Educational policies

Jorge Capella Riera

De Puelles Benítez (1987) maintains that the study of education from a political point of
view, as a phenomenon that interests all powers, is as old as the world. As Colom and
Domínguez (1997) say, politics was always the dedication of citizens to public affairs.
Hence the importance of the polis, of the city, in the Greek world, since it was understood
as the ideal context in which politics was developed, that is, where public issues,
regulations and laws (mandates) were raised. that regulated and influenced the life of the
community and therefore of the citizens.

On the other hand, the study of the influence of education on politics is more recent. What
is the reason for this forgetfulness of Political Science regarding something that seems
evident to us today, regarding the political functions of educational systems?

The reason must be sought in the methodological fragmentation that the social sciences
suffered in the last century. When each social science claimed for itself the autonomy of
its object, the result was the forgetting of other neighboring aspects and the difficulty of
fully understanding reality. In this way, not only the political aspects of the educational
system were neglected, but also the economic, social and cultural ones. On the other
hand, this forgetfulness is also due, in part, to the position of many educators who believed
that politics was thus removed from school.

On the other hand, studies on educational policies have proliferated since the late 1950s;
However, the change has not been able to establish a preferred approach on which to rely,
nor identify the critical variables. However, in current studies, whether in the most
advanced or the most underdeveloped countries, political scientists practically agree in
considering that the school fulfills a double political function: on the one hand, it ensures,
in large part, through socialization politics, basic loyalty to the established political regime;
On the other hand, it largely guarantees the recruitment of the political elite.

In this presentation our intention is to clarify this issue and identify those policies that we
must take into account when formulating the national educational project that the country
demands and that the current government has entrusted to the National Educational
Council.

For this objective we will begin by defining what we understand by educational policy and
policy, then we will refer to the educational policies that have been proposed as capable of
promoting change and finally we will address those that we consider to be relevant and
pertinent for the educational moment that the country is experiencing. .
1. Educational policy and policy

The terms used today by the social sciences, De Puelles himself (1987) points out, are far
from being precise and from enjoying the benefit of univocality. And with regard to politics
and educational policy, terminological problems are far from being resolved, which on
numerous occasions introduces a high rate of confusion when stating different contents
with identical or similar terms. On the other hand, the word "educational" also raises
conceptual problems. In this case it is an adjective that refers to what educates or serves
to educate. But when connecting the adjective with the word "political" problems arise:
does "politics" educate? Does "politics" serve to educate? What is meant by the use of the
terms "politics?" educational»?

1.1. Policy.

Every human society is organized politically, that is, every human society sees the need to
dedicate efforts towards the improvement and management of the individuals and the
community that make it up; The res publica is then seen as a peremptory necessity for the
very survival and evolution of society. Therefore, it should not surprise us that we talk
about economic policy or sports policy, at the same time as the policy of a banking or
financial institution or the policy of a specific club. And it should not surprise us that at the
same time we can talk about educational policy.

In Anglo-Saxon literature, two terms are used to designate political reality, politics and
politics . While policy means action program, politics refers to the conflict that results from
the confrontation of several action programs. Hence, what Easton was referring to was
the need for politics to fulfill its function as an analysis of the conflicts produced in the field
of education.

There is no doubt that in our environment the Anglo-Saxon influence of politics conceived
as policy has been felt, which has led us to a poor conception of Educational Policy.
Rubio Llorente (1970), cited by De Puelles (1987), denounces this impoverishment by
neutralizing the semantic load of the word "politics" which means, at the same time,
program and conflict. In our understanding there is something else, there is also a
masking of the reality that is intended to be studied, a mutilation of that same reality by
avoiding what constitutes the essence of politics, that is, the phenomenon of power and
institutionalized conflict. This approach does not mean giving up the study of educational,
instrumental, medial policies, politics in short, but also assuming that other aspect of reality
which is the educational conflict, the relations of education with power, the relationship of
purposes and media, politics in short.

Politics is part of the topic of power in general, since, from our perspective, any activity
aimed at achieving certain levels of power, or the actions developed from the various
social or institutional powers (public or private institutions), are without There is no doubt
that political manifestations, so the interaction and dialectic between the components of a
group, whenever they are aimed at achieving power or representativeness of the group, or
whenever they emanate from those who hold power at that moment, are also political
activities.

We can then speak of two "political" levels:

  the governmental, as a representative power of the State, or abstract entity under
which the organization of public life by a community or society is assumed, and
 the institutional, as it affects the components of a specific public or private entity.
That is to say, a company maintains its political dynamics, just like an educational
institution.

I want to insist that politics, everything that has to do with politics, is immanent to power, to
such an extent that for politics to exist there must be power, either held, or with aspirations
or desires to hold it. Now, in politics, not only realism but, fundamentally, pragmatism
must always prevail: in politics one holds the power to "do", that is, to intervene, to modify,
to improve the circumstantial reality of human communities.

The moral value of political actions is also derived from the achievement of the proposed
goals, or from considerations about the changes produced by politics. At the real level of
politics, basic axiology focuses on determining the best solution for the fundamental
problems of human coexistence, or what is usually understood by the common good, so
when push comes to shove the different meaning that presents the morality of political
action is raised not only in the scope of the great objectives, but fundamentally in that of
the forms, or ways, of achieving them.

In recent decades, political theory has emerged that proposes justice as the highest
morality that all politics must pursue. Rawls (1993), its greatest representative, considers
freedom and equality as two fundamental assumptions of this moral dimension of the
person, and consequently intransgressible, to such an extent that its objective is to
somehow reconcile freedom and equality under an ethical context. that brings together
different points of view and ways of life.

By articulating freedom and equality in a single moral structure, Rawls aims to reconcile
individual rights with the self-realization of the community, taking into account that it is in
this community that the rights of the person must be given and adjusted. Private and
public autonomy must be reconciled, and to do so, justice based on rationality is the only
instrument that can see such spheres not as opposed, but as complementary. (Rawls,
1993).

1.2. Educational policy.

In a first approximation, says De Puelles, Educational Policy studies the relationships

between education and politics. That this relationship exists is evidenced every day by
simply reading the press or watching the television news: on one day the teachers' unions
demand a salary increase from the government, on another the parents demonstrate for
the freedom of education that they believe is threatened or Students hold assemblies to
protest the increase in tuition fees, etc. The examples could be multiplied to infinity since
ultimately what we contemplate is nothing more than a part of the iceberg, constituted by
that broader phenomenon that is the relationship between social reality and politics.

1.2.1. Nature and object of educational policy.

In itself, educational policy is nothing more than an aspect of general policy and is
consequently integrated into it as an appendix that is coordinated with other perspectives
that make up the global policy of a given society (Díez Hochleitner, 1976). In this sense,
educational policy is presented to us as a subsystem of politics and as such is the result of
previous political actions, at the same time that it aims in the future to influence the reality
it understands (education) to assume achievements that are considered relevant. ,
following the moral sense that one has about the common good .

Contextualized in this way, educational policy is presented to us as the activity of public

power aimed at solving the social problems of education, so in essence it becomes a set
of general policy measures whose specific objective is in all its dimensions. the
educational one (Ardoino, 1980).

