obtain maximum speed.
VERKHOSHANSKY MACROCYCLE, (1996:135)
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Figure 9.9. Periodization model based on concentrated loads for

pure speed.
9.6.3. Traditional American periodization model.
Dintiman, Ward, and Tellez, (2001) propose a 7-phase model for the
development of speed and quickness, in which each phase responds to a specific
training objective, ranging from the first, whose orientation is basic conditioning to
the last one that is specific to speed work.
These phases come from Matve's traditional periodization model. yev applied
to strength training and established by Stone, O'Bryant and Garhammer (1981) by
dividing the preparatory period into three phases within the preparatory period that
outlined in a more refined way the differences existing within it, thus leaving a
model of 4 mesocycles of 2-3 months duration depending on the subject's sporting
level (figure 9.10).
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Figure 9.10. Phases of the traditional model of Dintiman, Ward, and Tellez, (2001) and
its analogy to the model of Stone, O'Bryant and Garhammer (1981).
The phases are as follows:
Phase 1: Basic training . Development of general physical condition and

body control programs, the objective is to establish a solid foundation to be able to
withstand subsequent workloads. Phase 1 coincides with Bompa's (2001; 2004)
functional adaptation phase; the duration of this phase could be between 4 and 12
weeks, although for trained subjects it is reduced to 4-5 weeks.
Phase 2. Functional strength and explosive movements against highly

resistant elements . Maximum power training with loads ranging from 55 to 85% of
your maximum intensity (1RM). This phase has two very different cycles, one of
maximum strength and another of explosive strength. The first adapts the
neuromuscular system to heavy loads, variations in intensity Charge rates range from
70-100% for a period of 6 to 12 weeks. Once this phase is completed, a power cycle
begins, in which the benefits of maximum strength will be the basis for optimal
development of power or power-resistance, using lower load intensities and the
following means: plyometrics exercises, throws medicine ball (Bompa, 2004), and
exercises with free weights and Olympic lifts (Dintiman, Ward, and Te llez, 2001)
depending fundamentally on the sport to which the preparation is oriented.
The maxim “work fast to be fast” is essential in all sports. tes. Generating
muscular power must be done from the best and most optimal with physical and
mental focus.
Phase 3. Ballistic training . This phase focuses on the movements cough at

high speed of transmission and reception. Once the “functional” force and power
phase has been completed, using means that respond to the contact of an implement
by braking it and then accelerating it. Media as medicine balls Finals, or weighted
for resisted training are the basis of this phase.
Phase 4. Plyometrics. Plyometric work with explosive jumps, rebounds, jumps on
the ground, punches and throws. Also called train “reactive” ment, the use of the
stretch-shortening cycle. From a person Practical perspective, plyometric exercises
are divided into five groups of intention. sity as shown in table 9.11:
Repeat
No. of Repetition Rest
Type of Exercise number
intensity number nes or interval
exercise intensity tions and
values training sessions between sets
series
Shock stress
high reactive 8-5x10 120-150
1 Maximum 8-10 min.
jumps (>60 20 (200)
cms)
Jumps from
5-15 x 5
2 heights (>80- Very high 75-100 5-7 min.
15
120 cm)
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Jumping
exercises 3-25 x 5
3 Submaximal 50-250 3-5 min
-on 2 legs 15
-on 1 leg
reactive
10-25x
4 jumps you low Moderate 150-250 3-5 min.
10-25
(20 50 cm)
Low impact
10-13 x
5 jumps or Low 50-300 2-3 min.
10-15
throws to -on
the ground -
with devices
Table 9.11. Exercise intensity levels according to Bompa (2004).
The number of repetitions and series indicated in the table is for high-level
athletes, therefore they should not be applied to beginners or athletes with an
insufficient base in strength levels. The adaptation for the inclusion of plyometric
exercises is 2-4 years in adolescents, this implies the time necessary to learn the
appropriate technique and allow a gradual anatomical adaptation. Bompa (2004)
proposes the following progression model (table 9.12):
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Training
Methods Volume Intensity
Age groups Forms Training media
-light resistance
-only general exercises
Novels 12 -muscular -low
exercises. -very low -light objects
13 resistance -half
-games -medici ball
final
-balls
-of general -muscular -dumbbells

strength. resistance - -low -elastic tape
Beginners 13-
-exercises introduce low- -half -low -medicine balls
15
designed for impact -high -gymnastics
testing plyometric circuits
exercises
-body-building
-of general -
strength. circuit training -low -all of the
Intermediate -low
-exercises (muscular -half above.
15-17 -half
designed for resistance) - -high -free weights
testing power -low
impact
plyometric
exercises
-bodybuilding
-muscular
endurance
-free weights -
-power -
-designed for -half special
maximum
testing -high -half equipment cial
High >17 strength Low
-specific - -high for developing
impact
strength maximum strength or
plyometric
power
exercises
-introduce high
impact
exercises
-all previous. -half

High
-eccentric. -as the -high Like the
performance I -specific
-low and high previous -super previous ones
lie
impact maximum
plyometric
Table 9.12. Long-term strength development and training evolution
plyometric.
Phase 5. Sports load. Addresses the precision of high speed loads madness The
intensity is 80 to 100% of the maximum speed. Basically, the development of
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acceleration capacity is sought through the systematic addition weight training to the
body (resisted training), using implements such as vests, sleds, harnesses, weighted
anklets, etc. Resistance training ted seems to be a more effective means for the
development of sprint speed than assisted, as demonstrated by Girault et al (2006) with
swimmers to whom they applied assisted and resisted training, 3 days a week lasting te 3
weeks (with a work regimen of 6 days/week of training. The first group did not improve
their swimming speed, while the second group did improve their speed significantly.
Phase 6. Running style and speed endurance . It emphasizes so bre sprint

technique and improving the elevation of the time you can maintain your speed.
Phase 7. Super speed training . Involves the application system matics of

competitive speed above 5-10% through different superspeed training techniques.
9.6.4. Organization of the contents in the training session.
To generate positive transfer between the different contents of training to achieve

a positive adaptation to speed training, Bompa (2004) proposes the following session
models:
Model No. 1 Model No.2 Model No.3 Model No. 4

Heating Heating Heating Heating
Technique Speed Technique Technique
Speed Plyometrics Plyometrics Plyometrics
Plyometrics Endurance Endurance Force
The exercises that form the center of interest of the introductory session will
begin immediately after warming up, it is not advisable to do speed work after
endurance work, as fatigue will intensify. rrupts contractions at maximum speed.
9.7. SPEED EVALUATION.
Without attempting to make an exhaustive approach to the evaluation of speed.

