STARBOY

FEDERAL UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY, OWERRI
P.M.B 1526, OWERRI, IMO STATE
STUDENT INDUSTRIAL WORK EXPERIENCE SCHEME [SIWES]
400 LEVEL
A REPORT ON
COMPUTER NETWORKING
DONE AT
CRESPONET TECHNOLOGIES DEPARTMENT AT SHOP 12 TOP FLOOR, AMAZING

PLAZA, OBINZE, OWERRI, IMO STATE.
PRESENTED BY
EPUNAM CHIMEZIE CHRISTIAN
20181169862
DEPARTMENT OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY
SCHOOL OF INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION
TECHNOLOGY (SICT)
IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF
BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY (B.TECH) DEGREE IN INFORMATION
TECHNOLOGY
JUNE, 2024 AD.
1
CERTIFICATION
This is to certify that the internship on “COMPUTER NETWORKING” at
“CRESPONET TECHNOLOGIES” was carried out by EPUNAM CHIMEZIE
CHRISTIAN with REG NO: 20191169862 in the Department of INFORMATION
TECHNOLOGY, FEDERAL UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY OWERRI; IMO STATE.
............................................... ................................................
.
Date
Engr. Mrs G.N. Ezeh
(IFT SIWES Coordinator)
................................................
Date
...............................................
.
Dr. A.I Otuonye
(Head of Department)
............................................... ................................................
.
Date
Prof. Mrs. U. F.
Eze (Dean, SICT)
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DEDICATION
This report is dedicated foremost to God Almighty for His favour, mercy and grace upon
my life.
Secondly, this report is dedicated to my supervisor who took me under his wing and made
sure that I was well-equipped with the knowledge and skills necessary to understand the
principles of networking.
I would also like to dedicate it to my family and mentor for their love and support and
everyone else that contributed towards making my SIWES training a fun and successful
one.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
My appreciation goes to Dr.A.I Otuonye, The Head of Department of The Information
Technology Department, FUTO, and also to my Class Adviser, Mrs. Mbamala Vivian, for
your massive support, which without you this training program would not have been made
possible.
I am truly grateful to Cresponet Technologies for providing me with the necessary skills
relevant to my field of study.
To my parents and siblings thank you for all your moral and financial support. You all are the
best and I cannot wish for a better family.
Finally, I am forever grateful to God Almighty, the giver of all life and the fountain of wisdom,
knowledge and understanding, without whom I would have achieved nothing at all.
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ABSTRACT
The Student Industrial Work Experience Scheme established by the Federal Government of
Nigeria was aimed at exposing students of tertiary institutions to industrial skills and practical
experiences in their approved course of study and also to prepare them for real life work
situations which they are likely to meet after graduating. This technical report is based on the
experience gained during my industrial training at Cresponet Technologies. This report
highlights the processes involved in the Networking section which I opted for and was duly
allocated to. I was stationed at the networking class and the processes carried out by this
department, which are covered in this report, cut across learning processes, protocols,
guidelines, configuration and troubleshooting of computer networks and more. This report
describes the activities performed during the industrial experience and includes problems
encountered alongside suggestions for improvements. This report discusses the technical
skills gained during the training period and justifying the relevance of the scheme in
equipping students with needed technical competence to thrive in the labour market.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
CERTIFICATION......................................................................................................................1
DEDICATION...........................................................................................................................2
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT..........................................................................................................3
ABSTRACT...............................................................................................................................4
TABLE OF CONTENTS...........................................................................................................5
CHAPTER ONE.........................................................................................................................8
1.0 INTRODUCTION................................................................................................................8
1.1 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF SIWES.............................................................................10
1.2 RELEVANCE OF SIWES.................................................................................................10
1.3 ROLES OF STUDENTS DURING SIWES......................................................................11
1.4 THE LOGBOOK................................................................................................................13
CHAPTER TWO.....................................................................................................................14
2.1 ABOUT THE COMPANY..............................................................................................14
2.2 VISION..............................................................................................................................15
2.3 ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE OF THE INSTITUTION.......................................16
2.4 VARIOUS DEPARTMENTAL UNITS IN THE COMPANY.......................................17
2.5 SERVICES RENDERED BY THE COMPANY............................................................17
CHAPTER THREE..................................................................................................................18
3.0 NETWORKING...............................................................................................................18
3.1 NETWORK COMPONENTS..........................................................................................18
3.1.1 PRO’S OF PEER-TO-PEER NETWORKING..........................................................19
3.1.2 CON’S OF PEER-TO-PEER NETWORKING.........................................................19
3.2 END DEVICES..................................................................................................................19
3.3 INTERMEDIARY DEVICES...........................................................................................20
3.4 NETWORK MEDIA..........................................................................................................21
3.5 NETWORK REPRESENTATION AND TOPOLOGY...................................................24

3.5.1 TOPOLOGY DIAGRAMS.........................................................................................25
3.6 COMMON TYPES OF NETWORKS..............................................................................28
3.6.1 LANs...........................................................................................................................28
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3.6.2 WANs........................................................................................................................28
3.7 NETWORK ARCHITECTURE..........................................................................................30
3.8 NETWORK TRENDS......................................................................................................32
3.9 NETWORK SECURITY...................................................................................................32
3.9.1 NETWORK SECURITY SOLUTIONS.....................................................................33
3.10 NETWORK PROTOCOLS AND MODELS..................................................................34
3.10.1 OSI Model.................................................................................................................34
3.10.2 TCP/IP Model...........................................................................................................35
3.11 PHYSICAL LAYER........................................................................................................36
3.12 NUMBER SYSTEMS.....................................................................................................37
3.12 DATA LINK LAYER......................................................................................................38
3.13 ETHERNET SWITCHING..............................................................................................40
3.13.1 HOW ETHERNET DEVICES USE MAC ADDRESSES TO COMMUNICATE . 41
3.13.2 HOW ETHERNET SWITCHES BUILD MAC ADDRESS TABLES AND

FORWARD ETHERNET FRAMES...................................................................................42
3.14 THE NETWORK LAYER...............................................................................................42
3.15 ADDRESS RESOLUTION.........................................................................................45
3.15.1 ADDRESS RESOLUTION PROTOCOL (ARP).....................................................46
3.15.2 USE CASES OF ADDRESS RESOLUTION..........................................................46
3.16 IPv4 ADDRESSING........................................................................................................47
3.16.1 PARTS OF IPV4.......................................................................................................47
3.16.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF IPV4...............................................................................47
3.16.3 CLASSES OF IPv4 ADDRESS...............................................................................48
3.16.4 ADVANTAGES OF IPV4........................................................................................51