Being more precise, we can say that Educational Policy is a positive science that analyzes
the political manifestations of the educational process, what they are, not what they should
be. As such positive science, it is necessary to avoid two extreme temptations, those
represented by ideologism and hyperfactualism.

Díez Hochleitner (1996) is even more explicit and maintains that educational policy is the
set of principles, objectives and goals that guide educational action at the state or
supranational level and, to a certain extent, also at the level of private institutions.

Essentially these are guidelines that governments set for the education sector within the
framework of their general, partisan or nationalist policy. That is, the criteria and
orientation that should inspire the purposes, structure, organization, content,
generalization, duration, teacher training, financing, etc., of each level and aspect of the
educational system, within of the framework of the Constitution, of an educational reform
or of the existing educational development plans, among others and according to each
case.

Intergovernmental organizations also define and guide the broad advisable guidelines of
educational policy through resolutions approved by the Ministries of Education of their
member states at regional or world conferences.

Most private institutions dedicated to education also guide their action in accordance with
their own educational policy, although necessarily in harmony with that of the
Government(s) of the countries within which they operate.

From this perspective, Education Policy covers such suggestive aspects as the political
orientation of the educational system, the educational programs of political parties, the
influence of pressure groups, the action of unions or teaching associations, the broad
phenomenon of political socialization through education, educational ideologies, etc.

First of all, we will use the terms Educational Policy - with capital letters - to refer to the
particular branch of Political Science that studies and analyzes all political aspects of
education.

Secondly, we will use the expression "educational policy" - with a lowercase letter - to refer
to a specific policy of a government or other institution, which anchors its roots in a specific
ideology and which is aimed at achieving specific goals. By using such terms we are
entering into the plane of reality, of what is or is done, while when talking about
Educational Policy - with capital letters - we are placing ourselves in the plane of
knowledge, of social science that analyzes an aspect of society constituted by the binomial
education and politics.

It is important that we clarify that in doctrine we usually speak of the "politician of

education", but this expression has a notable ambiguity: it can refer both to the social
scientist and to the man who carries out educational policy, to homopoliticos. To establish
a clear distinction between both human types - on the one hand, the social scientist; on the
other, the political professional -, we will use for the first the expression "the political
scientist of education" and for the second that of the "politician of education" or, simply, the
politician.

In short, as we have shown (Capella, 1977), educational policy focuses on the study of the
political-educational phenomena of society, defining its object of analysis in politics, in
education and, above all, in trying to explain the interaction and relationships that occur
and manifest between the two. It is in this sense that Kogan (1978) goes so far as to affirm
that “education is political by its very nature.”

1.2.2. The study of educational policies.

Most of the studies and therefore the literature on educational policies has focused on
programmatic decisions about budgets, laws, regulations and programs. The policies as
they are put into practice rarely coincide with the design of these same policies. Recently,
much attention has been paid to implementation processes in order to explain the reasons
for these changes (Elmore, 1979-1980; Pressman and Wildavsky, 1973; Grindle, 1980).
Most execution takes place within, or with respect to, bureaucracies. Therefore, hierarchy
and authority are important concepts to explain the activity. Bureaucrats of different
classes are the dominant players, but they are certainly not the only ones. Some
individuals or groups who are unwilling or unable to influence programmatic decisions may
intervene at this level to attempt to negotiate how a policy affects them.

Hawley (1977) criticizes political scientists for the little attention they paid to policy
outcomes, more specifically to how policies affect the lives of citizens.

If different kinds of political interactions take place at different policy levels, it would be
instructive to compare political systems by their effectiveness in moving policy from one
level to another.

The sequential nature of policies affects the political factors that explain any subsequent
policy, whether decisions, agendas, or ideologies are examined. Preceding policies
condition both policies and policy construction by creating new limitations, new agents, or
new expectations, or by altering the value of resources.

Political influences on education can be sought in two overlapping political systems: the
state in general, and the more specific system of educational direction. In the first case,
the question for some researchers is whether policies that differ in level of
competitiveness, ideology, or size of government, for example, also vary systematically in
their educational objectives, programs, or outcomes. If so, are these phenomena directly
related, through mechanisms for the sum of demand or capacity for action, despite
variations in the ways in which societies organize their educational systems? Other
researchers have focused mainly on the specific institutions and processes of educational
management, searching there for evidence of the exercise of power and the explanation of
policies. It is not always possible to classify a given piece of research as an obvious study
of policy or educational direction. Certainly, the more centralized the school system, the
more difficult it is to make this distinction. It is useful, however, to evaluate how analysts
believe policies are made and how they relate to major groups and issues in society.

2. Interest in educational policies capable of promoting change.

In many educational circles there is a growing concern in search of new educational

paradigms that have the audacity and vigor enough to break with everything that
represents a burden of old molds, which in no way means despising the past, which
makes education difficult. designed to serve essential human needs, promote equality
between men and contribute to a sustainable development strategy in which the
community can participate.

The commitment to this type of proposal is based on hope and is fueled by the belief in
humanity's ability to find rational and reasonable solutions to the problems that affect it. If
we lost that faith, the very foundations of education would be undermined.

2.1. Educational policies worldwide.

At the beginning of this millennium we face a change of era towards postmodernity, a

change that has had a strong impact on education as was revealed, at a general level, in
Conferences such as the one in Rio de Janeiro on Environment and Development in 1992,
that of Cairo on Population and Development in 1994, that of New Delhi of the Academies
of Sciences of the World in 1994, that of Copenhagen on Social Development in 1995, and
that of Beijing on the problems of Women in 1995.

And in the specifically educational field, we have been observing it since 1972, in the
Report to UNESCO "Learning to be", the Main Education Project for Latin America and the
Caribbean (PROMEDLAC, 1980 - 2000), the "Reflection on the developing the future of
education" of UNESCO (1984), the Jomtien Declaration of Education for All (1990),
"Education holds a treasure (1996), the agreements of the Dakar World Forum on
Education for All (2000) , the PROMEDLAC meeting held in Cochabamba (2001) and the
Regional Meeting of Latin America and the Caribbean convened by UNESCO (2002).

In this context, the work of Muñoz Sedano (1991) takes on special significance, who
already in 1991, after a thorough study of educational policies, came to the conclusion that
in recent years a series of paradigms have been developed based on perspectives not
necessarily exclusive. He summarizes them like this:

 The productive axis sees the educational institution as a company.

 The humanist axis looks at the Educational Community.
 The structural axis studies the formalized educational organization.
 The political axis identifies the educational institution as an arena of struggle between
power and freedom.
 The systemic axis sees the institution as an open system.
 The cultural axis considers the educational institution as a transmitter, reproducer or
creator of culture.
These educational currents permeate, as transversal axes, educational projects and
therefore the curriculum of all levels and modalities:

2.2. Educational policies in Latin America.

A look at the normative expressions of educational policies in Latin America during the last
decade of the last century allows us to observe significant transformations with respect to
past decades, which make it possible to glimpse an important paradigmatic change.

