Práctica Gramatical (primer semestre)

1.The Verb Phrase

1.1. Classification of Verbs
There are three major types of verbs:
1. Full or Lexical Verbs.
Lexical verbs, also called main verbs, are those full of content meaning.
2. Auxiliary Verbs. These kinds of verbs can be both primary and secondary. Both are

OM
used mainly:
a. In the formation of questions.
b. In the formation of negative statements.
c. In short replies. E.g.: Who likes strawberries? I do. (It is clear that the context is
omitted because it is understandable. This process is called ellipsis)
d. In short replies either to agree or disagree.

.C
e. In emphatic statements. E.g.: I do get up early.
f. In tag questions. E.g.: you’ve waited for me, haven’t you?
1.1.a. Primary Auxiliary Verbs: DO, BE and HAVE
DD
These three verbs can work as lexical verbs and as auxiliary verbs.
• DO
The verb DO works as an auxiliary verb when lexical verbs are used to make negative
or interrogative statements. It is also used in emphatic constructions.
When working as a lexical verb, DO:
LA

1. Means perform, carry out an activity or task. In this case, the verb can be
used in any other tense;
2. can function as a pro-form, substituting for a main verb. E.g.: I didn’t sleep
quite well, but my brother did.;
3. it can also function in the combination with “so/that” to avoid repetition.
FI

E.g.: I didn’t do that.;

4. it has a wide range of uses as a general-purpose transitive verb, especially
in informal speech. E.g.: let’s do the dishes.;
5. we often use DO+-ing for named tasks.


DO can function as both in the same sentence. E.g.: what do you do?
Note: the verbs DO and MAKE, working as main verbs, may not be confused. DO
means “be engaged in an activity” and MAKE has the connotation of “creation”.
Examples of uses:
- Do: a favour, damage, good, harm, the housework, a lesson, one´s teeth, one’s
hair, etc.
- Make: an accusation, a demand, an agreement, a mess, a mistake, a noise, a
promise, etc.

Este archivo fue descargado de https://filadd.com

 • BE
This verb working as an auxiliary verb has two main grammatical functions. First, is
it used in the formation of the progressive aspect. And last, it is used in the formation
of the passive voice.
When working as a full verb, it has a main function: it has a copular function, which
means that this verb is a linking verb.
However, when it functions as a main verb, it is used tot talk about the existence of
people, things, animals, etc. The grammatical construction of this form is THERE+BE.

OM
It can also be used with tenses: THERE+HAVE BEEN; THERE+ARE; THERE WILL BE,
etc.
• HAVE
The auxiliary verb HAVE, combined with an -ed participle, is used in the formation
of perfect tenses, causative use of have or complex verb phrases.
It works as a lexical verb when:

.C
1. The verb HAVE means “possess”, “have got” or “obtain”. NOTE: we
usually use “have/have got” to mean possess/own. In this case, HAVE
would be a stative verb and it cannot be used in the progressive aspect.
DD
2. Have got means obtain.
3. Other meanings of have are eat, enjoy or drink.
Nevertheless, it can be both in the same sentence at the same time. E.g.: I have had
my lunch.
1.1.b. Secondary or Modal Auxiliary Verbs
LA

Modal auxiliary verbs are ALWAYS finite. These are: can, could, may, might, must, shall,
should, will, would. Other modals that are not considered modals in their totality are ought
to, need, dare.
Some important characteristics of modal verbs are:
• They act as an auxiliary verb in verb phrases.
FI

• They are followed by a bare/perfect infinitive as the main verb in the verb phrase.
• They are traditionally called DEFECTIVE because they have only one form each: they
do not take inflections to show agreement or tense (not even in the 3rd person


singular). They do not have imperative mood or non-finite forms.

• They express stance meanings, related to possibility, necessity, obligation.
1.1.c. Semi-Modals
Semi-modals, as written above, are always finite. These are: (had) better, have to, (have)
got to, be supposed to, be able to, be going to, used to, be to.
Some important things to have in mind:

• They are multi-word constructions that function like modal verbs.

• They express meanings, it means that they can be paraphrased with a central modal
verb.