3.16.5 LIMITATIONS OF IPV4.........................................................................................52
3.17 IPv6 ADDRESSING........................................................................................................53
3.17.1 IPv4 vs IPv6..............................................................................................................53
3.17.2 TYPES OF IPV6 ADDRESS...................................................................................53
3.17.2 ADVANTAGES OF IPV6........................................................................................54
3.17.3 DISADVANTAGES OF IPV6.................................................................................54
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3.18 ICMP................................................................................................................................54
3.19 TRANSPORT LAYER....................................................................................................55
3.20 APPLICATION LAYER.................................................................................................58
3.20 NETWORK SECURITY FUNDAMENTALS................................................................59
3.20.1 NETWORK SECURITY THREATS......................................................................60
3.20.2 NETWORK VULNERABILITIES..........................................................................60
3.20.3 MITIGATION TECHNIQUES.................................................................................61
3.20.4 SECURING NETWORK DEVICES........................................................................61
3.21 IDENTIFYING THE PACKET TRACER INTERFACE...............................................62
3.21.1 CONFIGURING HOSTNAME AND PASSWORDS ON CISCO ROUTER........63
CHAPTER FOUR....................................................................................................................68
4.0 KNOWLEDGE GAINED...............................................................................................68
4.1 CHALLENGES..............................................................................................................68
CHAPTER FIVE......................................................................................................................69
5.0 SUMMARY..................................................................................................................69
5.1 CONCLUSION..............................................................................................................69
5.2 RECOMMENDATIONS..............................................................................................69
REFERENCES........................................................................................................................70
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CHAPTER ONE
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The Students’ Industrial Work Experience Scheme (SIWES) is a skill development
programme established by Industrial Training Fund (ITF) in 1973 with the headquarters
in Jos Nigeria. It is meant to enable students in tertiary institutions in Nigeria acquire
technical skills and experience for professional development in their course of study as it
bridges the gap between theory and practice. It is the accepted skills training program in
institutions of higher learning in Nigerian that forms part of the approved academic
requirement in various degree programmes. It is a six-credit unit course, which must be
met by students before graduation. As stated by Nse (2012), the scheme is a planned,
supervised training and intervention programme based on stated and specific learning and
career objectives, leading to the development of occupational competencies of the
participants. It is also to expose and prepare students in institutions of higher learning for
the industrial work situations which they are to meet after graduation.
The scheme equally helps to familiarize students with work methods and expose them to
the necessary experience to hand equipment and machinery that are not available in their
institutions.
SIWES is also an effort to bridge the existing gap between theory and practice and expose
students to necessary skills for smooth transition from the classroom to the world of work.
It enables students to acquire technical skills and experience for professional development
in their study. Before the inception of the Scheme, there was a growing concern among
Nigerian industrialists that graduates of institutions of higher learning lacked adequate
practical background experience necessary for employment. So, employers were of the
opinion that the theoretical education provided by higher institutions was did not meet nor
satisfy the needs of the economy. It was against this background that the Fund during its
formative years, introduced SIWES to provide students with the opportunity of exposure
to handle equipment and machinery in Industry to enable them acquire prerequisite
practical knowledge and skills. (ITF and UNIJOS, 2011). These skills aimed at exposing
students to professional work methods as the scheme (SIWES) acts as a catalyst for
industrial growth and productivity through professional development. study. Before the
inception of the Scheme, there was growing concern among Nigerian industrialists that
graduates of institutions of higher learning lacked adequate practical background
experience necessary for employment. So, employers were of the opinion that the
theoretical education provided by higher institutions was did not meet nor satisfy the
needs of the economy.
It was against this background that the Fund during its formative years, introduced
SIWES to provide students with the opportunity of exposure to handle equipment and
9
machinery in Industry to enable them acquire prerequisite practical knowledge and skills.
(ITF and UNIJOS, 2011). These skills aimed at exposing students to professional work
methods as the scheme (SIWES) acts as a catalyst for industrial growth and productivity
through professional development. The Scheme started in 1974 in 11 institutions of
higher learning with 748 participants. By 1978, it has widened in scope to about 5,000
participants from 32 different institutions in the country. In 1979 the Industrial Training
Fund, withdrew from the managing the scheme due to problems of organizational
logistics and the increased financial burden as a result of rapid expansion of SIWES (ITF;
2003). The scheme is a tripartite programme that incorporates the students, the
institutions, and the industries. In Nigeria SIWES is financed by the federal government
(through the ministry of commerce and industry) and managed by the Industrial Training
Fund (ITF) aiming at making education more relevant and also to bridge the yearning gap
between theory and practice of Engineering, Technology and other related disciplines in
tertiary institutions in Nigeria.
The bodies involved in SIWES operation are known as the stakeholders and they are; The
Federal Government of Nigeria (through the Ministry of Commerce and Industry),
Industrial Training Fund, NUC/NBTC/NCCE, the institution, the industries or employers
and the students. SIWES is a form of cooperative industrial internship programme among
all its stake holders. Mafe (2009) stated that all stakeholders are involved in the operation
of SIWES but that students are the key actors that are directly involved in its
implementation, all other stakeholders have lesser role to play in the actual training
process. Mafe (2010) citing Crag (1987) stated that, SIWES is generic because it cuts
across more than 60 programs in the universities, over 40 programs in the polytechnics
and about 10 programs in the colleges of education. Students who participate in this
training programme include those studying Library and Information Science, Engineering,
Vocational, Technological and related courses in higher institution of learning. Other
courses involved in SIWES include Agricultural science, Forestry, Industrial Chemistry,
Microbiology, Geology and Mineral Science, Physics and Mineral Science, Plant and
Environmental Biology, Computer Science, Tourism and Hospitality, Business Education,
Industrial Engineering, Enterprise Creation and Management.
1.1 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF SIWES
The aims and objectives of SIWES are to:
1. Provide students with the opportunity to apply the theoretical knowledge they have learned
in their coursework to real-world situations
2. Enhance the quality of technical and vocational education by exposing students to current
practices and techniques in their chosen fields
3. Develop the students' technical and transferable skills, such as problem-solving and
teamwork, that are necessary for success in the workforce
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4. Foster relationships between educational institutions and industries, and provide industries
with a source of skilled labor
5. Contribute to the development of the Nigerian economy by producing a skilled workforce

that is capable of driving innovation and growth.
1.2 RELEVANCE OF SIWES

Practical Experience: SIWES provides an opportunity for Information Technology students
to gain practical experience in a real-world work environment. It allows them to apply the
theoretical knowledge they have acquired in their coursework to practical tasks and projects.
Skill Development: During SIWES, students have the chance to develop and enhance their
technical skills in various areas of Information Technology, such as programming languages,
software development, database management, networking, and cybersecurity. This hands-on
experience can significantly improve their skills and make them more competitive in the job
market.
Industry Exposure: SIWES exposes students to the industry practices and trends in the field
of Information Technology. They get a chance to work with professionals, observe how
projects are managed, and understand the day-to-day operations of an organization. This
exposure helps them gain insights into the practical aspects of their field and prepares them
for future employment.
Networking Opportunities: Through SIWES, students can build connections and network
with professionals in the industry. This networking can be valuable for future job prospects,
internships, or mentorship opportunities. Building relationships with professionals in the field
can provide guidance and open doors to potential career opportunities.
Professional Development: SIWES introduces students to the professional work

environment, allowing them to develop essential workplace skills such as communication,
teamwork, time management, and problem-solving. These skills are crucial for success in any
career and are further honed through practical experience.
Bridging the Gap: SIWES helps bridge the gap between academic knowledge and practical
application. It allows students to see how the concepts they learn in the classroom are
implemented in real-world scenarios, making their education more relevant and meaningful.
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1.3 ROLES OF STUDENTS DURING SIWES
During the Students Industrial Work Experience Scheme (SIWES), students have specific
roles and responsibilities to fulfill. Here are some typical roles of students during SIWES:
Active Participation: Students are expected to actively participate in the work activities
assigned to them by their host organizations. They should demonstrate enthusiasm, eagerness
to learn, and a willingness to contribute to the tasks and projects they are involved in.
Learning and Observation: Students should use the opportunity of SIWES to observe and
learn from the professionals in their field. They should pay attention to the work processes,
industry practices, and the application of theoretical knowledge in real-world scenarios.
Observing and learning from experienced practitioners can provide valuable insights and
enhance their understanding of their chosen field.
Application of Knowledge: SIWES is an opportunity for students to apply the theoretical

knowledge they have acquired during their academic studies. They should strive to connect
the concepts they have learned in the classroom to the practical work they are engaged in. By
applying their knowledge, they can gain a deeper understanding of how theory translates into
practice.
Adherence to Work Ethics: Students should adhere to the work ethics and professional
standards expected in their host organizations. This includes punctuality, discipline, respect
for colleagues and superiors, confidentiality, and maintaining a professional demeanor.
Adhering to work ethics demonstrates professionalism and helps students integrate into the
work environment seamlessly.
Collaboration and Teamwork: Students should actively engage in collaborative work and
demonstrate effective teamwork skills. They should be willing to work with colleagues,
communicate effectively, share ideas, and contribute to group projects or tasks. Collaboration
and teamwork are essential skills in the workplace, and SIWES provides an opportunity for
students to develop and hone these skills.
Professional Development: Students should take advantage of SIWES to focus on their

professional development. They should seek opportunities to enhance their skills, acquire new
knowledge, and gain industry-specific expertise. They can do this by volunteering for
challenging assignments, seeking guidance from mentors or supervisors, and actively seeking
feedback to improve their performance.
Documentation and Reporting: Students are usually required to maintain records and
documentation of their work activities during SIWES. They may be asked to prepare reports,
journals, or logbooks detailing their experiences, tasks accomplished, challenges faced, and
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lessons learned. Maintaining accurate and organized documentation is important for reflecting
on their progress and evaluating their learning outcomes.
Professional Networking: SIWES offers students the chance to build professional networks.
Students should actively engage with colleagues, supervisors, and professionals in their host
organizations. They can attend company events, participate in meetings or seminars, and seek
opportunities to connect with industry professionals. Building a network can provide valuable
connections for future career prospects.
Remember, the specific roles and responsibilities during SIWES may vary depending on the
host organization and the nature of the work placement. It is essential for students to
communicate with their supervisors, follow instructions, and adapt to the expectations of their
host organization to make the most out of their SIWES experience.
1.4 THE LOGBOOK

Students can use this book as a tool to keep detailed records of their training during SIWES. It
helps to record the department or division of the business or industry where the student has
worked, together with the amount of time spent in each division or division. The logbook
contains thorough notes of all the tasks completed each working day, along with any pertinent
sketches or diagrams. Weekly submission of the logbook for evaluation, feedback, and
signature to the industry-based supervisor is necessary. During their visits, the University
SIWES supervisor, ITF Officer, or Industrial liaison officers will also examine the logbook to
ensure that the student is receiving sufficient instruction. As part of the evaluation process,
they will submit feedback and suggestions.
Furthermore, each student is responsible for gathering and completing the relevant
information regarding the organizational profile of the firm or company to which they are
allocated. This information is essential for gaining a thorough grasp of the company and its
activities.
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CHAPTER TWO
2.1 ABOUT THE COMPANY
I had the industrial training exercise at the Department of Networking, Cresponet Technologies,
Obinze, Owerri, between December 2023 and April 2024. The company is the the training and
network distribution arm of Corasoft Technologies. The company is divided into several
departments headed by the following:
Chief Executive Officer: Engr. Mrs Amaka Amadi

Chief IT consultant/Training officer: Engr. Dr. Emmanuel C. Amadi
Chief Service Engineer: Mr. Paul Smith
Chief Network Engineer: Mr. Ubong Obot
Fig 2.0 COMPANY’S LOGO
2.2 VISION
One of its visions is to create endless possibililities using Information Technology.
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2.3 ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE OF THE INSTITUTION
Fig 2.1 ORGANIZATION ORGANOGRAM
2.4 VARIOUS DEPARTMENTAL UNITS IN THE COMPANY
 Engineering Department: The engineering department is responsible for all deployment of products
to clients. These products range from; web applications, software, hardware installations and product
supply.
 Training Center: The training department is responsible for all trainings within the organizations.
These trainings include training staff members from time to time, training registered students and
Industrial attachment students, and specialized training for organizations.
Cresponet training areas include the following:
Register for your training here: register.cresponet.net
Computer Networks
Web application development (HTML, CSS, PHP, Python, JQuery, Java Script, Ajax)
Software development (Java, C#, C++)
Database management (Oracles, SQL, PostgressSQL)

