CENTRAL UNIVERSITY OF ECUADOR

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING, PHYSICAL AND

MATHEMATICAL SCIENCES
CIVIL ENGINEERING

RECOVERY WORK

AUTHORS:

TUTOR: ING. ANTONIO SANCHEZ

PARALLEL: I21

DMQ, 2013-07-25
MATHEMATICAL LOGIC

LOGIC.-It is a science that helps us discern the truth value of an argument.

SYMBOLIC LOGIC.- Conceived by:

-Gottfried Leibniz (1646-1716).-I cannot crystallize it.

-George Boole (1815-1864).- I crystallized symbolic logic that separates symbols and
mathematical operations.

CONCEPTS ON WHICH THEY OPERATE

PROPOSITION .- Declarative sentences that can be T or F but not T or F at the same

time.

Example: Who's coming?, come forward, the air is heavy, 3 is an even number, Juan
knows Pedro.

TRUTH VALUE .- The truth value of a simple proposition can be true (T) or false (F).

GOAL:

 Translate propositions from ordinary language to symbolic language simplify

to symbolic form
 Translate the simplified symbolic form into ordinary language.

Propositions are symbolized with lowercase letters: p, q, r, s, etc.

COMPOUND PROPOSITIONS : They are propositions that are composed of 2 or

more simple propositions and their truth value depends on the truth values of the simple
propositions.

LOGICAL CONNECTIVE: They are elements that relate one proposition to another
allowing the formation of compound propositions.

SYMBOLS ASSOCIATED MEANING

 OPERATIONS
˄ Conjunction or logical product (and), (but), however), (although)
˅ Disjunction or logical addition (or), (in the inclusive sense)
exclusive disjunction (or), (in an exclusive sense)
(no), (it is not true that), (it is false
~ Denial
that)
→ Simple conditional (if…then), (then)
↔ Bi conditional (If and only if)
↓ negative conjunction (Neither...nor...)

CONJUNCTION: Of the propositions p and q, it is the compound proposition (p ˄ q)

TRUTH TABLE: It is a table of values where the truth value of the composite
composition is established based on the truth values of simple propositions. Example:
p= Juan sings

q= Juan dances

p ˄ q=Juan sings and dances.

p q p˄q
V V V
V F F
F V F
F F F

DISJUNCTION: Of the propositions p and q is the compound proposition (p ˅q),

which is obtained by joining them using the connector (o) an inclusive sense.

Example: p= Juan sings

q= Juan dances

p ˄ q=Juan sings or dances.

p q p˅q
V V V
V F V
F V V
F F F
EXCLUSIVE DISJUNCTION: Of the proposition p and q is the compound
proposition

(p. q), which is used by joining them using a connector (o) in an exclusive sense.

Example: p= Juan is in Spain PROPOSITION DENIAL

All Some…. No
q= Juan is in Russia Some…. No All
Some None
p q=Juan is in Spain or is he in Russia None Some

p q p q
V V F
V F V
F V V
F F F
THE NEGATION: Of a proposition p is (~p) obtaining or prefixing the adverb (no) to
the proposition.

Example: I have a $10 bill and a $50 bill in my pocket.

p= I have a $10 bill in my pocket

q= I have a $50 bill in my pocket

~ ( p ˄ q) It is not true that I have a $10 bill and a $50 bill in my pocket

NOTE: Care must be taken when denying propositions containing the words, ALL,
NONE, SOME.
Example:

a) All people have composition.

Some people have no composition.

b) Some animals are dirty.

No animal is dirty.

c) Some students do not take the remedial course.

All students take the leveling course.

d) Some students don't study

All students study.

TRANSLATION AND CONNECTIVE COMBINATION

Ex.

Bertha and Claudia are attractive

Q: Bertha is attractive

q: Claudia is attractive

p ˄ q: p ˄ q are attractive

p is attractive and q is attractive

Bertha is attractive or Claudia is attractive but not both

p ˅ q ˄ [~ (p ˄ q)]

p q p q
V V F
V F V
F V V
F F F
Ex.

Let's suppose:

p: like spinach

Q: I'm strong

a) p ˄ q I eat spinach and I am strong

b) ~ p I don't eat spinach

c) ~ (p ˅ q) it is not true that I eat spinach and I am strong

d) ~ p ˅ q I don't eat spinach or I'm strong

e) ~ (~q) it is not true that I am not strong

f) q ˄ ~q I am strong and I am not strong

CONDITIONAL (If…then)

The proposition “if p then q” is called conditional, it is symbolized (→ ¿

p→q

p: background or hypothesis

q: consequent or conclusion

Ex.

p: win the contest

Q: He will give you $100

p → q = if he wins the contest then he will give you $100

p q p→q
V V V
V F F
F V V
F F V
Win the contest will give you $100

Win the contest does not give you $100

If you don't win the contest, you get $100.

If you don't win the contest, don't get $100.

Ex.

Given p: a and b are even numbers

q: the sum between a and b is an even number

p → q: If a and b are even numbers then the sum between a and b is even number

Analyzing the proposition, the illogical one is if p is V and q is F

Symbolically ( p ∧ q ¿=F

Consequently ( p ∧ q)=V

~ (p ˄ ~
p q ~q p˄~q q)
V V F F V
V F V V F
F V F F V
F F V F V
p→q

Q: If you win the contest

q: Will give $100

1. If you win the contest then you will give $100

2. Winning the contest means you will give $100
3. He will give $100 but if he wins the contest
4. Win the contest only if you give $100
5. So $100 is enough to win the contest.
6. Winning the contest requires you to give $100
7. He will give $100 on the condition that you win the contest.
8. Will give $100 when you win the contest
9. Will give $100 whenever you win the contest

Symbolically

1. If p then q
2. p → q
3. yes p
4. p if only
5. that is enough for p
6. p is necessary for q
7. q with the condition that p
8. q when p
9. that always p

Translate the following sentence into symbolic language

If no deductions are specified in list A and you have deductible donations then complete
the worksheet on pg. 14 and declare the game authorized in rule 34 B

( p ∧q ) →(r ∧ s)

RECIPROCAL, INVERSE AND COUNTER-RECIPROCAL

Given the condition p → q , it defines:

Reciprocal: q → p

Inverse: p→ q

Contra reciprocal: q → p

Ex.

Q: This animal is a bird

q. this animal has wings

Conditional p → q If this animal is a bird then this animal has wings Reciprocal:q → p If
this animal has wings then this animal is a bird

Inverse: p → q If this animal is not a bird then this animal does not have wings Contra
reciprocal: q → p If this animal does not have wings then this animal is not a bird

p q ~p ~q p→q q→p ~p → ~q ~q→ ~p

V V F F V V V V
V F F V F V V F
F V V F V F F V
F F V V V V V V
LAW OF COUNTER RECIPROCAL

A proposition can be replaced by its reciprocal counter without affecting its truth value.

Let it be: p: Juan obeys the law

q: Juan goes to jail

p → q If Juan obeys the law then he doesn't go to jail.

q → p If Juan goes to jail then he doesn't obey the law.

Write the converse, inverse and counter reciprocal of each proposition.

a) If you break the law then you go to jail

b) If p then q
c) p→ q
d) The sun only shines if you are happy
e) I will go on Saturday only if they pay me

conditional If you break the law then you go to jail p→q

reciprocal If you go to jail then you break the law q→p
to If you don't break the law then you don't go to
reverse jail ~p → ~q
against If you don't go to jail then you don't break the
reciprocal law ~q → ~p
conditional p→q
reciprocal q→p
b reverse ~p → ~q
against
reciprocal ~q → ~p
conditional If the sun shines only if you are happy p→q
reciprocal If you are happy only if the sun shines q→p
d reverse if the sun doesn't shine only if you're not happy ~p → ~q
against
reciprocal if you're not happy only if the sun doesn't shine ~q → ~p
conditional I will go on Saturday then they will pay me p→q
reciprocal They only pay me if I go on Saturday q→p
and reverse I won't go on Saturday so they won't pay me ~p → ~q
against
reciprocal They don't pay me so I won't go on Saturday ~q → ~p
conditional p→q
reciprocal q→p
c reverse ~p → ~q
against
reciprocal ~q → ~p

BICONDITIONAL

p → q and its reciprocal q → p do not have the same values

However, it can happen that p → q and also q → p, in this case it is written p ↔ q

Connective↔ :bi conditional

To find the truth table of the bi conditional we look for the truth table of

( p → q)∧(q → p)

p q p→q q→p (p → q) ˄ (q →p)

V V V V V
V F F V F
F V V F F
F F V V V
p ↔ q =( p → q)∧(q → p)

p q p↔q
V V V
V F F
F V F
F F V
TRANSLATIONS OF THE BICONDITIONAL

1. p if only
2. what if only p
3. if p then q and reciprocally
4. if q then py reciprocally
5. p is a necessary and sufficient condition for q
6. q is a necessary and sufficient condition for p

NEGATIVE CONJUNCTION (↓)

p↓ q: neither p nor q

p↓ q: ~p ˄ (~q)

p q ~p ~q ~ p ˄ (~ q)
V V F F F
V F F V F
F V V F F
F F V V V

The negative conjunction is only true when both are false.

p q p↓q
V V F
V F F
F V F
F F V
TAUTOLOGIES AND CONTRADICTIONS

TAUTOLOGY: It is a proposition that is always true no matter the value of its

components.

CONTRADICTIONS : It is the denial of tautology, therefore it is a proposition that

will always be false for any value of its components.

p ˅ ~q
V V F It's tautology
F V V

p ˄ ~p
Contradiction is not
V F F
tautology
F F V
Ex.

(p ˅ q) → (~q→ p) is it a tautology?

p ˅ q → ~q → p
V V V V F V V
It's
V V F V V V V tautology
F V V V F V F
F F F V V F F
Indicate which of the following statements are equivalent to the statement: If Heriberto
wins the contest, then he cheated.

(Suppose that “Heriberto is honest” is equivalent to Heriberto is not a cheater)

a) Heriberto wins the contest and is a cheater

b) Heriberto, an honest person, does not win the contest
c) If Heriberto wins, he is honest, then he does not win the contest.
d) It is not true that: Heriberto wins or is a cheater
e) If Heriberto is a cheater then he wins the contest

p: win the contest

q: he cheated

p→q

a) p ˄ q
b) ~q ˄~ p
c) ~q → ~ p versus reciprocal
d) ~(p ˅ q)
e) q → p

IMPLICATION: If a conditional in a tautology then is called an implication and is

symbolized ( ⇒ ), then the symbol p ⇒ q means p implies aq
Ex.

a) p ˅ q) → (~ q → p)

Determine if it is a tautology

(p ˅ q) ⇒ (~ q → p)

LOGICAL EQUIVALENCE : A bi conditional proposition, p ↔ q, which is also a

tautology, is called logical equivalence and is written (p ⇐⇒ q) and is read “p is
logically aq.”