Firstly, it is striking that the Ibero-American States have developed reforms almost in
unison. Secondly, these reforms do not appear urged by international agreements,
thereby giving the impression of an exercise of autonomy unknown in the 60s and 70s.
Now they appear as a result of national processes that start from the principle of
"consultation" or "concertation", the result of decisions that in light of the new correlations
appear as autonomous and national in nature. Possibly, for this reason it is also possible
to observe that in the different countries of the region, the proposals acquire some
nuances or particularities that recognize the specificity of each of them.

Notwithstanding the above, the contents and definitions that are expressed in the laws,
plans or agreements make visible the appearance of some constants common to all of
them, which will force us to look with some reluctance at the exercise of regional autonomy
compared to traditional centers. of power, or at least to sense a profound change at a
paradigmatic level that, allowing autonomous decision-making in accordance with regional
needs, does not lose the threads of development, but rather reorients it in another way.

This set of trends that are expressed in the Ibero-American educational sector correspond
to or are the manifestation of deeper structural changes that have emerged during the last
two decades and that have been characterized with the following expressions:
globalization, decentralization, competitiveness, equity.

As explained in the aforementioned ECLAC document, the international economy places

us before certain demands in whose satisfaction education plays an important role:

The articulation of scientific development and technological advances, their application to

achieve a new sphere of production, distribution and consumption of goods and services
that allows greater productivity and economic improvement.

Progressive regionalization and globalization of markets and also of some economic

activities that will allow insertion into the large economic structures of the world that aim
both at the intensification of international competition and a change in the distribution of
wealth and opportunities.

Basic research, education and public policy. Only a small number of companies are
capable of adapting to changes in new technologies and scientific advances. As for public
institutions, small and medium-sized businesses can achieve this challenge.

The new paradigm of business organization and management affects companies in terms
of their organization and relationships. There must be a reduction in costs, an increase in
flexibility and an improvement in production quality.
Horizontal effect of information technologies: microelectronics, computing and
telecommunications.

Automation and erosion of comparative advantage based on the availability of cheap labor
in the market and natural resources.

Technical change and environmental sustainability to protect the environment.

3. How are the new proposals for

the world within education in Latin America?

The new directions of education, at least with regard to Latin America, have taken place in
the main forums where the scope, realities and challenges of education for the new
millennium have been discussed. One of them, ECLAC, characterizes the problem as
follows: "productive transformation with equity", which means the need to incorporate and
disseminate technological progress for productive transformation, political democratization
and social equity, through reforms in the educational systems of the different countries in
the region.

In 1992, the report "Education and knowledge: axis of productive transformation with
equity" was prepared, where knowledge is placed as a key factor in social transformation
and is sized as the fundamental wealth of people, while its use is considered social can
generate a new relationship between development and democracy, with the purpose of
allowing greater citizen participation and significant economic growth in the countries of
the region" (ECLAC-UNESCO, 1992). Education is therefore a necessary investment and
one of the most productive.

Education is, therefore, not only the main source of economic and social development, but
is also beginning to be considered as a means to knowledge; Thus, education and
knowledge production become an inseparable part of the cultural identity of the people and
must be a central concern of the countries of the region to advance towards harmonious
and comprehensive development (ECLAC-UNESCO, 1992).

In this way, the strategy proposed by ECLAC is defined by two basic objectives: "formation
of a modern citizenry, linked both to democracy and equity and to the international
competitiveness of countries, which makes possible sustained growth supported by
incorporation and dissemination of technical progress"66; In its implementation,
international entities intervene with less emphasis in the educational policy of different
nations, for this reason a series of reforms begin to be generated in national constitutions,
creation of education laws, agreements and national educational plans focused primarily
on basic education, which in some cases includes higher education, as a definition of local
policies that obey a set of axes proposed by the World Bank, and coinciding with the
objectives and actions defined by ECLAC such as: administrative decentralization, projects
institutional education, quality of education, equity, competitiveness, privatization and
modernization.

This process gives a radical turn to the educational strategy, changing from an expansive
school to a competitive one through learning, relying on four vertices that draw the picture
of the new conditions:
Firstly, there would be the resounding discredit to which the school is subjected. The
school's legitimation crisis occurs due to its disengagement and structural dysfunction with
respect to the socioeconomic context. In that sense, the school would serve only on the
condition that it adapted to social and political demands. The wear and tear of schools
and their saturation are precipitated by the crisis of the development model based on
growth.

Secondly, the crisis of the paradigms of educational research from which it is no longer
possible to read the reality of Latin American education. This crisis of paradigms is
explained, according to Tedesco, in the impossibility that on the one hand the educational
sciences and on the other the pedagogue have shown to adapt to the so-called new
realities posed by technological advance.

Thirdly, there would be the emergence of new challenges that, such as the globalization of
economies and scientific-technical development, would demand the configuration of new
educational spaces.

Finally, and as a decisive factor, is the introduction of a renewed discursive scaffolding

around the satisfaction of basic learning needs within the framework of the human
development model, such as the new social policy promoted on a global scale by
international organizations, in which The World Bank plays a leading role.

The new challenges: globalization and competitiveness, are presented as imperatives and
realities that, in addition to accepting them as necessary or even convenient, should also
provide us with the measure of the changes. Human development inaugurates a new
milestone in the history of contemporary education with the emergence of a vision that
presents to the world the satisfaction of basic learning needs as the great and almost only
alternative for the 21st century.

According to the World Conference on Education for All: "Human development involves an
interactive process consisting of psychological and biological maturation and learning.
This allows individuals to increase their well-being, as well as that of their communities and
nations. Human development is broader than the development of human resources
(although it includes it), the latter linked to the development and conservation of individuals
to contribute to economic growth and social progress." WCEFA (1990).

Just as sustained human development is presented to us today as the only possible

alternative to eradicate poverty and protect the environment, education as a need to
satisfy learning would also make it possible to overcome ignorance and illiteracy in our
countries. Another great feat, with which the world and its problems once again enter the
rational discourse of international agencies.

This relationship is increasingly permeating discourses and political control in education,

and gives us sufficient indications to think that current educational policy in Latin America
is being restructured around the central value of the educational market.

Of course, the hegemonic effect of this logic worships productivity, reducing the principles
and objectives of education to a mere effective operation that produces competitive
subjects. That is, achieving effective performance of individuals by providing them with the
skills to function productively in today's society, improving the quality of "educational
services." In this case, any purpose of training the citizen and the "cultured" subject is
excluded, so as not to allude to the possibility that education and teaching would have of
inciting thought by opening a space for invention, aesthetics and ethics.

In other words, it is the transition from the expansion of the school to the school as a
device for economic competitiveness. What becomes evident in all these actions and
speeches is a will for global order; Thus, the so-called new scenarios undoubtedly
constitute the horizon in which all this scaffolding is framed and towards which all
strategies are directed.

And, in our midst, the National Seminars "Analysis and Perspectives of Education in Peru",
which the Faculty of Education of the Pontifical Catholic University of Peru holds every five
years, the EDUCATIONAL FORUM/IPAE Meetings of 1993 and 1994 on "Education and
Development", in the studies of the Educational Forum for the National Agreement for
Education "Education for Human Development" of 1997 and recently (2003) the National
Congress "Reforms and schools for the new century" have proposed educational policies
that If taken into account, national education would improve significantly.

