Organizational Behavior Report
Organizational Behavior Report
Organizational Behavior Report
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COMPORTAMIENTO ORGANIZACIONAL
MEMBERS:
INTRODUCTION_______________________________________________
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CONCLUSIONS____________________________________________122
BIBLIOGRAPHY____________________________________________123
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INTRODUCTION
In reality, the intrinsic value of an organization resides mainly in its intangible assets, that
is, they are not seen, but they constitute the true wealth of the organization and provide the
fundamental basis and dynamics that directly lead to the success of organizations. These
intangible assets constitute the central stone of innovation and competitiveness of
organizations in a changing, competitive and globalized world. These assets depend on
what we call human capital, which is the set of talents that act in an organizational context
that provides them with structure, support and drive. This is where organizational behavior
arises. Human capital must work within an appropriate organizational structure and an
organizational culture that provides momentum and leverage. When these three elements
(talents, organization and behavior) come together, we have all the conditions for the
organization to perform in exceptional terms.
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CHAPTER I
Behavior Concept
Behavior. It refers to actions of people, an object or organism, usually in relation to their
environment or world of stimuli. Behavior can be conscious or unconscious, public or
hidden, voluntary or involuntary, depending on the circumstances that affect it. Set of
activities observable in a living organism, the result of its relationships with the
environment.
Organizational behavior is a field of study in which the impact that individuals, groups
and structures have on behavior within organizations is investigated, with the aim of
applying this knowledge to improve the effectiveness of such
organizations.
Adam Smith. Economists cite Adam Smith for his contributions to classical economic
doctrine, but his dissertation on the wealth of nations includes a
brilliant defense of the economic advantages of the division of labor.
Smith concluded that the division of labor would increase productivity
by increasing the ability and skill of each worker, by saving time
wasted in changing tasks, and by encouraging the invention of
equipment and machinery that does not require labor. The notable
advancement of assembly line production processes during the 19th century was
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undoubtedly stimulated by the economic advantages of specialization, which Adam Smith
had pointed out two centuries ago.
Charles Babbage . He was an English mathematics professor who extended the virtues of
the division of labor articulated by Adam Smith. Babbage added the following advantages
to Smith's list of what he achieves with the division of labor:
The classical era covers the period from 1900 to the mid-1930s, when the first theories of
management emerged. The main contributors were Frederick Taylor, Henri Fayol, Max
Weber, Mary Parker Follet and Chester Barnard who laid the foundations of the modern
exercise of administration.
The behavioral era was highlighted by the human relations movement and the widespread
application of behavioral science research in organizations. Although this era began in the
1930s, three earlier events deserve brief mention because they played an important part in
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the application and development of organizational behavior: the birth of the personal office
around 1900, the creation of the field of industrial psychology with publication of Hugo
Munsterberg's manual in 1913 and the promulgation of Wagner's law in 1935, which began
the growth of workers' unions.
The people side of organizations came into its own in the 1930s, predominantly as a result
of the Hawthorne studies, which brought a new emphasis on the human factor of
organizations and increased the paternalism of management.
In the late 1950s, managers' attention was drawn to the ideas of thinkers such as Abraham
Maslow and Douglas McGregor, who proposed that organizational structures and
management practices had to be modified to realize the full productive potential of
organizations. the employees. The theories of motivation and leadership advanced by David
McClelland, Fred Fiedler, Frederick Herzberg, and other behavioral scientists during the
1960s and 1970s gave managers stronger insights into employee behavior.
BEHAVIORAL
ERA
BEGINNINGS CLASSIC ERA PRESENT
OF THE CO
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ADAM SMITH FREDERICK TAYLOR HARTHORNE SKINNER
BEHAVIOR
ORGANIZATIONAL
Psychology. It is the science that aims to measure, explain and sometimes change the
behavior of human beings and other animals. Psychologists are interested in studying and
understanding the behavior of individuals. Learning and personality theorists,
psychological counselors and, mainly, industrial and organizational psychologists, are those
who have enriched, and will continue to add to, the field of knowledge of organizational
behavior.
Sociology. While psychologists focus their attention on the individual, sociologists study
the social system in which individuals fulfill their roles; That is, sociology studies people in
relation to their peers. Specifically, sociologists have made their greatest contributions to
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organizational behavior through their study of the behavior of groups in organizations,
particularly formal and complex ones. Some of the aspects of organizational behavior that
have received valuable knowledge from sociologists are group dynamics, work team
design, organizational culture, theory and structure of formal organizations, organizational
technology, communications, power and conflict. Its specialization in the unit of analysis is
the group and the organization system, its result the study of organizational behavior.
Social psychology. It is a branch of psychology in which concepts from this science and
sociology are combined. It focuses on the reciprocal influence of people. One of the areas
in which social psychologists conduct considerable research is change: how to initiate it
and how to reduce the obstacles to its acceptance. In addition, social psychologists make
contributions to communication, building trust, means by which group activities satisfy the
needs of individuals, and group decision-making processes. Its unit of analysis is the group
and its result is the study of organizational behavior.
Anthropology. It is the study of societies to understand human beings and their activities.
Much of what we now know about organizational culture, organizational environments, and
differences between national cultures is the result of the work of anthropologists or the
application of their methodology. For example, the work of anthropologists on cultures and
their environments has helped us understand the differences in fundamental values,
attitudes and behaviors of people from different countries and in different organizations. Its
unit of analysis is the group and the organization system and its result is the study of
organizational behavior.
Politic science. Although the contributions of political science are often overlooked, they
are important for understanding behavior in organizations. Political science studies the
behavior of individuals and groups in a political environment. The topics of interest in the
subject are the structure of conflicts, the distribution of power and how people manipulate
power for their interests. Its unit of analysis is the organizational system and its result is the
study of organizational behavior.
PSYCHOLOGY
INDIVIDUAL
SOCIOLOGY
CO
ANTHROPOLOGY
ORGANIZATION 8
SYSTEM
POLITIC SCIENCE
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demonstrated relationship with performance factors and the value preferences of
many behavioral researchers. organizational.
Independent variables. In line with the conviction that organizational behavior is best
understood if it is essentially viewed as a set of increasingly complicated bricks, the basis,
or foreground, of our model is understanding the behavior of individuals.
In essence, Theory
• By nature, human beings dislike working and will avoid it if they can.
• Most people will need to be controlled and threatened with punishment if they are to
work toward organizational goals.
• Average individuals actually want to be directed, so they will avoid responsibilities.
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• Security is more desirable than achievements.
Theory Y is derived from a very different set of assumptions, which are as follows:
1. Rational economic man. This idea suggests that man is governed solely by
economic incentives and will do anything (and endure almost unbearable working
conditions) for the simple fact of obtaining some economic benefit. Workers are
considered lazy by nature and need to be offered financial rewards to get them to
work. In all Western industrialized countries the idea of rational economic man
predominated during the first years of this century. It was the time of mass
production; of cheap goods (goods and articles so cheap that for the first time they
were within reach of the working class).
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2. Social man. The human relations movement, which was very influential between
the 1940s and 1960s, gave a somewhat different idea of people: Possibly people are
mere cogs in well-oiled industrial machines, perhaps they are just designated as
hands. and they are known by a name on an attendance card, but as living subjects
they inhabit a dynamic and social world in the confines of a factory. All workers
bring a social world with them to the factory. Once there, they create a social world
with which they essentially deal with and satisfy social needs; That is, needs that do
not abandon when they enter the organization's facilities. They seek company; They
desire and create a sense of intimate belonging and need to give a sense of identity
and meaning to their daily lives. Then the idea of the social man arose. Enlightened
administrations in industrialized countries actively sought to promote social and
welfare activities among their workers; sports facilities; work excursions; social
clubs; canteens and bathrooms. It even resulted in a distinctive style of factory
construction and industrial architecture; Glass and steel factory buildings were
erected, full of natural light, well ventilated, modern and
futuristic in appearance. Workplaces became the symbol of
the new philosophy of social man.
3. The self-realized man . Once again, changes in economic
conditions, with a tremendous push for development and
expansion in the 1960s, appear to have fostered a change in
the pattern of man. As machines took over the most repetitive
tedious tasks, workers and managers began to realize that
most employees never realized their potential by using their
full skills. In reality, the new perspective suggested that all people need to make full
and effective use of their human resources and talents: the need to discover new
aspects of ourselves, our abilities, our latent and undiscovered capacities, our
creative powers. Managers or supervisors were assigned the role of friendly
advisors. In their daily dealings with the workers they had to know which button
they should press for each worker in their position. Their role was to try to give
authority and freedom within the prescribed political limits and they felt that this
was what they wanted, as workers were also believed to be self-disciplined. This
approach held that all workers, regardless of background, class, education, and
occupational status, will rise to challenges when offered the possibility of self-
actualization or independence in decision-making.