Show that:

(p → q) ⇐⇒ (~ q ˅ p)

~
p → q ⇐⇒ p ˅ q
V V V V F V V It's
V F F V F F F tautology
F V V V V V V
F V F V V V F

LAWS OF THE LOGIC OF PROPOSITIONS

1. Absorption law
p ˅ (p ˄ q) ⇐⇒ p
p ˄ (p ˅ q) ⇐⇒ p
2. Law of idempotence
 (p ˄ p) ⇐⇒ p
(p ˅ p) ⇐⇒ p
3. Associative law
p ˅ (q ˅ r) ⇐⇒ (p ˅ q) ˅ r
p ˄ (q ˄ r) ⇐⇒ (p ˄ q) ˄ r
p ↔ (q ↔ r) ⇐⇒ (p ↔ q) ↔ r
4. Commutative law
(p ˄ q) ⇐⇒ (q ˄ p)
(p ˅ q) ⇐⇒ (q ˅ p)
5. Complement law
(p ˄ ~ p) ⇐⇒ F
(p ˅~ p) ⇐⇒ V
6. Distributive law
p ˅ (q ˄ r) ⇐⇒ (p ˅ q) ˄ (p ˅ r)
p ˄ (q ˅ r) ⇐⇒ (p ˄ q) ˅ (p ˄ r)
p → (q ˅ r) ⇐⇒ (p → q) ˅ (p → r)
p → (q ˄ r) ⇐⇒ (p → q) ˄ (p → r)
7. Law of identity
(p ˄ F) ⇐⇒ F
(p ˅ V) ⇐⇒ V
(p ˅ F) ⇐⇒ p
(p ˄ V) ⇐⇒ p
~ (~ p) ⇐⇒ p
8. Morgan's Law
~ (p ˄ q) ⇐⇒ ( ~ p ˅ ~ q)
~ (p ˅ q) ⇐⇒ ( ~ p ˄ ~ q)

9. Law of transitivity

(p → q) ˄ (q → r) ⇐⇒ p → r

(p ↔ q) ˄ (q ↔ r) ⇐⇒ p ↔ r

10. Law of biconditional

p ↔ q ⇐⇒ (p → q) ˄ (q → p)

11. conditional law

p → q ⇐⇒ (~ p ˅ q)

p → q ⇐⇒ ~ ( p ˄ ~ q)

12. against reciprocal

p → q ⇐⇒ (~ q → ~ p)
p ↔ q ⇐⇒ (~ q ↔ ~ p)

Ex.

Demonstrate:

(p ˄ F) ⇐⇒ F
(p ˅ V) ⇐⇒ V

p ˅ V
V V V
F V V

Q ˄ F
V F F
F F F

~ (p ˅ q) ⇐⇒ ( ~ p ˄ ~ q)

~ Q ˅ q ⇐⇒ ~p ˄ ~q
F V V V F F F
F V V F F F V
F F V V V F F
V F F F V V V

~ (p ˄ q) ⇐⇒ ( ~ p ˅ ~ q)

~ Q ˄ q ⇐⇒ ~p ˅ ~q
F V V V F F F
V V F F F V V
V F F V V V F
V F F F V V V
Prove the following statements using the laws of propositional logic.

1. (p ˄ p) ⇐⇒ p
(p ˄ p) ˅ F L. identity
(p ˄ p) ˅ (p ˄ ~ p) L. complement
p ˄ (p ˅ ~ p) L. distributive
p ˄ V L. complement
pL. identity
2. (p ˅ p) ⇐⇒ p
(p ˅ p) ˄ V L. identity
(p ˅ p) ˄ (p ˅ ~ p) L. complement
p ˅ (p ˄ ~ p) L. distributive
p ˅ F L. complement

pL. identity

3. (p ˅ q) ˄ (~ p ˅ q) ⇐⇒ q

q ˅ (p ˄ ~ p) L. distributive

q ˅ F L. complement

q L. identity

4. ( p ˅ ~ q) ˄ (q ˅ r) ˄ (q ˅ ~ r) ⇐⇒ (p ˄ q)
( p ˅ ~ q) ˄ q ˅ (r ˄ ~ r) L. distributive
( p ˅ ~ q) ˄ (q ˅ F) L. complement
( p ˅ ~ q) ˄ q L. identity
(p ˄ q) ˅ (q ˄ ~ q) L. distributive
(q ˄ p) ˅ F L. complement
 p ˄ q L. identity and commutative
p ˄ q ⇐⇒ p ˄ q
5. p → q ⇐⇒ (~ q → ~ p)
~ (~ q ˅ ~ p) L. conditional
( q ˅ ~ p)L. double denial
(~ p ˅ q )L. commutative
p → q ⇐⇒ p → q
6. ~ ( p → q) ⇐⇒ p ˄ ~ q
~ (~ p ˅ q ) L. conditional
p ˄ ~ q L. Morgan
p ˄ ~ q ⇐⇒ p ˄ ~ q
7. (p ˄ q) →r ⇐⇒ p→ (q → r)
~ (p ˄ q) ˅ r L. conditional
(~ p ˅~ q) ˅ r L. Morgan
~ p ˅ (~ q ˅ r ) L. associative
~ p ˅ ( q → r ) L. conditional
p → ( q → r) L. conditional
p → ( q → r) ⇐⇒ p→ (q → r)
8. ( p → q) ↔ p ⇐⇒ p ˄ q
[(~ p ˅ q ) →p] ˄ [p → (~ p ˅ q )] L. biconditional
[~ (~ p ˅ q ) ˅ p] ˄ [ ~ p ˅ (~ p ˅ q )] L. conditional
[( p ˄ ~ q ) ˅ p] ˄ [( ~ p ˅ ~ p) ˅ q ] L. Morgan, double negation, associative.
p ˄ ( ~ p ˅ q) L. absorption, idempotence.
(p ˄ ~ p) ˅ ( p ˄ q) L. distributive
F ˅ ( p ˄ q) L. complement
p ˄ q L. identity
p ˄ q ⇐⇒ p ˄ q
9. ( p → q) ↔ q ⇐⇒ p ˅ q

[(~ p ˅ q ) →q] ˄ [q → (~ p ˅ q )] L. biconditional

[~ (~ p ˅ q ) ˅ q] ˄ [ ~ q ˅ (~ p ˅ q )] L. conditional

[( p ˄ ~ q ) ˅ q] ˄ [( ~ q ˅ q ) ˅ ~ p] L. Morgan, double negation, associative.

[( p ˅ q ) ˄ ( ~ q ˅ q )] ˄ [V ˅ ~ p] L. distributive, complement.
[( p ˅ q ) ˄ V] ˄ [V] L. complement, identity.

( p ˅ q ) ˄ V L. identity

( p ˅ q ) L. identity

( p ˅ q ) ⇐⇒ p ˅ q

10. ( p → r) ˅ ( q → r) ⇐⇒ ( p ˄ q) → r
(~ p ˅ r ) ˅ (~ q ˅ r ) L. conditional
(~ p ˅ ~ q) ˅ ( r ˅ r ) L. associative
(~ p ˅ ~ q) ˅ (r ) L. idempotence
~ ( p ˄ q) ˅ (r ) L. Morgan
( p ˄ q) → r L. conditional
( p ˄ q) → r ⇐⇒ ( p ˄ q) → r

REASONING: A reasoning is a proposition that can be represented by the

conjunction of proportions called premises or hypotheses, the conditional ( →)
as the main operator and a final proposition called conclusion.
H 1 ˄ H 2 ˄ H 3 ˄ … ˄ H n →C

Conjunction of Hypothesis conditional conclusion

antecedent consequent logical operator

 An argument is valid when the proportional form that represents its structure is a
tautology V.
 An argument is not valid when the proportional form that represents its
structure is a contradiction or fallacy F.

OBSERVATIONS:

1. Symbolic logic deals with analyzing the validity of reasoning; not if the information
contained in a hypothesis is T or F.
2. The terms valid or invalid refer to the structure of the reasoning, not to the truth or
falsity of the propositions.
3. The truth or falsity of the premises and conclusion does not determine the validity of
the reasoning.

Ex. Reasoning:

Determine the validity or not of the following reasoning.

1. If I was born in Manta, I was born in Ecuador.

I was born in Manta

Therefore I was born in Ecuador.

P1=¿ If I was born in Manta, I was born in Ecuador.

P2=¿ I was born in Manta

C=¿ I was born in Ecuador

Logical structure of reasoning.

( p → q)˄ p → q

p → q ˄ p ⇒ q
V V V V V V V
V F F F V V F
F V V F F V V
F V F F F V F

∴The reasoning is true

2. If I was born in Manta, I was born in Ecuador.

I was not born in Manta

Therefore I was not born in Ecuador.

P1=¿ p → q

P2=¿ ~p

C=¿ ~q
 ~
p → q ˄ p ⇒ ~q
V V V F F V F
V F F F F V V
F V V V V F F
F V F V V V V

∴The reasoning is not valid.

LOGICAL INFERENCES

Logical inferences are the conclusions that can be obtained after carrying out reasoning.
This reasoning is only true if the following conditions are met.

1. The premises or hypotheses must be true.

2. During the deduction process the premises must be related subject to the laws of
logic as follows:
The knowledge obtained from pre-established true propositions (premises) and
applying the laws of logic or those premises are called conclusions.
RULES OF INFERENCES.

Modus Ponendo Ponens. (MPP)

p→q
p
∴q
( p → q) ˄ p ⇒ q

Modus Tollendo Tollens. (MTT)

p→q
q
∴ p
( p → q) ˄ q ⇒ p

ModusTollendo Ponens .(M .T . P .)

p ˅q p ˅ q p v q
p qp
∴q∴ p∴ q
Logical structure.
( p ˅q ) ˄ p ⇒ q

Hypothetical syllogism. (SH)

p→q
q→r
∴ p→r
Logical structure.
 ( p → q)˄ ( q → r ) ⇒ p → r

Absorption. (Abs)
p→q
∴ p →(q ˄ p)
Logical structure.
p → q ⇒ p→ ( q ˄ p )

Simplification. (Simp)
p ˄q
∴p
Logical structure.
p ˄q ⇒ p

Conjunction. (Conj)
p
q
∴ p˄q
Logical structure.
p ˄q ⇒ p ˄ q

Addition. (Ad)
p
∴ p˅q
Logical structure.
p ⇒ p ˅q

Constructive Dilemma. (D.C.)

¿) ˄ (r → s ¿
p ˅r
∴q˅s
Logical structure.
¿) ˄ (r → s ¿ ⇒ q ˅ s

1. Modus Ponendo Ponens. (MPP)

This method of inference establishes that an implication is true and in addition or is

its antecedent then its consequent is true.
( p → q)˄ p ⇒ q

P1=¿ Julián studies Systems Engineering by distance learning, then he studies at ESPE.

P2=¿ Julián studies Systems Engineering remotely

C=¿ Julián studies at ESPE.

( p → q)˄ p ⇒ q

Ex.

P1=¿ p → s P1=¿ r → t ˄ s

P2=¿ p P2=¿ r

C=¿ s C=¿ t ˄ s

2. Modus Tollendo Tollens. (MTT)

This rule of inference says that if an implication is true and its consequent is false, then
its antecedent will necessarily be false.

( p → q)˄ q ⇒ p

P1=¿ If an angle of a triangle is greater than¿ 90° then the sum of the other two angles is
¿ 90°

P2=¿ The sum of the other two angles is not¿ 90°

C=¿ An angle of a triangle is not greater than¿ 90°

Show that the conclusion is consistent with the premises.

P1=¿ b

P2=¿ a → b

P3= a→ c

C=c

P2=¿ a → b

P1=¿ b
C 1= a (MTT)

P3= a→ c

C 1= a

C 2=c (MPP)

3. Modus Tollendo Ponens. (MTP)

If a disjunction is true and one of its simple propositions is false then the other
proposition will necessarily be false.

p ˅q p ˅ q p v q
p qp
∴q∴ p∴ q

Logical structure.
( p ˅q ) ˄ p ⇒ q

Demonstrate that the conclusions are a consequence of the given premises.

P1=¿ q ˅ s

P2=¿ s

P 3= ( r ˄ s ) → q

C=r ˄ s

P1=¿ q ˅ s

P2=¿ s

C 1= q (MTP)

P 3= ( r ˄ s ) → q

P3= ( ( r ˄ s ) ) ˅q L. conditional

P3=( r ˄ s ) ˅ q L. double denial

C 1= q
∴ C2=r ˄ s (MTP)

4. Hypothetical syllogism. (SH)

From the given premises, indicate the proof of the conclusion.