ity, it is necessary to show readers a basic knowledge of some speed tests.
We are going to divide the evaluation into classification based on the place
where we establish it, so we will distinguish between field tests and laboratory tests.
torium, in turn we will establish a subclassification based on the manifest speed tion that
we value.
9.7.1. Field evaluations.
The evaluation in the field is usually carried out using running distances that
allow each specific manifestation to be assessed, in this way the running tests range
between 20 and 60 meters, although other types of distance are not ruled out. cies, for
example if we evaluate the resistance at maximum speed. On the other hand, if we
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intend to evaluate the reaction speed, it could be carried out over a distance of 10
meters, although shorter distances (5 meters) have been used by Sleivert and Taingahue,
(2004). If we seek to know the acceleration capacity, distances between 20 (Balî^nas et
al, 2006) and 40 meters are appropriate. curds To control the maximum speed, speed
tests are usually used. thrown from 30 meters or distances of 50 and 60 meters. These
tests are the most widespread due to the ease of implementation. However, a 10-meter
test or a pentasalt is a predictor of performance in 40 meters (Nesser et al, 1996). Given
the enormous variability that occurs in manual timing, and the advances that
technologies and instruments for measurement have brought about. of linear speed, the
use of photocells allows objective, valid and reliable control of the different
manifestations of speed as shown in figure 9.11.
Figure 9.11. Photocells located at 0 and 10 meters to control speed.
9.7.2. Laboratory evaluation.
The possibility of using laboratory tests for the prescription of the Speed training
is carried out trying to study the variables linked to the performance of athletes in this
area (Smith et al. 2007).
Jump tests offer measurements in relation to different manifestations of strength and

their relationship with some of the manifestations of speed. Although in sports such as
swimming the evaluation of the SJ, CMJ and Abalakov in speed specialties has a low
relationship (Cronin et al, 1997). The most common jump tests are:
^ Maximum jump height without countermovement (SJ), to assess strength

explosive power, the recruitment capacity and the utilization of FT fibers.
(Cronin et al, 2007; Balî^nas et al, 2006).
^ SJ with loads: equivalent to 30% of 1 RM, 60% of 1 RM and a load equivalent
to 1 RM to assess explosive strength (Moir et al, 2005).
^ Maximum countermovement jump height (CMJ) to measure elastic-explosive
force, through the use of the stretch-shortening cycle, expression of the
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percentage of FT and intra and intra coordination thermoscular. (Cronin et al,

2007; Balî^nas et al, 2006
^ Maximum height in the Drop Jump, to assess the explosive-reactive-ballistic
force thanks to muscle elasticity, viscoelastic behavior, the myotatic reflex and
the behavior of the Golgi tendon organs.
^ Continuous CMJ for 15 seconds, to measure resistance to rapid force.
Other instruments for assessing power in the laboratory are the wingate test for
both legs and arms (Smith et al, 2007), in which a cycle ergometer is used and the
subject pedals or moves it with their arms against a known resistance or resistance.
proportional to their body weight (Solé, 2002). The mechanical work and the power
developed are measured.
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10. TRAINING PLANNING

OF THE STRENGTH.
10.1. INTRODUCTION
If there is a true disparity in criteria among coaches when it comes to

programming the improvement of a conditional aspect, this is the case with strength
training; even more so if what is being discussed is the ideal moment of application
and the intensity of the stimuli to which a sport should be subjected. given tist.
It is evident that the other conditioning variables revolve around strength,

and it is also obvious that performance in many sports revolves around it. You are
skilled if you apply force with the right intensity and at the right time, you are
explosive if you manage to improve the resulting mathematical ratio between the
force applied and the time it takes to apply, you are resistant if you are able to
maintain strength levels for the duration of a given test, and finally you are strong if
you are able to mobilize the greatest resistance.
At the beginning of the seventies and coinciding with the celebration of the
Olympic Games held in Munich in 1972, coaches in many sports began to work,
sometimes excessively, on the muscular strength of their athletes; the goal: “to
create athletes who were stronger…”. No matter the type of discipline performed,
the athlete had to be “surplus” of strength. This is how famous coaches such as
Shiggel, Obadov, Lintermaier, etc. understood it… coaches who had responsibility
for the elite athletes of the former East Germany, USSR or West Germany, to name
a few. In those distant Olympic Games, tremendously muscular sprint athletes were
seen for the first time, such as the 100m champion, the Russian Voronin, who
dethroned the perennial American champions. The Russian surprised with his
morphology, not very classic for a speed runner. The era of sports hypertrophy
began, not of bodybuilding that was already in vogue at that time, and a large
number of coaches from different sports shared the same work routines for their
athletes, without caring too much about the characteristics of their specialty. In the
mid-seventies and early eighties it was difficult to distinguish morphologically an
athlete from one sport from another from another specialty. different, the majority
had the same muscular exteriorization.
Obviously, this was a reflection of training in many sports with a similar

methodology, even knowing that the characteristics of each of the sports were totally
different. Many of those coaches had in the so-called “weightlifting system” and in
the also popularly called “system”. body building theme” your reference standards
for muscle strength training.
The early years of the eighties were characterized by a studied the

methodology of strength training somewhat more scientifically, both with regard to
the training systems and their periodization, but it was not until the second half of
that decade when the bodies of the athletes once again identified with the practiced
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sport.
It is from the beginning of the nineties (also the late eighties) when the study
of sports science (investigated more from the perspective of sports performance and
less from more analytical perspectives such as medicine or physics as until then)
multiplies in quantity and quality. On the one hand, the increase in the number of
investigations leads carried out in high-performance centers as well as in university
institutions rias, led by academically qualified trainers, meant a substantial
improvement in the quality of studies; On the other hand, the increase in invention
patents in evaluation and training systems accelerated knowledge of muscular
behavior and other functional systems, taking them to levels not previously
achieved. As shown by the revolution that occurred in force evaluation after the
Isocontrol system came onto the scene in Spain in 1996, which was capable of
scanning at 1Khz digitally for the first time. (JLML R&D, Madrid)
Nowadays, any self-respecting coach knows in depth The characteristics of

their sport, as well as the type of manifestation of strength that they need to train
their athletes to ensure individual success, and that contribute, if they belong to a
collective sport, to the success of their team. Stating that the majority of coaches
know in depth the details of their sport of reference, it can also be stated that many
of them program training to improve strength without knowing the performance
objectives. muscular formation typical of the actions or acts determining their
specialty and also sometimes ignoring the context where it is necessary to manifest
that optimal chain of contractions that, carried out in the appropriate form and time,
allow us to successfully perform sporting gestures throughout the entire competition
time, whether 200 or 300ms as in the case of weightlifting or six hours in a cycling
stage.
These shape and substance variables are what a program must optimize.
mation correctly designed and wisely carried out, in which the association of the
technical-tactical training of the reference sport with the sessions to improve
muscular strength must be taken into account.
In this chapter we are going to discuss the different types of strength training
planning according to the characteristics of each sport.
PLANNING.- “Planning is an attempt at reflection that aims to adjust the

adaptations of loads with greater specific weight, with the moment of the season or
cycle where the athlete must manifest their full competitive potential” (García,
2001)
10.2. ASPECTS TO TAKE INTO ACCOUNT WHEN CARRYING OUT