4. The complex man . The analysis of beliefs in grand theories, together with the
increased interest in ergonomics and cognitive psychology, have resulted in a
different perspective of people. These are basically considered different and
changing animals. Although everyone has their own hierarchy of needs in life, it
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changes from time to time and from one situation to another. Such variability makes
them difficult to understand and anticipate.
People's motives are not permanent or immutable, as many previous theories assumed.
There is a complex interaction of the initial needs of the person, when they enter the
organization, and their needs modified by subsequent experiences
in it. For the complex contemporary man, there is no universal
model or theory of behavior that encompasses all possibilities.
Above all, it seems that the philosophy of management is eclectic:
it is prepared to make one or more interpretations, attentive to
individual differences among workers.
CHAPTER II
“Individual Behavior”
Personality
When psychologists talk about personality, they are referring to a dynamic concept that
describes the growth and development of a person's entire psychological system. Rather
than attending to aspects of the individual, personality concerns a whole that is greater than
the sum of its parts.
The most cited definition of personality was coined by Gordon Allport more than 65 years
ago. For him, personality is “the dynamic organization within the individual of those
psychophysical systems that determine his peculiar adjustments to the environment.” For
our purposes, personality “is the sum total of the ways in which an individual reacts and
relates to others.” It is usually described by measurable traits that a person exhibits.
Personality Characteristics
One of the first controversies about personality focused on whether it was the result of
heredity or environment. Was personality determined at birth or does it emerge from the
individual's exchanges with his or her environment? The answer is complicated. Personality
is the result of the two influences. Furthermore, today we accept the third factor: the
situation. Thus, adult personality is considered to be composed of hereditary and
environmental factors, moderated by situational conditions.
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Inheritance. It includes those factors that are determined at conception. Height, facial
beauty, sex, temperament, muscular composition and reflexes, energy and biological
rhythms are characteristics that are thought to have a complete or substantial influence from
the parents; that is, by their biological, physiological and psychological composition. The
hereditary theory states that the definitive explanation of an individual's personality is
found in the molecular structure of the genes located on the chromosomes.
Atmosphere . Among the factors that exert pressure on the formation of our personality are
the culture in which we grow up, our early conditioning, the norms of our family, friends
and social groups, and other influences we experience. These environmental factors play a
substantial role in shaping our personality.
Situation . It influences the effect that heredity and environment have on personality. An
individual's personality is generally stable and congruent, but changes with situations. The
demands of different situations awaken different aspects of the personality. Thus, we
should not consider personality schemes in isolation.
It is logical to assume that situations will exert an influence on the personality of the
individual, but to date a clear classification that would indicate the repercussions of
different situations has eluded us. However, we know that certain situations are more
relevant than others in influencing personality.
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Early investigations into personality structure revolved around attempts to identify and
name enduring characteristics that described an individual's behavior. Caution,
aggressiveness, submission, laziness, ambition, loyalty and shyness are known
characteristics. These characteristics, when manifested on many occasions, are called
personality traits. The more constant a characteristic is and the more often it occurs in
diverse situations, the more important it is as a trait that describes the individual.
The researcher was looking for a reduced set of traits that would identify basic patterns.
The result was the identification of 16 personality factors that we call primary or original
traits. It has been found that these traits are a stable and continuous origin of behavior, to
the extent that they allow us to predict how a person will behave in a certain context by
weighting the characteristics according to their relevance for each case.
Extroversion. This dimension includes the degree of comfort in relationships with people.
Extroverts are gregarious, affirmative and sociable. Introverts are reserved, shy and quiet.
Compliance . This dimension refers to the individual's propensity to plague others. The
most satisfied people are cooperative, affectionate and trusting. Those who score low on
this factor are cold, dissatisfied and antagonistic.
Emotional stability . This dimension concerns a person's ability to withstand stress. People
with more emotional stability are calm, confident and secure. Those with a negative score
are nervous, anxious, depressed and insecure.
Openness to experience . The last dimension concerns the range of personal interests and
the allure of novelty. Very open people are creative, curious and have artistic sensitivity.
Those at the other end of the openness category are conventional and comfortable with the
familiar.
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human personality
In addition to providing a uniform theoretical framework for personality, Big Five research
has also found important relationships between these personality dimensions and job
performance.
As for the other personality dimensions, their prognostic function depends on the
performance criterion and the occupation group. For example, extroversion predicts
performance in management and sales positions. This result is logical because such
positions impose a lot of social treatment. Similarly, openness to experience is important in
predicting training skill, which makes sense. What is not clear is why positive emotional
stability is not related to job performance. Intuitively, it would seem that calm and secure
people would do better in any position than those who are anxious and insecure. Perhaps
the answer lies in the fact that only people who are emotionally stable keep their jobs. Thus,
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the index obtained in this dimension by the people studied, all of them employed, had to be
quite small.
Attitudes
Attitudes are evaluative judgments, favorable or unfavorable, about objects, people or
events. They express the opinion of the speaker about
something. Attitudes are not the same as values, but they are
related, which is understood if we look at the three
components of attitude: cognition, affect and behavior.
Contemplating attitudes in their three components: cognition, affect and behavior, is useful
to understand their complexity and their potential relationship with behavior. Unlike values,
attitudes are less stable. For example, advertising messages aim to modify attitudes towards
a certain product or service. In organizations, attitudes are important because they influence
behavior at work.
Types of attitudes
A person can have thousands of attitudes, but in organizational behavior we focus attention
on the very few that are related to work and that represent positive or negative evaluations
of employees about aspects of their work environment. Almost all research in
organizational behavior has been interested in three attitudes:
job satisfaction, job involvement, and commitment to the
organization.
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Participation in work . It is a more recent addition to the organizational behavior
literature. There is no complete agreement on what the term means, but a workable
definition would be that job involvement measures the degree to which a person identifies,
psychologically speaking, with his or her job and considers his or her perceived
performance to be important to his or her job. sense of personal worth. Employees who are
highly involved in their work identify intensely with the work they do and are genuinely
interested in it. High work engagement has also been found to be associated with fewer
absences and lower resignation rates. However, it seems that it is a factor that predicts
turnover better than absenteeism, since it accounts for up to 16 percent of the variance in
the former.
Values
Values are the standards of conduct and attitudes according to which we behave and that
are in accordance with what we consider correct. Values are basic convictions that a
“particular mode of conduct or final state of existence is
personally, or socially, preferable to its opposite or contrary
mode of conduct or final state of existence.” They contain an
element of judgment because they incorporate personal ideas
about what is good, right, and desirable. Values have content
and intensity attributes . The content attribute asserts that a
way of behaving or an end state of existence is important. The
intensity attribute specifies how important it is. When we
classify a person's values by their intensity, we obtain their
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value system . We all have a hierarchy that forms our value system, a system that is
identified by the relative importance we assign to values such as freedom, pleasure, self-
respect, honesty, obedience and justice.
Importance of values
Values are important to the study of organizational behavior because they provide the
foundation for understanding attitudes and motivation and because they influence our
perceptions. Individuals enter an organization with preconceived notions about what should
be and what should not be. Of course, these notions do not lack evaluations, quite the
contrary: they contain interpretations of right and wrong. Furthermore, they imply that
certain behaviors or outcomes are preferred over others. Thus, values cloud objectivity and
rationality. Values typically influence attitudes and behavior.
Types of securities
Milton Rokeach created the Rokeach Value Repertoire (RVR)5 which consists of two
groups with 18 values each. One of the groups is terminal values, which refer to the final
states of existence. These are the goals that a person would like to achieve throughout their
life. The other group, instrumental values, concerns preferable ways of behaving or the
means to achieve terminal values.
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Values in other cultures
As values differ across cultures, understanding these differences will be very helpful in
explaining and predicting the behavior of employees from different countries. One of the
most cited methods for analyzing variations between cultures is Geer Hofstede's
theoretical framework . Who surveyed more than 116,000 IBM employees in 40 countries
about their work values. He found that managers and employees
vary on five dimensions of national culture.
Quantity of life or quality of life . The quantity of life is the degree to which the values of
assertiveness, economic gains and material goods, and competition prevail. Quality of life
is the degree to which people value relationships and show sensitivity and concern for the
well-being of others.
Skills
It is the ability that an individual has to perform the various tasks of his or her job. It is an
updated assessment of what one can do. Basically, an individual's general abilities are made
up of two groups of factors: intellectual abilities and physical abilities.
Intellectual skills . They are those that are needed to carry out mental activities. For
example, IQ tests, which are designed to assess an individual's general intellectual abilities.
The positions differ in the demands of the intellectual skills required for their performance.
In general, the more information processing the job requires, the more general intelligence
and verbal skills will be necessary to perform it successfully.