4. Educational policies that are relevant to current challenges.

Below I present those policies that, in our opinion, are of a

priority to achieve what was expressed.

4.1. The globalization.

Medina (2000) warns that the globalized space is increasingly incisive, perhaps
debatable, and is influenced by the political decisions of universal institutions, the
parameters of the headquarters of large economic organizations and a new hyper-
information from the Internet and its multi-messages. Educational institutions and
educators must be especially sensitive to this new space, to the fruitfulness of multiple
relationships and to the urgency of feeling like citizens of a big world. This globalizing
urgency is the guideline that will mark our belonging to planet Earth, feeling geo-location
as a vital and supracultural constant, but lived critically and creatively.

And, as Gelpi (1995) denounces, this ongoing process of globalization has made many
educational approaches completely obsolete even though their political validity continues
in order to serve "national" clienteles. And, despite this, we cannot take this validity lightly,
especially because of its persistence in our ways of life that make us get used to it and
take its persistence for granted; especially when its consequences are so negative and
traumatic in all areas of human life.

It is then worth asking ourselves: What does globalization imply for educational action?
How can educational institutions act in the face of the challenge of this phenomenon?

The first answer is evident: the complexity of a changing and deeply interdependent world,
expanded with the necessary holistic vision, rethinks new priorities for education; among
them, learning to understand the multiple realities and to feel that we are primarily trained
people and in continuous training in the face of the great challenges of globalization.
Educational centers have to become spaces of cultural transformation and permanent
search for innovative meaning and openness to a changing world.
In the rest of the presentation I will try to continue answering the questions posed. To do
this, I divide the exhibition into two parts: in the first I address the phenomenon of
globalization and its consequences and in the second I analyze the challenges of
interculturality.

4.1.1. The phenomenon of globalization and its consequences.

Globalization, Rodríguez Fuenzalida (2000) has pointed out, is a profound, conceptual,

value-based, symbolic and also epistemological, scientific and cultural revolution that
ranges from conceptual aspects to the growth of exclusion; poverty in Latin America.

According to Alayza (1997) we live alongside global and political changes that Lechner
(1993) calls new "mental coordinates", which are far from the basic elements that ordered
the approach and understanding of the course of past history. At the same time, the new
coordinates still do not seem to fully order our present. Perhaps on the surface what
emerges above all are the contrasts of the change from one stage of modern history to
another in which the old of the modern world is mixed with postmodernism, without ever
emerging a new synthesis in terms of conception of the world. In any case, we are so
immersed in this historical process that we can hardly see it fully.

Stavenhagen (1995) thinks that, so far, “they have been reflected in two major
manifestations of globalization: important economic benefits for a few and a growing
marginalization of large human contingents. In other words, planetary integration and
social and economic exclusion have been revealed as the two sides of the coin of
globalization. Thus, we can see that, on the one hand, there is a planetary integration of
all economic activity - industrial, commercial, financial, etc. and that, on the other hand, in
the social field this globalization occurs in a differentiated manner according to levels and
categories of people.”

Ramonet (2000), cited by Rodríguez Fuenzalida, points out that “the temple, the sacred
place in which the cult of the new icons develops is the mall, the commercial gallery, a
cathedral erected to the greatest glory of all consumption. In this place of purchasing
fervor, the same sensitivity is created throughout the entire planet, manufactured by logos,
stars, songs, idols, brands, objects, posters, parties. All this accompanied by a seductive
rhetoric of freedom of choice and consumer autonomy, crushed with excessive and
omnipresent advertising that is dedicated to both symbols and goods. Marketing has
become sophisticated to such a point that it aspires to sell, not just a brand, but an identity,
not just a social sign, but a personality. According to the principle: to have is to be... He
does not try to obtain our submission by force but by enchantment; not by order but by our
own consent; not by the threat of punishment but by playing with our thirst for pleasure.”
And Mayor Zaragoza (1998) specifies that we are faced with the paradox that in the
intercommunicated and interdependent world of the 21st century, the beggar from Calcutta
and the millionaire from New York effectively "coexist" for the first time in history and also
have an acute awareness of this contiguity. That is why imbalances and injustices are
even more serious and unacceptable today than ever.

This is why, from the undeveloped world, we call for a new international order of more
egalitarian relations, of development with equity, a new framework of intercultural relations
that is fair, respectful and open to contrast and negotiation without conditions between the
parties.

Rich countries must understand that if urgent measures are not taken to overcome the
imbalance that is being unleashed, sooner or later the system will break and they will not
be able to control the situation. They must give up some of their wealth voluntarily for their
own benefit.

And in the construction of this new education, within its limitations, has a lot to contribute,
since the perennial revitalization of the diversity of the culture of peoples, a task that
largely falls to education, is the alternative to the uniform and depersonalizing
development of the West.

4. 1.2. Role of education in the face of globalization.

I agree with Professor Medina (2000) that “the rejection of the planetary and the closure of
the local have little future in a world in full mutation, over-informed, but more in need than
ever of shared progress and creative stimulation, in which “People must understand the
complexity, accept each other, and uniquely value the accommodations and challenges
that this tension and uncertainty creates for people and communities.”

In educational institutions we must be aware that the educated person of tomorrow will
have to be prepared to live in a global but peculiar world. As Drucker (1994) points out, we
must have the necessary aptitude to be citizens of the world - due to our vision, our
horizons and our information - (global aspect) but also to be able to nourish ourselves from
our native roots, and at the same time enrich our own culture (local aspect).

Let's look at each of these aspects below.

to. Treatment of the global.

It is incumbent on us to seek to shape categories and criteria that allow for a better
understanding and evaluation of the realities that are lived and will be lived. We must
highlight the positive aspects derived from globalization such as the growth of greater
awareness of common international problems, the addressing of which is not the sole
responsibility of the affected states or societies.

But we also have to reject imposed globalizing uniformity or globalizing unification. We

cannot accept a world structured in this way for all humanity. Unification that, according to
García and Sáez (1998), is being carried out from the Western decision centers on basic
budgets that reflect the majority option of the rich West.
From a pedagogical point of view, I want to highlight that the evolution towards a global
society requires a great effort of orientation from the individual person on the material,
social and temporal levels. Today's students must learn to deal with situations of great
complexity and divergent experiences, and adults must recognize that, quite often, our
"ability to solve problems" lags behind what is happening.

Vollmer (1993), interpreting the work of Scheunpflug (1997), says that the genetic
endowment of the human being, in the field of sensitive faculties, is specialized in the
perception and resolution of problems in the immediate environment and, therefore, has
been become dysfunctional for today's world. Only the things located within our mesocosm
are evident to us or, in other words, they are those that we are able to detect, reconstruct,
identify and control without using artificial means. The limits of the human mesocosm
cannot be defined in a generalized way, but, depending on the level of socialization, they
vary both from one individual to another and from one culture to another.

The aforementioned dysfunctionality can be compensated by the capabilities of the human

brain. Language and abstract thought, science and technology put us in a position to leave
our mesocosm and, therefore, deal with situations and phenomena of great complexity,
such as global society.