A PROGRAM FOR STRENGTH TRAINING.-
A program should never be an invariable unit of work, but on the contrary,

each program should be related to the evaluation of the previous cycle and the
objectives and sub-objectives of the next, all within the framework of
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macrostructural thinking.
Likewise, when we propose a muscular strength training cycle, we have to

take into account that no program has a universal character, that is, what we have
read that other trainers have done with their teams does not ensure the same effect in
another. sports group and what needs Mind is, in the knowledge of this, the key to
optimally design the duality of load-recovery, necessary for conditional progress.
When scheduling strength training in any of porting we must take into account
the following aspects:
1. That the intensity of the technical-tactical training sessions associates Adding

to a strength training program can vary the orientation tation of this if the
sum of the applied loads is not taken into account.
2. That not all athletes have the same load needs even that the objective to be
satisfied is the same
3. That not all athletes have the same adaptation times.
4. And finally, not all athletes are capable of resisting the same more intensities,
even if they are in the same sports group.
These principles of Specificity, Individuality and Appropriateness are valid for

any type of training program.
10.3. ASPECTS RELATING TO THE TRAINING LOAD.-
The training load for strength improvement must be balanced involved with
the conceptualization of comprehensive training within the reference sport.
There are not the same strength needs in an individual sport such as judo as
in a collective sport such as football. Neither the type of manifestation of specific
force is the same, nor the type of muscular activity.
The load or intensity, often erroneously expressed as its magnitude in

relation to the 1RM, can vary in athletes from the same sports group in achieving a
common objective, at the moment in which their initial conditions or their
experience in the training with loads, differ. The concept of “optimal load” must be
linked to the fulfillment of performance objectives and will be this way in strength
training as long as it shows a positive effect in said competition. If the increase or
decrease in a certain load was not related to the increase in performance within the
reference sport, that load would have to be defined as negative or at least ineffective
and replaced or complemented as soon as possible.
The improvement of the competitive strength of character (FCC) is subject

to It depends on the speed with which the resistance must be moved in the context of
the competition, as well as the speed of its manifestation (force production). The
choice of training intensity must therefore be linked to the speed with which a given
force is applied in said context. In terms of evaluation-training, the intensity must
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seek improvement of the integral of the force and power curve limited by the time of
application optimal tion (see figure 10.1 and 10.2).
Fig. 10.1. Detailed Power curve.

Axis of ordered watt samples. X-axis milliseconds.
The integral to which we refer is the area included between the ordinate axis
delimited by the power curve, the abscissa axis that shows the milliseconds (ms) and
the vertical line that goes from the highest point of the power curve to the vertical of
the abscissa axis. This line shows the maximum power value and the time required
for its application.
The intensity of the repetitions of each series will aim to increase said area
without increasing the application time. The control and subsequent detailed
evaluation of the results will indicate the orientation of the following training
proposal.
Figure 2 shows the detailed force-time curve of the repetition corresponding

to this athlete's 1RM in the bench press exercise.
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Fig. 10.2. Detailed strength curve with the 1RM.

Axis of ordered watt samples. X-axis milliseconds.
When we consider programming for strength training, one of the basic

questions that arises is: knowing how much time I need to dedicate to improving the
strength components of my sport in each training cycle. In response, we can affirm
that there are several variables that mean that this time can be very different between
one sport and another; the type of manifestation of specific strength, the number of
competitions or the subject's ability to cope with fatigue states, may be some of
these variables, however, and as we will see later, to achieve a stable improvement
of the acute adaptations achieved it is minimum one week required oriented towards
said manifestation, as it is also necessary not to exceed another number of weeks
with that work, since the effects could not only stagnate but shrink.
Training to improve strength resistance, which can include up to 10 weekly

sessions for this purpose, is not the same as the need for improvement. ment of
explosive force with high resistance, which could hardly be repeated 3 or 4 times in
the same time.
In the same way, the competition calendar can be a handicap in the

improvement process, since it depends on several active sessions. tion and recovery
that sometimes prevents us from the correct future of the profession gression.
Finally, the athlete's ability to comply with the set intensity due to their agonizing
capacity in training, which can affect their response to fatigue, whether physical or
in some cases psychological, and which subordinates the frequency of the sessions
to the improvement of this quality.
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10.4. ASPECTS RELATING TO THE PERIODIZATION OF THE

CYCLES
The useful time dedicated to the direct training of each manifestation of

strength and, therefore, to its specific methodology, is different when training one or
the other. Taking into account the margin of variability that the factors listed above
can cause, we can estimate that, within a work cycle, the effective training times for
moderately or highly trained subjects would be the following:
1. To improve maximum strength with intensities of 70-80% or equivalent

effort character: 3-8 weeks (minimum 3 weeks, maximum 8 weeks nas)
2. To improve maximum strength with intensities of 80-85% or equivalent
effort character: 2-4 weeks (minimum 2 weeks and maximum 4 weeks nas
per cycle)
3. To improve maximum strength via neural pathways and explosive strength
with intensities of 85 to 100% or equivalent effort character: 2 to 5 weeks
4. For the improvement of explosive force with loads less than 80% there is no
te maximum times since this type of training can be present almost always,
since intensities lower than 80% are used for almost the entire cycle. The
effect on force production or explosive force The relative strength of loads
less than 80% 1RM will depend on whether each repetition is performed at
the maximum possible speed or not.
When we talk about the useful time margin of the different percentages, we
are referring to the minimum training time necessary for a positive effect to occur
(lower limit of the useful time margin), and to the moment at which the body would
no longer adequately support the same type of stimulus (upper margin time). If we
do not reach the minimum time or exceed the maximum, the effect will tend to be
small, null or negative, producing a setback.
10.5. CYCLES, PHASES AND PERIODS
Training structures are made up of different cycles of training. low that aim
to achieve the results foreseen in them. These cycles are usually subdivided into
phases, which what they do is divide the different objectives to be achieved in a
cycle into different work parts in order to ensure the final result and these at the
same time are fragmented into meso and micro structures. tures that allow us to
model training sessions and facilitate the process improvement progress.
In terms of training planning, different different structural levels in a

macrocycle (large training cycle with a priority objective), which usually refer to the
denomination of level les: basic, specific and competitive. Depending on the type of
structure chosen and the type of load used (regular, accentuated or concentrated),
these phases have different names, for example: the basic training phase in a
conventional type of planning is called “general stage of the preparatory period”,
without However, if the structure is contemporary it will be called “accumulation
mesocycle”.
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The different phases of strength training coincide with the possibilities