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Dimension Description Working example
Numerical Aptitude Ability for arithmetic speed Accountant: Calculation of sales tax on
and precision a series of items
Deductive reasoning Ability to use logic and Supervisor: choose between two
evaluate the implications of suggestions offered by
an argument employees
In the last decade, researchers have begun to extend the meaning of intelligence beyond
mental faculties. The most recent evidence suggests that intelligence is best understood
divided into four parts; cognitive, social, emotional and cultural. Cognitive intelligence
encompasses skills that traditional intelligence tests have long explored. Social intelligence
is the ability to relate well to others. Emotional intelligence is the ability to identify,
understand and manage emotions. Cultural intelligence is the awareness of the differences
between cultures and the ability to function in multicultural situations. Although this stream
of research is new, it holds great promise.
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Physical abilities . They fulfill a notable function in complex jobs
that require processing information; certain physical skills become
important to fulfill less qualified and more
routine positions. For example, jobs that
require stamina, manual dexterity, leg
strength, and similar skills require
management to detect the physical
capabilities of employees.
Learning
It can be defined as any relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs as a result of
experience. Ironically, we can say that changes in behavior indicate that learning has
occurred and that learning is a change in behavior.
Learning theories
Three theories have been postulated to explain the process by which we acquire behavioral
patterns. These are the theories of classical conditioning, operant conditioning and social
learning.
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Classical conditioning. In essence, learning a conditioned response consists of establishing
an association between a conditioned stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus. When they
are associated, the stimulus is irresistible and the neutral one, the latter becomes a
conditioned stimulus and acquires the properties of the unconditioned stimulus. Classical
conditioning is passive. Something happens and we react in a way that arises in response to
the concrete identifiable event. This is how it is possible to explain simple reflex behaviors.
1. Care processes . We learn from a model only when we recognize and pay attention
to its fundamental characteristics.
2. Retention processes . The influence of a model will depend on how well the
individual remembers the action of the model after it is no longer available.
3. Motor reproduction processes . After a person sees a new behavior as part of the
model, the observation must become an act. So, this process shows that the
individual can execute actions represented by the model.
4. Reinforcement processes . Individuals will be motivated to exhibit the model's
behavior if they receive incentives or rewards. Positively reinforced behaviors will
receive more attention, be learned better, and will be repeated more often.
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Several factors come together to shape and sometimes distort perception. These factors rest
on the receiver , on the perceived object or in the context of the situation in which the
perception occurs.
When an individual observes an object and tries to interpret what he sees, this
interpretation is considerably influenced by the personal characteristics of the perceiver .
Among the personal characteristics that influence perception are attitudes, personality,
motivations, interests, experiences, and hopes.
The characteristics of the object observed can affect what is perceived. Loud people are
more noticeable in a group than quiet ones. The same thing happens with very attractive or
very ugly people. Since objects are not observed in isolation, their relationship with the
background also influences perception, as does our tendency to group close and similar
things.
The context in which we see objects or events is also important. The moment of perception
has an influence on attention, as does the place, light, heat or any other factors of the
situation .
Selective perception. Any characteristic that makes a person, object or event stand out
increases its possibility of being perceived. Because it is impossible for us to assimilate
everything we witness; We don't just take certain stimuli. This trend explains why we are
more likely to see cars like ours or why some employees are reprimanded by their boss for
something that goes unnoticed if it is the work of another colleague. Since we cannot
observe everything that happens, we have selective perception.
Attitudes
Reasons
Interests
Experience
expectations
Time
Perception
Work environment
Social environment
In organizations, individuals make decisions, that is, they choose between two or more
alternatives. Therefore, decision making is an important part of organizational behavior.
Now, the perceptions of individuals greatly influence how they make their decisions in
organizations and what the quality of their final choices is.
Whoever makes optimal decisions requires rationalism. That is, it chooses constant options
of maximum value in the context of its constraints. These options are chosen following a
six-stage rational decision-making model.
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Model premises . The rational decision-making model contains several premises, which
are:
1. Clarity of the problem . The problem is clear and direct. It is assumed that
whoever decides has all the information about the situation.
2. Known options . It is assumed that the decider can identify all relevant criteria and
write down all viable alternatives. Furthermore, he is aware of all the possible
consequences of each alternative.
3. Clear preferences . It is rationally assumed that criteria and alternatives can be
ranked and weighted according to their importance.
4. Constant preferences . It is assumed that the decision criteria are constant and that
the weights assigned to them are stable.
5. There are no time or cost restrictions. The rational decision maker can obtain all
the information about criteria and alternatives because it is assumed that he or she
has no time or cost limitations.
6. Maximum performance . A rational decision maker will choose the alternative that
yields the greatest perceived value.
Function of Emotions
Emotions . They are intense feelings directed at something or someone. There are felt
emotions and these are real emotions of the individual. Manifested emotions are those that
are required in the organization and that are considered appropriate for the position.
Emotions are not neutral; There are positive and negative emotions, the negative ones are
five times more intense than those that arouse positive emotions of the same intensity.
To move forward with our analysis, we have to clarify three intertwined terms: affects,
emotions and moods.
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Affects are, broadly speaking, a broad range of feelings that people experience. It is a
generic concept that covers both emotions and moods.
Dimension of emotions
Variety. There are dozens of emotions: anger, disdain, excitement, envy, fear, frustration,
happiness, hate, hope, jealousy, joy, love, pride, surprise, etc. Positive emotions, such as
joy and hope, express a favorable evaluation or feeling. Negative ones, such as anger and
hatred, show the opposite.
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Intensity. People give different responses to the same emotional stimuli. In some cases this
is attributable to the personality of the individual, but in others it is a result of the
requirements of the job. The ability to express the intensity of feelings is variable. Jobs
require emotional labor of different intensity.
Application to CO
Capacity and selection. People who know their emotions and are good at interpreting
those of others do their jobs better. This is, in essence, the basic reason for recent research
on emotional intelligence.
Emotional intelligence. It refers to a set of capabilities, skills and competencies that are
non-cognitive and that influence a person's ability to cope with the demands and pressures
of their environment. It is made up of five dimensions:
"MOTIVATION"
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Definition and Concept of Motivation
Motivation are the processes that account for the intensity, direction and persistence of an
individual's effort to achieve a goal. Many people make the mistake of thinking that
motivation is a personality trait, that is, something that some have and others don't. In
practice, inexperienced managers call unmotivated employees lazy. With this adjective it is
assumed that the individual is always lazy or always lacks motivation, but our knowledge
of the subject indicates that this is not true. What we know about motivation is the result of
the reciprocal influence of the employee and the situation.
The three fundamental elements in our definition are intensity, direction and persistence.
Intensity is how hard a person tries. It is the element we almost always think about when
we talk about motivation. Now, high intensity is not likely to produce good performance
results if the effort is not channeled in a direction that benefits the organization. Therefore,
we have to consider the quality of the effort as well as its intensity. The effort that we
should seek is that which is directed towards the organization's goals and is consistent with
them. Finally, motivation has an aspect of persistence, which is the measure of how long a
person sustains their effort. Motivated individuals stick with a task long enough to achieve
the goal.
Motivational Theories
Theory X and theory Y.
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Douglas McGregor postulated two views on human beings: one, negative, called Theory X
, and the other, positive, Theory Y. After observing the way managers deal with their
employees, McGregor concluded that their views of human nature are based on a set of
assumptions with which they shape their behavior toward their subordinates.
1. Employees do not like work and, whenever possible, they try to avoid it.
2. Since they do not like the work, they must be forced, controlled or threatened with
punishment to achieve goals.
3. Employees will avoid responsibilities and ask for formal instructions whenever
they can.
4. Employees place their safety before other factors at work and will exhibit little
ambition.
As a contrast to these negative ideas about human nature, McGregor pointed out four
premises that he called theory Y :
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1. Employees may consider work as natural as rest or play.
2. People are directed and controlled if they are committed to the objectives.
3. The common person can accept and even request responsibilities. The ability to
make innovative decisions is very confused among the population and is not the
exclusive property of administrative positions.
However, there is no evidence to confirm the validity of either set of premises or whether
accepting Theory Y and modifying our actions accordingly produces more motivated
workers. The premises of one theory or
another will be appropriate depending on the
situation.
ERC theory
Maslow's hierarchy of needs follows a rigid gradual progression. ERC theory does not
assume an inflexible ordering in which a lower need must be substantially satisfied before
the next can be moved on. It also contains a dimension of frustration and regression. In the
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ERC theory it is observed that when a higher need is frustrated, the individual's desire to
compensate for a lower need is awakened and accentuated.
In summary, ERC theory states, like Maslow's, that the satisfaction of lower-order needs
leads to the desire to satisfy higher ones, but several needs can serve as incentives at the
same time and the frustration of the attempt to satisfy a higher need may prompt a
regression to a lower need. Several studies lend support to the ERC theory, but there is also
evidence that it does not work in some organizations. Whatever the case, the ERC theory
represents a more valid version of the hierarchy of needs.