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Server Management (Windows and Linux)
Statistics (R, SPSS, Minitab, Eviews)
Simulations (Mininet, Packet tracer, Matlab, Multism, GNS3, Netsim,NS 2&3 )
 Marketing: The marketing department is responsible for projecting the company image. Their work
is more in the field than in the office. They are to deliver the target of the company in terms of client
base.
 Sales/ Admin
The sales/admin department is responsible for internal sales of product in the company shop. They
serve as administrative arm of the company as well liaising with clients and keeping accurate records
of company’s client base and sales inventory document. They present progress report monthly to the
company’s executives.
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CHAPTER THREE
3.0 NETWORKING
Networking refers to interconnected computing devices that can exchange data and
share resources with each other. These networked devices use a system of rules, called
communication protocols to transmit information over physical or wireless technologies. In
today’s world, through the use of networks, we are connected like never before. People with
ideas can communicate instantly with others to make those ideas a reality. News events and
discoveries are known worldwide in seconds. Individuals can even connect and play games
with friends separated by oceans and continents.
3.1 NETWORK COMPONENTS

All computers that are connected to a network and participate directly in network
communication are classified as hosts. Hosts can be called end devices. Some hosts are also
called clients. However, the term hosts specifically refers to devices on the network that are
assigned a number for communication purposes. This number identifies the host within a
particular network. This number is called the Internet Protocol (IP) address. An IP address
identifies the host and the network to which the host is attached.
Servers are computers with software that allow them to provide information, like email or
web pages, to other end devices on the network. Each service requires separate server
software. For example, a server requires web server software in order to provide web services
to the network. A computer with server software can provide services simultaneously to many
different clients.
Fig 1
An example of client software is a web browser, like Chrome or Opera. A single computer
can also run multiple types of client software. For example, a user can check email and view
a web page while instant messaging and listening to an audio stream. The table lists three
common types of server software.
Email:The email server runs email server software. Clients use mail client software, such as
Microsoft Outlook, to access email on the server.
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Web:The web server runs web server software. Clients use browser software, such as
Windows Internet Explorer, to access web pages on the server.
File:The file server stores corporate and user files in a central location. The client devices
access these files with client software such as the Windows File Explorer.
Client and server software usually run on separate computers, but it is also possible for one
computer to be used for both roles at the same time. In small businesses and homes, many
computers function as the servers and clients on the network. This type of network is called a
peer-to-peer network.
18
19
3.2 NETWORK REPRESENTATION AND TOPOLOGY
Network architects and administrators must be able to show what their networks will look
like. They need to be able to easily see which components connect to other components,
where they will be located, and how they will be connected. Diagrams of networks often use
symbols, like those shown in the figure, to represent the different devices and connections
that make up a network.A diagram provides an easy way to understand how devices connect
in a large network. This type of “picture” of a network is known as a topology diagram. The
ability to recognize the logical representations of the physical networking components is
critical to being able to visualize the organization and operation of a network.
In addition to these representations, specialized terminology is used to describe how each of

these devices and media connect to each other:
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• Network Interface Card (NIC) - A NIC physically connects the end device to the network.
• Physical Port - A connector or outlet on a networking device where the media connects to
an end device or another networking device.
• Interface - Specialized ports on a networking device that connect to individual networks.
Because routers connect networks, the ports on a router are referred to as network interfaces.
Note: The terms port and interface are often used interchangeably.
3.2.1 TOPOLOGY DIAGRAMS
Topology diagrams are mandatory documentation for anyone working with a network. They
provide a visual map of how the network is connected. There are two types of topology diagrams:
physical and logical.
Physical Topology Diagrams :Physical topology diagrams illustrate the physical location of
intermediary devices and cable installation, as shown in the figure. You can see that the rooms in
which these devices are located are labeled in this physical topology.
Fig 5
Logical Topology Diagrams: Logical topology diagrams illustrate devices, ports, and the
addressing scheme of the network, as shown in the figure. You can see which end devices are
connected to which intermediary devices and what media is being used.
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Fig 6
These two networks have different physical topologies. The types of network
topologies are categorized below:
1. Star Topology: In a star topology, each endpoint node is connected to a central forwarding
node, such as a hub, switch, or router. The central node mediates communications between
the endpoints
2. Mesh Topology:A mesh topology is commonly used in WANs, especially public networks
like the Internet. In theory, a mesh network requires that each device has a point-to-point
link with every other device on the network (fully connected).
3. Ring Topology: In a physical ring topology, each node is wired to its neighbor in a
closed loop. A node receives a transmission from its upstream neighbor and passes it to its
downstream neighbor until the transmission reaches its intended destination.
4. Bus Topology: A physical bus topology with more than two nodes is a shared access
topology, meaning that all nodes share the bandwidth of the media. Only one node can
be active at any one time, so the nodes must contend to put signals on the media.
5. Hybrid Topology:A hybrid topology is anything that uses a mixture of point-to-point,

star, mesh, ring, and bus physical and/or logical topologies.
Networks come in all sizes. They range from simple networks consisting of two computers,
to networks connecting millions of devices.
Simple home networks let you share resources, such as printers, documents, pictures, and
music, among a few local end devices.
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Small office and home office (SOHO) networks allow people to work from home, or a
remote office. Many self-employed workers use these types of networks to advertise and sell
products, order supplies, and communicate with customers.
Businesses and large organizations use networks to provide consolidation, storage, and access
to information on network servers. Networks provide email, instant messaging, and
collaboration among employees. Many organizations use their network’s connection to the
internet to provide products and services to customers.
The internet is the largest network in existence. In fact, the term internet means a “network of
networks”. It is a collection of interconnected private and public networks.
In small businesses and homes, many computers function as both the servers and clients on
the network. This type of network is called a peer-to-peer network.
Network infrastructures vary greatly in terms of:
• Size of the area covered

• Number of users connected
• Number and types of services available
• Area of responsibility
The two most common types of network infrastructures are Local Area Networks (LANs),
and Wide Area Networks (WANs). A LAN is a network infrastructure that provides access to
users and end devices in a small geographical area. A LAN is typically used in a department
within an enterprise, a home, or a small business network. A WAN is a network infrastructure
that provides access to other networks over a wide geographical area, which is typically
owned and managed by a larger corporation or a telecommunications service provider. The
figure shows LANs connected to a WAN.
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Fig 7.
3.3 COMMON TYPES OF NETWORKS

3.3.1 LANs
A LAN is a network infrastructure that spans a small geographical area. LANs have specific
characteristics:
• LANs interconnect end devices in a limited area such as a home, school,

office building, or campus.
• A LAN is usually administered by a single organization or individual. Administrative
control is enforced at the network level and governs the security and access control
policies.
• LANs provide high-speed bandwidth to internal end devices and intermediary devices.
3.3.2 WANs
The figure shows a WAN which interconnects two LANs. A WAN is a network
infrastructure that spans a wide geographical area. WANs are typically managed by service
providers (SPs) or Internet Service Providers (ISPs). WANs have specific characteristics:
• WANs interconnect LANs over wide geographical areas such as between cities,
states, provinces, countries, or continents.
• WANs are usually administered by multiple service providers.
• WANs typically provide slower speed links between LANs.
The internet is a worldwide collection of interconnected networks (internetworks, or

internet for short). We can also view the internet as a collection of interconnected LANs and
WANs.
Fig 8.
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Some of the LAN examples are connected to each other through a WAN connection. WANs
are then connected to each other. The red WAN connection lines represent all the varieties of
ways we connect networks. WANs can connect through copper wires, fiber-optic cables, and
wireless transmissions.
The internet is not owned by any individual or group. Ensuring effective communication
across this diverse infrastructure requires the application of consistent and commonly
recognized technologies and standards as well as the cooperation of many network
administration agencies. There are organizations that were developed to help maintain the
structure and standardization of internet protocols and processes. These organizations include
the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF), Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and
Numbers (ICANN), and the Internet Architecture Board (IAB), plus many others.
There are two other terms which are similar to the term internet which are intranet and extranet.
Intranet is a term often used to refer to a private connection of LANs and WANs that belongs
to an organization. An intranet is designed to be accessible only by the organization's members,
employees, or others with authorization.
An organization may use an extranet to provide secure and safe access to individuals who
work for a different organization but require access to the organization’s data. Here are some
examples of extranets:
• A company that is providing access to outside suppliers and contractors

• A hospital that is providing a booking system to doctors so they can
make appointments for their patients
• A local office of education that is providing budget and personnel information to
the schools in its district.
3.4 NETWORK ARCHITECTURE
The role of the network has changed from a data-only network to a system that enables the
connections of people, devices, and information in a media-rich, converged network
environment. For networks to function efficiently and grow in this type of environment, the
network must be built upon a standard network architecture.
Networks also support a wide range of applications and services. They must operate over
many different types of cables and devices, which make up the physical infrastructure. The
term network architecture, in this context, refers to the technologies that support the
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infrastructure and the programmed services and rules, or protocols, that move data across the
network.
As networks evolve, we have learned that there are four basic characteristics that network
architects must address to meet user expectations:
• Fault Tolerance
• Scalability
• Quality of Service (QoS)
• Security
FAULT TOLERANCE:A fault tolerant network is one that limits the number of affected
devices during a failure. It is built to allow quick recovery when such a failure occurs. These
networks depend on multiple paths between the source and destination of a message. If one
path fails, the messages are instantly sent over a different link. Having multiple paths to a
destination is known as redundancy.
SCALABILTIY:A scalable network expands quickly to support new users and applications.
It does this without degrading the performance of services that are being accessed by existing
users. The figure shows how a new network is easily added to an existing network. These
networks are scalable because the designers follow accepted standards and protocols. This
lets software and hardware vendors focus on improving products and services without having
to design a new set of rules for operating within the network.
QUALITY OF SERVICE(QoS):Networks are now required to provide increasingly more