qualities of improvement of the different manifestations of strength.
1st Phase:
- Objective: Improvement of resistance to force.
- Ecological objective: Maintain throughout the competition time a high
possibility of manifesting the strength of specific character
- Training objective: Support the different workloads and favo improve your
adaptation. Likewise, prepare the muscles, tendons and ligament. ments to
tolerate higher loads in subsequent cycles.
- Training: Loads less than 70%1RM (40-70% depending on the sport) repeated
no less than 12-15 repetitions/set, with a medium to high effort character.
- Duration: 3-4 weeks
2nd Phase:
- Objective: Improvement of maximum strength. Hypertrophic pathway.
- Ecological objective: Have a greater arsenal of force that can be used in the
case of high opposition during the course of the competition.
- Training objective: Improve the internal structure of the muscle that allows us
to manage resistance more economically.
- Training: With loads ranging between 70 and 85% of 1RM. The proposals for
repetitions/series of 6x10RM and 8x10RM are basically common.
3rd Phase:
- Objective: Improvement of maximum strength (neural pathway) and explosive
strength goes
- Ecological objective: Improve the accelerative capacity, which will result in a
manifestation of the strength acquired in less time. Predisposes to force-
technical gesture coordination.
- Training objective: Make it possible to achieve maximum strength relative to
the mobilized resistance in less time. It is a step prior to improving power and
gestural speed.
- Training: With loads between 85%-100% of 1RM. Fewer repetitions per
series. Training proposals of 4x 6RM or 2x3RM are common.
4th Phase:
- Objective: Improve maximum power. Maintain the achieved levels of
maximum strength and explosive strength.
- Ecological objective: Optimize the technical sports gesture through the transfer
of acquired strength levels.
- Training objective: Adapt the components of strength and speed in the
technical context. Promote the disappearance of gestural uncertainty.
- Training: With loads where maximum power is manifested (±15%, García and
Calvo 2007)
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This 4th phase can have one or two cycles (periods) depending on the degree
of technical difficulty of the specific gesture of each sport. In sport complex,
the second cycle would have as its fundamental objective the adequacy
conditional definition of the technical gesture; the level of charge coming from
the specific strength training would be less, thus enabling a greater approach to
optimal gestural development.
5th Phase:
- Objective: Recovery
- Ecological objective: Search for subacute adaptations that allow converting are
stable after a correct training system.
- Training objectives: Give rest to the athlete's muscles and also his psyche to
prepare him for the next cycle.
- Training: Sharp decline in strength training and even disappearance of it.
- Duration: Between 2 and 4 weeks.
10.6. MICROSTRUCTURAL METHODOLOGY
These phases are divided into small training cycles (microcycles) that favor
control and monitoring of results. When constructing these microcycles, the coach
has different training proposals that, depending on which one is chosen, the structure
will be arranged in a different way. ra or another.
There are various ways to design training sessions. Although they have been
talked about in the chapter dedicated to force, I would like to give them here a more
methodological approach to understand their disposition within the microcycle.
The work units of the microcycle are the sessions. When we talk about
microcyclic periodization we have to know the most used types of load
programming for strength training. Although there are many variations of them,
basically due to the improvement needs of each type of manifestation and its
percentage need in the integral context of the training process, we are going to
define the three main ways of designing said cycles:
The oldest model of programming with loads represents progressively

increasing intensity with a stable volume throughout the cycle. It was the most used
system in the eighties and is still frequently used today when what is sought is an
increase in the overall intensity of the cycle. It is widely used by athletes seeking to
improve maximum strength via hypertrophic renewing the structure of the
peripheral muscular system.
It is performed in such a way that neither the series nor the repetitions are
modified, what is modified is the weight with which it is performed. For example
the stable design Acid can be: Perform 3 x 10 x 10RM.
Neither the series (3) nor the 10RM intensity is modified. When the athlete is
able to perform more than 10 repetitions, what changes is the weight, but both the
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series and the repetitions and the relative intensity remain stable.
The classic programming form of periodization of strength training is

represented by the one that affects a progressive increase in intensity, which
corresponds to a reduction in volume (+IV).
Let's see some examples of this type of session programming:
Example 1 .
Training to improve maximum strength via hypertrophic route (2nd phase) Duration
3 weeks. Sessions 9.
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SESSION TRAINING PROPOSAL REP/EXERCISE VOLUME

NO.
1st 5 X 6 X 10RM 30
2nd 5 X 6 X 10RM 30
3rd 4 X 7 X 10RM 28
4th 4 X 7 X 10RM 28
5th 3 X 8 X 10RM 24
6th 3 X 8 X 10RM 24
7th 3X6X8RM 18
8th 3 X 6 X 8RM 18
9th 4 X 6 X 10RM 24
As seen in this example, the volume is decreasing each week and the relative
intensity is increasing. The increase in intensity is not pronounced nor is the
decrease in volume. This type of work is usually carried out by athletes with less
experience in load training who seek an increase in maximum strength without the
load having a negative impact on more specific training sessions.
Within the phase or mesocycle of development, this type of training ment

would be located in the first part of it
Example 2.
Objective: Improvement of maximum strength.

Duration 3 weeks. Sessions 9

NO.
1st 3 X 6 X 10RM 18
2nd 3 X 6 X 10RM 18
3rd 2 X 6 X 8RM 12
4th 2 X 6 X 8RM 12
5th 2 X 6 X 6RM 12
6th 2 X 6 X 6RM 12
7th 2 X 5 X 5RM 10
8th 2 X 5 X 5RM 10
9th 2 X 2 X 3RM 4
In this example, a much greater increase in intensity is observed and also a

more pronounced decrease in volume. This type of training whose objective is to
improve maximum strength via peripheral and neuro pathways. nal is more suitable
for athletes with greater experience in training. training with loads, capable in a
three-week cycle of going from working with magnitudes of approximately 70% to
magnitudes close to 90% of the 1RM.
This type of training is frequently used in sports where the manifestations Festations
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of an explosive nature in the face of high resistance are a characteristic characteristic

of the specialty profile, and require mixed work to avoid interference in the process
of convergence between conditional improvement and competitive technical
improvement.
Another programming system is that of wave loads.
It is characterized by an increase in intensity and, like the previous one, a

reduction in volume. The variation between the two forms of design lies in the fact
that at certain moments of the phase, especially when the intensities begin to be
high, decreases in intensity are introduced, with the objective, on the one hand, of
favoring the acute adaptations of the previous microcycle. and on the other hand, it
serves as a recovery to be able to increase the intensity in the following microcycle.
Below we are going to give an example of this methodological system. co,
expressed this time in load magnitude relative to the 1RM.
Objective: Improved Maximum Strength