Este archivo fue descargado de https://filadd.com

 • Some are fixed expressions, with NO inflexion neither for tense or person.
• Some others can be marked for tense and person.
1.1.d. Epistemic and Non-Epistemic meanings of modal verbs

MODAL Logical/Epistemic meaning Personal/Non-epistemic meaning

Meaning It refers to the logical status of It refers to the control of actions and
states or events. events by human and other agents. It
It usually refers to levels of certainly includes personal permission,

OM
or likelihood. obligation and volition. The subject of
the verb usually refers to a human
being and the main verb is a dynamic
verb (an action can be controlled).
CAN Probability or Likelihood Permission/Ability
COULD The two processes could well be We could leave at 9 yesterday.
MAY

.C
independent. You may work in pairs.
MIGHT
MUST Deduction Obligation/Requirement
SHOULD Today must be your birthday. You must brush your teeth.
DD
WILL Prediction Volition/Intention/Inclination
WOULD It will be sunny tomorrow. Shall I open the door for you?
SHALL She thought she would feel better. Susan won’t tell me the truth

1.1.e. Formation of Tag Questions

LA

There are different kinds of tag questions, they all are grammatically different:
• A positive tag question normally follows a negative statement. NEGATIVE
STATEMENT + POSITIVE TAG. The verbal agreement is necessary.
• A negative tag question follows a positive statement. POSSITIVE SENTENCE +
FI

NEGATIVE TAG. As explicit above, verbal agreement is needed.

• Notice the meaning of “yes” and “no” in answers to tag questions. YES, means that
it has/is/will be done and NO means the contrary.
• After “Let’s”, the tag question is “shall we?”
• After the imperative, the tag question is “will you?”


• A statement containing words such as none, nobody, hardly/hardly any, etc. is

treated as a negative statement, so the tag would be positive.
• When the subjects are nobody/anybody/everybody, etc., the pronoun “they” is
used in the tag.
• I the case of the 1st person singular, the tag is “aren’t I?”
1.2. Finite and Non-Finite Forms of the English Verb
Every verb can be used with three simple finite forms and three simple non-finite forms.

Este archivo fue descargado de https://filadd.com

1.2.a. Finite Forms
Finite forms are three:
1. The Base. It is the bare infinitive, which can be used in the three moods: indicative,
imperative and subjunctive. When it is used in the indicate, it refers to the Simple
Present Tense with all persons included, except for the 3 rd person singular.
Imperative mood refers to commands, orders, requests, etc.
2. The 3rd person singular. It refers to those verbs that acquiree a -s/-es/-ies when
referring to he/she/it. They can only be used in the indicate mood, which refers to

OM
the Simple Present Tense for the 3rd singular and to subordinate clauses of time with
future time reference.
3. The Past form. These are verbs conjugated in the past simple, whether they are
regular or irregular. In this case, there are two moods able to be used: indicative and
subjunctive. In the first case, it refers to past actions and to hypothetical situations
in the present or future. In the second case, it stands for the use of the form “were”

.C
of the verb to be (the “were” subjunctive).
1.2.b. Non-Finite Forms
Non-Finite forms are three too:
DD
1. The Infinite. It has three kinds: 1) the “to infinitive”, 2) the bare infinitive and 3) the
perfect infinite. It also has three main functions:
- Nominal function. It can be the head of the subject, a direct object or the head
of the postponed subject.
- Adjectival function. It can be the head of the post modifier.
LA

- Adverbial function. It can be head of an adverbial clause of purpose.

2. The -ing form. It has two main forms:
- The Gerund. It has nominal function, whether it refers to a noun equivalent, the
head of the subject, a direct object or object of the preposition.
- The Present Participle. The present participle is also divided in three main kinds:
FI

it can be part of a finite verb phrase; it can have adjectival function or adverbial
function.
3. The -ed or Past Participle. Different from the others, it is divided in four categories:
- It can be part of a finite verb phrase when used in the formation of present


tenses.
- It can be part of a finite verb phrase when used in the passive voice.
- It can have adjectival function.
- It can have adverbial function.
1.2.c. The Gerund vs the Present Participle (as a Pre-modifier of a Noun)
In order to know whether the -ing form is a present participle or a gerund, we should
paraphrase the original version. If the paraphrasing can be replaced by (sth) that does/is
doing something, then it will be a present participle. E.g.: A sleeping baby is a baby that

Este archivo fue descargado de https://filadd.com

sleeps/ that is sleeping. However, it would be completely different if the object is for
something. Then it would be a noun. E.g.: A sleeping bag is a bag for sleeping.
1.3. Verbal Categories
There are four main verbal categories to bear in mind. These are: tense, mood, voice and
aspect.
1.3.1. Tense
It is a linguistic expression or category. It refers to the form of the verb that expresses a
time-relation. Tenses vary across languages. It also shows verb inflexion. There are two

OM
main uses: present tense and past tense.
Tense may not be confused with time; they are not synonyms. Time is a universal concept
because it can be represented by one straight line ad divided into three parts: past, present
and future. As there are tenses for the past and present, there are not for the future. That
is the reason why future has modals in representment.

.C
1.3.1.a. The Present Progressive tense
It usually refers to an action which continues to happen before and after a particular time.
It indicates DURATION and CHANGE.
This tense has some frequent uses:
DD
• To refer to something happening at the moment of speaking.
• To refer to something happening around the moment of speaking. It may also
refer to temporary situations or habits that take place over an extended period
of time.
• To refer to changing situations, states developing into other states. We use verbs
LA

that indicate increase/decrease in the activity, usually with comparative

adjectives and adverbs.
• To show annoyance on the part of the speaker, especially when referring to
habits that upset him/her.
FI

• To refer to a series of momentary, short, continuous acts.