According to Vollmer, people with successful trials in this direction are characterized by:

 the breadth of general knowledge;

 the wealth of structural principles;
 self-confidence, instead of fear;
 his spirit of decision;
 the greater capacity to evaluate the relative importance of problems;
 the willingness to examine hypotheses and to correct them;
 your tendency to delve deeper into problems by asking more questions about why; and
 the ability to endure uncertain situations.

b. Treatment of the local.

At the local level, we must not keep in mind that cultural understanding is viable to the
extent that people and towns are aware of their identity, value it and develop it. From this
identification, the "legitimacy of the other" (Maturana) is understood and it is then possible
to establish a valid intercommunication, based on respect and the construction of a
horizontal relationship, symmetrical in terms of the validity of the interlocutors.

The globalization of contemporary life cannot be done in a vacuum, it requires rooting,

projecting itself to the world from a place, from a precise circumstance. Therefore,
globalization and defense of identity are complementary terms of the same process that
provides concrete content to public action, increases citizen participation and enriches
individual life.

“The bases of the socio-community transformative process with local relevance, maintains
Medina, arise from a new way of developing interdisciplinary and multiethnic knowledge,
with special orientation to sustainable development and the deep participation of people,
institutions, political groups, schools and universities, who assume their leadership and
their teaching-research commitment.”
“The interdependence between local-community development and openness to
globalization, he points out, is increasingly evident and appropriate preparation for this
fruitful and necessary dialogue is required. Perhaps we should find that the most universal
parameters of human groups, recognized by a large number of communities in different
countries, are the most prototypical of each micro and meso-community, normally limited
in their history, culture, ethos and their own ways of manifesting their values and the styles
of living-consciousness that characterize it.”

In this regard, it seems to me that we must accompany our students in the acquisition and
development of the values of diversity that facilitate dialogic understanding:

 Participation: an essential requirement of life in society that consists of the possibility

and ability to intervene at various sociocultural levels.

 Respect: active attitude of valuing and understanding the characteristics and actions
of other people, avoiding harming them and accepting their possible differences as
normal.

 Solidarity: manifestation of horizontal relationships that considers the main objective

of coexistence between men and women regardless of their cultural origin or their
human group of belonging.

In this context it is necessary to recognize, with Guédez (2000), that a change of emphasis
is taking place from information to knowledge and from knowledge to wisdom. Information
is no longer conceived as the most important thing because it changes as a consequence
of rapid changes in the environment. Information can no longer be seen from a cumulative
perspective because it ages and becomes anachronistic. Above its accumulation, the
possibility of cleaning it, structuring it, tuning it and focusing it with the specific demands of
a context subject to the permanent rethinking of its questions and demands must prevail.
In this way the concepts of knowledge and wisdom emerge as options for renewal in the
face of the pressure of emerging realities. Information is an accumulation of data, while
knowledge is the organization and assimilation of these data, just as wisdom is the
aptitude and willingness to generate new information and develop new knowledge from the
assimilated data based on specific improvement. of a subject, an organization or a certain
reality.

4. 2. The challenges of interculturality.

Medina considers that “the communities of South America are, above all, multicultural,
urged by a deep respect for ancient cultures and, without a doubt, natural and of great
environmental significance and experiencing models of sustainable development, but
mainly axiological references, undoubtedly urgent for improvement, updating and intense
and extensive coexistence with the rest of the communities.”

It is up to educators to advocate and develop in our students the sense of interculturality

as a dimension of life in society, to develop the proposals that this interculturality presents
to us and to recognize the character of symbols to take them into account when acting in
the scenarios in which we have to perform. Let's look at this in some detail.

4. 2.1. Sense of interculturality and intercultural education.

Located epistemologically in the field of interculturality that aims to put an end to the
perverse effects that social relations between groups from different cultures have
historically bequeathed to us, I maintain (2000) with Heise and collaborators (1992) that
interculturality is that dimension of human life in society that has to do with the entire
social, political and economic fabric. Understood in this way, rather than a concept, it is a
vital challenge, an attitude of openness that frees us from the tyranny of prejudices and
apparent absolute certainties, which lead us to stagnation and intolerance. This challenge
makes me recognize that, as Albó (1993) states, culture, no matter how much it tends to
maintain some features of its structure, is always being created and recreated. There is a
constant process of "culture production" through the internal evolution of the experience of
each people and its adaptation to new challenges and exchanges with the environment.

Education must enable the growth of national cultures. Respect for the historical and social
reality of each culture, having the real possibilities of facing new values and creating new
vital syntheses.

This is understood in the official documents "Intercultural Bilingual Education Policy"

(1989) and "National Intercultural Education Policy and Intercultural Bilingual Education"
(1992), which established a revolutionary principle, also aimed at attacking the asymmetry
in the relationships between Creole-Western groups and indigenous groups. They officially
stipulate, in an explicit way, that we must try to get to know each other: all Peruvians are a
priority area of knowledge for all Peruvians.

Unfortunately, despite the important advances in the development of these policies, the
Peruvian educational reality does not adjust to them.

4. 2.2. Pedagogical proposals.

Without wishing to be exact, I believe with Medina that “the intercultural educational
institution needs support, teachers, resources and fully intercultural models. In this
rigorous and firm process, interculturality and interculturalism are a process, a horizon and
a principle that guides decision-making, improves them and represents an urgent and
relevant line of co-reflection and institutional and personal inquiry.

For him, pedagogical action consistent with interculturality means:

 The educational organization understood as an ecosystem of possible axiological,

collaborative and transformative expansion.

 Full and broad respect for different perspectives and cultural options.

 A style of change and professional revitalization by understanding other perspectives

and references, anticipating conflicts and the cultures of students and communities.

 The creation of intercultural spaces through the application of a methodology that

harmonizes personal knowledge and respect for the singular identity of each group and
community.

 Stimulate self-learning and the desire to learn to learn, innovate and create a space for
open dialogue, which allows each student to know themselves, share their
 expectations with others and find relevant points of relationship and rapprochement
between equals.

 Promote the autonomy of each student by making them positively experience their
cultural identity.

 Develop co-learning methods between teachers making use of multi-cultural

references.

 The socializing and collaborative methodology capable of involving all teachers and
students in a school of intercultural aspiration.

 Symbolic interactionism as a method that integrates the complex reality of teaching

and research in a pluri and intercultural space.

4. 2.3. Meaning of the symbols.

Following Giroux (1999), Rodríguez Fuenzalida affirms that identity is built within a culture,
there is a cultural pedagogy, there is a dynamic and fluid relationship between politics and
culture, both in value and ethical aspects and in the dimension of the industry. cultural, in
the production of representations and symbols.

Globalization as an interpretative ideology of the conquest of markets, in all countries on

the planet, he points out, finds in educational institutions a very favorable place for
homogeneity in its symbols and in its interpretive codes. The development of skills is
proposed, in most cases, in a positivist line, independent of the context and its
representations, symbols, and cultural systems.