Duration: 4 weeks. Sessions: 12

NO.
1st 3 X 10 X 70%1RM 30
2nd 3 X 8 X 75%1RM 24
3rd 3 X 8 X 75%1RM 24
4th 3 X 6 X 80%1RM 18
5th 3 X 8 X 70%1RM 24
6th 3 X 6 X 80%1RM 18
7th 3 X 6 X 80%1RM 18
8th 3 X 4 X 85%1RM 12
9th 2 X 8 X 70%1RM 16
10th 3 X 6 X 80%1RM 18
11th 3 X 4 X 85%1RM 12
12th 2 X 8 X 70%1RM 16
This type of training proposals tries not to influence in a pro- aggressive

action on adaptive capacities, allowing us to recover what is necessary to reach a
higher intensity in blocks. Its use is common when other training sessions also have
a high load.
Microcycles designed with wave loads respond to speciali ities with high
adaptive demands and that require careful structural design. They are common in the
preseason in team sports (with the use of medium loads) and also in sports with high
needs for explosive strength during the specific level of training (with the use of
high and maximum loads).
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The greater the loads, the more pronounced the ripple can be.
Within the methodology of a session, wave loads are also considered. Work
with contrast systems, Abadjiev's Bulgarian training, etc. use this type of
methodology.
Different studies have tried to find out which of the three types of load
application systems is the one that provides the best results. It is evident that each
one has its peculiarities and basically choosing one or the other will depend on the
type of reference sport and the orientation of the loads of the main training sessions.
It is not the same when the main sessions The microcycle exercises are those that
seek to improve strength, which when they are complementary, nor when the
exercises to improve strength are included in a complex or selective session.
Baker (1994), Herrick and Stone (1996), Bradley and Popovich (2001) and
others did not find differences when they applied the three methodological models
to their samples, however Garcia (2004) in a work with experts and novices in judo
did find differences. significant in their sample of high-performance judokas (n=80),
in which the wave model offered better results than the progressive ones. It must be
said that the sample consisted of expert and novice judokas but in the context of
high performance, which meant that the less expert judokas had at least 5 years of
training with high loads.
It should be noted that the increase in the intensity of the loads and the
reduction tion of volume in short periods (12-16 weeks) improve maximum strength
more quickly than when relative intensity and volume are stabilized and overall
intensity is increased. This form of distribution, however, seems more appropriate
for improving strength endurance and when a greater number of weeks are available
to achieve the objectives. It also seems correct to think that the more experts the
athletes are in handling loads, or the more exhausted their adaptive capacity is, the
use of the wave methodology provides greater strength gains and enables progress
even in athletes mired in a plateau of stagnation. both seasonal and hypoadaptive.
In short, we can affirm that the three models are useful and that their use
lization will be due more to the possibilities of its microcyclic structuring and the
time available to achieve the proposed strength objectives, than to its own capacity
for improvement per se.
10.7. EXAMPLES OF MICROCYCLIC PERIODIZATION OF STRENGTH

TRAINING IN DIFFERENT SPORTS.
As stated previously, a modifier variable is microcyclic structure in strength

improvement training is what exists whether or not there is a competition (match) at
the end of said microcycle, which is why sports that must compete every week, or
even twice a week, find it more difficult to program complete cycles to improve this
capacity. In these cases, the competition itself and the training sessions coincide
sessions supported by complex sessions can be the solution.
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Another case is seasonal sports, where the athlete must manifest fest all their
competitive potential in a relatively short period of time (competition period) that
can range between 20 and 60 days.
Another modifying variable is the importance of strength in the con global

text of the sports specialty.
In an attempt to clarify these microstructures, we are going to organize some

sports in relation to the importance of maximum strength in performance. of them
and we are going to see how their phases and training cycles would be structured.
We are going to do it by dividing them into three levels:
1. Those where strength needs are high

2. Those where strength needs are medium
3. Those where strength needs are small.
In the first group we could include sports such as weightlifting, judo,

wrestling (both Greco-Roman and Olympic freestyle), sports gymnastics, canoeing,
etc. As can be seen, none of these sports are specialties in which you have to
compete every week of the year.
These types of sports fit the scheme proposed on page 6 of the pre this
document, where they would go through all the preparation phases until the
acquisition of the specific optimal strength.
The first phase of improving strength resistance, in a planned tion of a

conventional type, it would be located in the introductory mesocycle of the basic
level of the program (general stage of the preparatory period). Its duration would be
three or four weeks and the microcyclic structure would be completed with work on
aerobic resistance, joint mobility and learning and improving technique. A
microcycle, an example of this structure, can be taken from the project of the
Portuguese Judo Federation with the objective of the absolute European
championship in 2008, where they finally won five medals.
See figure 10.3.
1st SEM. 29/8 30/8 31/8 1 2 3 4
1st SES R. AER/2 RF/2 R.AER/2 RF/2
2nd SES TECN/2 TECN/2 TECN/3 TECN/3 CA18
BURDEN 4 4 3 5 2 2
2nd SEM. 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
1st SES RA E R/3 RF/3 FLEXIB. R.AER/3 RF/3
2nd SES TECN/2 TECN/2 TECN/3 TECN/2 TECN/2 AC 25
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BURDEN 5 5 4 5 5 3
Fig. 10.3. Load microcycles. Introductory Mesocycle
It is observed that the first week, the accumulated load index is small and that
only two sessions are carried out for resistance training. force with light loads
(40%1RM), and that in the second microcycle the load level is somewhat higher and
also repeated twice a week. Training the technique with load 3 involves associated
work on technique and muscular performance that supports the work of the specific
sessions.
The typical session would consist of the fundamental exercises for this type
of sports: Bench press, power clean, squat and prone row, complemented with
exercises such as shoulders, hamstrings, glutes, etc.
The way of working in each session will be to increase the overall intensity,
with the relative intensity and volume remaining unchanged. They are common nes
proposed as 15x20RM or 12 x 15RM.
In these sports the second phase of strength training has My goal is to

improve maximum dynamic strength. It usually lasts between 4 to 6 weeks. If a
conventional type schedule is used tional, would correspond to the development
mesocycle and in some cases also to the middle of the intermediate stabilization
mesocycle. If viewed from a structure of concentrated loads, it would coincide with
the accumulation mesocycle.
In the contact sports of this group of specialties, the improvement of

maximum strength would be via muscular hypertrophy and would share sessions
with those dedicated to technical and tactical improvement and with some dedicated
sessions. given to the improvement of aerobic resistance of a glycolytic nature. An
example of mesostructure could be the following:
Fig. 10.4. Microcycle of an intermediate mesocycle
In this proposal it is observed that the maximum dynamic force (MDF) is
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trained three days per week, giving it an important role in the cycle and without em
However, in the last week, where an evaluation will occur, there is a decrease in
volume with the objective of observing the indicators resulting from the effects of
the training carried out to date.
In this cycle, an attempt is made to increase the maximum dynamic force

without delaying its manifestation time too much (it is a good indicator that it does
not do so for more than 1/3 of the total execution time of the specific gesture). In
sports where the importance of strength is high, and resistance is also high
tendencies to overcome, the coach must keep in mind when evaluating, observing
especially the middle part and the upper part of the resulting force-time curve (c ft
R), where in the first the curve should move towards the ordinate axis and be located
to the left of the initial curve, and at the top of the curve, where the resulting curve
was above the initial one, that is, displaced upwards.
This would indicate an improvement in explosive strength relative to average