The Present Progressive tense can also show future time reference. It is used:
• To refer toa previous arrangement. The use of adverbials is compulsory.
• Future refusal/Volition.


1..3.1. b. The Simple Present tense

Simple Present tense is used:
• To express meanings related to something that happens all the time or that is
true and general. It is used to refer to general or eternal truths, natural or
physical laws, geographic features, etc.
• To denote habitual actions.
• To denote permanent actions or situations.
• With performative verbs, such as “declare, forgive, curse, bless, promise, swear,
agree, apologize, deny”. Performative verbs have agreement with the subject,
which must be “I” or “We”.

Este archivo fue descargado de https://filadd.com

 • Instantaneous present: a) to report a series od actions that have little duration;
b) in demonstrations made by a teacher, a cooking expert, a conjurer and also
directions.
• With stative verbs.
• In exclamatory sentences with “here” and “there”.
This tense also shows past and future time reference:
• Past time reference: a) Historic or Dramatic Present: used to add vividness to a
statement. It is often in narratives, and frequently used in newspaper headlines

OM
to create a sense of immediacy; b) used instead of the Present Perfect.
• Future time reference: a) to refer to an action regarded as part of a timetable;
b) future of the calendar; c) in Subordinate Adverbial Clauses of time or
condition. After conjunctions such as when, as soon as, before, after, as, while,
if, etc.
1.3.1.c. The Present Perfect tense

.C
The Present Perfect tense realtes the past and the present. That is why we can talk about
finished and unfinished use:
• Unfinished use: the action began in the past but is still going on. It is incomplete,
DD
its meaning is imperfective. The adverbials used in this case generally begin with
“since” and “for”.
• Finished use: the finished use refers to actions that happened in the past, but
somehow, they are still related to the present. Its main uses are:
a) Resultative Past. The action took place in the past but the consequences
LA

are present. It does not make emphasis on the exact time the action took
place, but it does in the present consequences. Common adverbials used
are “just, already, yet, never, ever, before, once, twice, three/several
times”.
FI

b) The Present Perfect tense is used when we are interested in the action
itself, rather than in when the action occurred. It can also be used when
we want to refer to events that have been experienced once or more
times in a person´s life or in history up to the present.


c) It is also used for actions that have been completed very recently. In this
case, we use adverbials like “just, already, recently, yet”.
d) Last, it can be used to refer to activities that have been completed during
a period of time that has still not finished at the moment of speaking.
These adverbials refer to a period of time not yet completed. They are
partly past, partly present and partly future.
The Present Perfect has future time reference when we refer to conditional clauses. The
emphasis is on the completion of the action. It would have perfective aspectual meaning
because the action is seen as completed in the future.

Este archivo fue descargado de https://filadd.com

1.3.1.d. The Present Perfect Progressive tense
This tense is used in the same cases as the Present Perfect, the only difference is on the
imperfective aspectual meaning. In this case, the action shows “incompleteness” and its
duration may be “longer”.
1.3.1.e. The Simple Past tense
The Simple Past tense is used to indicate activities or states in the past, without indicating
any connection with the present. There is often an adverbial of past time which may refer
to a point of time, a period of time or time implied or inferred either from context or shared

OM
knowledge.
However, this tense shows more than one use, among them:
• To denote facts in the past.
• To denote states in the past.
• To indicate ability in the past.
• To express habits in the past.

.C
• To denote permanent actions or situations in the past.
• Future in the past. E.g.: He told me to stay until his father arrived.
As present tenses, it also shows time reference (present and future). It is used to show
DD
future time reference when the past form has hypothetical meaning.
1.3.1.f. The Past Progressive tense
This tense also has some main uses:
• To denote events in progress at a point in the past. It may highlight the
temporary nature of events.
LA

• To indicate that an activity or state was in progress at the time when another
activity occurred. It is used in complex sentences, in the main clause or in the
subordinate clause.
• To denote two simultaneous actions in the past. The adverb “while” is used in
FI

this case.
• To describe the atmosphere, setting in an introduction to a story or narrative.
• To express a series of repeated events in the past.
• To describe repeated unplanned events, in combination with frequency


adverbs/adverbials such as always, constantly and the like.

• To denote temporary repeated actions in the past. To indicate that an action or
activity was repeated over a limited period of time, but it is not to be considered
as habitual or permanent.
• Future arrangement in the past. E.g.: she left at 5 because she was seeing the
doctor at 5.15
1.3.1.g. The Past Perfect tense
The Past Perfect tense is characterised by these uses:

Este archivo fue descargado de https://filadd.com

 • Earlier Past. It is used to make it clear which event or state in a sequence
preceded which. It can be regarded as a transference either of the Present Perfect
to the past or of the past to a previous past.
• Resultative Past in the Past. It is used to denote an action which had a result in the
past. If the action in the first sentence does not always take place before the
second one, then it may occur afterwards. Thus, if the action in the second
sentence is prior to the action in the first one, it is advisable to break any possible
ambiguity by using the Past Perfect.