In most cases we use patterns, symbols and codes that are generally hegemonic and,
therefore, external to the specific situation of children, young people and adults who come
from diverse socio-cultural backgrounds, who have their own systems of interpreting the
world. This situation becomes not only complex, but in many cases dramatic, as there is
no "bridge" that unites or favors the meeting between the global and local worlds.

This reality and its consequences must be assumed by the educational professional so
that they gradually and gradually facilitate their students' approach to the mastery of other
symbolic codes and other cultural forms, without implying the ablation of their own.

In this context we must recognize that, as Ansión (1987) tells us, myths or mythical stories
are part of our cultural heritage that must be "rescued" because it is understood that they
are important for the constitution of a national culture.

In reality, as Sánchez-Parga (1993) points out, it is a problem of ethnoepistemology: the

linguistic code reflects a social code and a code of thought and both give rise to the
integrated code.
I conclude by pointing out with Rodríguez Fuenzalida (2000) that, in the face of the
seductive rhetoric that invades the entire current social environment and that guides in a
certain direction; affects personally and professionally; convinces of the benefits of what it
proposes and citizens blur the borders and assume lifestyles consistent with the proposed
models; What is interesting for education is that it acts with persuasion, with enchantment
and consent, with the feeling of freedom to choose, to consume, overcoming the
determinism and coercion with which the school has acted in its civilizing desire.

Based on this experience, the development of education requires intense work of

elaboration, thinking, proposal, design, construction of rationalities, experimentation; to
situate ourselves in new cultural scenarios, scenarios that correspond to the different
dimensions of culture, which certainly includes the rationalities of work and exclusion,
poverty and capital concentration, globalization and techniques, of communication and of
the new concepts and symbols of identity construction, of science and technology, of
production and ecology, of religiosity and of the social and political structure.

4.2.3. Globalization and competitiveness

Since the 1980s, this process had begun to become evident as the internationalization of
the economy and culture, a phenomenon that, although it is true that it had appeared
around 1945 linked to the founding of the United Nations, took on a different meaning at
this time. "internationalization" and "globalization" will hereinafter refer to: A social reality
that also increasingly extends to the everyday experiences of individuals, whether in the
form of international financial interconnections and monetary crises, global ecological
interdependencies, emerging social costs from mass tourism that spreads throughout the
world, pressures from global migrations, or the unforeseen intensification of news
transmission on a global scale. However familiar these and other relationships of global
interdependence may seem to contemporary observers, the recent change in the use of
the term internationalization indicates that, from the perspective of historical
macrosociology, the aforementioned processes are, in evolutionary terms, a phenomenon
totally new (Schrierwer, 1996).

What most precisely defines the current global panorama is the accelerated tendency to
standardize and standardize the planet, since the dizzying pace of development of new
information and communication technologies offers multiple possibilities to access
education and scientific cooperation in all the lands. Globalization, and its effects, can be
approached fundamentally from economics and politics, although when it becomes visible
its effects occur simultaneously in all interactions.

Economic globalization implies the weakening of the different political sectors that make
up national States and the tendency to be replaced in strategic decision-making by groups
that operate at a planetary level. In this way, different blocks are configured that lead
economic processes in the world, giving rise to the economy having an essentially
international dimension. Currently, various geoeconomic blocks are being formed or
consolidated that transform the relationship of forces in the world. Globalization reflects
the growing interdependence, on a global scale, of national and local economies and
trade, as well as the need to adopt a global approach to manage the problems derived
from it, among which education plays a fundamental role.

Associated with globalization another new category appears, competitiveness, which

although it is associated with competition, is not simply that, but the quality of being in a
position to compete successfully. Quality that both companies and individuals must
develop, and whose indicator is associated with the conditions that favor or do not favor
development. In this sense, it is when taking advantage of the comparative advantages
that productive locations can offer, among other things, acquires definitive importance, or
in terms of decentralization: regions or localities converted into "aggregators of external
economies" or providers of: Factors and advanced services, as well as the stimulation of a
network of links that give way to the formation of an industrial fabric and integrated
services, which foster synergies that stimulate innovative dynamics and virtuous circles of
accumulation, which increase the attractiveness for the location productive compared to
other regions (Malaver, 1997).

This is where another global trend is understood, decentralization, as an administrative

condition of States to promote competitiveness in a globalized world. For this reason, it is
also a current fact that although countries, due to their growing heterogeneity and because
they have become immense and cosmopolitan nuclei, maintain typicalities only reluctantly,
in some corners turned towards the past, at the same time and for Due to globalization,
they have also made this tendency towards diversity and anomie obsolete.

Furthermore, megatrends such as globalization have imposed the law of competitiveness

as a distinctive feature of societies with a future compared to other non-competitive ones
and therefore called to stagnation, economic death, and becoming "non-viable" societies. .

This is why the educational processes currently being carried out are not based on
knowledge acquired for life and restricted to precise spaces and times, but must enable
permanent learning, adaptable to multiple contexts and at different times. This is
something like a model of "lifelong learning for all" that in turn allows gradually replacing
the "prevailing model of selective and concentrated learning and studies for a limited time"
(Arocena, 1997), which means attending to educational practices effectively, allocating
resources to achieve two basic challenges: on the one hand, increasing and incorporating
methodologies and materials that generate new teaching roles; and on the other hand,
introduce solid mechanisms of flexibility and innovation in institutions so that they assume
responsibility for the new citizen education.

Globalization imposes, therefore, new forms of appropriation of knowledge, among which

only those that allow increasing the competitiveness of citizens, their training and access
to the cultural codes of modernity are considered optimal. Which implies the acquisition of
new values both in production and in the relationships established between modern
citizens, because: ... the globalization of markets and technological convergence force
individuals to develop universal skills. They are, to a certain extent, indifferent to particular
spaces or times, forming a kind of universal citizenship, no longer induced by religion or
ideology, but by instrumental rationality (Restrepo, 1998).
This is one of the reasons why the different Ibero-American States have implemented, in
the reforms of their educational policies, mechanisms that seek to increase the quality of
education, not only in the generic sense of an "improvement" of the system, but in that of a
new training that makes individuals and societies "viable" in an increasingly globalized
world that demands new qualities to assume competence. That is, it requires competent
people, institutions and societies, not simply competitors.

4.3. Education as a means of social reform

A considerable amount of research studies has documented the fact that nations with a
high level of educational achievement and well-developed educational systems are both
the most advanced in the areas of industry, science, social welfare and stability. policy.
Furthermore, in industrially developed countries, at least until recently, education has been
considered the cornerstone for any government strategy. In order to improve social,
political and economic problems, in the late 1950s and early 1960s, various social science
theories - such as human capital (see Human capital and education) and theories
functional modernists - provided explanations that seemed to link these national
achievements with education. These convictions regarding education can at least partially
explain why this field has had so much attraction for politicians as a powerful institutional
remedy to redirect social problems in advanced industrial societies or the social and
economic problems found in almost all developing and newly independent countries. For
the elites of the new nations, these ideas have been continually reinforced by the
increasing penetration of the ideologies of scientific nationalism and social equality,
through international agencies and prestigious philanthropic foundations. Politicians,
faced with ethnic and cultural diversity, the lack of common political ideals, strong divisions
between socioeconomic groups and uncontrolled population growth accompanied by high
rates of unemployment and underemployment in rural areas, were forced to take shelter in
the reassuring educational promise. This attraction towards education as a means of
social reform is evidenced by the substantial application of scarce resources for its
expansion and development during the last years of the 1950s and throughout the 1960s
and by the growing demand for education by the population. .