loads, facilitated by an increase in maximum strength and an improvement in
maximum dynamic strength, initial objectives of this phase (see figure 10.5).
Fulfilling these objectives would allow us gestural fluidity in the face of

medium resistance, although not competitive, but which will help us to the best.
technical training and will make it easier for us to improve the relative explosive
force with higher charges.
Below is an evaluation where the improvement in maximum dynamic

strength and explosive strength is observed in phase 2.
Fig. 10.5 Evaluation of the maximum dynamic force. Resulting force-time curve
The curve shown in Figure 10.5 shows an initial evaluation (red curve) and
an evaluation after three weeks (blue curve). There is an improvement in maximum
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dynamic strength and also in explosive strength, both with medium loads and high
loads. By evaluating the result, we could guess what type of training the athlete has
followed and what loads he has worked with.
To improve maximum dynamic strength and explosive strength in the middle

and upper part of the curve, the subject has worked with loads ranging from 6 x
10RM (approximately 75%1RM) to 3x5RM (86-88%1RM ) or its equivalent in
degree of effort.
The exercises used are usually the same as in the previous cycle but with
emphasis on the four main ones mentioned above.
In this phase, the load application methodology usually varies to an increase

in intensity with a decrease in volume. The “increasing” pyramid and double
pyramid oscillatory methodology is usually used in this cycle; The first is when the
athlete finds it difficult to enter the session, his first sets are not good, it usually
happens to unskilled subjects and also to inexperienced subjects when working with
this type of loads. The double pyramid is used by more athletes with greater
experience or with problems of seasonal stagnation. The intensity to improve
dynamic strength via hypertrophic ranges between 6-8x10RM to 6x6RM. The
number of series between 2 and 4.
The third phase of the strength program in sports with high strength needs
usually seeks the objectives of improving maximum strength through the neural
channel and explosive strength.
The improvement of explosive force in these specialties has as one of its

most important objectives to “break” the static solidity of the resistance. cy, that is:
being able to initiate a movement in the opponent or in one's own resistance, which
subsequently allows us to inject speed into the movement. in order to be able to
apply our maximum power through the sporting gesture. own specialty. The ability
to increase force in a unit of time is called the “rate of force production.” The higher
the production rate tion of force greater ability to apply force sooner. The maximum
explosive force, when I perform a bench press for example, is always reached in the
isometric phase of the gesture, before starting (see the red line in figure 6). The
explosive force once the movement has started (we are referring to high loads)
begins to decline, and it is the manifestation of force, measured in newtons (n) that
begins to rise. As we said previously, the best ratio between force and time is what
is called explosive force.
The objective of training the maximum explosive force of a dynamic nature

in this cycle will be: on the one hand, to improve the indicator of manifest force ted
and at the same time reduce the time of manifestation, and on the other hand try to
better rar the rate of force production. Acquiring this improvement will enable
higher expression of power (a specific goal of strength training in most sports).
In figure 10.6 we can observe the behavior of the explosive force siva
(marked with a red line), that of the manifested force (with a blue line) and that of
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force production (green line) in a bench press exercise performed by a Greco-

Roman wrestler. The magnitude corresponds to his 1RM, the fighter's weight 74 kg.
This third phase of training usually lasts three or four three weeks. In order to
work on the accelerative capacity and improve the aforementioned indicators, the
magnitude of the load must be between 85% to 100% 1RM. The aim is to basically
stimulate the nervous system, which favors non-muscular hypertrophy, which makes
it possible to reduce the strength deficit.
When programming loads, they are usually worked with, either with a classic
methodology of increasing intensity and decreasing volume or with a wave
methodology, introducing lower loads to favor the contractile improvement of the
following series. Proposals such as 4 x 6RM (approximately 85-87% 1RM) or 2 x3
RM (approximately 94-95% 1RM) are common.
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Fig. 10.6. Curves of force production, explosive force and manifestation of force.
The exercises normally used are those that mobilize a large amount of
muscle mass.
The resulting force-time curve pursued should not be far from the one shown
in figure 10.7.
Fig 10.7. Force-time curve resulting from two evaluations after neuronal training
Figure 7 shows the result of two evaluations, one initial and the other fi nal
after four weeks of neural training with loads between 85-95% 1RM in an 81 kg
judoka in the prone rowing exercise. He performed three weekly training sessions to
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improve strength.
As seen in figure 10.7, there was improvement in both the dynamic force
maximum ca (>120n) and explosive force with all resistances. Working with high
loads had a major impact on the improvement of explosive strength with these loads.
It can be seen that in the initial evaluation (red line) the 1RM took almost 1.5 s to
manifest, however, that same load a month later was capable of manifesting it in 770
ms, that is, in almost half the time, so The improvement in explosive force relative
to that charge was exceptional.
The structure within the microcycles and mesocycles of these trains strength
training in these specialties can follow the script in Figure 10.8.
1st SEM.
21 22 23 24 25 26 27
BURDEN
1st SES F.EXP/5 TECN/3 F.EXPL/5 POT.AE/4
2nd SES TECN/3 POT.AE/4 TECN/5 TECN/3 CA34
BURDEN 8 7 5 8 6 4
2nd SEM.
28 29 30 31 1 2 3
CAR-RES
1st SES TECN/3 TECN/3 TECN/3 POT.AE/4 EVALUAC
2nd SES F.EXP/5? P.AE/4 ? TECN/5 F.EXPL/5 CA34
BURDEN 8 7 5 8 6 4-2
Fig 10.8. Load microcycles. Specific level of training
This example shows two specific training sessions for the development of
explosive strength each week complemented by high-intensity technical work (the
central day of the week) that masks maximum stimulation of the neuronal elements
through concurrent work. So we can affirm that three training sessions were carried
out each week. cough of explosive force.
Various studies propose that explosive strength and technique training be

carried out together. It is evident that it is a better form of transfer, but this is
beneficial when the indicators of both aspects are high, or the planning is reaching
the competitive phase.
The fourth phase of the program aims to improve specific maximum power
and maintain maximum strength and explosive strength levels.
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Fig 10.9. Typical power curve in a judoka
The duration of this phase is usually three to four weeks and the aim is not
only to increase the maximum power indicator, but also to ensure that it manifests
itself within the time limit in which the technical gesture can be maximally
effective. Inc.
On many occasions we coaches insist on raising the maximum power

indicator without establishing time limits to achieve this. guide it
Big mistake. Let's look at an example:
Suppose that to successfully execute a technique in judo in the context To

achieve high sports performance it will need to be done in less than 300ms. Let's
now imagine that this athlete is capable of manifesting 800 watts of power in 500ms.
During the execution, when 300ms have passed, the subject's power curve informs
us of values of 500 watts. If the opponent has a lower expression of maximum
power (only 600 watts) but is capable of manifesting it in 300ms. Which of the two
contenders has a better indi optimal power heater in this case?
The answer is clear: he who is capable of manifesting more power of Within