Quality of Service (QoS). Higher expectations are set for the calibre of the services provided
by new applications made available to users over networks, such as voice and live video
transmissions. Have you ever attempted to watch a video that was interrupted frequently? As
voice, video, and data traffic all continue to merge onto one network, quality of service (QoS)
becomes a crucial tool for controlling traffic volume and guaranteeing consistent content
delivery to all users.When there is more demand than there is bandwidth, congestion results.
The number of bits that can be transmitted in a second, or bits per second (bps), is used to
describe network bandwidth. The amount of network bandwidth required to attempt
simultaneous communications can exceed a network's capacity, causing congestion.
Devices store packets in memory when the amount of traffic exceeds the capacity of the
network until resources are available to transmit them. In the illustration, one user is making a
web page request, while another is talking on the phone. If a network is congested, the router
can manage the flow of voice and data traffic by enforcing a QoS policy that prioritises voice
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communications.The goal of QoS is to give time-sensitive traffic priority. What matters is the
traffic type, not the content of the traffic.
SECURITY:The network infrastructure, services, and the data contained on networkattached

devices are crucial personal and business assets. Network administrators must address two
types of network security concerns: network infrastructure security and information
security.Securing the network infrastructure includes physically securing devices that provide
network connectivity and preventing unauthorized access to the management software that
resides on them.
3.5 NETWORK SECURITY
It is no new news that a lot of companies networks have been breached over the past couple of
years, giving threat actors access to the personal information of thousands of customers. For this
reason, network security is always going to be a top priority of administrators.
Network security is an integral part of computer networking, regardless of whether the network
is in a home with a single connection to the internet or is a corporation with thousands of users.
Network security must consider the environment, as well as the tools and requirements of the
network. It must be able to secure data while still allowing for the quality of service that users
expect of the network.
Securing a network involves protocols, technologies, devices, tools, and techniques in order to
protect data and mitigate threats. Threat vectors may be external or internal. Many external
network security threats today originate from the internet.
There are several common external threats to networks:
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 Viruses, worms, and Trojan horses - These contain malicious software or code
running on a user device.
 Spyware and adware - These are types of software which are installed on a user’s
device. The software then secretly collects information about the user.
 Zero-day attacks - Also called zero-hour attacks, these occur on the first day that
a vulnerability becomes known.
 Threat actor attacks - A malicious person attacks user devices or network resources.
 Denial of service attacks - These attacks slow or crash applications and processes on
a network device.
 Data interception and theft - This attack captures private information from
an organization’s network.
 Identity theft - This attack steals the login credentials of a user in order to access
private data.
It is equally important to consider internal threats. There have been many studies that show that
the most common data breaches happen because of internal users of the network. This can be
attributed to lost or stolen devices, accidental misuse by employees, and in the business
environment, even malicious employees. With the evolving BYOD strategies, corporate data is
much more vulnerable. Therefore, when developing a security policy, it is important to address
both external and internal security threats.
3.5.1 NETWORK SECURITY SOLUTIONS
There’s No single solution that can protect the network from the variety of threats that exist. For
this reason, network security should be implemented in multiple layers, using more than one
security solution. If one security component fails to identify and protect the network, others may
succeed.
A home network security implementation is usually rather basic. Typically, you implement it on
the end devices, as well as at the point of connection to the internet, and can even rely on
contracted services from the ISP.
These are the basic security components for a home or small office network:
• Antivirus and antispyware - These applications help to protect end devices from
becoming infected with malicious software.
• Firewall filtering - Firewall filtering blocks unauthorized access into and out of the
network. This may include a host-based firewall system that prevents unauthorized access to
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the end
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device, or a basic filtering service on the home router to prevent unauthorized access from the
outside world into the network.
In contrast, the network security implementation for a corporate network usually consists of
many components built into the network to monitor and filter traffic. Ideally, all components
work together, which minimizes maintenance and improves security. Larger networks and
corporate networks use antivirus, antispyware, and firewall filtering, but they also have other
security requirements:
• Dedicated firewall systems - These provide more advanced firewall capabilities that can
filter large amounts of traffic with more granularity.
• Access control lists (ACL) - These further filter access and traffic forwarding based on
IP addresses and applications.
• Intrusion prevention systems (IPS) - These identify fast-spreading threats, such as zero-day
or zero-hour attacks.
• Virtual private networks (VPN) - These provide secure access into an organization for
remote workers.
Network security requirements must consider the environment, as well as the various
applications, and computing requirements. Both home and business environments must be able
to secure their data while still allowing for the quality of service that users expect of each
technology. Additionally, the security solution implemented must be adaptable to the growing
and changing trends of the network.
3.6 NETWORK PROTOCOLS AND MODELS
Network models and protocols are fundamental components of modern computer networking.
They provide the framework for communication between devices and systems, enabling the
exchange of data and information across the internet and local area networks (LANs). Two of
the most well-known networking models are the OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model
and the TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) model.
3.6.1 OSI Model
The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model is a conceptual framework that standardizes the
functions of a telecommunication or computing system into seven distinct layers. These layers
are:
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Physical Layer: Concerned with the physical medium used for data transmission,
such as cables and connectors.
Data Link Layer: Responsible for framing and error detection in data packets.
Network Layer: Manages the routing of data packets through intermediate devices
like routers.
Transport Layer: Ensures end-to-end data delivery and handles issues like
reliability and flow control.
Session Layer: Establishes, maintains, and terminates connections between devices.
Presentation Layer: Deals with data translation, encryption, and compression.
Application Layer: Provides network services directly to end-users and applications.
NB:The OSI model serves as a reference guide for designing and troubleshooting network
communication, aiding in the development of interoperable networking solutions.
3.6.2 TCP/IP MODEL
The Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) model is another widely

adopted framework for networking. It consists of four layers:
Link Layer: Equivalent to the OSI model's Data Link and Physical layers, handling
hardware addressing and physical transmission.
Internet Layer: Corresponds to the OSI Network Layer, responsible for routing packets
across interconnected networks.
Transport Layer: Similar to the OSI Transport Layer, manages end-to-end

communication, with TCP ensuring reliability and UDP focusing on speed.
Application Layer: Combines functions of the OSI Session, Presentation, and Application
layers, offering various application protocols like HTTP, FTP, and SMTP.
NB:The TCP/IP model is the foundation of the internet, and most internet-based
communications are built upon it.
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3.7 PHYSICAL LAYER
The physical Layer is the bottom-most layer in the Open System Interconnection (OSI)
Model which is a physical and electrical representation of the system. It consists of various
network components such as power plugs, connectors, receivers, cable types, etc. The
physical layer sends data bits from one device(s) (like a computer) to another device(s).
The physical Layer defines the types of encoding (that is how the 0’s and 1’s are
encoded in a signal). The physical Layer is responsible for the communication of the
unstructured raw data streams over a physical medium.
Functions Performed by Physical Layer:
The following are some important and basic functions that are performed by the Physical
Layer of the OSI Model :
1. The physical layer maintains the data rate (how many bits a sender can send per second).
2. It performs the Synchronization of bits.
3. It helps in Transmission Medium decisions (direction of data transfer).
4. It helps in Physical Topology (Mesh, Star, Bus, Ring) decisions (Topology through
which we can connect the devices with each other).
5. It helps in providing Physical Medium and Interface decisions.
6. It provides two types of configuration Point Point configuration and Multi-Point

configuration.
7. It provides an interface between devices (like PCs or computers) and transmission medium.
8. It has a protocol data unit in bits.
9. Hubs, Ethernet, etc. device is used in this layer.
10. This layer comes under the category of Hardware Layers (since the hardware layer is
responsible for all the physical connection establishment and processing too).
11. It provides an important aspect called Modulation, which is the process of converting the
data into radio waves by adding the information to an electrical or optical nerve signal.
12. It also provides a Switching mechanism wherein data packets can be forwarded from one
port (sender port) to the leading destination port.
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3.12 DATA LINK LAYER
The data link layer is the second layer from the bottom in the OSI (Open System
Interconnection) network architecture model. It is responsible for the node-to-node delivery of
data. Its major role is to ensure error-free transmission of information. DLL is also responsible
for encoding, decode and organizing the outgoing and incoming data. This is considered the
most complex layer of the OSI model as it hides all the underlying complexities of the
hardware from the other above layers.
Sub-layers of the Data Link Layer
The data link layer is further divided into two sub-layers, which are as follows:
Logical Link Control (LLC)
This sublayer of the data link layer deals with multiplexing, the flow of data among
applications and other services, and LLC is responsible for providing error messages and
acknowledgments as well.
Media Access Control (MAC)
MAC sublayer manages the device’s interaction, responsible for addressing frames, and also
controls physical media access.The data link layer receives the information in the form of
packets from the Network layer, it divides packets into frames and sends those frames bit-bybit
to the underlying physical layer.
Functions of the Data-link Layer
There are various functions of data link layer they include;
Framing
The packet received from the Network layer is known as a frame in the Data link layer. At the
sender’s side, DLL receives packets from the Network layer and divides them into small
frames, then, sends each frame bit-by-bit to the physical layer. It also attaches some special
bits (for error control and addressing) at the header and end of the frame. At the receiver’s end,
DLL takes bits from the Physical layer organizes them into the frame, and sends them to the
Network layer.
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Addressing
The data link layer encapsulates the source and destination’s MAC address/ physical address
in the header of each frame to ensure node-to-node delivery. MAC address is the unique
hardware address that is assigned to the device while manufacturing.
Error Control
Data can get corrupted due to various reasons like noise, attenuation, etc. So, it is the
responsibility of the data link layer, to detect the error in the transmitted data and correct it
using error detection and correction techniques respectively. DLL adds error detection bits into
the frame’s header, so that receiver can check received data is correct or not.
Flow Control
If the receiver’s receiving speed is lower than the sender’s sending speed, then this can lead to
an overflow in the receiver’s buffer and some frames may get lost. So, it’s the responsibility of
DLL to synchronize the sender’s and receiver’s speeds and establish flow control between
them.
Access Control
When multiple devices share the same communication channel there is a high probability of
collision, so it’s the responsibility of DLL to check which device has control over the channel
and CSMA/CD and CSMA/CA can be used to avoid collisions and loss of frames in the
channel.
Protocols in Data link layer
There are various protocols in the data link layer, which are as follows:
Synchronous Data Link Protocol (SDLC)
High-Level Data Link Protocol (HDLC)
Serial Line Interface Protocol (SLIP)for encoding
Point to Point Protocol (PPP)
Link Access Procedure (LAP)
Link Control Protocol (LCP)