4.4. Educational reform as a touchstone

However, this faith in the apparently beneficial role of education within the development
process has not gone unquestioned. Since the early 1950s, efforts to document, evaluate,
and understand the developmental effects of education have led to a growing divergence
of opinion among educators and social science researchers regarding the "reformist role"
of education. The education. Critics from various disciplines have provided empirical
evidence and solid theoretical arguments that have challenged the idea that educational
expansion and development contribute in a beneficial and conflict-free way to economic
development and social equality. Although these criticisms and questions, whether
normative or empirical, have tended to undermine the legitimation of educational
development strategies in particular cases, they do not seem to have shaken confidence in
the power of improvement that education possesses.

The impetus for reform appears to have arisen, at least in part, from resistance to re-
examining basic ideas concerning the ideological roots of our beliefs about education and
development. It also arose from the long-held belief that applied research and educational
planning would resolve the shortcomings of education, thereby facilitating its contribution
to the achievement of key social objectives. These objectives include, for example,
economic development and national reconstruction in the Third World and the West.
Although the achievement of the various objectives was seen as problematic, given the
fact that education has continued to be considered one of the most important factors of the
status quo, the conclusion has been widely accepted that reform and improvement of the
effectiveness of the educational system can lead to one form or another of social
improvement,

to. Institutionalization of the ideology of rationality and social efficiencies

Along with this confidence in the power of education to improve, there are two other
notions that have promoted the idea that educational expansion and development can
overcome poverty and underdevelopment. One of them has been the belief that this body
of scientific knowledge could be developed in order to serve as a foundation for systematic
scientific planning. This "modern" application of scientific knowledge and rationality with
appropriate and quite sophisticated planning techniques - such as, for example, manpower
forecasting methods, analysis systems, staffing forecasting techniques and cost
approaches - benefits - were and continue to be, enhanced by the belief in scientific
rationality, the need for social efficiency and the social theories that legitimize these
approaches.

b. Human capital and the functional and modernist perspective

While it has been confirmed that scientific rationalism and social efficiency became part of
the educational field as dominant forms of progressive liberalism at the beginning of the
20th century, they have found their contemporary expression in two complementary
theories of the social sciences: the theory of capital human (Becker, 1962; Blaug, 1976)
and functional and modernist theory (Inkeles and Smith, 1974). They are based on three
assumptions:

First, as individuals become better educated, their productive contribution in the workplace
is generally enhanced (Becker, 1975). Consequently, the more and better educational
opportunities are accessible to the greatest possible number of citizens of a country, the
more the productive potential of the entire nation increases. Investment in education as
human capital is therefore considered an important part of the overall investment process
and a powerful determinant of development.

Secondly, it is assumed that educational activities and the associated production of human
capital are immersed in a competitive and basically efficient market organization, destined
for the production of goods and services. To the extent that competitiveness is imperfect
or the market mechanism fails in some sense, it is assumed that the public sector will
correct prices or production to adequately reflect social valuations. Within this
neoclassical view of economics, individuals and businesses, acting in their own interests,
make decisions that maximize the effectiveness of society. Thus, the evaluation of the
costs and production of education through social cost-benefit analysis becomes an
essential element to evaluate the value of educational innovations. Finally, although
considerations of equality are generally seen from this point of view as completely
separate from criteria of effectiveness, the view is assiduously advocated that more
equitable access to educational opportunities will result if distribute social resources more
effectively.
Neoclassical economics theory highlights the process by which individuals and
organizations in the public and private sectors act, interact and change. The dominant
perspectives within the field of sociology offer a complementary point of view. Although
there are divergences, there are also significant affinities in the sociological literature that
form what has been called functional and modernist theory and which combines theories
of structural functionalism, modernization and social psychology.

Within the framework of functional and modernist theory, modern industrial society, when
compared with traditional society, is seen in terms of its specialized and increasingly
elaborate division of labor, which requires the participation of duly qualified citizens and
socialized. Invention, technology and innovation are considered the main forces to
increase the economic and social capacity of individuals, which is essential to raise the
level of development of society. The progress from a traditional society to a more
developed one is gradual, but is subject to political efforts that stimulate a more modern
formation of individuals and institutions (Inkeles and Smith, 1974). Therefore, within the
functional and modernist perspective, an educational system functions to develop the
technical skills and standards necessary for a particular stage of development of society.
As a society modernizes, the educational system will reflect and reinforce that progress by
also modernizing its individuals.

The functional and modernist perspective provides a detailed discussion of the

characteristics of individuals and institutions and their interactions. This discussion is
provoked by the behavioral and institutional ideas that underlie the neoclassical theory of
economics. Theories of productivity, economic growth and general equilibrium fit very well
with sociological approaches to modernization, organizational complexity and social
stratification.

This complementarity is reinforced by the view that both perspectives share the same
normative structure, despite frequent claims for a purely positivist stance (Blaug, 1976).
Economists explicitly argue that efficiency should guide all organizational decision making,
and sociologists often accept this idea, at least implicitly. Social development, understood
as a gradual process of economic growth and modernization, serves as the basis for the
conceptions of both disciplines about rational progress. Although greater equity may also
be important, there is a shared idea that a certain degree of inequality is not only good but
necessary for society: economists defend an unequal social distribution as necessary as a
motivating incentive (Friedman and Friedman, 1980) and Sociologists frequently
emphasize the importance of inequality whenever merit-based selection occurs for
positions of leadership and responsibility (Davis, 1949). The most common equality goal
for the dominant paradigm of this perspective is honest and meritocratic competitiveness
in the face of unequal social rewards offered.

These theories and assumptions about society, change and humanity in general, not only
describe how things work but also provide a valuable foundation for understanding
education as social reform. Educational planning, as an embodiment of these ideas, is
characterized by a series of activities aimed at improving educational effectiveness. It is
within this frame of reference where educational reform has been developing in recent
decades.

5. Policies of a conceptual or doctrinal nature.

According to what has been stated, permanent and recurrent education now requires a
prospective design, as an individual process in order to organize the combination of very
diverse programs that is capable of ensuring personalized learning, training and
professional training processes.

Therefore, learning and education, at all its levels and modalities, must be considered in
close relationship with labor and economic policies in addition to offering cultural
opportunities and social participation.

Let's look specifically at some of the axes that, in my opinion, should primarily guide
curricular design and development.

1) Ecological education.

Ecology has ceased to be the science of denials (no to pollution, no to deformation, no to

industrial development, no to intensive agriculture) to be the science of realistic concrete
solutions in terms of development. Ecology affirms its originality and reason for being in
the particularity of ecosystems and in the cultural identity of people. For this reason, the
environmental issue has become an obligatory part of any integration, cooperation,
commercial or cultural agreement.