P1=¿ r

P2=¿ p →q

P3=q →r

C= p

P2=¿ p →q

P3=q →r

C 1= p → r (SH)

P1=¿ r

C 2=¿ ( p)

∴ C2=¿ p L. double denial.

Test the validity of the following statement.

P1=¿ If Gloria or Héctor wins, then he loses as much as Jorge and Kelly

P2=¿ Gloria wins so Jorge loses.

Glory wins = p

Hector wins = q

Jorge loses = r

Kelly loses = s

P1=( p˅ q) → ( r ˄ s )

P 2= p

C= r

P 2= p

C 1= p ˅ q (Ad)

P1=( p˅ q) → ( r ˄ s )
C 1=¿ ˅ q ¿

C 2=r ˄ s

∴ C3=r (Simp)

1. If it continues to rain, then the river will rise.-If it continues to rain and the river
rises then the bridge will be washed away.-If the continuation of the rains causes the
bridge to be washed away, then a single path will not be enough for the entire city.-
A single road is enough for the entire city or the engineers have made a mistake.-
Therefore the engineers have made a mistake.

p=it's still raining

q= the river will rise

r=the bridge will be washed away

s=one path will suffice

t=the engineers have made a mistake

P1=( p→ q)

P 2= p

P3=( p ˄q)→ r

P4 =¿)→ s

P5=(s ˅t)

C=t

P3=( p ˄q)→ r

C 1=¿ p → r (Simp)

P4 =¿)→ s

C 1= p→ r

C 2=s (MPP)

P5=(s ˅t)

C 2=s

∴ C3=t (MTP)
2. What conclusion can you draw from the following premises?

You consume oxygen or you do not breathe.-If you do not consume oxygen, then your
heart does not stop beating.-It is not true that; He is alive if only he does not breathe.-
His heart does not stop beating.-Therefore he is not alive.

p=consumes oxygen

q= breathe

r=your heart stops beating

s=is alive

P1=( p˅ q)

P 2= p → r

P3= (s ↔ q)

P4 =r

C= s

P1=( p ˅ q ) ≅ ( q ˅ p )L. commutative

≅ ( q → p ) L. conditional

P 1= ( q → p )

P2=( p→ r )

C 1=¿( q →r ) (SH)

P3= ( s ↔ q ) ≅ s v q AND. logic

P3=s v q

C 1=( q →r )

P4 =r

C 2= q (MTT)

P3=s v q

C 2= q

∴ C3= s (MTP)
3. If it is not the case that if an object floats in water, then it is less dense than water,
then you can walk on water.-But you cannot walk on water.-If an object is less
dense than water, then can displace an amount of water equal to its own weight.-If it
can displace an amount of water equal to its own weight, then the object will float in
water.-Therefore an object will float in water if only if it is less dense than Water.

p=an object floats in water

q= is less dense than water

r=you can walk on water

s=displace an amount of water equal to its own weight

P1= ( p → q ) →r

P 2= r

P3=(q → s )

P4 =( s → p)

C=( p ↔ q )

P3=(q → s )

P4 =(s → p)

C 1=( q → p) (SH)

P1= ( p → q ) →r

P 2= r

C 2=( p →q ) (MTT)

C 1=(q → p)

C 2=( p →q )

C 3=( p →q ) ˄ ( q → p ) (Conj)

( p → q ) ˄(q → p) ≅ ( p ↔ q )

4. If a man is always guided by his sense of duty, he has to renounce the enjoyment of
many pleasures and if he always followed his desire for pleasure he will often forget
his duty.-Either a man always followed his sense of duty or he always followed his
sense of duty. guided by his desire for pleasure.-If a man always followed his sense
 of duty, did not often neglect his duty and always followed his desire for pleasure,
he would not renounce the enjoyment of many pleasures.-Then a man must
renounce joy of many pleasures if only he does not often neglect his duty.

p= a man is always guided by his sense of duty

q= give up the enjoyment of many pleasures

r= always followed his desire for pleasure

s= he will forget his duty

P1=( p → q ) ˄(r → s)

P2=( p ˅r )

P3=( p → s ) ˄( s →q )C=¿

C=( q → s ) ˄( s →q ) ≅ ( s ↔ q )

QUANTIFIER

The symbols that allow us to obtain propositions from open expressions p(x): x ≥ 3

P(x): │x│ > 0

They are of types: Universal (ɏ, P(x))

It reads “for everyone”; “For each” “all”

Each and every x must satisfy P(x)

EXITENTIAL (Ǝx, P(x))

It reads “There (are) some” “There (are) some”

At least one x satisfies p(x)

The truth value of a proposition preceded by a quantifier can be determined.

EXAMPLE

1.- Ǝx, x ≥ 3, is true, but ɏx, x ≥ 3 is false

2.- ɏx, │x│ >0, is true; Ǝx, │x│<0 is false

3.- Ǝx, x 2 = -1, is false, but ɏx, x 2 ≠ -1 is true

4.- ɏx, x.0 = 0, is true, but, Ǝx, x.0 ≠ 0 is false

OBSERVATIONS

1.- Given the open expression p(x), the proposition

 Ǝ!x, P(x) means “there exists a unique x such that p(x)”

2.- The proposition Ǝ! X, p(x) is true when in the truth set it denotes exactly one
element.

EXAMPLE

1.- Ǝ!x, x is positive, x 2 = 4, it is true → x = 2

2.- Ǝ!x, x is integer, x 2 = 4, is false →x 1 = 2; x2 = -2

MORGAN'S THEOREM

1.- ҃ [ɏx, P(x)] ↔ Ǝx, ҃P(x)

2.- ҃ [Ǝx, P(x)] ↔ ɏx, ҃P(x)

DEMONSTRATION METHODS

The propositions of a mathematical theory are classified into two types:

Axioms and definitions definitions that are accepted without demonstration and
theorems that are deduction. The proof of a theorem is a procedure in which two or
more propositions are linked using logical rules. The statement of a theorem includes
the starting propositions and constitute the hypotheses of theorem (H), if we start from
the hypothesis we can arrive at another proposition called thesis, it must be verified that
the proposition is true.

H→T
v→v

DIRECT METHOD

According to the truth table of the conditional, to prove that H→T is true it is enough to
show that if H is true then T is true.

EXAMPLE

Show that if n is an odd number, then n 2 is odd.

Reciprocal
H→T

n = 2m + 1 for m ϵ Z, n is odd
n 2 = (2m + 1) 2
n 2 = (4m 2 + 4m + 1) = (4m 2 + 4m) + 1
= 2(2m 2 * 2m) + 1
Let P= 2m 2 + 2m P ϵ Z
n 2 = 2p + 1 P ϵ Z
ꜙ n 2 is odd

H → T ↔ ҃ I → ҃H
The reciprocal contra is another form of the direct method and is based on logical
equivalence.
P→ q ↔ ҃q → ҃p

We start from the denial of the thesis and arrive at the denial of the hypothesis.
҃ T → ҃ H

This method is also known as “suppose not.”

REDUCTION TO ABSURD
In this method it is assumed that the reasoning structure P → q is not a tautology.
According to the table of truth values of the implication, to demonstrate that the
proposition P → q is false, it is enough to deduce from the hypothesis P is true and q is
false, which is an impossible result because they are two contradictory propositions.

EXAMPLE
1
Show that it's not real (v)
0

1
Suppose that is real → to prove we have to assume that it is true
0

1
=a a ∈ R
0
1=a . o
1≠0

INTRODUCTION PRINCIPLES

It allows testing results with natural numbers, generalizing particular situations, it is

stated as follows:

Let P(n) be a definite proposition ɏn ϵ Z +

a) P(1) is V
b) P(k) → P (K+1) is V, assuming P(k) is true, then the statement P(n) is true, ɏn ϵ
Z+

COUNTER EXAMPLE
It consists of giving an example that does not comply with the thesis, thus
demonstrating that the thesis is false. This example is called a counterexample. The
counterexample shows that there is at least one case in which the proposition is false.
EXAMPLE
Determine whether it is true or false that:
ɏ x ϵ R, x + 5 = 11
Counter example
X= 12 → x + 5 ≠ 11
ɏ x ϵ R, x + 5 = 11 is F

SETS:

Belonging

Example:

B= {X/X is odd}

Z B {Does not belong}

Yes b

-Unitary Set:

Also called a singleton, it is one in which you have only one element.

A={0}

B={5,5}

C= {X/Y-2=1}

-Subsets ( ) and ( ):

TO b (X A->X B)

= Included or Content.

TO B= A subset of B.

TO B= A is included in B.

TO B= B amount of A.

-Example:
A={1,2,3}, B{1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9}

C= {2, 4, 6,8}, D= {1, 3, 7,9}

B is a superset of A.

= Super set.

3 B=F

3 B=V

-Equality:

A=B [(TO B) (B. TO)]

A=B X [(X TO) (X B)]

A= {x/x is a letter of the word Aroma}

B= {x/x is a letter of the word Maroma}

A= {A, R, O, M} C= {7,8}

B= {M, A, R, O,} D= {8,7}

-Own Subset:

TO b A≠B

Euler diagram:

A= {2, 3, 4, 5}

B= {2, 4, 5, 6}

C= {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8,9}
-Linear Diagrams:

It is used to demonstrate set relationships.

A.C.

-Numerical Sets:

: Set of Natural Numbers.

: {1, 2, 3,……………..}

: Set of Integers:

: {……………-2, -1, 0, 1, 2…………….}

: Set of Rational Numbers:

= {a/b/a Tc, b b ≠ 0}

I = Set of Irrational Numbers:

I= {x/x They have a non-periodic infinite representation}

-Examples:

2= 1,414236

3= 1,730503

-Set of Real Numbers:

Yo
-Operations Between Sets:

Cartesian product:

A*B= {(a, b)/ (a TO) (b. B)}

A= {1, 2}

B= {3, 4}

A*B= {(1, 3), (1, 4), (2, 3), (2, 4)}

=A*B ≠ B*A

B*A= {(3, 1), (3, 2), (4, 1), (4, 2)}

If: μ= (a, b) A 2 = A*A

μ= (c, d) A= {1, 2}

μ= a=c b – d A 2 = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (2, 1), (2, 2)}

2
= * = {(x, y)/x and }

AND

2 (2, 2) (3, 2)

1 (1, 1) A

123Xα

-Cardinality of a Set:

It is the number of different elements that the set has.

Notation:

n (A)= Number of elements different from A.

-Example:
A= (a, e, i, o, u) n (A)= 5

B= (2, 2, 3, 3, 3, 4, 5) n (B)= 4

-Counting Techniques:

Case 1: Disjunction Set:

OR
AB

n (A B) = n(A) + n(B)

Case 2:

n (A B) = n(A) + n (B) – n (A B)

-Lewis and Carl diagram:

It is used to represent disjoint sets.

Men women
A survey is done to 200 secretaries; x of them, 40 were from Lima, 50 were from
Arequipa and 90 are fluent in English. Of the latter, 65 are not from Lima and 60 are not
from Arequipa. How many secretaries are not from Lima, nor from Arequipa, nor do
they speak English?

They are fluent in They do not speak Total

English English
Limeñas 65-40=25 15 40
Arequipeñas 90-30=30 20 50
N: Limeñas 90-55 ? 110

N: Arequipeñas 35 75
Total: 90 110 200

Answer= 75

Of a group of 590 students, it is observed that 200 do not apply for UNI. 300 do not
apply, to San Marcos 50 do not apply to either of the two. How many apply to both
universities?