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Network Control Protocol (NCP)
3.13 ETHERNET SWITCHING
Ethernet LAN (Local Area Network) protocols are fundamental for networking and provide the
framework for communication among devices in a LAN. Ethernet functions by using Ethernet
MAC (Media Access Control) addresses for communication in a multi-access network.
Ethernet switches play a pivotal role in building and maintaining MAC address tables and
forwarding Ethernet frames efficiently. Let's examine these aspects in detail:
Ethernet Functionality:
 Multi-access Network: Ethernet is designed for multi-access networks, where multiple

devices share a common communication medium, such as a shared cable or a switch.
Devices in a LAN can transmit data to one another using Ethernet.
 Frame Structure: Ethernet data is organized into frames. Each frame includes a
preamble (to synchronize receiver clocks), destination MAC address, source MAC
address, type/length field, data payload, and a Frame Check Sequence (FCS) for error
detection.
 MAC Addresses: Devices on an Ethernet network are identified by their unique MAC
addresses, which are assigned to network interface cards (NICs). MAC addresses are 48
bits (6 bytes) in length and are typically expressed as six pairs of hexadecimal digits (e.g.,
00:1A:2B:3C:4D:5E).
3.13.1 HOW ETHERNET DEVICES USE MAC ADDRESSES TO COMMUNICATE
Address Resolution Protocol (ARP): When a device in an Ethernet network wants to

communicate with another device, it needs to know the destination device's MAC address.
ARP is used to map an IP address to a MAC address. The sender broadcasts an ARP request
to all devices on the network, and the device with the matching IP address responds with its
MAC address.
Data Transmission: Once a device knows the MAC address of the destination, it encapsulates
the data in an Ethernet frame, including the destination MAC address. The frame is then sent
out onto the network.
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Switching Decision: In a shared Ethernet network, all devices on the LAN receive the frame,
but only the device with the matching destination MAC address processes the frame. Other
devices ignore it.
3.13.2 HOW ETHERNET SWITCHES BUILD MAC ADDRESS TABLES

AND FORWARD ETHERNET FRAMES.
MAC Address Learning: Ethernet switches learn MAC addresses by examining the source
MAC addresses of frames they receive. When a frame arrives at a switch port, the switch
records the source MAC address and the port it arrived on in its MAC address table.
MAC Address Table (CAM Table): The switch maintains a MAC address table (also known
as a CAM table or forwarding table) that maps MAC addresses to the corresponding switch
ports. This table is used to make forwarding decisions.
Forwarding Ethernet Frames: When a frame arrives at a switch, it looks up the destination
MAC address in its MAC address table. If the destination address is found, the switch forwards
the frame only to the port where the destination device is connected, effectively isolating the
communication between the sender and receiver. This process reduces unnecessary traffic and
improves network efficiency.
Unknown MAC Addresses: If the destination MAC address is not found in the table, the
switch typically floods the frame to all ports, except the one it arrived on, to ensure that the
destination device can receive it.
Ethernet LAN protocols, MAC addresses, and switches together provide the foundation for
efficient and reliable communication in local area networks. The use of MAC addresses and
MAC address tables in Ethernet switches allows for intelligent and selective frame forwarding,
enhancing network performance and reducing network congestion.
3.14 THE NETWORK LAYER
The Network Layer, which is Layer 3 in the OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model,
plays a crucial role in computer networking. Its primary function is to provide routing and
forwarding of data packets between devices across different networks. Several key processes
are involved in the Network Layer.They are explained below.
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1. Logical Addressing:
Logical addressing is essential in the Network Layer. Devices in a network are assigned logical
addresses, such as IPv4 or IPv6 addresses. These addresses uniquely identify devices within a
network or across different networks.
2. Routing:
Routing is a core process in the Network Layer. It involves determining the best path for data
packets to reach their intended destination. Routers use routing protocols and algorithms to
make routing decisions based on factors like network topology, metrics (e.g., hop count,
bandwidth), and addressing information.
3. Path Determination:
The Network Layer is responsible for selecting the most efficient route for data packets to
traverse the network. This process considers various factors, such as network congestion, link
quality, and routing metrics, to make informed decisions about the path data packets should
follow.
4. Data Packet Handling:
The Network Layer takes data from the Transport Layer (e.g., TCP or UDP segments) and
encapsulates it into data packets. These packets contain important information, including
source and destination addresses. The Network Layer's job is to ensure that data packets are
properly formatted and prepared for transmission.
5. Packet Forwarding:
Network Layer devices, particularly routers, are responsible for forwarding data packets from
one network segment to another. When a data packet arrives at a router, it examines the
destination address in the packet header and uses routing tables to determine the appropriate
next-hop router or network segment. Packet forwarding ensures that data reaches its intended
destination efficiently.
6. Logical Subnetting and Network Segmentation:
The Network Layer enables logical subnetting and network segmentation. By dividing a larger
network into smaller subnets, organizations can better manage and optimize network traffic.
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This process involves assigning subnetwork addresses and defining routing rules to control
traffic flow between subnets.
7. Error Handling and Fragmentation:
The Network Layer is responsible for handling errors that may occur during data transmission.
If a packet encounters issues along its path, the Network Layer may request retransmission or
implement error-correction mechanisms. Additionally, when data packets need to traverse
networks with different Maximum Transmission Unit (MTU) sizes, the Network Layer can
fragment and reassemble packets as needed.
8. Address Resolution:
Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) is a process that operates within the Network Layer to map
IP addresses to MAC (Media Access Control) addresses in local area networks. ARP allows
devices to discover the hardware addresses of devices within the same subnet.
These processes collectively enable the Network Layer to fulfill its role in routing data
between devices and networks. By using logical addressing, routing algorithms, and packet
handling, the Network Layer ensures that data is delivered efficiently and reliably across
diverse networks and topologies.
Routing Protocols: Routing decisions are made using routing protocols. These
protocols define rules and algorithms that routers use to calculate the optimal path for
data packets. Common routing protocols include:
Dynamic Routing: Dynamic routing protocols, such as OSPF (Open Shortest Path First) and
RIP (Routing Information Protocol), automatically adjust routing tables based on real-time
network conditions. They consider factors like link availability, congestion, and bandwidth
to select the best path.
Static Routing: Static routes are manually configured by network administrators. They specify
a fixed path for data packets to follow. Static routing is simple but less adaptive to network
changes.
IP Routing Table: The IP routing table is a crucial component of a router. It contains

information about known networks, associated interfaces, and next-hop routers. The routing
table guides the router's packet forwarding decisions.
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In summary, the Network Layer is responsible for routing data packets between devices in
different networks. Routers are the key devices that perform this function, using logical
addressing, routing protocols, and routing tables to make routing decisions and forward data to
its destination. Routing can be static or dynamic, depending on the network's requirements,
and the IP routing table is central to the routing process.
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3.15 IPV4 ADDRESSING
IP stands for Internet Protocol and v4 stands for Version Four (IPv4). IPv4 was the primary
version brought into action for production within the ARPANET in 1983. IP version four
addresses are 32-bit integers which will be expressed in decimal notation. Example192.0.2.126
could be an IPv4 address.
3.15.1 PARTS OF IPV4

Network part:
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The network part indicates the distinctive variety that’s appointed to the network. The network part
conjointly identifies the category of the network that’s assigned.
Host Part:
The host part uniquely identifies the machine on your network. This part of the IPv4 address is
assigned to every host. For each host on the network, the network part is the same, however,
the host half must vary.
Subnet number:
This is the nonobligatory part of IPv4. Local networks that have massive numbers of hosts are
divided into subnets and subnet numbers are appointed to that.
3.15.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF IPV4
1. IPv4 could be a 32-Bit IP Address.
2. IPv4 could be a numeric address, and its bits are separated by a dot.
3. The number of header fields is twelve and the length of the header field is twenty.
4. It has Unicast, broadcast, and multicast style of addresses.
5. IPv4 supports VLSM (Virtual Length Subnet Mask).
6. IPv4 uses the Post Address Resolution Protocol to map to the MAC address.
7. RIP may be a routing protocol supported by the routed daemon.
8. Networks ought to be designed either manually or with DHCP.
9. Packet fragmentation permits from routers and causing host.
3.15.3 CLASSES OF IPV4 ADDRESS

In the IPv4 IP address space, there are five classes: A, B, C, D and E. Each class has a
specific range of IP addresses (and ultimately dictates the number of devices you can have
on your network). Primarily, class A, B, and C are used by the majority of devices on the
Internet. Class D and class E are for special uses.
The list below shows the five available IP classes, along with the number of networks each
can support and the maximum number of hosts (devices) that can be on each of those
networks. The four octets that make up an IP address are conventionally represented by
a.b.c.d - such as 127.10.20.30.
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Additionally, information is also provided on private addresses and loop address (used for
network troubleshooting).
Class A Public & Private IP Address Range
Class A addresses are for networks with large number of total hosts. Class A allows for 126
networks by using the first octet for the network ID. The first bit in this octet, is always zero.
The remaining seven bits in this octet complete the network ID. The 24 bits in the remaining
three octets represent the hosts ID and allows for approximately 17 million hosts per network.
Class A network number values begin at 1 and end at 127.
• Public IP Range: 1.0.0.0 to 127.0.0.0

• First octet value range from 1 to 127
• Private IP Range: 10.0.0.0 to 10.255.255.255
• Subnet Mask: 255.0.0.0 (8 bits)
• Number of Networks: 126
• Number of Hosts per Network: 16,777,214
Class B Public & Private IP Address Range
Class B addresses are for medium to large sized networks. Class B allows for 16,384
networks by using the first two octets for the network ID. The first two bits in the first octet
are always 1 0. The remaining six bits, together with the second octet, complete the network
ID. The 16 bits in the third and fourth octet represent host ID and allows for approximately
65,000 hosts per network. Class B network number values begin at 128 and end at 191.