the time limit of performing the technical gesture, in this case the judoka mentioned
in second place; and yet it has 25% less peak power…?
Another important aspect to take into account in relation to training and

periodization of power is the following:
In the reference sports specialty,
1. With what resistance is it necessary for maximum power to be manifested in

order to speak of its specific development?
2. Is this resistance the same for sports with high strength needs as for others
that do not need it?
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3. Finally; Is the periodization of power training and the type of loads used for
sports with high strength needs the same as in others that do not also need it?
Let's answer these questions with some examples:
The first question should be asked to the experts of the different specialties,
but in a pedagogical way we can say that the more prota gonism has strength in a
given sport, the maximum power on a power-load curve, should be shifted towards
the 1RM side. (Strength side)
In Figure 10.10 you can see which part of the power-load curve the power
peaks of some analyzed sports should be located. The left part of the curve
represents the maximum speed and the minimum force indicator, the right part the
maximum force and the minimum speed. The study was carried out evaluating
athletes from different sports during the 2006-2007 season. All the athletes
evaluated were experts in their specialty.
Fig. 10.10. Power-load curve. Situation of power peaks

When it comes to periodizing power training, you must take into account
whether, in addition to improving its indicator, it should be moved push towards
1RM or towards maximum speed. The loads used and the percentage (% 1RM) that
must be increased or decreased with respect to the load where the maximum power
is manifested, is essential for this.
The best load (weight) to improve peak power is to work with the one where
it is manifested, that is, if an athlete reaches his best indicator of maximum power
with 70 kg, for example, it will be with that load or a small variation (approximately
15-20% of it) up or down depending on the power component you want to improve.
At this point it should be noted that in many cases the maximum peak power is not a
very reliable indicator to indicate workloads and we tend to look for the average of
the maximum powers in a series to locate this data. This is usually done in sports
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where the manifestation of maximum power either has to be repeated over time
(collective sports or wrestling), or when the athlete is not an expert when it comes to
handling loads.
Figure 10.11 shows a detailed analysis of an expert athlete in working with

loads and it is observed that both the maximum and average power are located at the
same weight, in this case 90 kg, this does not usually occur in athletes. newbies.
The way to know if the load where the maximum power is manifested is the
ideal one for the athlete, is observed after evaluating the detailed curves. curls of
each execution. If the curve where the maximum power is manifested is within the
time limits of the execution of the technical gesture, that is the basic load that must
be worked on. Let's look at figure number 12, it shows the detailed curves of the
repetitions performed with 20kg, 30kg, 40kg and 1RM of a 55kg Colombian
Olympic free wrestler, Olympic medalist in Beijing 2008. It is estimated that its
technical act is carried out in 500ms. The green curve represents the maximum
power (533.245 wt) and the manifestation time is 539ms. We can affirm that this
load is the basic working weight for the development of the specific maximum
power of this athlete. In the event that this peak of maximum power was shifted to
700 or more milliseconds, we should take it into account, only if there are
possibilities of improving the speed of manifestation, but it would be difficult if we
also wanted to shift the power-load curve in the maximum power peak towards the
1RM side, as would be the objective in a sport like wrestling, so in that case, it
would be more advisable to use the previous load as a basic load.
Fig 10.11. Detailed analysis of the results in an expert athlete
For García (2004) power from a sporting point of view “represents the “best
result between the force that is applied and the speed at which it is applied, that is, it
is the optimization of the expression of useful force when the technical gesture is
performed.”
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When planning maximum power training we must take into account some
considerations:
^ The manifestation of power over time depends on the highest rate of

force production
^ The optimization of intramuscular coordination in a subject results in the
manifestation of greater power
^ The improvement of maximum power is guaranteed if the strength is
improved optimized explosive force in the technical gesture (specific
explosive force ca) but if the improvement of said force has only a ge
neral or manifests itself in the face of non-competitive resistance, this
increase in explosive force does not guarantee an improvement in
maximum caliber power. specific character.
Fig. 10.12 Detailed analysis of the power curves.
To know with what load the maximum power was improved and also to
know how the elements of force and speed varied when manifesting. To achieve this
power, García and Calvo (2007) studied a sample (n=30) for 5 weeks made up of
judokas and wrestlers with experience in the training with loads, who once evaluated
and known the weight where they manifested their maximum power, were randomly
divided into three groups: Group 1, who worked with the weight that was 15% more
than that where they manifested their maximum power. Group 2, where they trained
with 15% less than where they expressed that maximum power and group 3, who
worked with the same load where they expressed the maximum power. They
performed three sessions a week on alternate days and, being in a transition period,
they did not perform exercises or training where maximum power could otherwise
be improved. The exercise chosen was the bench press.
The results:
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^ Overall, in the 30 subjects there are significant differences from the first
to the second intake in the power and strength variables, but not in the
speed variable.
^ Analyzing the three groups separately, in group 1, there are different
significant differences from the first to the second intake in the power and
strength variables but not in the speed variable
^ In group 2, there are only differences in the power variable.
^ In group 3, there are no significant differences in any of the variables
although strength, speed and power improve.
^ Athletes in group 1 improve maximum power by fundamentally
increasing accelerative capacity and yet there is no improvement in
average execution speed.
^ With this treatment, the strongest athletes increased the load where
maximum power is manifested, but not the less expert and less strong
athletes. Therefore, one of the justifications for carrying out this type of
training will be when, in addition to improving power in expert athletes,
we are interested in shifting the peak of power in the power-load curve
towards the 1RM area.
^ Athletes in group 2 improve maximum power, through an improvement
in execution speed, losing in most cases relative dynamic strength.
^ This training proposal will interest us when athletes need greater speed of
execution without losing power, but ro would not be very advisable in
sports where competing needs strength ratings were high.
^ Finally, group 3 improves maximum power through the improvement of
strength and speed, although it seems that quantitatively it is not the most
accurate since it is the one that experiences the least improvement, pa It
is said that it is the most correct to use when there are no gestural
coordination, especially in sports with technical executions complex
cases. Furthermore, the treatment carried out by this group seems to be
the most accurate if we want the athlete to express his po maximum
voltage at higher loads.
The final conclusion is that the three systems seem successful for the me
work of the maximum power, although each one acts on the component of the power
that somehow allows it to manifest itself more freely. With an increase in the load,
power improves via muscular strength but the average execution speed decreases.
With lighter loads at the point where they manifest maximum power, the speed of
execution improves but the force applied decreases.
When it comes to periodizing power training, it is done with usually at the

end of the specific stage if it were traditional planning or in the mesocycles of
transformation and realization if we were referring to ATR (contemporary) type
planning. I put it on The load application methodology is usually done by increasing
the intensity while the volume remains stable.
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In many sports, an important performance characteristic is both resistance to

explosive force and resistance to power. Fighting sports (judo, taekwondo, Olympic
wrestling, etc.) and team sports (handball, basketball, volleyball, soccer, etc.) require
repeated acts of manifestation of power at its highest degree, and repeated in
multiples. - many occasions. A decrease in maximum power throughout the fight or
match can represent a significant handicap in sports performance. ta.
This part of strength training, together with the optimization of the technical
level associated with the perfected conditional capabilities, are the objectives of the
competition periods and mesocycles of realization of which want planning.
Resistance to maximum power can only be trained if we work with the load
where it is manifested, since using “approximate loads” is very doubtful.
The number of series and repetitions will be subject to the subject's ability to
maintain high percentage indicators of maximum power during the series. It is
estimated that jobs below 20% of mani festation of maximum power do not improve
resistance to it, but do so oriented towards improving resistance to force.
How many repetitions are we talking about per set? Those in which the
athlete does not fall below the threshold of that 20% of maximum power. To do this,
the athlete will have to be evaluated and know how many repetitions he or she is
capable of performing above that threshold. If the athlete is able to express an
average power of the maximum performed of 600 w, the work threshold will be
above 480 w. Let's look at an example represented in Figure 10.13.
Fig. 10.13. Power resistance histogram.