Do not apply: They postulate: Total:

UNI: 200 390
Saint Mark: 300 290
Total: 590

390-350= 50

200-150= 450

590-450= 140

a+50= 300 a= 250 a+b+50+x= 590

b+50= 200 b= 150 250+150+50+x=590

Answer: X= 140

1.-Demonstrate:

(TO B) = A c B c

Let x be an arbitrary element of the universe U.

x OR

x (TO b) c x (Ac Bc
)

x U (A b) c (TO b) c
 x (TO B c d e f. Accessories.

-[X (TO B)] Denial

-[X TO x B] Def. Union

-X TO -X B D'Morgan

x TO x B Denial

x A c x B c d e f. Plugin [TO B] x TO b

x [A c B c d e f. Inter. x [TO B] x TO b

(TO B) c = A c B c

2.-Demonstrate:

TO (TO B) = A

Let:

x TO (TO B) x TO

x TO (TO B) x TO x (TO B) Definition of Union.

x TO [ X TO x B ] Definition of Intersection.

x TO

TO (TO B)=A

3.-Demonstrate:

AD=A Bc

Let:
Bc
x (A –B) x (TO )

x (A –B) x (AB)

x TO B Def. Of diference

x TO B c Complement.

x (TO B c d e f. Intersection.

= AB= A Bc
4.-Demonstrate:

TO (A c B)=A b

TO (A c B)= (A Ac) (TO B) Distributive Law.

= (TO B) Law of Complement.

= A b. Identity

TO (A c B)= (A B)

(TO Ac) (TO B)

0 (TO B)

TO b

-Simplify using Set Algebra:

1. - [B c (AB) c ] b

[B c (A-B c ) c ] b

[B c (A-B c ) c ] B.Morgan

[(B c B) Ac] B.Associative

( Ac) B. Completeness

B.Identity

ANSWER B
2.- [A [(TO b) c (B c A) c ]]

[TO [(TO b) c (B. A c )]]

[TO [(A c Bc
) (B. A c )]] .Morgan

[TO [A c (B. A c )].Distributive

[TO [A c (0)] Completeness

[TO (A c )] Identity.

ANSWER ϕ

-Prove that for sets A, B, C any.

A-(BC)= (AB) (TO C)

A-(B Cc)

TO (B. C c ) c Difference.

TO (B c C c ) Morgan
Bc
(TO ) (TO C) Distributive

(AB) (TO C) (AB) (TO C) Difference.

-Demonstrate:

TO (BC)=(A B)-(A C)

=(A B) (TO C) c Difference.

= (A b) c (A c B c ) Morgan.

= [(A B) Ac] [(TO B) C c ] Distributive.

= [(A Ac) B] [B Cc) A] Complement.

= (0 B) [(B Cc) A] Identity.

= 0 [(B Cc) To Identity.

=A (BC).
2.- When conducting a survey of the residents of a certain city about the preferences of
local magazines, the following result is obtained:

30% prefer X magazine.

40% prefer Y magazine.

70% prefer Z magazine.

27% prefer magazine X and Y.

38% prefer magazine X and Z.

12% prefer magazine Y and Z but not X.

20% Prefer other magazines.

What percentage do you prefer X and Y but not Z?

n(a(x) b (and) c (z)= n(x)+n (y)+n(c)-n (xnz)-n (xny)-n (zny)

=50+40+70-38-27-12

n(A B)= n(A)+n (B)-n (AnB)

n(A b C)= A(x)+n (B) [y]+n(C)[z]-n(B C)-n(A B)-n(A C)+n(A b C)

160= 160-12-27-38+20=103

n(A) = 4

n[P(B)]=16

n (P[AnB)] = 2

-Calculate n [P(A B)]

 n [(P TO) (P B)]

nP (AB) (AnB) (B.A.)

-Prove that 1+3+5+…………….+ (2n+1)=n 2

HI-P(n):1+3+5+…………+ (2n-1)= n 2

P(1): 1=1 2

1=1 is V

P (k): 1+3+5+……………..+ (2k-1) =k 2

TI-P (k+1)1+3+5+…………..+2(k+1)-1= K+1 2

AT: P (k……1+3+5+…………+ (2k-1)=K 2

1+3+5+……………+ (2k-1)+ (2k+1)= K 2 + (2y+7)

=K 2 +2K+1

= (K+1) 2

P(n) is V

SUMMATION

Examples:

a) 1+2+3+..........+15
15

∑i
i=1

b) 3+4+5.................+15
15

∑i
i=3

b) 1+1/4+1/9...................+1/100
10

∑ i/ j
i=1

Properties
n n n
1. ∑ ( a+b )=¿ ∑ ai + ∑ bi ¿ Distributive property
❑ i=1 i=1

2.
n n

∑ ∝ ai=¿ ∝ ∑ ai ¿ Scalar multiple property

i=1 i=1

3.
n

∑ ( ai−ai−1 )=¿ an−aº ¿ Telescopic property

i=1

4.
n P n

∑ ai=¿ ∑ ai+∑ ai;(m≤ p <n)¿

i=m i=1 i= p

5.
n n−m

∑ ai=¿ ∑ a (i+ m)¿

i=1 i=0

6.
n n

∑ ∑ aij=a1 ,2 +a 1 ,3 +… … … a 1, m
i=1 j=1
Demonstrate:
n
n(n+ 1)(2 n+1)
a ¿ ∑ i 2=12 +22 +32 +… … … … … … … … n2=
i=1 6

n(n+1)(2 n+1)
P(n)=n2 +(2n+1)= HI
6

2 1(1+1)(2(1)+1)
P(1)=(1 ¿= = 6/6=1
6
n
b)∑ i =1 +2 +3 + … … … … … … … … n =(n ( n+1 ) /2)
3 3 3 3 3 2

i=1

k ( k +1 ) ( 2k + 1 )
k 2= HI
6
n
P(k+1)=∑ i =1 +2 +3 + ( k + 1 )=k +1 ( k +1 )+1 ¿(2 ( k +1 ) +1) YOU
2 2 2 2

i=1

K+1(k+2)(2k+2+1)

(k+1)(k+2)(2k+3)/6
k
2 k ( k + 1 )( 2 k +1 )
HI= P(k)∑ i = 6 ¿
i=1
¿

2
k k ( k + 1 )( 2 k +1 )
P(k+1)=∑ i = 6 ¿
i=1
¿
k
HI P(k)=∑ i =k(k+1)(2k+1)/6
2

i=1

k +1

∑ i2=1+k+…………..+k 2 +(k + 1)2

i=1

∑ i2+(k + 1)2 =k(k+1)(2k+1)/6+(k + 1)2

i=1

=(k+1)(k(2k+1)+6(k+1)/6

=(k+1)(2 k 2 +k + 6 k +6 ¿ /6
=(k+1)(2 k 2 +7k+6)/6

k ( k +1 ) ( 2 k +1 )
= RP//
6

Exercises:
100 100

∑ n4 =∑ n4 It's true?
n=o n=1

100 100 100

∑ n4 =0+∑ n 4 es verdad ∑ n4=04 +14 +(100¿¿ 4)¿

n=o n=1 n=o

100 100

∑ (2+k )=2+∑ k It's true?

k=o k=0

100 100 100

∑ 2+ ¿ ∑ k ≠ 2+∑ k ¿
k=o n=1 k=o

100 100
202+∑ k ≠2+ ¿ ∑ k ¿ RP//
k=o k=0

Calculate the value of the following sum:

n

∑ ( 2 k−11)( 2 k +1 ) =¿ ¿
k =1

n n

∑ ( 2 k−11)( 2 k +1 ) =¿ 12 ∑ ( 2 k−11) ( 2 k +1 ) =¿ 12 ¿ ¿ ¿ RP// (Parallel Fractions)

k =1 k=1

Telescopic Property:
n

∑ ( ai−ai−1 )=an−aº
i=1

∑ ¿¿ - ( i−1 )2 =( 4 −1)+( 9 − 4 )
5
1 1 1 1
i=2
 1 1 1 1
=( − ¿+( − )
16 9 25 16

1
= −1 RP/¿
25

BINOMIAL THEOREM
n
binomial theorem (a+ b)
0
n=0 (a+ b) =1
1
n=1 (a+ b) =a+ b
2 2 2
n=2 (a+ b) =a +2 ab+ b
3 3 2 2 3
n=3 (a+ b) =a +3 a b +3 a b +b
4 4 3 2 2 3 4
n=4 (a+ b) =a + 4 a b+ 6 a b + 4 ab +b

Triangle

1 1

1 2 1

1 3 3 1

1 4 6 4 1

combinatorial number

(00)
 (10) (11)
(20) (21) (22)
(30) (31) (32) (33)
( 40) ( 41) ( 42) ( 43) ( 44)

(00)= ( 0−00)!!∗0 ! =1
(10)= ( 1−01)!!∗0! =1
(11)= ( 1−11)!!∗1! =1
( 42)= ( 4−24)!!∗2 ! = 2!∗2
4! 24
= =6
! 4

binomial theorem

n
(a+ b) = ( n0) a +( n1)a
n n−1
b+ ( n2) a n−2 2
b ……. ( n−1
n
) ab +( nn) b
n−1 n

()
(a+ b)n=∑ n an−i bi
i=0 i

()
(a+ b)n=∑ n an−k b k
k=0 i

The time that occupies the k place of the development of (a+ b)n ,Tk , es

Tk= (k −1
n
)a n−(k−1)
b
b −1
For kasimo it's over
Exercise
17
(2 x+ 5 y )

Find tenth term

Tk=10

n=17

Development

7
(4+ x ) = (70) 4 +(71) 4 (−x ) +( 72) 4 (−x ) +(73) 4 (−x ) +( 74) 4 (−x ) +(75) 4 (−x ) +( 76) 4 (−x ) +( 77)(−x )
7 6 5 2 4 3 3 4 2 5 6 7

7 6 5 2 4 3 3 4 2 5 6 7
¿ 1∗4 −7∗4 x +21∗4 x −35∗4 x +35∗4 x −21∗4 x +7∗4 x −x

LINEAR OR FIRST DEGREE EQUATIONS

Equalities:

3 + 4 + 2 = 7 + 2 Numerical Equality

( x + y )2=x 2+ 2 xy + y 2 Algebraic or Numerical Equalities

Algebraic Equalities

Identities Equations

It is verified for any value of It is verified for some values

the unknowns (Letters). of its unknowns or letters.

Example:2 x+3=5
Example:

a ( m+n 2 )=am+a n 2
The letters that appear in
the equation are called
unknowns.
The solutions of an equation are the values that, when substituted for the unknowns, create
a certain equality.

Linear or First Degree Equations: They are algebraic equalities with unknowns of
exponent one.

Example:

Answer if the following equations are linear:

a) 2 x+3=5 Yeah
2
b) t −3 t+1=0 No
c) x + y=24 Yeah
d) cos x=1 No
e) a+ b=c Yeah
x
f) 16=2 No

Examples:

1. 2 x+3=5
2 x=5−3
2 x=2
2
x=
2
x=1 ∴ The equation has a unique solution

2. x + y=24
y=24−x

Si x=24 → y=1
Si x=4 →Y =20
Si x=2 → y=0 ∴ There are infinite number of solutions
 3. 3 x−x=2 x
3 x−3 x=0
2 x=2 x
2 x−2 x =0
( 2−2 ) x=0
( 0 ) x=0 ∴ The equation has infinite solutions

4. x +5= y
x−x +5=0
5=0 ⤇ ⤆ Contradiction
∴ No tiene solución

5. Solve:

3 m−11 5 m−1 m−7 5 m−6

− = −
20 14 10 21

3 m−11 m−7 5 m−1 5 m−6

− = −
20 10 14 21

3 m−11−2 m+14 15 m−3−10 m+12

=
20 42

42( m+3 )= ( 5 m+9 ) 20

42m+126=100m+1800

-58m=54

54
M=-
58

27
M=-
29

Verification:

3 m−11 5 m−1 m−7 5 m−6

− = −
20 14 10 21
 3 ( −27
29 ) −11 5 (
−
−27
29 ) −1 (
=
−27
29 ) −7 5 (
−
29 )
−27
−6

20 14 10 21

-
29 ( )
20 −82 −23 −103
−
203
=
29
− (
203 )
2 −2
- =
7 7

6. In a show the magician performs the following trick. Think of a number:( ? )

 Add 15 to the number thought ( ? )
 Multiply the result by 3 ( ? )
 Subtract 9 from the result ( ? )
 Divide by 3 ( ? )
 Subtract 8

7. Tell me what the result is and I'll tell you what number you thought of. The
spectator says 32, what is the number he thought of?