Cognitive evaluation theory has for years been a belief among compensation specialists that
for salary and other extrinsic rewards to be effective
motivators, they have to be consistent with the individual's
performance. But cognitive assessment theorists would argue
that this only decreases the satisfaction the individual feels
from doing their job. We replace an internal stimulus with an
external one. In fact, if cognitive evaluation theory is correct, it
would be logical to separate the individual's pay from his or
her performance, to avoid reducing intrinsic motivation.
This theory has received many attacks, especially for its methodology followed by its
studies and the interpretation of the results. First, many of the studies that tested the theory
were conducted with students, not paid employees in an organization. The researchers
observed what happened to the students' behavior when they stopped a reward that had
already been assigned. This is interesting, but it does not represent the typical work
situation. Second, evidence indicates that very strong intrinsic motivation resists the
detrimental effects of extrinsic rewards. Therefore, the theory's application may be limited
to work organizations because, in general, lower-level positions are not rewarding enough
to foster intrinsic interest and many managerial and professional positions offer intrinsic
rewards.
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Reinforcement theory
This theory is the counterpoint to the theory of goal setting. While the theory of goal setting
as the first is a cognitive position in which it is affirmed that the individual's objectives
govern his actions, in the theory of reinforcement we find a behaviorist position in which it
is asserted that the individual conditional reinforcement behavior theoretically it is evident
that they are opposite points of view. Reinforcement theorists think that behavior is caused
by the environment.
The experience of flow. A fundamental element of the flow experience is that your
motivation is not related to the end goals. The activity that people carry out when they are
overcome by the timeless feeling of flow comes from the resource of the activity itself, not
from the attempt to achieve a goal. So, when a person experiences flow, they have
completely intrinsic motivation.
One of the most surprising results of research on flow is that it is not associated with free
time. In fact, people dedicated to leisure, such as watching television or resting, rarely
report having had the experience. Another surprise is that it is more likely to occur at work
than at home.
Intrinsic motivation model. Thomas states that employees are intrinsically motivated
when they have a genuine interest in their work, look for ways to do it better, and are
energized and satisfied by doing it. As with flow, the rewards employees get from intrinsic
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motivation come from the work itself, rather than from external factors such as salary
increases or congratulations from the boss.
Thomas' model postulates that intrinsic motivation is achieved when people experience
feelings of freedom of decision, competence, meaning and progress. Define these
components as follows:
Decision freedom is the ability to choose task activities that seem meaningful and perform
them in a way that is considered appropriate.
Competence is the feeling of accomplishment that comes from skillfully performing one's
chosen work activities.
Meaning is the opportunity to pursue a valuable task goal, a goal that matters in the overall
context of things.
Progress is the feeling that you are moving forward in achieving the goal of your tasks.
Thomas cites numerous studies that show that these four components of intrinsic
motivation have a significant relationship with increased job satisfaction and performance
rated by supervisors. However, almost all of the studies cited by Thomas were done with
professional and administrative employees. It is unclear whether, for example, these four
components predict the intrinsic motivation of rank-and-file employees and production
workers.
Expectations theory
Expectancy theory states that the strength of a tendency to act in a way depends on the
strength of an expectation that the act will be followed by a certain outcome that the
individual finds attractive. In more practical terms, equity theory asserts that an employee
will be motivated to make a great effort if he or she believes that this will result in a good
performance evaluation; that a good evaluation will earn you rewards that will satisfy your
personal goals. Therefore, the theory focuses on three relationships:
Expectancy theory explains why so many workers are not motivated and only do the
minimum necessary to get by. This is evident when we delve into three postulated
relationships, which are presented through questions: If I give my best effort, will it be
recognized in my performance evaluation?; If I receive a good performance evaluation,
will the organization reward me? If I am rewarded, are these the rewards that seem
attractive to me?
In summary, the key to expectancy theory is understanding individuals' goals and the link
between effort and performance, performance and reward, and reward and individual goal
satisfaction. As a contingent model, expectancy theory recognizes that there is no universal
principle to explain everyone's motivations. Furthermore, understanding what needs a
person wants to meet does not guarantee that they will perceive that high performance
automatically leads to meeting them.
The criteria to verify the validity of the theory have encountered methodological, criteria
and measurement problems. Consequently, many published studies that purport to defend
or refute the theory should be taken with caution. It is important to note that in general the
studies have not been able to repeat the methodology of the original proposal.
1. Physiological . Hunger, thirst and the needs for shelter, sex, and other organic
needs.
2. Of security . Defense and protection from physical and emotional harm.
3. Social . Affection, feeling of being part of a group, acceptance and friendship.
4. Of esteem . Internal esteem factors, such as self-respect, autonomy, and
achievements, as well as external esteem factors such as position, recognition, and
attention.
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5. Self realisation . The drive to become what one is capable of being. Growth,
development of one's potential and self-realization.
CHAPTER III
The concept of group can be defined in different ways, depending on the perspective used.
A general definition states that the members of a group in an organization:
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They assume different forms of interaction that lead them to have coincidences and
disagreements.
A group is made up of two or more interdependent people who come together and interact
to achieve certain objectives. The behavior of a group is more than the sum of the behaviors
of the individuals that make it up. When people work in groups they do not behave the
same as when they are alone or isolated. Hence the need to understand group behavior to
better understand OC.
Types of groups
Formals are sets of work that the organization creates by assigning specific tasks. In formal
groups, those behaviors that favor working together to achieve the organization's objectives
are encouraged.
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Task groups. They are groups defined by the organization and made up of
people who perform certain tasks or functions. However, they are not
limited to the area of their immediate superior, but can transcend command
relationships. Various executives from insurance, industries, human
resources, maintenance, etc., can form a task group when a fire occurs in a
company, whether to save people, put out the fire, find the causes, manage
operations, etc.
Temporary groups with defined deadlines. They are formed to carry out
certain tasks of the organization and have a defined duration, like
commissions.
Informal groups are those that arise spontaneously as a result of relationships between
people. Its nature is typically social. They arise in the work environment in response to the
needs of the social contract. They are usually formed based on friendships or common
interests.
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Informal groups can be:
39
Interest groups. They are groups of people who come together to face
similar problems or achieve a common goal that will satisfy their individual
interests. They can come together to plan the days off they will spend
together, to support a friend who is struggling, to demand better working
conditions, etc.
Friendship groups. They are groups of people that go beyond the work
environment and have social relationships. They are usually in the same age
range, share a cultural heritage, a fan of the same soccer team or political
preferences.
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Stages of group development
Group development is a dynamic process. Each one is in a stage that shows their evolution.
A group never achieves total stability. Research shows that groups go through five stages:
forming, storming, normalizing, performing, and disrupting.
The formation stage is the initial step of building a group and consists of two
phases. First, people enter the group because of a job assignment (in the case of a
formal group) or because they want to obtain a benefit (in an informal group). Once
the people are gathered, the second phase of the formation stage begins, that is, the
definition of the purposes, structure and leadership of the group. This phase is
characterized by uncertainty. Some members analyze others to determine which
behaviors are acceptable. This stage ends when the members begin to perceive
themselves as part of the group.
The storm stage is the one in which conflict arises within the group. The members
accept the existence of the group, but resist the control that it imposes on their
individuality. Deciding who should control the group also generates conflict. When
this stage ends, a relatively clear leadership emerges in the group and an agreement
or consensus is achieved regarding its direction.
The normalization stage occurs when close relationships develop and the group
gradually becomes cohesive. A strong feeling of group identity and camaraderie
emerges. This phase ends when the group structure is consolidated and the group
assimilates a common set of expectations that define the behavior of its members.
The performance stage occurs when the group structure is fully accepted and
functional. The energy stops being directed towards knowing and understanding
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each of the members and focuses on the performance of the task at hand.
Performance is the last stage of development of permanent work groups.
The interruption stage. Temporary groups such as commissions, task forces, teams,
and similar groups that must perform a limited task go through a fifth stage. In it the
group gets ready for the rout, that is, for each member to return to their normal
activities in other areas. At this moment the group ceases to exist.
The size. This influences the behavior of the group due to the variables involved.30
There is evidence that small groups perform tasks better. On the other hand, larger
groups perform better when it comes to solving problems. Large groups, of about 12
participants, produce more diversified entries. If the goal is to discover data and
facts, large groups are more effective.
The composition. It refers to the combination of knowledge and skills that members
bring to the group. It can be homogeneous or heterogeneous. Various research has
shown that heterogeneous groups, made up of people who are different in terms of
personality, sex, education, functional specialization and experience, have a greater
variety of skills and information and therefore can be more effective, especially
when performing cognitive tasks that They demand creativity and innovation.