OM
Something to bear in mind: using adverbials such as after/before, becomes the Past
Perfect use optional.
1.3.1.h. The Past Perfect Progressive tense
Pas Perfect Progressive also has its own uses:
• To indicate that an activity was still going on at a given point or period in the past.
The aspectual meaning is most of the times imperfective.

.C
• Resultative Past in the past. This tense is used to denote an action which had a result
in the past.
1.3.1.i. The Simple Future (Will/Shall+ infinitive)
DD
The Simple Future or Modal “Will” main uses are the followings.
• To talk about events/states which are certain to happen in the future.
• To express predictions based on the speaker’s belief.
• To express “on the spot” decisions.
• To express promises, threats, warnings, requests, and hopes.
LA

1.3.1.j. The Future Progressive

The Future Progressive is used mainly:
• To denote an action that will be in progress at a point or period of future time.
• To denote/indicate: a) something that has been arranged, planned or decided upon.
FI

In certain contexts, there is no difference between the use of the Present

Progressive and the Future Progressive; b) an activity or state will extend over the
whole of a future period of time. The future activity is part of a plan or arrangement.
1.3.1.k. Future Perfect- Future Perfect Progressive


Future Perfect has two main functions:

• Before-future time: to refer to activities that by a particular point in the future will
be regarded as complete, finished. The grammatical aspect of this tense is perfect
and the aspectual meaning is perfective, therefore it puts emphasis on the
completion of the activity and on its consequences. It is also used to indicate that an
action or activity will extend and include a point or period of time in the future.
• The Future Perfect Progressive always has imperfective aspectual meaning because
the activity is seen as incomplete in the future.
1.3.1.l. Be Going To + Infinitive
The Semi-Modal “be going to” has three main uses:

Este archivo fue descargado de https://filadd.com

 • Future fulfilment of a present intention.
• Future result of a present cause.
• Predictions based on evidence.
There are some other ways to refer to the future, called “modal idioms”. Those are “be
about to” and “be due to”.
1.3.2. Mood
There are three kinds of moods used in English:

OM
- Indicative. It is the mood of facts and reality.
- Imperative. Mood of orders, commands, etc.
- Subjunctive. It is often called the mood of dreams and hypothesis. There are two
kinds of subjunctive: present subjunctive and past subjunctive.
1.3.2.a. The Present Subjunctive
It is used in the Simple Present tense, except for the 3rd person singular. there are two kinds

.C
of it: the mandative and the formulaic.
1.3.2.a.1. The Mandative Subjunctive
It is used in a “that-clause” after an expression of such notions as demand,
recommendation, proposal, intention. This subjunctive takes the base form of the verb. E.g.:
DD
they suggested that he leave immediately.
The negative subjunctive is represented with not before the base form of the verb.
1.3.2.a.2. The Formulaic Subjunctive
It is also called optative subjunctive, and it is used in certain set expressions: “God save the
Queen”, “Long live the King”, “God bless you”, “heaven help us!”, “heaven forbit that”, “be
LA

that as it may”, “peace be with you”, “God forgive you!”

1.3.2.b. The Past Subjunctive
It is hypothetical in meaning. It is used in conditional and concessive clauses and in
subordinate clauses after “wish” and “suppose”. E.g.: If I were rich, I would buy a lot of
FI

expensive cars/ Just suppose everyone were to act like you.

1.3.3. Voice
Voice can be active or passive. In this case, we will focus in the passive voice.
1.3.3.a. Passive Voice


A passive construction occurs when you make the objects of a transitive verb the subject of
a sentence. That is, whoever or whatever is performing the role of subject is not the doer
of the action. The “new” subject is called the grammatical subject. Since the subject is not
the real doer of the action, we have to look for it elsewhere in the sentence or assume that
the performer (the agent) is not the focus of information.
1.3.3.b. Forms of the Passive
Only some transitive verbs can have a passive voice form. Verbs conjugated in the future
progressive and in the perfect progressive are not commonly used in the passive.
The passive construction is always formed with the participle form of the main verb, in spite
of the verb TO BE used at the beginning of the verb phrase.