( x+15 )( 3 )−9
−8=32
3

3 x + 45−9
−8=32
3

3 x +36
−8=32
3

X+12-8=32

X+4=32

X=32-4

X=25

8. From a tank full of liquid, a quarter of the content is removed, then half of the rest
and there are still 1500 liters left. What is the capacity of the deposit?

3x
4
=1500
1
2
 3x
=1500
8

3x=12000

12000
X=
3

X= 4000

Another way:

Capacity x

1
A quarter of the content x
4

Half of the rest

1
2 (
1
x− x
4 )
1500 left

1
4
1
2
1
(
X= x+ x− x +1500
4 )

9. A man divided his inheritance in the following way: To his eldest son he left half, to
the second a third of the rest, to the third a sixth of the rest and to the fourth a
million. What was the value of the inheritance?

Inheritance x

x
1st child
2

2nd child ( 2x − 13 )
x
∗2
2
3rd child ∗1
3
6

4th child 1000000

 x 2
∗1 ∗1
X= x 2 x *3
+ + +1000000
2 2 2 6

x x x
X= + + +1000000
2 6 18

4 x +3 x+ x+18000000
X=
18

18x-9x-3x-x= 18000000

X=18000000

X=36000000

STATISTICS.

Statistics deals with the methods and procedures to collect, classify, summarize, find

regularities and analyze data , as long as variability and uncertainty is an intrinsic cause of

them; as well as making inferences from them, with the purpose of helping decision-

making and, where appropriate, formulating predictions .

When we talk colloquially about statistics, we usually think of a relationship of numerical

data presented in an orderly and systematic way. This idea is the consequence of the

popular concept that exists about the term and that is increasingly widespread due to the

influence of our environment, since today it is almost impossible for any broadcast media,

newspaper, radio, television, etc., do not approach us daily with any type of statistical

information about traffic accidents, population growth rates, tourism, political trends, etc.

SIMPLE FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION

At the La hilacha clothing factory, a labor conflict has broken out and its 50 workers are
requesting a comprehensive daily salary increase and are considering closing the company.
The manager collects the information regarding the daily salary variable of his operators
and relates it in the table.
DAILY SALARY OF 50 FACTORY WORKERS

WORK DAY WORK DAY WORK DAY WORK DAY WORK DAY
ER ER ER ER ER
1 52 11 54 21 55 31 56 41 52
2 53 12 51 22 55 32 53 42 57
3 55 13 54 23 52 33 57 43 56
4 53 14 55 24 55 34 54 44 51
5 52 15 54 25 53 35 53 45 58
6 56 16 56 26 57 36 50 46 55
7 54 17 52 27 54 37 55 47 53
8 57 18 54 28 55 38 53 48 54
9 51 19 53 29 53 39 53 49 53
10 54 20 55 30 55 41 54 50 56

DISTRIBUTION OF SALARY FREQUENCIES OF 50 WORKERS

SALARY SALARY SALARY SALARY

50 53 54 Yo
51 53 54 Yo
51 53 54 Yo
51 53 54 Yo
52 53 54 Yo
52 53 54 Yo
52 53 54 Yo
52 54 54 Yo
53 54 54 Yo

FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION OF THE SALARY OF 50 WORKERS

SALARY COUNT REPETITION

50 Yo 1
51 III 3
52 IIIII 5
53 IIIIIIII 9
54 IIIIIIIIIIII 12
55 IIIIIIIIIIII 10
56 IIII 5
57 III 3
58 II 2
ADDITI 50
ON

PEOPLE WITH INCOME BELOW THE POVERTY LEVEL

AGE NUMBER OF
PEOPLE
<16 11223
16 to 21 3867
22 to 44 8754
45 to 64 4125
65> 3855
TOTAL 31822

SYMBOLOGY
N: the sample size, it is the number of observations

r: is the variable, it is each of the different values that have been observed

f: absolute frequency, it is the number of times the variable x is repeated

fa: accumulated frequency, obtained by accumulating the absolute frequency

fr: relative frequency, it is the result of dividing each of the absolute frequencies by the
sample size

fra: cumulative relative frequency, obtained by dividing the fa by the sample size

VARIABLE fi fa fr Fra
XI
x1 f1 f1 f1/a f1/n
x2 f2 f1 plus f2 f2/a f1 plus f2/n
. . . . .
. . . . .
. . . . .
. . . . .
xi fi f1 plus f2 f1/n f1 plus f2 plus
fi/n
. . . . .
. . . . .
xm fm f1 plus f2 plus fm/n f1 plus f2… plus
fm fn/n
n 1

POPULATION.

Also called the collective universe, it is the set of all elements that have a common
characteristic. A population can be finite or infinite. It is a finite population when it is
delimited and we know the number that comprises it. Example: UCE students..

It is an infinite population when the number that comprises it is unknown, for example: all
university professionals who are pursuing a career.

SAMPLE'S SIZE CALCULATION.

Population:

Sample: is a subset of the population.

Example: first semester civil engineering students.

Formula to calculate sample size:

2 2
Ν∗σ ∗Ζ
η=
( Ν −1 )∗e2 +σ 2∗Ζ 2

 Population size (N).

 Acceptable limit value( e ) . An axis value is usually used and varies between 1% to
9%.
1% ( e )=0.01
9% ( e )=0.09
 Confidence limit value (Z). value obtained through confidence levels, if its value is
not available, the following will be taken:
95% confidenceσ = 1.96
99% confidenceσ = 2.58
 Standard deviation value (σ ). If the value is not known, it is given 0.5

MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY.

These measures tend to be located in the center of the information.

The main ones are:

1) Arithmetic measurement
2) Median
3) Fashion.

Arithmetic average.

Mathematics is defined as:

Example. Number of cigarettes consumed by a smoker in a single day.

Monday: 18

Tuesday: 21

Wednesday: 22

Thursday the 21st

Friday: 20

Saturday: 19

Sunday: 19

∑ xi
i=l

18+21+22+21+20+19+19
x=
7

20
x= ; cigarrillos , cada día .
1

xi Fi
18 1
19 2
20 1
21 2
22 1
When the variable is grouped in frequency distribution:

x 1 fi+ x 2 f 2+ … … … . xnfn
X=
n

18 ( 1 ) +19 ( 2 ) +20 ( 1 ) +21 ( 2 )+ 22 ( 2 )

X=
7
 X =20 cigarrillos , cada día .

Weighted Arithmetic Average.

It takes into account the importance of each of the data. It is defined with the following
expressions:
n

∑ xiwi
X = i =ln
∑w
i=l

Donde :

Xw =media aritmética ponderada .

Xi=valor de la variable

Wi=ponderación del ítem.

MEDIAN.

Another measure of central tendency is the median, which is not passed on in the
magnitude of the data as an arithmetic mean, but is the central position it occupies in the
order of its magnitude; dividing the information into two equal parts, leaving an equal
number above and below it.

 When n is odd, the median is the value of the element, axis is in the mode.
 When n is even, the median is half of the 2 elements, which are closer to the middle.

Example:

31 36 5353 67 ; la modaes 53.

3 7 8 111213 15 16 18 21; mediana es 12.5

FASHION.

The mode indicates the most common value (with the highest frequency within the
distribution). It can be unimodal, bimodal, multimodal, or without mode.
 Xi Fi
50 1
51 3
52 5
53 9
54 12
55 10
56 5
The mode is 54

MEASURES OF DISPERSION.

1. Range: Consider extreme values:

R=Xmax− Xmin

2. Mean deviation (MD): Measures the average absolute distance between each of the data
and the parameter that characterizes the information, that is, its arithmetic mean.
m

∑ ( Xi−X ) Fi
DM = i=l
n

3. Variance: Numerically it is defined as the quadratic deviation of the data with respect to
the arithmetic mean.
m

∑ ( Xi− X ) Fi
S = i=l
2
n
2
S =Varianza .
S= Desviaciontípica .

PROBABILITY:

Definition of probability:

The probability of an event is a number between 0 and 1, which indicates the probabilities
of occurring when a random experiment is carried out.

TYPES OF PROBABILITY:

Deterministic experiment:

They are experiments in which we can predict the result before it is carried out.

Random experiments:

They are experiments in which the result cannot be predicted, since it depends on chance.

PROBABILITY THEORY:

Probability theory deals with assigning a certain number to each possible result that may
occur in a random experiment, in order to quantify these results and know if one event is
more possible than another.

EVENT:

It is each of the possible results of a random experience.

Sample space:

It is the set of all possible outcomes of a random experience and is represented by the letter
E.

Example:

Coin toss sample space

E = {C; X}

Sample space for throwing a die

E= {1,2,3,4,5,6}

RANDOM EVENT:
It is any subset of the sample space.

Example:

If a bag contains white and black balls, 3 balls are drawn successively. Calculate A

1) The sample space

E = {(b,b,b);(b,b,n);(b,n,b);(b,n,n);(n,b,b);(n,b,n) ;(n,n,b);(n,n,n)}

2) Event A={draw three balls of the same color}

A = {(b,b,b);(n,n,n)}

3) Event B = {draw at least one white ball}

B = {(n,n,n);(n,b,n);(b,n,n);(b,b,b);(b,b,n);(b,n,b) }

4) Event C = {draw a single black ball}

C = {(b,b,n);(b,b,n);(n,b,b)}

TYPES OF SETS:

ELEMENTAL EVENT: It is each of the elements that is part of the sample space.

COMPOSITE EVENT: Any subset of the sample space.

Example:

When rolling a dice

Event A = {come up even}

Event B = {come out odd}

A = {2, 4,6}

B = {1, 3,5}

SURE EVENT (E): It is made up of all possible outcomes (the sample space)

Example:
A = {roll a die and get a score less than 7}

IMPOSSIBLE EVENT Ø: It is the one that does not have any element, for example:

A = {roll a die and get a score >7}

COMPATIBLE EVENTS: Two events A and B are compatible when they have some
elementary event in common.

For example:

A = {get an even score when rolling the dice}

B = {roll a number of 3 when rolling a die}

A = {2, 4, 6}

B = {3, 6}

INCOMPATIBLE EVENTS: Two events A and B are incompatible, when they do not
have any element in common.

INDEPENDENT EVENTS : Two events A and B are independent when the probability of
their occurrence does not affect the probability of their occurrence in B.

DEPENDENT EVENTS: Two events are dependent when the probability of A happening
is affected by whether B has happened or not.

CONTRARY EVENT: The opposite event of A is another event that takes place when A
does not take place.

Example:

A = {even number in the roll of a die}

Ā = {odd number in the roll of a die}

UNION OF EVENTS: The union of events AUB is the event formed by all the elements
of A and B AUB is read “AoB”

INTERSECTION OF EVENTS: The intersection of events A ∩ B is the event formed by

all the elements that are both A and B.

A ∩ B is read “A and B”

DIFFERENCE OF EVENTS: The difference between A and B is the event formed by all
the elements of A and B that are not from B.
CONTRARY EVENTS: The event Ā = E - A is called the opposite or complement event.
That is, it is verified as long as 0 is not verified.