Diversity brings together very varied skills and competencies, which allows the
group to achieve its objectives more quickly.
The cohesion. It refers to the degree of attraction that members feel towards each
other and their motivation to remain in the group. Cohesion is important because it
is associated with productivity. It is strengthened when group members spend a
significant part of their time together, when the size of the group is so small that it
facilitates interaction, or when it suffers external threats that lead its elements to
close ranks. Research shows that the relationship between cohesion and productivity
depends on the performance standards that the group has established. If these are
very high, such as excellence in results, high quality of work and cooperation with
external people, a cohesive group will be more productive than a less united one. If
performance standards are lax, the cohesive group will have lower productivity.
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CHAPTER IV
1. Communication:
At all levels of an organization's activity, people are constantly acquiring and
disseminating information. Communication is a key element, because managers do
not work with things, but with information about them. Furthermore, all
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administrative functions, such as planning, organizing, directing and controlling,
can only function in practice through communication. This is essential for the
functioning of the organization. Despite all the advances in computing and
telecommunications, communication between people still leaves much to be
desired, because it does not depend on technology, but on the effort of people and
what surrounds them. It is a process that occurs inside people.
The word communication comes from the Latin communicatio and means to make
common. The communicator tries to establish a kind of community with the
receiver. Thus, communication refers to the transmission of information through
common symbols, and its understanding. Common symbols can be verbal or non-
verbal. Thus, communication is the transfer of information and meaning from one
person to another. It is the flow of information between two or more people and its
understanding, or the relationship between people through ideas, facts, thoughts,
values and messages. Communication is the point at which people converge when
they share feelings, ideas, practices and knowledge. Thus, all communication
involves at least two people: the one who sends a message and the one who receives
it. A single person cannot communicate anything, because another person is needed
to complete the act of communication, which necessarily involves transactions
between people.
Communication Functions:
Communication is vital and essential for the behavior of organizations, groups and
people. In general, communication fulfills four basic functions in an organization,
group or person: control, motivation, expression of emotions and information.
The most used communication process model comes from the work of researchers
Shannon and Weaver and Schramm, who focused on describing a general
communication model that would be useful in all situations. According to them,
communication is a process that follows a well-defined flow. Communication
problems arise when there are deviations or obstacles. The starting point of the
communication process is a purpose, which becomes a message that will be
transmitted and that follows a flow that goes from a source (the sender) to a
receiver. To do this, the message is encoded (converted to a symbol format) and
transmitted through a medium (channel) to the receiver, who translates (decodes)
the message. The result is the transfer of meaning from one person to another. Thus,
the communication process has seven parts:
2. Coding. For the message to be transmitted it must be encoded, that is, its symbols
must be translated into a form that can be adequately transmitted through the chosen
channel.
3. Channel. It is the vehicle through which the message is transmitted. The channel
is the bearer of the message and the sender selects it. The channel is the medium
that exists outside the communicator and can be perceived by everyone. The menu
of options to choose the best vehicle for each message has never before been so
large and varied. The vehicle can be speech, which uses hearing; a written
document, which uses sight or touch, or non-verbal communication, which uses the
basic senses. Fax, email, the Internet and the cell phone, among other technologies,
have had enormous repercussions on communications. The channel can be formal,
when the organization selects it to transmit messages that refer to the work of its
members and follow the chain of command that exists within the organization, or it
can be informal, such as social or personal networks, which are spontaneous. and
have no relationship with the organization.
4. Decoding. For the message to be understood, the receiver must translate its
symbols. Decoding is the process the receiver uses to translate the message in their
mind. When the communication is correct, the resulting idea or mental image will
correspond to those of the sender. Like the sender, the receiver has limitations in
their skills, attitudes, knowledge and sociocultural system. Just as the sender must
have speaking or writing skills, the receiver must also have listening or reading
skills. A person's knowledge, attitudes and cultural background influence their
ability to send and receive messages.
5. Receiver. It is the subject to whom the message is directed. It is the final recipient
of the communication.
6. Feedback. The final line of the communication process is feedback. When the
communication source decodes the message and encodes a response we have
feedback, which is the process that allows us to verify whether the message has
been transmitted successfully. Feedback indicates whether the message was
understood. For this reason, it is said that effective communication is one that works
in a two-way manner, that is, from the sender to the receiver and back to confirm
the reception and meaning of the message. At its core, feedback is the recipient's
reaction to the message sent. The sender can use feedback to ensure successful
communication. If the recipient's reaction is incorrect, the sender may conclude that
the communication was unsuccessful and the message was not conveyed
appropriately. Feedback can be verbal or non-verbal.
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7. Noise. They are the factors that can distort a message. It can be presented at any
stage of the communication process.
2. Human Communication:
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With themselves: intrapersonal communication
Expression: body language
Other person: interpersonal communication
Between groups: group dynamics
Between organizations: organizational communication
Across cultures: intercultural communication
3. Organizational Communication:
Communication is essential to achieve agreement and consistency in people's
behavior. Organizational communication is the process by which people exchange
information in an organization. Some communications flow through the formal and
informal structure; others move down or up along hierarchical levels, while still
others move in a lateral or horizontal direction. Nowadays, computing has
intensified communication in all directions. Organizational communication, like
interpersonal communication, is not perfect, but is transformed throughout the
process, which causes the recipient to almost always receive a different message
than the one originally sent, since the intention is transformed in the communication
process.
2. Upward communications are messages that flow from lower to higher levels of
the organizational hierarchy. There are five types of bottom-up information:
a) Problems and exceptions. They are messages that describe deviations or
anomalies in routine and normal performance, and seek to attract the attention of
management.
b) Suggestions for improvement. They are messages with ideas to improve
procedures related to tasks to increase quality and efficiency.
c) Performance reports. They are messages that include periodic reports that inform
management about the performance of people or units of the organization.
d) Accounting and financial information. They are messages that refer to costs, bill
payment, sales volume, projected profits, return on investment and other matters of
interest to management.
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4. LEADERSHIP
What is leadership?
Leadership is the ability to influence a group to achieve goals. The source of this
influence may be formal, such as holding a management position in the company.
1. I intended to find the universal personality traits that leaders possess to a greater
degree than those who are not.
2. He tried to explain leadership in terms of the leader's behavior. Both positions
turned out to be false starts, originating from an erroneous and oversimplified
conception of leadership.
3. He resorted to contingency modules to explain the inadequacies of previous
theories to reconcile and bring together the diversity of research findings.
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Trait theories
If we were to describe a leader as the basis of the general notes that appear in our
days in the media, we would make a list of qualities such as intelligence,
charismatic, decisiveness, enthusiasm, strength, courage, integrity , trust, and
perhaps this would lead us to the conclusion that leaders have to be one part boy
scout and two parts Jesus Christ. The search for characteristics like these that
distinguish leaders from those concerned the first psychologists who studied
leadership.
The researchers' traits for these traits ended in numerous dead ends whether the
research tried to identify a set of traits that will always differentiate leaders from
followers and effective leaders from ineffective ones, it failed. Perhaps it was overly
optimistic to believe that a single, consistent set of traits could be applied equally to
all effective leaders, whether they were in charge of the Hell's Angels, the Church of
Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, Playboy or Walt Disney Company.
Be that as it may, efforts to identify the traits consistently associated with leadership
have been more fruitful.
The six traits in which leaders differ from others are:
Possessing the right characteristics only makes it more likely that the individual will
become a leader: he or she still has to take the right actions, and what is right in one
situation is not necessarily right in another. Thus, although there has been some
renewed interest in traits since the 1980s, an intense movement in another direction
began as early as the 1940s. Leadership research from the late 1970s to the mid-
1970s highlighted the preferred behavioral styles exhibited by leaders.
Behavioral theories.
The inability to pinpoint the "trait mines" led researchers to focus on the behaviors
of certain leaders. They wondered if there was anything particular in the way he
carried himself; For example, are they more democratic than autocratic?
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In terms of its application, the difference between trait and behavioral theory lies in
their postulates. If the former were valid, leaders would essentially be data: they
have it or they don't. For their part, whether particular behaviors identify leaders
could teach leadership, we could develop programs that would implement such
guidelines in those who wanted to be effective leaders. Of course, this was a more
stimulating route, as it meant that the number of leaders could be increased. If
training worked, we would have an infinite supply of effective leaders.
Ohio Studies.
The most extensive and repeated behavioral theory comes from research begun in
the late 1940s. These studies sought to identify independent dimensions of leader
behavior.
From about 100 original dimensions, the researchers ended up narrowing down a
list into two categories that accounted for most of the leadership behavior written by
subordinates. They called them initial structure and consideration.