The present athlete has an average maximum power indicator of 650 watts.
Your training threshold for endurance improvement at maximum power is set at 520
w (20% less than maximum power). The number of repetitions above the threshold
is a maximum of 12 (the repetition tion No. 9, although it is below the threshold it is
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considered valid since it immediately then the next one is above it). When two
repetitions do not reach the threshold, the last one that did so will be established as
the maximum number of repetitions to be performed.
As in maximum power training, when our objective is to improve resistance

to it, the methodology in applying loads is to maintain the relative intensity with a
gradual increase in the overall intensity. The number of sessions per week is stable
between two and three (normally two) and is combined with training both to
improve maximum power and resistance to explosive force. goes.
Strength training cannot and should not be continued throughout the entire
cycle; it is estimated that periods of up to twenty weeks are the most recommended.
Mc.Dougall, (1982); Tesch and Larson (1985) or Hakkinen (1992) tell us that from
the twelfth week there is hardly any hypertrophy with loads above 70% of 1RM.
This makes it essential to introduce a recovery phase that can last two to four weeks.
Its characteristics are a pronounced decrease in strength training and even its
disappearance
Until now we have been talking about periodization for sports with at your
strength needs. Is the same periodization for sports of necessity medium or small?
Obviously not, the phases of the macrocycle are different in terms of their
location in it and the intensities will have to be in accordance with the needs of the
competition of each of the specialties. When strength needs are small or medium,
the training orientation is oriented more towards explosive strength and resistance to
force
Next we are going to see how the phases are programmed for this type of
sports:
Phases of a training cycle with predominant performance demands in

strength resistance:
^ Maximum strength due to effect on hypertrophy, specific strength

endurance and explosive strength (3-8 weeks)
^ Maximum strength by mixed effect, specific strength resistance and
explosive strength (3-5 weeks)
^ Maintenance of maximum strength and explosive strength and

improvement of resistance to specific force and maximum power (3-5
weeks)
^ Optimal manifestation of resistance to specific force (duration ranges
riable)
^ Transition (1-6 weeks).
In conclusion to the chapter, the reader will have observed that one of the
elements The most important elements for a correct strength training proposal is a
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good evaluation. Without it, both the loads, series and repetitions are randomly
designated and can lead us to states of inefficiency or overtraining.
It must also be remembered that for weight training to be beneficial and

transferable to a sporting event, it must always be performed at the maximum
possible speed. Sets and repetitions performed at lower speeds Speeds at the
maximum possible (slow) will only improve strength at slow speeds, and therefore
become a hindrance to subsequent explosiveness or power training.
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Coordinator:

JOSÉ MARÍA GONZÁLEZ RAVÉ

Authors: JOSÉ MARÍA GONZÁLEZ RAVÉ, FERNANDO NAVARRO VALDIVIELSO,

Editorial: WANCEULEN EDITORIAL DEPORTIVA, SL

1.2. THREE BASIC RELEVANT CRITERIA WHEN ORGANIZING

In his classic book Fundamentals of Sports Training (1983, Edi torial

The second part develops the training methodology of two ca sports

Dr. José María González Ravé.

Although making a historical evolution about a discipline implies a process of

1.1.2. HISTORICAL EVOLUTION.

Thus, physical exercise in these cultures had a fundamentally utilitarian role, of

From a historicist perspective, the origins of the most rudimentary in Sports

^ Constant training throughout the year.

^ Periodization of training for 10 months in advance, and intensively the

Ceramic showing an image of fighting.

1.2.1. Training during humanism.

1.2.2. Contemporary sports training.

1.1.3. The Finnish school.

^ The need for alternation between volume and intensity;

Based on these principles, increases in the weekly frequency of training and a

^ The preparation training period;

This organization responds in practice to the foundations of the cyclical nature of

1.1.4. The Swedish school.

Table 1.2. Parameters that characterize the Swedish training school.

If a training methodology was built in relation to schools That allowed the

1.1.5. Sports training in the second half of the 20th century.

1.1.5.1. The German school.

Table 1.3. Parameters that characterize the German training school.

Gustaffson Few alterations Intensive

Haegg Decrease in Interval

In 1948, in Hungary, another of the schools emerged whose great

Table 1.4. Parameters that characterize the Hungarian training school.

1.1.5.2. The scientific discipline “Training Science”.

SCIENCES TO SUPPORT SPORTS TRAINING

Figure 1.1. Training Science Model according to Bompa (1994).

Ballreich and Kuhlow (1977) justify in this emergence of sport, the

They intended, in this way, to eliminate that traditional component of

Starting in 1965 (coinciding with the preparation of the Olympic Games of

ASPECTS OF ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT IN THEORY

PARTICULAR THEORY AND METHODOLOGY OF SPORTS

ASPECTS OF SPORTS MEDICINE SPORTS HYGIENE ASPECTS

Traumatology Medical control Hygiene Psychohygie

The periodization concept originates in Eastern Europe and was adapted to

Matveyev (1977) organizes the training process into three periods:

The periodization of sports training developed by Matveyev establishes a series of

Platonov in 1976 (disseminated in the West in 1988) developed the planning

In 1979 Peter Tschiene disseminated a periodization model where It defends a

In recent years, opinions contrary to the training periodization system proposed by

The takeoff of sports training as an autonomous discipline of ca scientific

Starting in 1960, the use of technologies such as telemé devices sensors,

Much of the interest of exercise physiologists has focused on endurance-focused

Talking about sports training as a concept means investigating the extensive

Current concepts on training try to cover, from a global and integrative

García Manso (1999) provides up to 15 different concepts about the

2.2. TRAINING CONCEPTS.

2.2.1. Concepts from pedagogical theories.

Training pedagogues provide the following concepts:

1. Matveyev (1993:11) defines it as a pedagogical phenomenon; It is the

specialized process of Physical Education aimed directly at achieving high sports

2. Zhhelyakov (2001) talks about a process of training, education and