DEMORGAN LAW

PROPERTIES OF PROBABILITY:

AXIOMS OF PROBABILITY:

1) The probability is positive and less than or equal to 1

Properties of Probability.

1. The sum of the probabilities of an event and its opposite is equal to 1 , and therefore
the probability of the event is equal to:
P(A) = 1-P(A)
2. The probability of the impossible event is 0.
P(Ø) = 0
3. The probability of the union of two events is the sum of their probabilities
subtracting the probability of their imperfection.

P (A ˅ B) = P(A) + P(B) – P(A ˅ B)

4. If an event is included in another, its probability is less than or equal to that of this
one.
If A c B → P(A) ≤ P(B)
5. If A 1, A 2…….. Two to two are still incompatible, then:
P(A 1 ˅ A 2 ……˅A K ) = P(A 1 ) + P(A 2 ) + ……. P( Ak )

6. If the sample space is infinite

So:
P(S) = P(X 1 ) + P(X 2 )……. + P(X n )
Example:

What is the probability of rolling an even number when rolling a die?

E = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}

S = {2, 4, 6}

1 1 1 1
P(S) = P(2) + P(4) + P(6) = + + =
6 6 6 2

Place rule.- We carry out a random experiment in which there are n elementary elements,
all equally probable, equiprobable, then if A is an event, the probability that event A occurs
is:

¿ de casos favorables
P(A) =
¿ de casos posibles

Example:

 Find the probability when tossing two coins into the air that two heads will
come up.

Possible cases: E = {CC, CX, XC, XX}

# of possible cases = 4

# of favorable cases = 1

1
P (2 sides) =
4

 In a deck of 40 cards. Find:

a) The probability of drawing a beam.
b) The probability of drawing a diamond.

4 1
a) P(Az) = =
10 4
10 1
b) P (Diamond) = =
40 4

Probability of the union of two events.

1. Incompatible events.
A ˄ B = Ø → P(A ˅ B) = P(A) + P(B)
Example:

 What is the probability of getting a 2 or 5 when rolling a die.

1 1 1
P(2 ᵕ 5) = P(2) + P(5) = + =
6 6 3

2. Compatible events.
A ˄ B ≠ Ø => P(A ˅ B) = P(A) + P(B) – P(A ˄ B)

Example: Obtain a multiple of 2 = 2

P(2 ˅ 6 ) = P(2) + P(6) – P(2 ˄ 6)

3 1 1
= + -
6 6 6

1
=
2

Conditional Probability.

Let A and B be two events from the same sample space, we call the probability of event B
B
conditional on A and we represent P( ) to the probability of event B once A has occurred:
A

B P ( A ˄ B)
P( )=
A P( A)

Example: Calculate the probability of obtaining a 6 when rolling a die knowing that a pair
has come up.

6 1
P( ) = P(B) =
Par 6

 Independent events
Two events A and B are independent.
A
Yep ( ) = P(A)
B

 Independent events.
Two events A and B are independent
A
Yep ( ) ≠ P(A)
B
 A P ( A ˄ B)
P( )=
B P( B)

Composite or intersection probability of events.

1. Probability of the intersection of independent events

P(A ˄ B) = P(A) , P(B)

Example: you have a deck of 40 cards, you take one out and put it back in the deck, what is
the probability of drawing 2 aces.

P(A˄B) = P(A) x P(B)

4 4 1
= ∙ =
40 40 100

2. Probability of the intersection of independent events.

B
P(A˄B) = P(A) ∙ P( )
A

Example: You have a deck of 40 cards and two cards are drawn, what is the probability of
drawing 2 aces.

B 4 3 1
P(A˄ B) = P(A) ∙ P ( )= ∙ =
A 40 39 50

1
P(A) =
10

B 3
P( )=
A 39

tree diagram

To construct a tree diagram, a branch will be placed for each of the possibilities,
accompanied by its probability.

At the end of each partial branch, a node is constructed from which new branches emerge,
according to the possibilities of the next step, except if the node presents a possible end to
the experiment (final node), the sums of the probabilities of the branches of each must be 1.

Example:

A class consists of 6 girls and 10 boys. If a committee of 3 is chosen at random, find the
probability of:
a) Select 3 children.
b) Select exactly 2 boys and one girl.
c) Select exactly 2 girls and one boy.
d) Select 3 girls.

child
8
14

child
9 6
15 14
little girl
boy Boy
6 9
15 14
little girl
10 5
16 14
little girl

9
child
14

6
child
14
24 5
15 14
little girl
boy Boy
9 10
15 14
little girl
4
14
little girl
 10 9 8
a) P(3 girls) = + + = 0.21
16 15 14

10 4 6 10 6 9 6 10 9
b) P(2 boys one girl) = ∙ ∙ + ∙ ∙ + ∙ ∙ =
16 15 14 16 15 14 16 15 14

6 5 4
c) P(3 girls) = ∙ ∙ = 0.035
16 15 14

10 6 5 6 10 5 6 5 10
d) P(2 girls one boy) = ∙ ∙ + ∙ ∙ + ∙ ∙ = 0.26
16 15 14 16 15 14 16 15 14

Exercise:

A box contains 3 coins, 1 coin is ordinary, another has two heads and another is loaded so
1
that the possibility of coming up heads is A coin is selected at random and thrown into the
3
air. What is the chance that it will come up heads?

expensive

1
2

current

1
2

1
seal
3

expensive

1
Two faces
3

1
seal
3
 expensive

1
3

Loaded
2
3

seal

1 1 1 2
P(head) = − −1+ − = 0.66
3 2 3 3

REAL NUMBERS SYSTEM

It is a set noted R, in which two operations (+) and (x) have been defined.

Real numbers have subsets that are rational, irrational, integers and natural numbers.

Rational numbers (Q): They are numbers of the form p/q where q≠p and pᴧq are prime
(p) to each other, that is, they are divisible only by themselves and by the unit.

Q=∁ P/Q : p ⋀ q ∈ Z , q ≠ 0

Rational numbers (I): They are real numbers that are not irrational, that is, they are the
complement of the irrational numbers in the same as the real numbers. Ex:

Example:

P ( n )=1+2+3+ 4 … …+n=¿n(n+1)/2

1. Trichotomy: for every real number x one of the 3 conditions is satisfied:

xER

x=0

-xER

2. Sum of the positive reals:

Ɏx,y€R; X+Y €R

X,Y>0

3. Product OF positive real numbers

 Ɏx,y€R; X+Y €R

X,Y>0

4. Ɏx,y€R; X<Y Y-XER

YX>0

5. Denial
x<y,x≤y the negation is x< yᴧx≤y
so:
x≤y↔x>y
x<y↔x≥y
6. Reflective Property
∀ xER : X ≤ X

7. Anticimetric property

∀ xy ∈ R : x ≤ y ⋀ y ≤ x → x= y

8. transitive property

∀ x , y , z , cR : X ≤ Y ⋀ Y ≤ Z ⇒ X ≤ Z

9. ∀ X , Y , Z ∈ R: X ≤Y ⟶ X + Z ≤ Y + Z
10. ∀ X , Y , Z ∈ R: X ≤Y ⋀ Z >0 ⇢ X , Z ≤ Y , Z
∀ X , Y , Z ∈ R: X ∈Y ⋀ Z <0 ⟹ X , Z ≥Y , Z
11. The inverse of a positive number is positive
The inverse of a negative number is negative
−1 1 −1
∀ x ∈ r : x >0 ⟹ x = ϵ R
x
−1 1
⟹ X = >0
X
−1 1
X > 0⟹ X = < 0
X
12. ∀ X , Y ∈ R : X >0 ⋀ Y <0 ⇒ XY < 0
X < 0 ⋀ Y >0 ⇒ XY <0
13. ∀ X ∈ R : X ≠ 0 ⇒ X . X −1 =1
X
14. ∀ X , Y ∈ R : >0 ⇔( X >0 ⋀ Y > 0) ⋁ ( X <0 ⋀ Y < 0)
Y
2
15. ∀ X ∈ R : X > 0
1 1
16. ∀ X , Y ∈ R+¿: X <Y ⇒ X > Y ¿
 17. ∀ a , b , c , d ∈ R : a≤ b ⋀ c ≤d ⇒ a +c=b+ d

EXERCISES:

Sean: x , yϵR demostrar que :

1 1
≤
x + y 2 xy
2 2

2
∀ x: y ≤r x≤ R (X −Y ) ≥ 0
2 2
YϵR X −2 XY + Y ≥ 0
2 2
(X −1)∈ R X +Y ≥ 2 XY

1 1
2
( X −Y ) ∈ R ≤
X
2y 2
2 XY

Show that:

a b
∀a,b∈R + ≥2 2
a −2 ab+b ≥ 0
2
b a

a∈R 2 2
a + b ≥ 2 ab
2 2
a b
B∈ R + ≥2
ab ab

a b
(a−b)∈ R + ≥2
b a
2
(a−b) ∈ R
2
(a−b) ≥0
Show that:

1 1
a< b ⇒ <
b+c a+c

d ∈R

b∈R

a+ c< b+c

1 1
>
a+c b+c

1 1
<
b+c a+c

INTERVALS:

 Closed interval with endpoints a, b

[a, b] = {X Є R: a ≤ X ≤ b}

-∞ +∞
ab
 Open interval with endpoints a, b
]a, b[ = {X Є R: a < X < b}

-∞ +∞
ab
 Semi-open interval with extremes a, b
[a, b[ = {X Є R: a ≤ X < b}

-∞ +∞
ab
]a, b] = {X Є R: a < X ≤ b}

-∞ +∞
ab
 Infinite interval with ends a, b
[a, +∞ [ = {X Є R: X ≥ a}

-∞ +∞
 to
]a, +∞ [ = {X Є R: X > a}

-∞ +∞
to
]-∞, a] = {X Є R: X ≤ a}

-∞ +∞
to
] -∞, a [= {X Є R: X < a}

-∞ +∞
to

EXERCISES:
 [-2.3]U]3.5[

-∞ +∞

-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
R= [-2.5[

 [-2.3[U]3.5[

-∞ +∞

-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
R= [-2.5[ - {3}

 [-2,3[η]3,5[

-∞ +∞

-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
R= φ
 ]-3,2]η]1,6]
 -∞ +∞

-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
R=] 1,2]

INECUATIONS:

A first degree inequality has the following form:

 ax + b ≤ c ; a = 0

Solving the inequality means finding the set of real numbers that satisfy the given
inequality:

Examples:

1. Solve
5x – 7 < ❑√ 2
5x <❑√ 2 + 7 Solution=]-∞,
√2+7 [
❑

5
X<
√2+7
❑

2. Solve:
1 1
-X+ ≥ -
2 3
5
Solution=]-∞, ]
6
1 1
+ ≤X
2 3
 5
X≤
6

3. Solve:
ax + b ≤ c
 If a > 0
ax +b ≤ c
ax ≤ c - b
c−b c−b
X≤ Solution=]-∞, ]
a a

 If a < 0
-ax +b ≤ c
-ax ≤ c - b
c−b c−b
X≥ Solution= [ , +∞ [
a a

4. Solve:
2 x−3
>-2
x

 If x > 0
2x – 3 > -2x
4x > 3
3 3
x > Solution=] , +∞ [
4 4

 If x < 0
2x – 3 > -2x
-4x > 3
3
X < Solution=]-∞, 0 [
4

3
Total solution = =] , +∞ [U]-∞, 0 [
4

5. Solve:
 X
≥0
2 X+ 1

 If 2x +1 > 0
2x + 1 > 0
2x > - 1
1 1
X > - Solution: =]- , +∞ [
2 2

 If 2x +1 < 0
2x + 1 > 0
-2x > - 1
1 1
X < - Solution: =] -∞, - , [
2 2

1 1
Total solution=] -∞, - , [OR]- , +∞ [
2 2

Let's remember:

 ∀a,b∈R: to. b > 0 ↔ ( a > 0 Λ b > 0) v ( a < 0 Λ b < 0 )

to. b < 0 ↔ ( a > 0 Λ b < 0) v ( a < 0 Λ b > 0 )
Example:
1. (x- 1) (2 – 3x) > 0

If ab > 0

x – 1 > 0 Λ 2 – 3x > 0
2
x>1x<
3

-∞ +∞

-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
 Solution: Ø

If ab < 0

x – 1 > 0 Λ 2 – 3x > 0
2
x<1x>
3

-∞ +∞

-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
2
Solution: =] , 1[
3

2
Total solution=] , 1[
3

2. (x + 1) (2 – x) (3x – 5) ≤ 0

X1= -1
X2= 2
5
X3=
3

x 5
-1 2
3
(x + 1) - + + +
(2 – x) + + + -
(3x – 5) - - + +
(x + 1)(2 – x ) (3x – + - + -
5)
 X ≤ 0 (they are negative
numbers)
5
Solution: [-1, ] U [2, +∞ [
3

2 2
( x +1) −(3 x−2)
3. ≥0
x +3
2 2
x +2 x+ 1−9 x + 12 x−14
≥0
x+ 3
2
−8 x +19 x−3
- ( )≤0
x +3
2
8 x −19 x +3
( )≤0
x +3

( 4 x−1 )( 2 x−3)
( )≤0
x +3

1
X1=
4
3
X2=
2
X3= -3

x 1 3
-3
4 2
(x + 1) - - + +
(2 – x) - - - +
(3x – 5) - + + +
(x + 1)(2 – x ) (3x – - + - +
5)
 X ≤ 0 (they are negative numbers)

1 3
Solution=]-∞, -3[ U [ , ]
4 2

ABSOLUTE VALUE

x if x > 0

│x│ =

-x if x < 0

From the definition it is concluded that:

1) ¥x€R ; │x│ ≥ 0

Example:

1) │❑√ 2│ = ❑√ 2

2) │-3│ = -(-3) = 3

3) │-(-7)│ = 7

4) │0│ = 0

5) │-1 - ❑√ 2│ = ❑√ 2 -1

Given a positive number

│x│ = a  x = a ̬ x = -a

Example:

1
│x + │ = 5
2

1 1
X+ = 5 ̬ X + = -5
2 2

9 11
x= x=-
2 2

9 11
Sun: { ; }
2 2
From the definition of absolute value we have:

If a>0 │x│ ≤a  -a ≤ x ≤ a

│x│ ≥ a  x ≤ -a ̬x ≥ a

Exercise:

│7 -4 │ ≤ 5

7 -4x ≤ 5 ̭ 7 -4x ≤ 5

1
X≥ x≤3
2

Exercise:

1) │x│ < -4

Cannot be solved because the absolute value is never less than zero

2) 1 < │x│ < 2

│x│ < 1 ̭ │x│ < 2

│x│ > 1 ̭ │x│ < 2

[ x < -1 ̬ x > 1 ] ̭ [ -2 < x < 2]

-2 -1 1 2

Sun; ] -2 , -1 [U] 1, 2 [

FUNCTIONS
Features

Let A and B be two subsets of the real ones. When there is a relationship between the
variables x ^ and where x is an element of A ^) it is an element of B in which each value of
the independent x corresponds to a single value of the variable y We will say that this
relationship is a function.

TO b

x Y=f(x)

 F:

TO b

x y = f(x)

A function can be represented graphically and for this representation the y-axis Cartesian
plane is used.

Y=f(x) d

AB
 X (x axis)

Domain (Df)

We call the set formed by all the values that the independent variable X takes the function

Route (Rf)

The set formed by all the values that take the dependent variable “y” such that “y” is equal
to f(x) for some x € A is called a path of f

f(x) f(x)

f(x)=2 f(5)= 4 If it is a function

IT IS NOT FUNCTION

x x

Obtaining the domain of a function from the analytical expression

1-Polynomial Function

F(x)= P(x) Df=R

Example:

3 2 2
a) F(x)= x −5 x + x −5=¿ Df =R
3
√3
b) F(x) = √ 2 x + x −
❑ 4 2
x +1=¿ Df =R
3

2-Rational function
 P( X)
F(x) = ⇒ Df =R=¿
Q(X )

x−2 x−2
Example f(x)= f(x)= 2
x 2−4 x−5 x +4
2
x +4 = 0
2
x −4

X2 - 4x – 5 = 0 x =❑√ 4

(x+1) (X-5) = 0

X1= -1

X2 = 5 => D f = R = {−1 , 5 }

Irrational (radical) function

F(x)=√n g ( x ) ⇒ {
n par ⇒ Df = { xϵ Dg . g ( x ) ≥0 }
nimpar ⇒ Df =Dg }
Example:

1-❑√ x 2 – 1 x ≥1
2
⟹ Df =¿−∞−1 ¿∪ ¿

= x 2−1 ≥0 √ x2≥ 1
❑

(x )≥ 1

x ≤−1∪ x ≥ 1

1
2 - f ( x )= 4 −( x ) <2
√ 4−x 2
2
4−x >o −2< x <2
2
x >−4
 2
x <4

TRIGONOMETRY

In trigonometry, we are interested in the study of certain magnitudes called trigonometric

functions.

- Trigonometric functions of an acute angle.

B Given: A,B,C = Angle measurements.

caa,b,c = lengths of the corresponding opposite sides in the

triangle.

AbC

The ratios of the Laos are called trigonometric functions, the trigonometric functions for A
are defined as:

Theorem. A trigonometric function of an acute angle is equal to the cofunction (sine and
cosine are called cofunctions of each other) is a complementary angle.

Sin A= cos (90-A)

Cos A= sin (90-A)
Tg A= ctg (90-A)
Ctg A= tg (90-A)
Sec A= csc (90-A)
Csc A= sec (90-A)

- Functions of the 45º angle

a 1
b sen 45 either¿ = ❑
b √2
1
sen 45 or = ctg 45 or = 1
√2
❑

1
a=1 c =❑√ 2cos 45 or = sec 45or = ❑√ 2
√2
❑

tg 45o = 1 csc 45 or = ❑√ 2
 c b=1 TO

- Functions of the angle of 30º and 60º

b a=❑√ 22 −12
a=❑√ 3
c=2 2
√3
❑
1 ❑√3
sen 60or = ctg 60or = ❑ =
2 √3 3
1
A b=1 C cos 60 or = sec 60 either ¿ 2
2
2 2 ❑√ 3
tg 60or = ❑√ 3 csc 60or = =
√3 3
❑

1
sen 30or = ctg 30or = ❑√ 3
2
√3
❑
2 2 ❑√ 3
cos 30 or = sec30 or = =
2 √3 3
❑

1 ❑√ 3
tg 30or = ❑ = csc 30 or = 2
√3 3

EXERCISES:

*In a right triangle the length and hypotenuse is the root of 2 times the length of one of the
legs. What are the acute angles of the triangle?
 x
b senø= ❑
√2 x
1
❑
√2 x senø= ❑
√2
ø=45either

TO x c

Demonstrate:

¿ cos 60 or = 2 ¿

( )
=2 √ 2 −1
❑
1 3
2 2

1 1
=
2 2

*Express each of the following functions as the function of the complementary angle.

tg 30either¿ ctg 60 either

cos 20 either¿ sec70 either

sec 81 either¿ csc 9 either

*For what angle x istg ¿ either−x ¿=ctg ¿ either+3 x ¿ ?

90 either¿ 30 either−x +30 either+3 x

30=2 x

x=15 either

ANGLE GENERATION

b b
 End side

End side Q TO

TO Q

Starting side End side

(+) (-)

TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS OF ANY ANGLE

and and

P.B. B.P.

r and yr

x x
x Q Qx

Qx because
x x

yr ry

Q Q

b b

and and
*Let P be any point on the final side OB of the angle, let (x,y) be its coordinates.

OQ = X ^ QP = y ^ OP r
2 2 2
r =x + y

TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS FOR XOB

y x
sen XOB= ctg XOB=
r r
 x r
cos XOB= sec XOB=
r x

y r
tg XOB= csc XOB=
x y

ALGEBRAIC SIGNS OF TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

FUNCTION Quadrant I Quadrant II Quadrant III Quadrant IV

sen + + - -
csc
cos + - - +
sec
tg + - + -
ctg

b d

90º f 450º T c
O
EXERCISES:

m
*Knowing thatcot A = , calculate all other trigonometric functions
n
n m
sin A= ❑ ; cot A=
√(m + n ¿ )¿
2 2
n

; sec A= √
m ❑ 2
(m +n )
2
cos A= ❑
√(m + n ) 2 2
m

; csc A= √
❑
tan A=
n (m2 +n2 )
m n

*Calculate based onsin A of each of the other 5 trigonometric functions

co y
sin A= =
h r
Be Sea :r=1 ∧ y=sin A

x=❑√ 1−Sin2 ( A) A.C.

± ❑√ 1−sin2 ( A)
sin A=±sin A ; cot A= x=❑√ 1−sin2 ( A)
sin A

±1
cos A=± ❑√ 1−sin( A) ; sec A= ❑
√ 1−sin 2 (A )
±sin A ±1
tan A= ❑ ; csc A=
√1−sin (A )
2
sin A

5
*Dadaist sec A= calculate the other trigonometric functions
4

3 4
sin A=
5
; cot A=
3 √ 52−42
❑

4 5
cos A=
5
; sec A=
4 √ 9=3
❑

13 5
tan A= ; csc A=
4 3

*Given points A and B located on the ground and in a straight line with the building, the
elevation angles to the highest part are 15º and 22º respectively. If the distance is 70m, find
the height
y y
tan15= ; tan22 º=
70+ x x

y=tan 15(70+ x ) c

y=tan 15 ( 70 ) +tan 15 ( x ) b

y=tan 22(x)
 y=tan 22 (137 )

y=55 , 35 m TO c=70cm b

tan15 ( 70 )+ tan 15 ( x ) =tan 22 ( x )

tan15 ( x )−tan 22 ( x )=−18 ,76

−18 , 76
x=
tan 15−tan 22

x=437

Trigonometric functions of angles =0º,90º,180º,270º

(x) P1 0 ° For Po → x=1; y=0

90 ° For P1→ x=0; y=1

P2 (and) Po
180 ° For P2→ x=-1; y=0

270 ° For P3→ x=0; y=-1

P3

Angle Without Cos So Ctg Sec Csec

0° 0 1 0 ∞ 1 ∞
90° 1 0 ∞ 0 ∞ 1
180° 0 -1 0 ∞ -1 ∞
270° -1 0 ∞ 0 ∞ -1

ANGLE MEASUREMENT:

-Measured in degrees

-Measured in radians

*Measured in degrees

Unit = degree
Degree = ° angle that subtends an arc of a circle whose length is equal to 1/360 of the
length of the circumference 1° =60'; 1°= 60''

*Circular measurement

Unit = radian

1 Radian: is the corresponding angle or an arc whose length is equal to the length of the
radius of the circle

C= 2πr

180°
1rad=
π

Fundamental relationships

Let's call the angle XOB, then:

y x
1.-sin A= 4.-cot A=
r y

x r
2.-cos A= 5.- sec A=
r x

y r
3.- tan A= 6.-csc A=
x y

Theorem:

The 6 trigonometric functions angle A satisfy the relations

7.-sin A . csc A=1 12.-sin2 ( A)+cos 2 ( A)=1

8.-cos A . sec A =1 13.- sec ( A)=1+ tan 2 (A )

9.- tan A . cot A=1 14.-csc 2 ( A)=1+ cot2 ¿

sin A
10.- tan A=
cos A

cos A
11.-cot A=
sin A
DEMONSTRATIONS:

7, 8,9)

sin A . csc A=1

y r
sin A . csc A= .
r y

sin A . csc A=1

y
y r sin A
10,11) tan A=sin A . cosA ; tan A= = ; tan A=
x x cos A
r

12) sin2 A +cos 2 A=1;

()()
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
r x +y x y x y
2
;2
r =x + y 2 =2
2 ;1= 2
+ 2 ;1= + ;
r r r r r r
2 2
1=cos A +sin A

13,14) sec 2 A=1+tan 2 A

2 2 2
r =x + y
2 2 2
r x +y
2
=1+ 2
x x

() ()
2 2
r y
=1+
x x
2 2
sec A=1+tan A

COROLLARY. From the previous theorem the following functions emerge.