Initial structure refers to the degree to which the leader is inclined to define and
structure his or her role and those of his or her subordinates in the effort to achieve
goals. The leader (characterized as high in initial structure) could be a writer with
expressions like this: "assigns group members to particular tasks," "expects workers
to maintain defined performance criteria," and "insists on meeting deadlines."
Consideration is the degree to which the individual is inclined to have working
relationships characterized by mutual trust, respect for subordinates' ideas, and
respect for feelings. This leader is interested in the community, the common well-
being, the status and satisfaction of his followers. It is possible to distinguish the
leader with great consideration as one who helps his subordinates with personal
problems, is cordial and accessible, and treats them as equals.
It was found that leaders high on initial structure and consideration (the "high"
leader) tend to achieve higher performance satisfaction from their subordinates
more often than those who score low on initial structure, consideration, or both.
Michigan Studies.
The leadership studies undertaken by the University of Michigan Survey Research
Center, around the same time as those at Ohio State, had similar objectives: Locate
characteristics of leaders that seemed related to measures of leadership
effectiveness. performance. The Michigan group also proposed two dimensions of
leader behavior, which they called employee orientation and production orientation.
They claimed that employee-oriented leaders emphasize personal relationships;
They have a particular interest in the needs of subordinates and accept members'
individual differences. In contrast, production-oriented leaders tend to emphasize
the technical or task aspects of the job; Their main interest is to fulfill the tasks of
the group, whose members are the means to that end.
The conclusion reached by the Michigan researchers greatly favors leaders whose
behavior is employee-oriented. They were associated with greater group
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productivity and greater job satisfaction. Production-oriented leaders were most
closely associated with low productivity and worker satisfaction.
Aside from their findings, Blacke and Mounton researchers concluded that
managers perform better with a 9.9 style as opposed to, say, the 9.1 (task-oriented)
or the 1.9 (Friends Club) leader. Unfortunately, the grid offered a framework for
conceptualizing leadership style rather than presenting new, concrete information to
clarify its difficulties, since there is little substantial evidence to support the
conclusion that 9.9 is the most effective in all areas. situations.
In 1973, Victor Vroom and Philip Yetton developed a leader participation model
that related leadership behavior to participation in decision making. Recognizing
that task structures place varying demands on routine and nonroutine activities,
researchers argued that leader behavior must be tailored to reflect such structure.
Vroom and Yetton's model was normative: it provided a sequence of rules to follow
to determine the form and amount of participation in decision-making, as different
situations dictated. The model was a decision tree with seven contingencies (whose
membership began with “yes” or “no” choices) and five alternative leadership
styles.
The most recent work by Vroom and Arthur Jago has led to a revision of the model,
the new version of which retains the same five leadership alternatives—ranging
from the leader making the decision alone to sharing the problem with the group
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and reaching a solution. consensus decision but expands the contingency variables
to the twelve that we noted.
Research to test both the original and revised models has been encouraging; but,
unfortunately, it is too complex a model for the Communism manager to employ
regularly.
Of course, we can't do justice to the sophistications of the model here, but the
important thing is that Vroom and his colleagues have offered us a solid,
empirically grounded understanding of the contingency variables you should
consider when choosing your leadership style.
Charismatic leadership.
Almost all transactional leadership theories clarify the functions and requirements
of tasks to guide or motivate followers in the direction of established goals. There is
another type of leader who inspires followers to transcend their personal interests
for the good of the company and who is capable of causing a profound and
extraordinary effect on their followers: these are charismatic or transformational
leaders. Ted Turner, Jesse Jackson, Mother Teresa, John Paul II, General Douglas
McArthur and Franklin D Roosevelt belong to this class. By the strength of your
personal ability, transform your followers by elevating the sense of importance and
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value of their tasks. "I would walk through fire if my boss asked me to" is the kind
of endorsement these leaders draw upon.
Careful examination reveals that the concepts of "task" and "people" sometimes
expressed in more elaborate terms that have essentially the same meaning permeate
most theories. The task dimension was only called that by Fielder, but it is
equivalent to the "initial structure" of the Ohio group, "directive" among those who
support the theory of the path to the goal, "production orientation" of the Michigan
research and "interest in production" by Blake and Mounton. The agent dimension
has received similar treatment, and names such as "considerate," "supportive,"
"employee-oriented," or "relationship-oriented" leadership. It is evident that
leadership behavior can be reduced along two dimensions, tasks and people, but
researchers still differ on whether they are the extremes of a continuum (one can be
high in one but not the other) of two independent aspects (one can be high in or low
in both).
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of the leader depends on the adjustments of his style to the environment as well as
the characteristics of the followers.
Despite the complexity of the leader engagement model, efforts to validate it have
been encouraging; For example, one investigation found that leaders who strongly
agreed with the model had subordinates with higher productivity and satisfaction
than those who agreed poorly.
Power is perhaps the last dirty word. For almost everyone it is easier to talk about
money or even sex than about power. Those who have it, deny it; Those who seek it
do not want it to be noticed, and those who are good at achieving it keep secrets
about how they obtain it.
Perhaps the most important aspect of power is a dependency function. Someone has
power over you and controls something that you yourself want. Yes, to obtain the
university degree you want you must pass a certain course and your current
Professor is the only professor at the faculty who teaches it, he has power over you.
Your options are ultimately limited, and you were of enormous importance in
getting your degree. In the same way, if you go to university thanks to the financing
of your Parents, you will recognize that they have power over you: depend on
financial support; But as soon as you leave school, find a job, and earn a steady
income, your power will be substantially reduced.
Careful comparison of our description of power with that of leadership will fail to
recognize that the two concepts are intertwined. Leaders exercise power to achieve
group goals, and power is a means to facilitate their execution.
What are the differences between leadership and power? One is related to the
compatibility of goals, since power does not need, it only requires dependencies,
while leadership requires some congruence between the objectives of the leader and
those of the follower. The other difference is in the direction that research into these
concepts has taken. Answering the following questions: how much support should
the leader show? How much should you share decision-making with your
subordinates?
Power bases.
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Where does the power come from? Will the individual or the group have influence
over the others? The answer is a five-category classification scheme established by
John French and Bertram Raven. These researchers postulated five bases, or
sources, of power: coercive, reward, legitimate, expert, and reference.
Coercive power.
They define the base of coercive power as that which depends on fear. One reacts to
this power out of fear of the negative results that could occur if one does not obey.
At the organizational level, A has coercive power over B and can fire, suspend or
demote him, as long as we assume that B values his job. Similarly, if A can assign
to B activities that distinguish him and or treat him in a way that he considers
shameful, A has coercive power over B.
Power to reward.
The power to reward is the opposite of coercive. People accede to the desires or
institutions of others because it brings them benefits; Therefore, the one who
distributes the rewards, which can be anything that others consider valuable, will
have power over them.
Power and legitimized.
In formal groups and organizations, perhaps the most common means of access to
one or more of the bases of power is the position one has in the structure, the so-
called legitimate power. It consists of the power that is acquired by the position
occupied in the formal hierarchy of the company.
Expert power.
Expert power is the influence exerted as a result of special skill, abilities, or
knowledge. Skills have become one of the most powerful sources of influence as the
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world has become more technologically oriented. As jobs become more specialized,
we become increasingly dependent on experts to achieve goals. Just as doctors are
skilled and therefore have expert power (almost all of us follow our Doctor's
advice), the same is true of computer specialists, accountants and taxes, Solar
engineers, industrial psychologists and other specialists.
Reference power.
The last category of influence that French and Raven pointed out is referent power,
the basis of which is identification with whoever has the resources or personal traits
towards two. Whether I admire you and identify with you, it may be exercising
power over me, since I want to please you.
Importance. Without giving yourself what you have, there will be no dependency;
Therefore, to create success you have to control the things that others consider
important. Thus, it has been discovered that companies try to avoid uncertainty; So,
we can think that the individuals or groups that can absorb it control an important
resource; For example, in a study of industries it was discovered that because they
commonly rated the marketing department as the most powerful. The researcher
concluded that the most critical uncertainty that plagued them was the sale of their
products.
The relationship between scarcity and dependence can also be seen in the power of
occupational categories. Individuals in occupations that are short-staffed compared
to demand can negotiate more attractive compensation and benefit packages than
those in job-rich occupations. Nowadays, university officials have no problem
finding English teachers, while, on the contrary, the market for accounting teachers
is very small, demand is high and supply limited. The result is the bargaining power
of Aria professors allows them to agree to higher salaries, lower teaching loads and
other benefits.
6. STRESS
The concept of stress (from the English stress, pressure, tension, effort). The term is
usually used to describe the symptoms that people show in response to tension
caused by external pressures, situations and actions, worry, irritability,
aggressiveness, fatigue, anxiety and anguish, which harms their performance and,
above all, their health. Some level of stress is normal and allows a person to
concentrate and face life's challenges.