Este archivo fue descargado de https://filadd.com

In passive sentences, the tense and aspect in the passive are shown by the form of the verb
BE + participle in the main verb.
1.3.3.c. Uses of the Passive
There are three main reasons for the use of passive voice: 1) we use the passive for
discursive purposes when we want to place an element which is not the doer of the action
in subject position, theme and topic of the sentence; 2) we use it for discursive purposes
when the structure of the sentence or the relationship between two sentences determines
that the new and/or long information should come last. The agent introduced by the

OM
preposition “by” is the new information and it is placed at the end so as to focus on it; 3)
we use it to omit the doer of the action, whether because it makes emphasis on the action
itself or the doer is quite clear.
1.3.3.c.1. Omission of the Agent
The agent is omitted in the following cases:
a) We use the agentless passive when the doer/agent is obvious, not known, not

.C
important and/or generalised, vague.
b) The agentless passive occurs frequently in journalistic and in scientific writing
because omitting the doer of the action gives the text an objective and impersonal
DD
tone.
c) We also omit the agent when you purposely want to avoid blame or responsibility.
1.3.3.c.2. Retention of the Agent
The agent is retained in two cases: 1) when we need to focus on the doer of the action and
thus, we place the agent in end position; 2) when the agent is an inanimate being.
LA

1.3.3.d. The Passive with Direct and Indirect Objects

Options are available when using a passive with a direct and indirect object, but when we
place one of them last, we are giving it more prominence.
1.3.3.e. Passive forms with “get”
Sometimes the passive can be formed with GET. It is more common in informal English.
FI

1.3.3.f. Personal and Impersonal Passive constructions

When the direct object of a sentence in the active voice is a clause, the change to a passive
construction becomes restricted. Then, there are two possible passive alternatives, called
personal and impersonal constructions. In the first case, the subject of the object clause can


become the subject of an alternative passive construction. In the second, the object clause
can be postponed and replaced bay an anticipatory “it” construction.
1.3.3.g. Special Cases
There are some special cases where the main verb changes. These cases are:
a) To be allowed instead of let.
b) To be made to do sth instead of make.
c) To be seen/ heard instead of see/hear.
d) To be robbed/ stolen instead of steal.

Este archivo fue descargado de https://filadd.com

1.3.4. Aspect
It is the grammatical category that reflects the way in which the meaning of a verb is viewed
with respect to time.
1.3.4.1. Grammatical Aspect
Grammatical aspect, as said before, is the category that gives the form to a verb. It can be:
• Simple/non-progressive grammatical aspect.
• Progressive grammatical aspect.
• Perfect grammatical aspect.

OM
• Perfect progressive grammatical aspect.
1.3.4.1.a. Morphological Aspectual Meaning
When we speak of aspectual meaning, we refer to the way an action is viewed. By that, we
can divide the morphological aspectual meaning in two major categories: perfective and
imperfective. The first refers to a situation that is viewed, presented as complete, whereas
the second refers to a situation that is viewed or presented as incomplete and in progress.

.C
It is said that progressive forms show an imperfective aspectual meaning, while simple or
non-progressives shown perfective aspectual meaning. Moreover, to distinguish between
perfective and imperfective, the use of adverbials is helpful. It is not the same if we say: “I
DD
played tennis” rather than to say: “I played tennis every Sunday”. Summarizing, it can be
said that the imperfectiveness of the action is related to the duration, temporariness and
incompleteness of it.
1.3.4.2. Lexical Aspect
As said before, aspect concerns the manner in which a verbal action is experienced or
LA

regarded, as either complete or in progress. They may convey events (single occurrence,
with beginning and end) or states (states of affairs, not well-defined beginning and end).
When referring to the former, we are talking about dynamic verbs or actions, whereas the
latter refers to stative or state verbs. With that told, we may talk about those new
FI

categories: dynamic and stative verbs.

Apart from these two categories, we may find another one, apart from those. It is called
“stance verbs”.
1.3.4.2.a. Stative Verbs


they express states or relationships that cannot be controlled: we are not able to start or
stop them (at will). These verbs refer to states or experiences we have to
undergo/experience. We could talk about emotions, sensations, perception. They are said
to be mental states too. Last but not least, these verbs DO NOT accept the progressive
aspect, only simple and perfect aspects.
Stative verbs can be subdivided into five categories:
a) STATES OF BEING and HAVING: be, appear, seem, contain, depend, have(possess),
belong, own, resemble (to look alike), apply.
b) INTELLECTUAL STATES: believe, disagree, know, realize, think, understand,
remember, forget, see (understand), expect (think).
c) STATES OF EMOTIONS (feelings) OR ATTITUDE: love, hate, like, want, wish, prefer.