• Subnet Mask: 255.255.0.0 (16 bits)
• Number of Networks: 16,382
• Number of Hosts per Network: 65,534
Class C Public & Private IP Address Range
Class C addresses are used in small local area networks (LANs). Class C allows for
approximately 2 million networks by using the first three octets for the network ID. In a class
C IP address, the first three bits of the first octet are always 1 1 0. And the remaining 21 bits
of first three octets complete the network ID. The last octet (8 bits) represent the host ID and
allows for 254 hosts per network. Class C network number values begins at 192 and end at
223.
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• Special IP Range: 127.0.0.1 to 127.255.255.255
• Subnet Mask: 255.255.255.0 (24 bits)
• Number of Networks: 2,097,150
• Number of Hosts per Network: 254
Class D IP Address Range
Class D IP addresses are not allocated to hosts and are used for multicasting. Multicasting
allows a single host to send a single stream of data to thousands of hosts across the Internet at
the same time. It is often used for audio and video streaming, such as IP-based cable TV
networks. Another example is the delivery of real-time stock market data from one source to
many brokerage companies.
• Range: 224.0.0.0 to 239.255.255.255

• Number of Networks: N/A
• Number of Hosts per Network: Multicasting
Class E IP Address Class
Class E IP addresses are not allocated to hosts and are not available for general use. These are
reserved for research purposes.
• Range: 240.0.0.0 to 255.255.255.255

• Number of Networks: N/A
• Number of Hosts per Network: Research/Reserved/Experimental
Private IP Addresses
Within each network class, there are designated IP address that is reserved specifically for
private/internal use only. This IP address cannot be used on Internet-facing devices as that
are non-routable. For example, web servers and FTP servers must use non-private IP
addresses. However, within your own home or business network, private IP addresses are
assigned to your devices (such as workstations, printers, and file servers).
• Class A Private Range: 10.0.0.0 to 10.255.255.255
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• Class B Private APIPA Range: 169.254.0.0 to 169.254.255.255 o Automatic Private
IP Addressing (APIPA) is a feature with Microsoft Windows-based computers to
automatically assign itself an IP address within this range if a Dynamic Host
Configuration Protocol (DHCP) server is not available on the network. A DHCP
server is a network device that is responsible for assigning IP addresses to devices on
the network.
At your home, your Internet modem or router likely provides this functionality.
In your work place, a Microsoft Windows Server, a network firewall, or some
other specialized network device likely provides this functionality for the
computer at your work environment.
• Class B Private Range: 172.16.0.0 to 172.31.255.255

• Class C Private Range: 192.168.0.0 to 192.168.255.255
Special IP Addresses
IP Range: 127.0.0.1 to 127.255.255.255 are network testing addresses (also referred to

as loop-back addresses). These are virtual IP address, in that they cannot be assigned
to a device. Specifically, the IP 127.0.0.1 is often used to troubleshoot network
connectivity issues using the ping command. Specifically, it tests a computer's TCP/IP
network software driver to ensure it is working properly.
Summary of IPv4 Classes

Public IP Private IP # of # of Hosts
Range Range Subnet Networks per
Mask Network
Class 1.0.0.0 to 10.0.0.0 to 255.0.0.0 126 16,777,214

A 127.0.0.0
10.255.255.255
Class 128.0.0.0 to 172.16.0.0 to 255.255.0.0 16,382 65,534

B 191.255.0.0 172.31.255.255
Class 192.0.0.0 to 192.168.0.0 to 255.255.255.0 2,097,150 254

C 223.255.255.0 192.168.255.255
3.15.4 ADVANTAGES OF IPV4
IPv4 security permits encryption to keep up privacy and security.
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IPV4 network allocation is significant and presently has quite 85000 practical routers.
It becomes easy to attach multiple devices across an outsized network while not NAT.
This is a model of communication so provides quality service also as economical

knowledge transfer.
IPV4 addresses are redefined and permit flawless encoding.
Routing is a lot of scalable and economical as a result of addressing is collective

more effectively.
Data communication across the network becomes a lot of specific in multicast

organizations.
Limits net growth for existing users and hinders the use of the net for brand new
users.
Internet Routing is inefficient in IPv4.
IPv4 has high System Management prices and it’s labour-intensive, complex, slow
& frequent to errors.
Security features are non-obligatory.
Difficult to feature support for future desires as a result of adding it on is extremely

high overhead since it hinders the flexibility to attach everything over IP.
3.15.5 LIMITATIONS OF IPV4
1) IP relies on network layer addresses to identify end-points on network, and each

network has a unique IP address.
2) The world’s supply of unique IP addresses is dwindling, and they might eventually run
out theoretically.
3) If there are multiple host, we need IP addresses of next class.
4) Complex host and routing configuration, non-hierarchical addressing, difficult to

renumbering addresses, large routing tables, non-trivial implementations in providing
security, QoS (Quality of Service), mobility and multi-homing, multicasting etc. are
the big limitation of IPv4 so that’s why IPv6 came into the picture.
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3.16 IPV6 ADDRESSING
IPv6 or Internet Protocol Version 6 is a network layer protocol that allows communication to
take place over the network. IPv6 was designed by Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) in
December 1998 with the purpose of superseding the IPv4 due to the global exponentially
growing internet users.
3.16.1 IPV4 VS IPV6

The common type of IP address (is known as IPv4, for “version 4”). Here’s an example
of what an IP address might look like:25.59.209.224
An IPv4 address consists of four numbers, each of which contains one to three digits, with a
single dot (.) separating each number or set of digits. Each of the four numbers can range
from 0 to 255. This group of separated numbers creates the addresses that let you and
everyone around the globe to send and retrieve data over our Internet connections. The IPv4
uses a 32-bit address scheme allowing to store 2^32 addresses which is more than 4 billion
addresses. To date, it is considered the primary Internet Protocol and carries 94% of Internet
traffic. Initially, it was assumed it would never run out of addresses but the present situation
paves a new way to IPv6, let’s see why? An IPv6 address consists of eight groups of four
hexadecimal digits. Here’s an example IPv6 address:
3001:0da8:75a3:0000:0000:8a2e: 0370:7334
This new IP address version is being deployed to fulfil the need for more Internet addresses. It
was aimed to resolve issues which are associated with IPv4. With 128-bit address space, it
allows 340 undecillion unique address space. IPv6 also called IPng (Internet Protocol next
generation).
IPv6 support a theoretical maximum of 340, 282, 366, 920, 938, 463, 463, 374, 607, 431, 768,
211, 456. To keep it straightforward, we will never run out of IP addresses again.
3.16.2 TYPES OF IPV6 ADDRESS

Now that we know about what is IPv6 address let’s take a look at its different types.
1. Unicast: In unicast addressing, a single recipient is being addressed to by a host. But in

broadcast, multiple recipients are being addressed simultaneously. A broadcast can be
performed by sending a packet to the network or subnet’s broadcast address. The broadcast
address is the last address in any IP network and all hosts that share the same broadcast
receive the packet. There are also different methods of multiple addressing:
47
2. Multicast: Allows host to send traffic to other hosts that have identified themselves
as interested in receiving the sender’s traffic. Multicast packets are sent to a destination
IP address from a special range configured for use with that multicast group.
3. Anycast: This means that a group of hosts are configured with the same IP address. When
a router forwards a packet to an anycast group, it uses a prioritization algorithm and metrics
to select the host that is “closest”.
3.17.2 ADVANTAGES OF IPV6

1. Reliability
2. Faster Speeds: IPv6 supports multicast rather than broadcast in IPv4.This feature allows
bandwidth-intensive packet flows (like multimedia streams) to be sent to multiple
destinations all at once.
3. Stronger Security: IPSecurity, which provides confidentiality, and data integrity,

is embedded into IPv6.
4. Routing efficiency
5. Most importantly it’s the final solution for growing nodes in Global-network.
3.17.3 DISADVANTAGES OF IPV6

Conversion: Due to widespread present usage of IPv4 it will take a long period to completely
shift to IPv6.
Communication: IPv4 and IPv6 machines cannot communicate directly with each other. They
need an intermediate technology to make that possible.
3.17 ICMP
ICMP, or the Internet Control Message Protocol, is a network protocol within the Internet
Protocol (IP) suite. It is primarily used for diagnostic and error-reporting purposes in
computer networks. ICMP allows network devices, such as routers and hosts, to send error
messages and operational information to indicate problems with data delivery, network
connectivity, or other network-related issues. ICMP messages are typically generated
automatically by networking devices when specific events or errors occur.
Here are two commonly used ICMP tools that leverage ICMP messages:
48
1. Ping (Packet Internet Groper):
Ping is a command-line tool and network utility used to test the reachability of a host or
network device on an IP network. It works by sending ICMP Echo Request messages to a
target host and waiting for ICMP Echo Reply messages in response.Key uses of ping include
checking network connectivity, measuring round-trip times (latency) between devices, and
diagnosing network problems. It's a valuable tool for troubleshooting network issues and
verifying that devices are online and responsive.
2. Traceroute (or TraceRoute):