According to Schüller, stress is a human condition, in which the person faces a
limitation or a demand in relation to something they want and whose result is, at the
same time, important and uncertain.
On the other hand, stress is usually more related to restrictions and demands.
Stress includes three basic components:
1.- PERCEIVED CHALLENGE.- Gossip or rumors that a company will close can
cause stress in a worker, even when there is no real threat.
2.- IMPORTANT VALUE.- The challenge will only cause stress if it represents a
threat to something that the person considers important or valuable.
3.- UNCERTAINTY ABOUT THE RESOLUTION.- Each person interprets the
situation based on their ability to effectively face the challenge that arises. If a
person perceives that they can handle it easily, there will be no stress.
STRESS DYNAMICS
The stress process is well known: When a person perceives an external threat, their
body produces chemicals that raise blood pressure and divert blood from the skin
and digestive system to the muscles. Lipids are discharged into the bloodstream to
produce energy and the concentration of coagulants is increased in case there is any
damage to the body. When the threat is prolonged, other changes occur that prepare
the body for a long battle. The body begins to retain water and salts and produces
more gastric juices to make digestion more efficient in the absence of blood, which
has been diverted to other internal organs.
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Symptoms of stress
CAUSES OF STRESS.
LOSS OF PRIVACY
INFORMATION SATURATION
DISAPPEARANCE OF FACE TO FACE CONTACT
NEED TO CONTINUOUSLY LEARN NEW SKILLS
LOST PROMOTION OPPORTUNITIES DUE TO LACK OF
KNOWLEDGE
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ORGANIZATIONAL CHANGE AND DEVELOPMENT
Organizational Change is defined as: the ability of organizations to adapt to the different
transformations suffered by the internal or external environment, through learning. Another
definition would be: the set of structural variations that organizations suffer and that
translate into new organizational behavior.
The changes originate from the interaction of forces, these are classified as:
Internal : they are those that come from within the organization, arise from the analysis of
organizational behavior and are presented as alternative solutions, representing equilibrium
conditions, creating the need for a change in structural order; An example of these is
technological adjustments, changes in methodological strategies, changes in directives, etc.
External : they are those that come from outside the organization, creating the need for
internal changes, they are examples of this force: Government decrees, quality standards,
limitations in both the physical and economic environment.
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Greiner, the stages of the life cycle of organizations follow a natural sequence, and in each
one a crisis occurs that forces them to move on to the next phase:
1.1. Entrepreneurial stage: When the organization is born, emphasis is placed
on creating a product and surviving in the market. The founders are entrepreneurs
and are dedicated to technical production and marketing activities. The organization
is informal and non-bureaucratic. Control is based on the supervision of the owners.
All of the organization's energy is directed toward survival and the production of a
single product or service. Crisis: need for leadership . When the organization
begins to grow, the fact that there are more workers causes leadership problems.
Owners who are creatively and technically oriented encounter management
problems and have to adapt the organization's structure to accommodate continued
growth.
1.2. Collective stage: The organization begins to define goals and guidelines.
Create departments and a hierarchical structure, specify the responsibilities of each
position and divide the work. Employees identify with the organization's mission
and strive to contribute to its success, because they feel part of the community.
Communication and control remain informal, but some formal systems are already
appearing. This period corresponds to the youth of the organization. Crisis: need to
delegate . When new management is successful, lower-level workers feel
constrained by the strong leadership of management. Managers begin to desire
greater freedom of action. When managers do not want to delegate responsibility
and senior management wants to guarantee that all areas are coordinated and
integrated, an autonomy crisis occurs.
1.3. Formalization stage: The organization begins to use standards, procedures
and control systems. Communication becomes more formal and specialists begin to
enter, such as engineers, human resources professionals and other experts.
Management is interested in matters related to planning and strategy, and leaves the
company's operations to middle management. Product groups and decentralized
units are created to improve coordination. Incentive systems, based on profits, are
implemented to ensure that managers strive to achieve company objectives. The
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new organization and controls allow it to continue growing. Crisis: excess of
formalities. The proliferation of systems and programs causes bureaucratization.
1.4. Elaboration stage: Bureaucratization reaches its limit and managers learn to
work with bureaucracy without increasing it. Formal systems are reduced and
simplified through teams and task forces. In order to reduce excess formalities, the
organization seeks collaboration of people and teamwork. The company can also
organize itself into divisions or business units that maintain the spirit of the small
business it once was. Crisis: need for revitalization. When it reaches maturity, the
organization goes through periods of temporary low activity that require its renewal
and revitalization to become more agile and innovative.
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Kurt Lewin emphasizes that changes occur in three stages:
2.1. Defrosting. It occurs when the need for change makes the person, group or
organization understand and accept it. Unfreezing means that good ideas and
practices are destroyed and unlearned to be replaced by new ones that must be
learned.
2.2. Change. It occurs when new attitudes, values and behaviors are discovered and
adopted. Change is the phase in which new ideas and practices are learned and
people begin to think and work differently.
2.3. Refreezing . It is the incorporation of a new pattern of behavior through support and
reinforcement mechanisms so that it becomes the new norm. Refreezing means that
what was learned is integrated into normal practices and becomes the new way that
people will learn to do their jobs.
The main obstacle to managing change is that administrators and managers are more
accustomed to focusing on physical and concrete aspects and working with data that is
predictable, deterministic and logically easy to understand. That is, they know how to
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expertly handle real and palpable things, be they machines, equipment, materials,
computers, products, services, etc., but they have great difficulties in dealing with people.
Although they are highly trained in issues related to concrete or hard aspects, their
qualifications are very low when it comes to human or soft aspects. Therein lie the biggest
problems in achieving change in organizations.
4. CHANGE'S AGENTS
It may seem that the planned change has no owner, but it always does. Those responsible
for managing transformation activities in organizations are called change agents. They can
be internal or external administrators, workers or consultants. Change agents act as
catalysts and manage change processes. In general, senior executives are seen as natural
change agents. Such has been the case of Bill Gates at Microsoft and Jack Welch at General
Electric. Organization managers often turn to external consultants specialized in change
methodologies. The advantages are clear: on the one hand, they have specialized skills, are
not distracted by the responsibilities of daily operations, and may have more influence and
prestige than an internal element, but they are at a disadvantage because they know little
about the history, culture, procedures and people of the organization. They almost always
prefer second order changes. On the other hand, internal administrators or consultants are
more cautious, as they prefer not to hurt their old friends and colleagues, and they usually
apply first-order changes.
5. RESISTANCE TO CHANGE
Those who have always lived in immutable and static, closed and hermetic organizations,
where things never change, will never learn to innovate as excellent companies do.
Traditional organizations hinder people's freedom so much that they become accustomed to
working with visors that only allow them to seek continuity and make conservatism and
tradition a work philosophy. Since they are not used to change nor prepared for it, people
see it as something strange, which implies unforeseen situations and risk of failure. Thus,
what is new becomes a mystery, a danger from which it is advisable to flee because it calls
into question the status quo and the psychological security of people. For change to occur,
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there must be a favorable psychological environment, an adequate organizational culture,
and individual and group encouragement to improve and achieve organizational excellence.
Many organizational change efforts are successful, while others end in complete failures
that consume more time than expected, deteriorate morale, and require additional efforts
from managers to convince people and resolve emotional conflicts arising from poorly
planned change. Some organizations will not dare to undertake change simply because the
managers involved are wary or feel unable to achieve it.
6. ORGANIZATIONAL CHANGE
Organizational change involves the entire organization and requires certain steps, such as
recognizing the problem, identifying its causes, searching for strategies, and evaluating the
change. Let's look at each one
6.1. Problem recognition
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One of the most common complications is collecting data about the organization's
routine.
Indicators on turnover, absenteeism, strikes, union disputes and productivity reflect the
general health of the organization. They are aspects that are part of any organizational
control system. When people leave the company or do not show up for work and do
not respect rules and regulations, it can be said that something is wrong or that some
need is not being properly met.
6.2. Identification of causes: diagnostic schemes
When a problem is located and recognized, the next step is to discover its causes. The
most common technique is to ask people why they are dissatisfied, stressed or
unhappy. It involves gathering information through informal means, such as talks, or
through formal means, such as interviews, questionnaires, or personal observation.
Researchers prefer questionnaires, but the focus and purpose of the questions vary
greatly, depending on the problem or the researcher's inclinations. The identification of
causes covers different levels: people, interpersonal relationships, work groups or the
organization as a system.
6.3. Implementation of the change
Once the problem is identified, the next stage is to determine the remedies to resolve it.
The solution almost always involves a change, and the ways to apply it can be:
Structural. It involves modifications in the design of jobs or in some physical
aspect of the activity or workplace.