Este archivo fue descargado de https://filadd.com

 d) STATES OF BODILY SENSATION: ache, hurt, itch, tickle.
e) STATES OF PERCEPTION (senses): feel, hear, see, smell, taste.
1.3.4.2.b. Dynamic Verbs
Actions that can be controlled at will, that we can start or stop. They are said to be
processes, with a clear beginning and end; processes that involve energy. They do and
happen. Finally, all grammatical aspects are able to use: simple, progressive, perfect and
perfect progressive aspect.
1.3.4.2.c. Stance Verbs

OM
These kinds of verbs, when they are on the progressive form, are used to describe position.
However, if we use it in the simple aspect, they convey dynamic or stative meaning.
Examples of stance verbs are: lie, sit, stand.
1.3.4.2.d. Verbs used stative or dynamically
There are four cases of verbs than can work stative or dynamically.
1. Dynamic verbs which can usually be used in simple or progressive forms.

.C
2. Verbs which are always stative.
3. Verbs that have stative and dynamic uses/meanings. An example of this verb is
HAVE.
DD
4. Stative verbs used dynamically with little or no change in meaning.
1.3.4.2.e. Special Cases
There are some verbs, like see and hear, that express involuntary actions. In order to express
voluntary actions, the verbs change to look and listen to.
There are other verbs such as feel, smell and taste that are stative. However, if we want to
LA

use them dynamically, we will use the same verbs. The main change will lay in the meaning
of the verb: if the verb is used dynamically, it will be transitive. But if we use it as a stative
verb, it will be a linking verb.

2. The Noun Phrase

FI

2.1. Word Formation

Nouns can be formed by means of derivation and compounding. It means that the word
formation involves two processes. Derivation is a process that involves the addition of a
prefix or suffix to a base, whereas compounding is a process in which the base is converted


into a different part of speech without adding suffixes but combing two words.
2.1.a. Derivation: some common noun suffixes
There are some typical noun endings to study: -er (teacher); -age (wastage); -ar (beggar); -
tion (attention); -or (editor); -ment (assignment); -ant (assistant); -ance (importance); -ist
(pessimist); -ness (fitness); -sion (extension); -th (truth); -al (approval); -ity (identity); -dom
(boredom); -ship (friendship); -hood (childhood); -tude (altitude); -ing (building); -y (entry);
-ism (socialism); -ee (referee).
2.1.b. Zero derivation: same/similar spelling, different pronunciation
In some cases, we find that the spelling of a noun is the same as the spelling of the
corresponding verb. There are some cases were the stress and the pronunciation are the

Este archivo fue descargado de https://filadd.com

same. However, there are some nouns where the stress falls on a different syllable than the
verb. It may happen that the stress in the verb fall on the last syllable, when in the noun,
the stress may fall in the first syllable.
There are some other cases in which the words are spelt the same, but the verb may have
a voiced final sound while the noun, a voiceless one.
The las case is when the spell is similar, but not the same. The same happens with the
pronunciation.
2.1.c. Compound Nouns

OM
Compound nouns, as mentioned above, are the result of the combination of two words into
one. There are three types of compounding:
1. The combination of separate words.
2. Two words linked by a hyphen.
3. The combination of two words into one.
There are some rules for the plurals of compounding. These are the followings:

.C
• The compound nouns whose final element is a mass/uncountable noun have NO
plural forms.
• Generally, when the compounding has two countable nouns, the last one is which
DD
takes the plural. Unless the first element is woman on men, it NEVER takes the plural
forms.
• In compounds: count noun+ preposition/prepositional phrase = the noun takes the
plural form.
• In compounds: verb/adjective + preposition = the preposition takes the plural form
LA

since verbs and adjectives CANNOT be pluralized.

• Compounds ending in -ful: the -ful takes the plural, although it is correct for the
other word to take the -s too.
2.2. Classification of Nouns
FI

Nouns are divided in proper and common. However, common nouns are subdivided in
countable and uncountable, both also subdivided in concrete and abstract.
There are some common noun determiners: zero article, the, a/an, some and plural.
2.2.1. Countable Nouns


Countable nouns are those that can be counted. In this category we find people, animals,
plants, objects, units of measurement, etcetera. They also can take plural forms, and
therefore, determiners such as indefinite articles, numerals and quantifiers.
2.2.1.a. Mass Nouns
This category refers to solid substances, materials, liquids, gases, languages, many
abstractions. It talks about nouns that cannot take plural forms or numerals.
2.2.1.b. Partitives
Since mass nouns cannot be counted or acquire determiners, they may make use of
partitives. Some partitive expressions are: a bit of, a dash of, a drop of, a heap of, a loaf of,
a lock of, a lump of, a piece of, a portion of, a slice of, a sliver of, a stick of, an article of, a

Este archivo fue descargado de https://filadd.com

ball of, a bar of, a blade of, a block of, a chunk of, a clap of, a mass of, a roll of, a sheet of, a
spell of, a spot of, a strip of, a touch of, a trace of and an item of.
2.2.1.c. Nouns with Dual Membership
There are some nouns that can be used either as mass nouns when they refer to a
substance, material or phenomenon or as count nouns when they refer to a separate unit
composed of that substance, material of phenomenon.
There are other cases when a noun can be used as both, but the meaning would change
completely. Some of them are: cloth, glass, iron, paper, wood, business, trade, traffic.