1
15.- senA=
csc A

16.- seaA=± ❑√ 1−co s 2 A

1
17.- cosA =
senA

18.- cscA =± ❑√ 1+ct g 2 A

 ¿ ( 1+t g 2 y ) co s2 y=1
2 2
se c y . co s y=1

1 2
2
. co s y=1
co s y

1=1

GRAPH OF THE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS π

Graph of the function sin x (sine):

Graph of the cos x (cosine) function:

Graph of the function tan x (tangent):

FUNCTIONS OF THE SUPPLEMENTARY ANGLE

A + B= 180 so A is supplementary to B and B is supplementary to A.

Sin (180-A) Sin A 180-AA

Stuff
 Cos (180-A)

Sin (180-A)= Sin A

Cos (180-A)= -Cos A

Tan (180-A)= -Tan A

Sec (180-A)= -Sec A

Csc (180-A)= Csc A

LAW OF SINES

The sides of triangles are proportional to the Sines of the opposite angles.

a b c
= =
Sen A Sen B Sen C

DC

b aha
h b

ADBDA c B

h
Let us consider Δ ADC: Sin A¿ e1
b

h
Let us consider Δ DBC: Sin B¿ e2
a
 h
Sen A b Sen A a
¿ So =
Sen B h Sen B b
a

a b
Demonstrated: =
Sen A Sen B

LAW OF COSINE

In any triangle, the square of one side is equal to the sum of the squares of the other two
minus the double product of these two sides times the cosine of the angle they form.
2 2 2
a ¿ b + c −2bcCosA
2 2 2
b ¿ a + c −2 acCosB
2 2 2
c ¿ a +b −2 abCosC

b to

ADB

At ΔADC:b 2 ¿( AD )2+( DC )2 e1)

In ΔDBC:a 2 ¿( DB)2+(CD )2 e2)

 2 2 2
e 2−e 1 : a −b =( DB ) e3)

But: DB = C – AD e4)
2 2 2
(e 4) :(DB ) ¿(C− AD )
2 2 2
(DB ) ¿ C −2C ( AD ) +( AD ) e5)

2 2 2 2
e 5 en e 3 :a −b ¿(C ¿ ¿ 2−2 C ( AD ) + ( AD ) )−(AD ) ¿

2 2 2
a −b ¿ C −2 C ( AD ) e6)

AD
Stuff¿ then: AD=b Cos A e7)
b
2 2 2
e 7 en e 6 :a −b ¿ c −2 bcCosA
2 2 2
Demonstrated: a ¿ b + c −2bcCosA

EXERCISES:

1) Calculate the side AB of the following triangle.

a b
c=? =
Sen A Sen B

21°31 a=25.2m

25.2 14.55
A b=14.55m C =
Sen 21 ° 31 ´ Sen B

B= 12.22°

A+B+C=180 by sum of internal angles of the Triangle.

C=180-21°31´-12.22°=146.27°
2 2 2
c ¿ a +b −2 abCosC
 2 2 2
c ¿(25.2) +(14.55) −2 ( 25.2 )( 14.55 ) cos 146.27 °

c= √ (25.2)2 +(14.55)2 −2 ( 25.2 )( 14.55 ) cos 146.27 °

2

c=38.17 m

2) Two ships leave a port at the same time, one sails in a direction 62°15' east of north
at a V=24 miles/h, the other sails in a direction 18°20' west of south with a
V=20miles /h. How far apart will the two ships be at 2 hours?

d=v*t
N
62°15´ C d1=24mi/h*2h=48 miles

b=48 miles 27.75° d2=20mi/h*2h=40 miles

OA a=? AND

c=40 miles 136.08°

B 18°20´

Yes

2 2 2
a ¿ b + c −2bcCosA

2 2 2
a ¿( 48) +( 40) −2 ( 48 ) ( 40 ) cos 136.08 °

a=√ (48)2+(40)2−2 ( 48 )( 40 ) cos 136.08 °

2

a=81.67 millas

TANGENT LAW
The sum of the sides of a triangle is to their difference as the tangent of half the sum of the
two angles opposite these sides is to the tangent of half the difference of these angles.
a+b tag [1 /2 (A + B)]
=
a−b tag [1/2( A−B)]

TRIGONOMETRIC ANALYSIS

FUNCTIONS OF THE SUM AND DIFFERENCE OF TWO ANGLES.

 Sin(x + y)=Sin x Cos y + Sin y Cos x

 Sin(x – y)= Sin x Cos y - Sin y Cos x
 Cos(x + y)=Cos x Cos y – Sin x Sin y
 Cos(x - y)=Cos x Cos y + Sin x Sin y

1) Show that:
Sin(x – y)= Sin x Cos y - Sin y Cos x
Sin(x + y)=Sin x Cos y + Sin y Cos x Let: y = -y
Sin(x + (-y))=Sin x Cos (-y) + Sin (-y) Cos x
Sin(x – y)= Sin x Cos y - Sin y Cos x proven.

tgx+ tgy
 tg( x + y )=
1−tgx tgy
Sen (x+ y)
tg(x + y )=
cos ( x+ y )
Senx cos y+ Seny cos x
tg(x + y )=
Cosx cos y −Senx Sen y
I divide numerator and denominator for: Cos x Cos y

Senx cos y Seny cos x

+
cos x cos y cos x cos y
tg( x + y )=
Cosx cos y Senx Sen y
−
cos x cos y cos x cos y

tgx+ tgy
tg ( x + y )= Demonstrated.
1−tgx tgy

tgx−tgy
 tg( x− y )=
1+tgx tgy
Ctgx Ctgy −1
 Ctg ( x+ y)=
Ctgy Ctgx
 cos(x + y )
C tg( x + y )=
Sen ( x+ y )
Cosx cos y −Senx Sen y
C tg( x + y )=
Senx cos y+ Seny cos x
I divide numerator and denominator for: Sin x Sin y

cos x cos y Sen x Sen y

−
Sen x Seny Senx Sen y
tg( x + y )=
sen x cos y Sen x cos x
+
Sen x Sen y Sen x Sen y

Ctgx Ctgy −1
Ctg ( x+ y)= Demonstrated.
Ctgy Ctgx
2) Find the cosine of 15° using the 30° and 45° functions.
Cos (45 -30)=Cos 45 Cos 30 + Sin 45 Sin 30
⎷2 ⎷2
∗⎷ 3 ∗1 ⎷ 6 + ⎷ 2
Cos (45 – 30)= 2 + 2 =
4
2 2

3) Demonstrate:
Sin (60° + x) – Sin (60 – x) =Sin x
Sin 60 Cos x + Sin x Cos 60 – (Sin 60 Cos x – Sin x Cos 60) = Sin
⎷3 1 ⎷3 x∗1
∗cos x +Sen x −( ∗cos x−Sen )=Senx
2 2 2 2

⎷ 3 cos x Sen x ⎷ 3 cos x Sen x

+ − + =Sen x
2 2 2 2

2 Sen x
=Senx
2
Sin x = Sin X proven.

TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS OF THE DOUBLE ANGLE

To find Sin (2x):

Sin(x + y)=Sin x Cos y + Sin y Cos x
Let y= x
Sin(x + x)=Sin x Cos x + Sin x Cos x
Se (2x)=2Sin x Cosx

To find Cos (2x):

Cos(x + y)=Cos x Cos y – Sin x Sin y
Let y=x
Cos(x + x)=Cos x Cos x – Sin x Sin x
Cos (2x)=cos 2 x−Sen2 x

To find the tg (2x):

tgx+ tgy
tg ( x + y )=
1−tgx tgy
Let y=x
tgx+tgx
tg ( x + x)=
1−tgxtgx
2tgx
tg(2 x)= 2
1−tg X

INVERSE TRIGOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

f:R[-1,1]
xy=Sin x

−1
f : [-1,1]R
YX¿ Sen−1 (Y )= Arco Sen Y

Trigometric Function Inverse Function

Sin x
Cos x Arc Sin (x)= Sen−1 (x)
tg x Arc Cos (x)= cos ( x )−1
Ctg x Arc tg (x)= tg ( x )−1
 Arc Ctg (x)= Ctg ( x )−1

TRIGOMETRIC EQUATIONS
Suggestions:
1. Express trigometric functions in terms of a function of the same angle.
2. Express all functions in terms of the same function.
3. Solve algebraically considering the only function remaining in the equation as
an unknown.
Exercises:
a) Cos 2x Csc x + Csc x + Ctg x= 0
b) 4 Sec 2 y−7 tg 2 y =3
π
c) tg−1(2x) +tg−1 (3x)=
4

PLANE GEOMETRY

Angle.- It is an opening formed by two divergent rays that have a common end called
vertex.

AQ= Convex angle.

δ = Concave angle.

δQ

O.B.

CLASSIFICATION OF ANGLES ACCORDING TO YOUR MEASUREMENT

a) Convex Angle

0<B<180

Acute angle

0<B<90
Right angle

B=90

Obtuse angle

B90<B<180

b) Concave Angle

180<B<360

CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO SUM

a) Complementary Angles
 A A + B = 90

b) Supplementary Angles

A+B=180

B.A.

CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO YOUR POSITION

a) Adjacent angles

b
TO

A common side.
b) Consecutive Angles

CB

They can form more angles.

c) Opposite angles by the vertex

BA A=B They are congruent

RELATIVE POSITION OF LINES IN THE PLANE

a) Secant: If their intersection is a point.

L1

Yo

L1 and L2 are secants.

 L2

b) Parallel: If they do not intersect.

L1 L2

L1 ∥ L2 We read: it is parallel.

c) Perpendicular Lines: These are those that determine 90 angles.

A If A= 90: L1 perpendicular L2.

ANGLES DETERMINED BY A TRANSVERSE ON 2 PARALLEL LINES

L1 ⫫ L2 L3

AB

L1

CD

GF L2

HI

Alternate interior angles:

∡ F= ∡ C and ∡ G= ∡ D

Alternate external angles:

∡ A= ∡ I and ∡ B=H

Corresponding Angles:

∡ F= ∡ B, ∡ A= ∡ G and ∡ H= ∡ C, ∡ I= ∡ D

PROPERTIES

1) If L1 ⫫ L2

L1

TO

b L2

∡ X= ∡ A + ∡ B

2)
3)
4) Saw Rule:

L1

FOR

Y.C.

Z L2

∡ A + ∡ B+ ∡ C= ∡ X+ ∡ Y+ ∡ Z

5) If L1 ⫫ L2
 L1

AND

Z L2

∡ X+ ∡ Y+ ∡ Z+ ∡ B= 180°

6) If L1 ⫫ L2
B L1

AND

Z L2

∡ B= ∡ X+ ∡ Y+ ∡ Z

7) IF L1 ⫫ L2

L1

W L2

∡ B+ ∡ Q+ ∡ W=360°

ANGLES OF THE PERPENDICULAR SIDES

 W

∡X = ∡W

W ∡X + ∡W =180°