Traceroute is another network utility that uses ICMP to trace the route that packets take from
one host to another. When you run a traceroute command, it sends a series of ICMP Echo
Request messages with varying Time-to-Live (TTL) values.Each router along the path
decrements the TTL value by one and, when it reaches zero, the router sends an ICMP Time
Exceeded message back to the source. By receiving these Time Exceeded messages, the
traceroute tool can determine the routers and network hops between the source and
destination.Traceroute is helpful in diagnosing network routing issues, identifying the path that
data packets follow, and pinpointing delays or packet loss at specific network nodes.
ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol) is a critical protocol in computer networking for
error reporting and network diagnostics. Ping and traceroute are two widely used ICMP-based
tools that help network administrators and users assess network connectivity, troubleshoot
network problems, and gain insights into the routing path taken by data packets across the
internet or a local network. These tools are invaluable for network troubleshooting and
performance analysis.
3.18 TRANSPORT LAYER

The Transport Layer, the fourth layer of the OSI model, plays a critical role in computer
networking. It is responsible for ensuring the reliable and efficient transfer of data between
two devices on a network. Two prominent transport layer protocols are Transmission Control
Protocol (TCP) and User Datagram Protocol (UDP).
TRANSMISSION CONTROL PROTOCOL (TCP)
TCP is a connection-oriented, reliable transport protocol that provides guaranteed data delivery
and ensures data integrity. Here are key aspects of how TCP operates:
3. Segmentation: TCP divides data into smaller segments for transmission. Each segment
is assigned a sequence number to allow for reassembly at the receiving end.
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4. Three-Way Handshake: Before data transmission begins, TCP uses a three-way
handshake to establish a connection between the sender and receiver. This process involves:
5. SYN (Synchronize): The sender initiates the connection by sending a SYN segment to
the receiver.
6. SYN-ACK (Synchronize-Acknowledge): The receiver acknowledges the SYN and sends

a SYN-ACK segment back to the sender.
7. ACK (Acknowledge): Finally, the sender acknowledges the SYN-ACK, and the
connection is established.
8. Reliable Data Transfer: TCP ensures reliable data transfer by using sequence numbers
and acknowledgments. It tracks each sent segment and waits for an acknowledgment from the
receiver. If a segment is not acknowledged within a timeout period, it is retransmitted.
9. Flow Control: TCP implements flow control mechanisms to prevent congestion and
ensure that the sender does not overwhelm the receiver with data. It uses a sliding window
approach to manage the number of unacknowledged segments in transit.
10. Error Detection and Correction: TCP employs checksums to detect errors in
data segments. If errors are detected, the receiver requests the retransmission of the
corrupted segments.
11. Ordering: TCP guarantees that data is delivered to the application layer in the
same order it was sent. This ensures that data is reconstructed correctly at the receiver.
USER DATAGRAM PROTOCOL (UDP)
UDP is a connectionless, lightweight transport protocol that provides best-effort data delivery.
Here's how UDP operates:
 No Connection Establishment: Unlike TCP, UDP does not establish a connection

before data transmission. It simply sends data without prior negotiation.
 Unreliable Data Transfer: UDP does not guarantee data delivery or order preservation. It
is a "best-effort" protocol, meaning it sends data without acknowledgment and does not
retransmit lost or out-of-order packets.
 Low Overhead: UDP has lower overhead compared to TCP because it lacks the
complexity of sequence numbers, acknowledgments, and flow control
mechanisms.
50
WHEN TO USE UDP OVER TCP
UDP is preferred over TCP in scenarios where speed and low overhead are more critical than
reliability. Here are some use cases for UDP:
1. Real-Time Applications: UDP is commonly used for real-time applications like voice
and video streaming, online gaming, and live broadcasting, where low latency is crucial,
and occasional packet loss is acceptable.
2. DNS (Domain Name System): DNS queries often use UDP because they are
lightweight and benefit from lower overhead.
3. IoT Devices: Some Internet of Things (IoT) devices and sensors use UDP for
simplicity and efficiency.
4. Broadcasts and Multicasts: UDP is suitable for situations where data needs to
be broadcasted to multiple recipients simultaneously.
TCP and UDP are two transport layer protocols with distinct characteristics. TCP provides
reliability through mechanisms like segmentation, acknowledgments, and error handling,
making it suitable for applications where data integrity is paramount. On the other hand, UDP
offers low overhead and speed but sacrifices reliability, making it ideal for real-time and
latency-sensitive applications where occasional data loss is acceptable. The choice between
TCP and UDP depends on the specific requirements of the application.
3.19 APPLICATION LAYER

The Application Layer, the top layer of both the TCP/IP and OSI networking models, is
responsible for enabling communication between software applications running on different
devices over a network. It provides a platform for various applications, services, and
protocols to interact with the underlying network infrastructure.We explored some key
protocols and services at the Application Layer and how they facilitate robust communication
across data networks:
1. HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol):
HTTP is the foundation of the World Wide Web. It is used for retrieving and displaying web
pages and other resources, making it essential for web browsing. HTTP operates over the
TCP/IP stack, using a request-response model. Common operations, such as GET (retrieve a
web page) and POST (submit form data), are defined within the HTTP protocol.
2. HTTPS (Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure):
51
HTTPS is a secure version of HTTP. It uses encryption, typically provided by SSL/TLS
protocols, to protect data exchanged between a client (web browser) and a web server.
HTTPS ensures the confidentiality and integrity of data, making it suitable for secure
transactions, online banking, and confidential information exchanges.
3. DNS (Domain Name System):
DNS is a distributed naming system that translates human-readable domain names (e.g.,
www.example.com) into IP addresses. It is crucial for locating and identifying resources on
the internet. DNS operates over both UDP and TCP and is responsible for domain name
resolution.
4. DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol):
DHCP is a protocol that dynamically assigns IP addresses, subnet masks, gateway addresses,
and other network configuration parameters to devices on a network. It simplifies network
management by automating the IP address allocation process.
5. SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol) and POP (Post Office Protocol):
SMTP is used for sending outgoing email messages, while POP is used for retrieving email
messages from a mail server. These protocols enable email communication and are
fundamental for email clients (e.g., Outlook) and email servers (e.g., Exchange).
6. FTP (File Transfer Protocol):
FTP is a protocol for transferring files between computers on a network. It allows users to
upload and download files from remote servers. FTP operates in two modes: active and
passive, and it supports both text and binary file transfers.
7. SNMP (Simple Network Management Protocol):
SNMP is used for managing and monitoring network devices, such as routers, switches, and
servers. It allows network administrators to collect information about device performance and
configure network devices remotely.
8. Telnet:
Telnet is a protocol that provides terminal emulation over a network. It enables users to
remotely access and manage devices as if they were directly connected to them. Telnet is
used for configuration, troubleshooting, and remote administration of network equipment.
These Application Layer protocols and services play a crucial role in enabling diverse
applications to communicate effectively over data networks. They facilitate the exchange of
52
web content, email messages, files, and other data while providing the necessary mechanisms
for security, reliability, and efficient network management. Understanding and configuring
these protocols is essential for network administrators and developers working with
networked applications and services.
3.20 NETWORK SECURITY FUNDAMENTALS

Network security is a critical aspect of modern information technology. It encompasses
various measures and practices designed to protect a network's integrity, confidentiality, and
availability. To understand network security, it's essential to recognize the threats and
vulnerabilities that networks face, as well as the methods and techniques used to mitigate
these risks. Here is an overview:
3.20.1 NETWORK SECURITY THREATS

a) Malware: Malicious software, such as viruses, worms, Trojans, and ransomware, can
infiltrate a network and cause harm by compromising data, disrupting operations, or
stealing information.
b) Phishing: Phishing attacks use deceptive emails or websites to trick users into revealing
sensitive information, such as login credentials or personal data. Spear phishing targets
specific individuals or organizations.
c) Denial of Service (DoS) and Distributed Denial of Service (DDoS) Attacks: These
attacks overwhelm network resources, making services and systems unavailable to
legitimate users by flooding them with traffic.
d) Data Breaches: Unauthorized access to sensitive data can lead to data breaches.
Attackers may exploit vulnerabilities to gain access to databases, financial information,
or personal records.
e) Insider Threats: Malicious actions or negligence by internal employees, contractors, or

partners can pose significant risks. Insider threats may involve data theft, fraud, or
sabotage.
f) Password Attacks: Techniques like brute force attacks and dictionary attacks attempt to
guess or steal user passwords, gaining unauthorized access to network resources.
g) Man-in-the-Middle (MitM) Attacks: In MitM attacks, attackers intercept and

potentially manipulate communication between two parties without their knowledge.
This can lead to data interception or manipulation.
53
3.20.2 NETWORK VULNERABILITIES
1. Software Vulnerabilities: Operating systems, applications, and network services can
have vulnerabilities that attackers exploit. Regular patching and updates are essential to
address these weaknesses.
2. Weak Authentication: Weak passwords or inadequate authentication methods make it

easier for attackers to gain unauthorized access.
3. Lack of Encryption: Data transmitted in plaintext is vulnerable to eavesdropping.