OM
Last, there are some abstract nouns such as education, importance and knowledge that can
be preceded by “a/an” + an adjective when they refer to a kind.
2.2.1.d. Uncountable Nouns ending in -S
There are some words that are plural in form because they end in -s but in fact they are
singular/uncountable in meaning and therefore they can take a singular verb. These are the
followings:

.C
• The word NEWS
• Names of some ILLNESSES: shingles, measles, mumps.
• Names of SCIENCES/SCHOOL SUBJECTS.
DD
• PHYSICAL ACTIVITIES.
• GAMES: bowls, darts, skittles.
2.3. Collective Nouns
Collective nouns are those which refer to a group of entities. Some of them are committee,
family, gang, class, team, staff, government, military. These verbs can take singular or plural
LA

verb agreement. However, it will depend in the way they are seen, if they are seen as a
group of members, they would take the plural, but if they are considered a whole, then
they’d take a singular form with the singular pronoun “it”.
2.4. Number
FI

Nouns can be singular or plural. However, to pluralize a noun, we have to follow some rules.
2.4.1. Irregular Plural Forms
There are some irregular forms:
• Those nouns whose ending is -o, add -es to their plurals.
• Some words that end in -f or -fe, drop those letters and add -ves.


• Gerunds: they are considered non-count nouns. However, there are some -ing
nouns that are treated as countable nouns and can be pluralized.
• Old plural forms: man---men; ox--- oxen; tooth--- teeth; mouse--- mice; brother---
brethren.
2.4.2. Latin and Greek Plurals
Some nouns retain foreign plurals, but some are adapted to English.
Similar endings:
• Singular -a, foreign plural -ae; English plural adapted in use -as. Examples: formula--
-formulae---formulas.

Este archivo fue descargado de https://filadd.com

 • Nouns ending in -us with plural -a: corpus---corpora.
• Singular -us, foreign plural -I, English plural -uses. Examples: cactus--- cacti---
cactuses; octopus--- octopi--- octopuses.
• Singular -um, foreign plural -a, English plural -ums. Examples: bacterium--- bacteria;
curriculum--- curricula--- curriculums; medium--- media; datum--- data.
• Singular -ix/ex, plural -ices, English plural -ixes/exes. Examples: appendix---
appendices--- appendixes.
• Singular -is, plural -es. Examples: analysis--- analyses; emphasis--- emphases;

OM
hypothesis--- hypotheses; crisis--- crises; oasis--- oases; thesis--- theses; diagnosis---
diagnoses.
• Singular -on, plural -a. Examples: criterion--- criteria; phenomenon--- phenomena.
There are some nouns such as media, agenda and data that are the same whether in the
singular or plural form.
2.4.3. Nouns with the same form for Singular and Plural

.C
The following words have the same form for the singular and the plural.
• Some living creatures: deer, grouse, mackerel, plaice, salmon, sheep, cod, offspring,
trout. Also, the words craft, aircraft.
DD
• People’s nationalities that end in the voiceless /s/ or the voiced /z/.
• Nouns that refer to definite numbers and measurements: hundred, thousand,
million, dozen, head (of cattle).
• The words: means, series and species.
• The following words end in -s and have the same form for singular and plural:
LA

barracks, bellows, gallows, gasworks, golf-links, innings, kennels.

2.4.4. Always Plural Nouns/Pluralia Tantum
There are some nouns that are always plural.
• Nouns such as cattle, people, police, vermin, gentry, folk and clergy.
FI

• These words cannot be pluralized and take numerals: belongings, arms, ashes,
damages, earnings, clothes, odds, goods, looks, manners, outskirts, savings, stair,
surroundings, whereabouts.
• Names of some instruments, garments and tool which are composed of two similar


parts: binoculars, briefs, glasses, goggles, trousers, pyjamas, overalls, pincers.

2.5. The Genitive
The only case ending that survives in English nouns is the genitive ending – ‘s.
There are two forms to indicate the genitive case: the apostrophes or inflected genitive
(pre-modifying genitive), and the “of” construction, or periphrastic genitive (post-modifying
genitive). The first is used with personal nouns and with domestic animals or with animas
that are credited with some intelligence.
2.5.1. The Form of the Genitive
The genitive can be formed bearing in mind some rules:
• Singular noun + ‘s

Este archivo fue descargado de https://filadd.com

 • Irregular plural noun + ‘s
• Regular plural noun + ‘
• Compound nouns + ‘
• Proper nouns ending in -s + ‘s
• Words of Greek and Latin origin and names of famous philosophers ending in s form
the genitive without an extra syllable. In other words, we add ‘s.
• Words that end in -s form their genitive applying the regular rule.
• With regular plural nouns ending in -s, the genitive is not pronounced.