Procedural. It focuses on the process, whether activities are added or the position is
enriched to make it more varied, interesting or meaningful for the person who
occupies it.
Interpersonal. Use structural techniques to make behavioral or procedural changes.
A change in structure involves restructuring the group or chain of command. A
change in procedure seeks to improve interactions through techniques such as
sensitivity training, which we will see later. When the group itself is the source of
the problem, other techniques can be applied, such as team development, conflict
resolution or mediation strategies.
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Organizational. When the problems are broader in nature, other broader techniques
can be used, such as the administrative grid and management by objectives (APO).
6.4. Change evaluation
The final stage is to check whether the change process has been effective. The basic
question is to identify what was changed and determine whether the results will
improve satisfaction, interpersonal harmony, and make associates more effective in
their jobs. The important thing is to plan the organizational change program so that it
can be evaluated objectively and systematically.
ORGANIZATIONAL STRATEGY
Strategy has been called organizational consistency, definition of the organization, direction
or destiny of the organization, focused effort, stratagem, etc. Mintzberg and Quinn maintain
that strategy is based on the four Ps (plan, pattern, position and perspective).
Strategy as a plan. Strategy can be conceived as a plan, a deliberate course of
action, or a set of general guidelines for managing a situation. In military terms, it
refers to the war plan; In game theory, it is the specific plan that the player designs
to make the decisions that allow him to obtain the maximum possible benefit from
each situation; At the organizational level, it refers to a unified and comprehensive
plan to achieve the basic objectives of the organization. Strategic plans can be
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general, when they deal with global objectives, or specific, when they focus on
specific maneuvers to confront certain competitors in the market.
Strategy as a behavioral guideline. It is a series of actions that characterize certain
organizational behavior. In other words, the concept of strategy seeks to create
consistent behavior (whether intentional or not), through a series of decisions that
define a general character. The purposes, policies and actions of organizations are
interdependent. Two examples are the behavior of Ford Motor Company at the
beginning of the 20th century, when it offered its Model T only in black, and that of
Toyota, which tried to invade the American market with quality and price. Thus, the
strategy shows that the organization deliberately seeks to achieve its objectives
through behavioral patterns.
Strategy as a position. It refers to the place that the organization occupies in its
environment. The organization's goal is to find a unique market niche or place
(called a domain) where it can concentrate its resources and products. In game
theory and military jargon it refers to the fight to take over a place. In the business
field, it is related to market share and the image of the products in the consumer's
mind. The goal is to conquer the selected position.
Strategy as perspective . It is a way of perceiving the world, not just of achieving a
position. It is about defining an ideology or belief that directs the organization. This
is what Hewlett-Packard did with its HP Way, an open and participatory business
culture as a way of life. Or the emphasis on quality, service and cleanliness that
made McDonald's famous around the world. Each concept defines the character of
the organization and what drives and distinguishes it. Thus, the strategy becomes a
concept, an abstraction that only exists in the minds of those interested. Hence the
enormous importance of sharing the strategic perspective among all the
organization's associates. Culture and ideology come together to form the collective
mindset of the organization, which binds people to common thinking and behavior.
1. STRATEGIC MANAGEMENT
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Strategic management is the opposite of operations-oriented management. The latter
focuses on daily operations, is concerned with maintaining the status quo and
guaranteeing the continuity and permanence of activities, but does not take into
consideration changes in the environment or prepare to face them. Since
organizations operate in an environment in which competitors proliferate and
everyone interacts and transacts to obtain the necessary means for their activities,
much more than simple operations management is required.
Organizations need essential inputs or inputs for their operation and also outputs for
their products and services, in order to obtain an adequate return on their
investments, efforts and operations. In this turbulent and changing context,
competition is essential. In order to survive, organizations must create and develop
strategies that ensure their continuity and competitiveness.
Strategic management applies the basic elements of organizational strategy:
systemic behavior (of the entire organization), interaction with the environment,
focus on the future with long-term objectives and proactive behavior.
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3. IMPLEMENTATION OF THE ORGANIZATIONAL STRATEGY
Strategy implementation is the sum total of the activities and decisions necessary to
execute a strategic plan. It is the process used to implement strategies and policy
through the development of programs, budgets and procedures.
Implementation is usually defined after formulating the strategy, but it is a fundamental
part of strategic management.
The strategy implementation process must answer the following questions:
Who is in charge of the strategic plan?
What needs to be done to align the organization's operations with the new strategic
direction?
How should each person work with the others to do what is required?
The strategy is implemented using the following techniques:
Programs: aim to guide strategy towards action. Each program defines a series of
joint activities.
Budgets: serve to allocate funds.
Procedures: deal with the details of the daily operations of the programs.
It is the phase of the strategic management process in which senior executives evaluate
whether the strategy they have chosen and the way it was implemented meets the
organization's objectives. It is the process by which the objectives (means) are
compared with the results achieved by the strategy (ends). When formulating the
strategy, attention is almost always paid to the criteria and measures that will be used to
evaluate its results. There are three types of criteria to evaluate organizational strategy:
Internal consistency . The organization's strategy must be congruent with the
organization's objectives. The strategy must be identified with the internal norms of
the organization, with its values and culture, and with its global objectives.
Congruence with the environment . The organization's strategy must be congruent
with the environmental conditions. The discrepancy between the strategy and the
environment can cost the organization dearly or cause it to fail.
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Adaptation to available resources . The organization's strategy must be consistent
with the resources and competencies it has at its disposal or can obtain. Resources
are everything an organization has to achieve its objectives.
5. BALANCED SCORECARD
Often, an organization's objectives conflict with each other. For example, cost reduction
clashes with better product quality, while price increases clash with competitiveness. In
general, one objective interferes with another. Some organizations prioritize their
objectives. However, how to prioritize customers, shareholders, staff, the future,
strategy, service, internal processes, technological leadership, learning and innovation
at the same time? Each objective points in a different direction. The problem is making
the organization's goals collaborate with each other to avoid conflicts. Synergy is
sought, that is, the positive action of one objective on the others to multiply their effects
instead of adding them.
The balanced scorecard (BSC), also known as the balanced scorecard (BSC), is a
methodology based on the balance of four perspectives of the organization:
1. Financial perspective . It refers to the way the shareholders or owners view the
company. The indicators must show whether the implementation and execution of
the strategy contributes to improving results. Examples: profitability, return on
investment, cash flow, return on capital.
2. Customer perspective. It refers to the way the customer sees the company and how
it can serve them in the best possible way. The indicators must show whether the
services provided meet the organization's mission. Examples: customer satisfaction,
on-time delivery, market share, trends, customer retention, and lead acquisition.
3. Perspective of internal processes. It refers to the business processes at which the
organization must be excellent. The indicators must show whether the processes and
the operation are aligned and generate value. Examples: quality, productivity,
logistics, internal communication and interfaces.
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4. Innovation and learning perspective . It has to do with the organization's ability to
continually improve and prepare. Indicators should show how the organization can
learn and develop to ensure its growth. Examples: product renewal rate,
development of internal processes, innovation, skills and staff motivation.
CONCLUSION
The conclusion is one of the most complicated parts of a work to prepare, in itself, as a
conclusion, I must express my point of view of the entire content of the subject, of the book
and of my work material, as I had already told you in the introduction and in its cubicle, the
subject is very interesting and very complete, and with the help of the book it really
becomes easy, since it is explained and written in such a simple way that one immediately
identifies with the author and the content of each unit and topic, and this is especially due to
the fact that as a worker one has already experienced many things similar or the same as
those contained in the book and in this work.
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Our work experience has given us empirical knowledge of the subject, it has shown us that
our qualities, skills, values, experience and many more of our individual capabilities are a
very important contribution and factor within an organization and as a differentiation of our
behavior. within an organization, but this does not lead anywhere, not until the subject
comes into practice, since one of the studies and objectives of the subject is to be able to
apply the knowledge acquired for the benefit of the effectiveness of the organization, which
This is why so many studies are carried out, to see how we can take advantage of each of
the factors that intervene in the individual, in the group and in the structure of the
organization with the clear objective of being able to achieve the organizational goals that it
has. the company.
In itself, the entire study of the subject is how to achieve success in the goals of companies
by converting some negative factors of the individual into productive factors for the
company, which at certain times are factors that are achieved at the expense of the
exploitation of the individual or the abuse of the person physically and mentally, often
resulting in one of the most negative factors of companies worldwide, turnover, as well as
absenteeism and the loss of millions and millions of dollars due to these factors.
But not everything is bad, because within the book they also explain to us how to be able to
carry out each of the activities without being harmed and also, how to be able to give more
of ourselves and of course this is included in this material, making it easier with many
examples in the book. It takes us deeper into the work and organizational field of our lives.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR
STEPHEN P. ROBBINS
TENTH EDITION
INTERNET
www. mitecnologico.com
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