Encryption ensures data confidentiality during transmission.
4. Unsecured Devices: Devices with default or weak configurations are susceptible

to exploitation. Networked devices should be properly configured and secured.
3.20.3 MITIGATION TECHNIQUES

1. Firewalls: Firewalls are network security devices that filter traffic based on defined
rules. They can block unwanted traffic and protect against certain types of attacks.
2. Intrusion Detection and Prevention Systems (IDPS): IDPSs monitor network traffic
for suspicious activity and can trigger alerts or take actions to prevent attacks.
3. Antivirus and Anti-Malware Software: These tools scan for and remove malicious
software from devices and networks.
4. Encryption: Data should be encrypted during transmission and storage. Secure protocols
like HTTPS and VPNs provide encryption for network traffic.
5. Access Control: Implement strong authentication mechanisms and limit access to

authorized users. Role-based access control ensures that users have appropriate
privileges.
6. Security Updates and Patch Management: Regularly update and patch software,
devices, and network equipment to address known vulnerabilities.
7. Security Awareness Training: Educate users about security best practices to reduce the
risk of falling victim to social engineering attacks like phishing.
8. Network Segmentation: Divide the network into segments to limit the scope of an attack
and isolate critical systems from less secure areas.
3.20.4 SECURING NETWORK DEVICES

1. Router and Firewall Configuration: Secure routers and firewalls with strong
passwords and configure them to filter traffic effectively.
54
2. Switch Security: Enable features like port security to control access and
prevent unauthorized devices from connecting to the network.
3. Access Control Lists (ACLs): Implement ACLs to control traffic flow and restrict
access based on source and destination IP addresses or ports.
4. Device Hardening: Disable unnecessary services and interfaces on network devices.

Ensure that default credentials are changed.
5. Regular Monitoring and Auditing: Continuously monitor network traffic and device
logs for suspicious activity. Perform security audits to identify and address
vulnerabilities.
Network security is an ongoing process that requires vigilance and adaptability. By

understanding the threats and vulnerabilities and implementing appropriate mitigation
techniques, organizations can significantly enhance the security of their networks and data.
3.21 IDENTIFYING THE PACKET TRACER INTERFACE

The packet tracer interface is quite simple. Using the image below as a reference, we have:
1. The Workspace: The box outlined in red represents the workspace. That’s where all of
the work is going to be carried out. Dragging and connecting of devices.
2. The Devices: The box outlined in green represents the devices. The devices are a
collection of network devices ranging from routers, host devices(PC’s, tablets, smart
phones), switches, connection(cables), servers, e.t.c. They are the devices that are intended
for configuration and deployment of networks.
3. Task bar and toolbar : The box outlined in blue represents the task bar and toolbar. They
contains various tools and modifiers that help modify devices and provide necessary
functionality in the workspace such as saving of files, printing out topology, zoom in,
zoom out, etc.
4. Status bar: The box outlined in yellow represents the status bar. It shows the status
of packets.
55
After getting familiar with the interface, I began practice.
56
57
58
59
CHAPTER FOUR
4.0 KNOWLEDGE GAINED
The gains of this exercise are immense; that it was worth the while is grossly an
understatement. Being accorded another opportunity in life to be exposed to the rudiments of
work places outside the class room teaching is an experience of a life time. Furthermore, the
exposure to practical tools, software and hardware had engendered better understanding of
lessons thought in the class room and charted a course for career development in networking.
4.1 CHALLENGES
During the course of Industrial training there were challenges that I had to overcome both in
and out of the workplace, these challenges include:
• Expensive transport fare to and from the office complex – Due to the high cost of
living of living in the country, the transport fare to and from the office every day was
a challenge for me.
• Slowness in executing suggested policies due to the large nature of the organization –
There were various projects that could have been undertaken by the ICT department
during the period of my industrial attachment but they did not materialize because of
the various processes and steps needed for it to be approved by both the ICT
department and Admin department.
• Lack of remote work provision and flexible work hours – The lack of remote work
provision is closely joined with the Expensive transport fare, if there were more
flexible work hours or remote work provision, there wouldn’t be need to spend too
much on transport fare.
60
CHAPTER FIVE
5.0 SUMMARY
The gains of this exercise are immense; that it was worth the while is grossly an
understatement. Being accorded another opportunity in life to be exposed to the rudiments of
work places outside the class room teaching is an experience of a life time.
Furthermore, the exposure to practical tools, software and hardware had engendered better
understanding of lessons thought in the class room and charted a course for career
development in networking.
5.1CONCLUSION
The Student Industrial Work Experience Scheme (SIWES) plays a significant role in human
resource development, it helps students develop new skills and enlightens them of what the
present society holds for them after graduation and helps them adapt accordingly.
5.2 RECOMMENDATIONS
From my period of industrial training I had observations and deduced some recommendations
on how the industrial training can be improved in the Industrial training fund and in all other
firms in general.
 One of such is the payment of monthly stipends to students on industrial training and
making provisions for remote work especially in government agencies.
 Organizing workshops, seminars and symposium for students in various faculties in

other to keep the student abreast of new technologies and innovations.
 Posting of students for SIWES should be done by the scheme to ensure conformity with
course of study.
 A mass enlightenment campaign should be carried out, to enable industries and
establishments know the importance of SIWES to the future of the student and the society
at large.
61
 The scheme should also try to enforce the act guiding the establishment of the scheme, to
serve as deterrent to those establishments who reject student for IT.
REFERENCES
GeeksforGeeks - Physical Layer in OSI Model
URL: https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/physical-layer-in-osi-model
GeeksforGeeks. (n.d.). Physical Layer in OSI Model. GeeksforGeeks.

https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/physical-layer-in-osi-model/
inetDaemon - CCNA Lesson 2: Number Systems
URL: https://www.inetdaemon.com/technology/ccna-lesson-2-number-systems/
Meridian Outpost - IP Classes
URL: https://www.meridianoutpost.com/resources/articles/IP-classes.php
62

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FEDERAL UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY, OWERRI

P.M.B 1526, OWERRI, IMO STATE

STUDENT INDUSTRIAL WORK EXPERIENCE SCHEME [SIWES]

CRESPONET TECHNOLOGIES DEPARTMENT AT SHOP 12 TOP FLOOR, AMAZING

EPUNAM CHIMEZIE CHRISTIAN

DEPARTMENT OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

SCHOOL OF INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION

IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY (B.TECH) DEGREE IN INFORMATION

JUNE, 2024 AD.

(IFT SIWES Coordinator)

Dr. A.I Otuonye

1.1 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF SIWES.............................................................................10

1.2 RELEVANCE OF SIWES.................................................................................................10

1.3 ROLES OF STUDENTS DURING SIWES......................................................................11

1.4 THE LOGBOOK................................................................................................................13

2.1 ABOUT THE COMPANY..............................................................................................14

2.3 ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE OF THE INSTITUTION.......................................16

2.4 VARIOUS DEPARTMENTAL UNITS IN THE COMPANY.......................................17

2.5 SERVICES RENDERED BY THE COMPANY............................................................17

3.1 NETWORK COMPONENTS..........................................................................................18

3.1.1 PRO’S OF PEER-TO-PEER NETWORKING..........................................................19

3.1.2 CON’S OF PEER-TO-PEER NETWORKING.........................................................19

3.2 END DEVICES..................................................................................................................19

3.3 INTERMEDIARY DEVICES...........................................................................................20

3.4 NETWORK MEDIA..........................................................................................................21

3.5 NETWORK REPRESENTATION AND TOPOLOGY...................................................24

3.6 COMMON TYPES OF NETWORKS..............................................................................28

3.7 NETWORK ARCHITECTURE..........................................................................................30

3.8 NETWORK TRENDS......................................................................................................32

3.9 NETWORK SECURITY...................................................................................................32

3.9.1 NETWORK SECURITY SOLUTIONS.....................................................................33

3.10 NETWORK PROTOCOLS AND MODELS..................................................................34

3.10.1 OSI Model.................................................................................................................34

3.10.2 TCP/IP Model...........................................................................................................35

3.11 PHYSICAL LAYER........................................................................................................36

3.12 NUMBER SYSTEMS.....................................................................................................37

3.12 DATA LINK LAYER......................................................................................................38

3.13 ETHERNET SWITCHING..............................................................................................40

3.13.1 HOW ETHERNET DEVICES USE MAC ADDRESSES TO COMMUNICATE . 41

3.13.2 HOW ETHERNET SWITCHES BUILD MAC ADDRESS TABLES AND

3.14 THE NETWORK LAYER...............................................................................................42

3.15 ADDRESS RESOLUTION.........................................................................................45

3.15.1 ADDRESS RESOLUTION PROTOCOL (ARP).....................................................46

3.15.2 USE CASES OF ADDRESS RESOLUTION..........................................................46

3.16 IPv4 ADDRESSING........................................................................................................47

3.16.1 PARTS OF IPV4.......................................................................................................47

3.16.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF IPV4...............................................................................47

3.16.3 CLASSES OF IPv4 ADDRESS...............................................................................48

3.16.4 ADVANTAGES OF IPV4........................................................................................51

3.17 IPv6 ADDRESSING........................................................................................................53

3.17.1 IPv4 vs IPv6..............................................................................................................53

3.17.2 TYPES OF IPV6 ADDRESS...................................................................................53

3.17.2 ADVANTAGES OF IPV6........................................................................................54

3.17.3 DISADVANTAGES OF IPV6.................................................................................54

3.19 TRANSPORT LAYER....................................................................................................55

3.20 APPLICATION LAYER.................................................................................................58

3.20 NETWORK SECURITY FUNDAMENTALS................................................................59

3.20.1 NETWORK SECURITY THREATS......................................................................60

3.20.2 NETWORK VULNERABILITIES..........................................................................60