OM
• Pronunciation rules.
2.5.2. The Group Genitive and the Coordinated Genitive
The group genitive happens when two or more entities possess the same object, only the
last noun takes the inflected genitive.
The coordinated genitive occurs when two or more entities possess different objects of the
same kind, each of the nouns take the inflected genitive.

.C
2.5.3. Typical Meanings of the Genitive
The inflected genitive does not always show possession but more things. The other meaning
the genitive gives are: attribute, possession, description, origin, relationships.
DD
2.5.4. The Genitive in Time and Measure Expressions
The genitive is often used to specify time, duration, distance, length or value.
• Time: this week’s issue.
• Duration: a minute’s hesitation, a month’s holiday.
• Distance/length: arm’s length; two miles’ walk.
LA

• Monetary value: fifty pounds’ worth.

2.5.5. The Genitive in Fixed Expressions
There are some fixed expressions which make use of the genitive: “life’s work”, “for God’s
sake”, “for goodness’ sake”, “have something on one’s fingers’ ends”.
FI

2.5.6. The Genitive with Geographical Names

In the case of geographical names, the genitive follows the normal rule: Spain’s inflation,
Argentina’s fields.
2.5.7. Genitive as a Determiner: Specifying Genitives


Sometimes, genitives fill the determiner slot in a noun phrase because they precede it. In
this case, they have the same function as the possessive determiner. in order to know if the
genitive is working as a proper determiner, the question made is whose …?
2.5.8. Genitive as Modifier: Classifying Genitives
Other genitives have the role of classifying the reference of the head noun: the question
answered is what kind of…?
If it is referring to a certain thing, then it would not be a classifying genitive, but when it
includes it into a category, then it would be so. It is said that the classifying genitive is
equivalent to an adjective or to a noun modifier.

Este archivo fue descargado de https://filadd.com

2.5.9. The Independent Genitive
Independent genitives are genitive phrases standing alone as a noun phrase.
• Many independent genitives involve ellipsis, as their main noun head can be
recovered from the preceding text. E.g.: This is not my handwriting. It´s Selina´s.
• Other independent genitives have become conventional, so that they need no
supporting noun head in the context. They generally refer to people’s homes, to
other places such as businesses and clubs, and commercial products and firms. E.g.:
We’ll meet at Macy’s on Saturday morning.

OM
2.5.10. The Double Genitive
It is a special construction in which either the independent genitive or a possessive pronoun
occurs in an “of-phrase”. It means that both genitive cases are used together. However, we
can use a pronoun instead of the noun in the genitive case. E.g.: a friend of
mine/yours/his/hers, etcetera.
However, the proper construction of the double genitive is the following: the main noun

.C
phrase begins with the indefinite article. Then, it is followed by the definite reference. Said
so, the construction would be: indefinite article + noun + of construction + possessive
pronoun or inflected genitive. A given example: a few friends of ours/a colleague of my
DD
sister’s.
Sometimes, the double genitive is used with demonstrative determiners such as this, that,
these and those. It usually shows arrogance/contempt. E.g.: that car of yours never works.
2.5.11. The “OF” Construction
We generally use the “of construction” with inanimate nouns, in a nominal group when the
LA

head is postmodified and to refer to something different or unusual about a person. E.g.:
“the cost of living”, “the name of the teacher who punished the student is Mary Jane”, “Sara
has got the voice of an angel”.
2.6. Gender
Most English nouns have no grammatical gender, they are neither masculine nor feminine.
FI

Only pronouns and possessive determiners are marked for gender. However, there is a
classification for it. Gender can be divided in animate and inanimate.
• Animates can be personal or non-personal, and both can be subdivided in female,
male and dual.


• Inanimate nouns have neutral gender.

2.6.1. Personal Animate Nouns
Animate nouns can refer either to people (personal) or animals (non-personal). Personal
animate nouns can be used to refer to both males and females. There are different forms
for a small number of personal animate nouns. However, some female nouns are not used
anymore due to the major use of male nouns for both sexes. The words male and female
work as premodifiers of a noun to distinguish the gender-reference.
When using the pronoun “it” to refer to personal nouns, we are referring to babies or small
children.

Este archivo fue descargado de https://filadd.com

2.6.2. Non-Personal Animate Nouns
Mos non-personal animate nouns refer to animals. Animals that have a special place in
human society can be referred to by the pronouns “she”, “he” and “who”. As shown, there
would be a degree of subjectivity. Some animals are given separate male and female words.
2.6.3. Inanimate Nouns
Inanimate nouns have neutral gender. However, there are some nouns which are referred
to by means of pronouns or determiners that show feminine or masculine gender. These
words include ships (feminine), countries (feminine) and certain abstract nouns, such as

OM
death (masculine).

.C
DD
LA
FI


Este archivo fue descargado de https://filadd.com