Faced with this situation, we must all be re-educated, because from the common citizen to
the most powerful of political or economic leaders, we are affecting the environment with
our daily attitudes.

Ecological or environmental education is the process that consists of recognizing values

and clarifying concepts in order to promote the skills and attitudes necessary to
understand and appreciate the interrelationships between man, his culture and his
biophysical environment. It also involves practice in decision-making and in the
development of a code of behavior with respect to issues related to environmental quality.

A variable that educational policies must take into account is sustainable development,
that which meets present needs without compromising the ability of future generations to
satisfy their own needs.

Sustainable human development, says Díez Hochleitner (1996), if it aims to be humane

and effective, it has to be omnicomprehensive, that is to say: geographically global;
environmentally viable; prone to progress and growth; technologically responsible; socially
fair and concerned about the quality of life from health, food and housing; economically
and ecologically harmonious; ethically defensible; and attentive to educational and cultural
needs.

2) Education for production and productivity.

In the fields of economics and education we must know how to distinguish between growth
and development. According to Del Campo (1996), growth refers only to the scale with
which the physical dimension of the economy is measured, while development is
synonymous with qualitative improvement. This is why it is conceivable that planet Earth
develops without growing and that the limits to growth do not necessarily represent limits
to development.
In recent years, there has been widespread awareness of a greater link between
education and life, ensuring greater functionality with respect to the needs of individuals
and the requirements of national socioeconomic development (productive transformation
with equity).

Work, understood as a source of humanity and society, must constitute the explicit support
of every educational principle. You are educated and should always be educated at work,
by work and for work. But it is about free and liberating work, and not about alienated,
commercialized work and consequently an instrument of man's subjection. (Salazar
Bondy, 1976) In correspondence with this, the educational system in our country should be
the generating field of production.

However, as De Puelles (1996) says, we must insist that education is an indispensable but
not sufficient condition for economic and social development. Sometimes too much
emphasis is placed on the indisputable connection between education and the
development of human capital, productivity and the expansion of the labor market.
Education should not be linked only to economic progress. Social justice and respect for
the relevance of cultures are also important parts of the educational program.

For Fukuyama (1995), with whom I agree on this point, economic success depends on
work and capital but especially on "social capital" concept, which according to him, has to
do with others equally difficult to capture in their true dimension such as "civility",
"community spirit" and "solidarity".

We must attend to environmental protection and demographic policy but also to education,
social integration, the role of women in society and, in short, social flexibility.

Literacy is necessary for a process of economic modernization and change in which

women occupy a predominant place, what economists call "the sexual differential":
educated women control their fertility and are in favor of responsible procreation; The
educated woman improves family nutrition, hygiene and health; The literate woman, in
short, promotes and encourages the education of her children.

c) Education as ideology and legitimization: an alternative perspective of reform

policy

Looking at reports on educational reforms, two facts emerge: first, despite numerous
changes in strategies, educational reform efforts have achieved very little success in
achieving their goals or in consolidating a positive impact of the educational system in
social development, and secondly, reform programs continue to be proposed, supported
and financed.

This apparent paradox can be explained in at least two different ways. It is possible to
maintain that reform strategies are still in the process of being perfected. There is
sufficient uncertainty and ambiguity in existing research and evaluation results to argue
against the conclusion that innovations have little effect on outcomes or, more generally,
that schools do not compensate for the effects of the social environment. For example,
some scholars have maintained that either the indicators of school effects or the level of
analysis adopted in these studies were inadequate (Bidwell and Kasarda, 1980). Some
point to (contested) evidence that at least in Third World countries, schools appear to have
a decisive effect on social achievement, while environmental variables are much less
important (Heynemann and Loxley, 1982). The potential for rapid diffusion of educational
technologies such as radio and television - and the growing participation in more flexible
training systems such as non-formal education (see Non-formal education) - continue to
offer hope that there may still be ways to reach even the unschooled and to rescue those
who have dropped out of school. In summary, the defenders of reform as a cornerstone
still have arguments to maintain that the imperfection, inefficiency and inadequacy of
educational systems can be overcome with better planning, implementation and
evaluation.

The constant renewal of reform efforts, despite their uneven trajectory, can perhaps be
better explained from other perspectives, and important challenges to the functionalist and
neoclassical theories that underlie this confidence in the gradual improvement of the
educational and social system. Radical theorists characterize education and its role in
development quite differently from conventional advocates of reform. Basing their
analyzes on the centralism of power and conflict, they question the view of an educational
system as a strictly instrumental enterprise that provides individuals with technical skills
and modern attitudes, evaluates their competencies and subsequently, based on the
principle of meritocracy, places to individuals effectively and equitably in appropriate social
and occupational positions . On the other hand, the central point of the radicals is that
current social distributions reflect a continuous and historical conflict between groups with
unequal power. From this point of view, education functions more or less to reproduce
society as it does to increase productivity, that is, economic development. The
educational system is seen as part of the basic structure of economic production (that is,
linked to the modes and relations of production) and the institutional superstructures such
as religion, family, government and the media that contribute to the reproduction of a
legitimist ideology. Thus, education is not understood as transforming society, but as a
social institution that maintains and perhaps enhances the development of social
inequalities. From this perspective, education not only positions individuals but also
legitimizes social roles, old and new, as well as certain types of new knowledge and the
ideology of meritocracy "in order to legitimize the norms on which it is based."
stratification” (Bock, 1982, p. 94). Bowles and Gintis (1981), in an article that explicitly
criticizes their initial emphasis, focus on how the liberal-democratic concepts of human
rights included in educational curricula contradict education's implicit support for property
rights, necessary for capitalism.

d) Education for peace.

Peace is a historical process, qualitatively determinable, dependent on social conditions

and the legal-political and moral consciousness of an era. So we have that in case of
existential need, hunger, persecution, oppression, immaturity, manipulation and injustice,
we cannot speak of peace according to this definition, even when the weapons have fallen
silent. From this it follows, for the purposes of learning peaceful behavior, that along with
the main concept of peace, others such as justice, solidarity, freedom, critical capacity,
responsibility, maturity, association, cooperation and development must be taken into
account. (Capella, 1991)

Education, then, must provide the basis for the creation of a new spirit that, guided by the
recognition of our growing interdependence and by a common analysis of the risks and
challenges of the future, induces people to implement common projects or to manage the
inevitable conflicts in an intelligent and peaceful way. (Díez Hochleitner, 1996)
It can be said that this is an illusion. I say that it is a necessary, vital utopia, if we want to
escape a dangerous cycle based on cynicism and complacency.

I want to insist that the role of education is not to petrify the status quo, nor to warn
students against the conflict of the environment, but to rationally involve them in the
conflict, to immerse them in it. Due to a certain interactive magnetism, education and
educational centers naturally move towards conflict. We must learn that in today's society
it is impossible to establish a separation between conflict and the absence of it. Unless
the conflict can be rationalized, to interrelate it with the rest of the surrounding complexity,
it is not possible to escape the social fabric and its intrinsic and surrounding problems.

In the practical and eminently educational field, a very effective mechanism for peace
education is internships. Through it, teachers and students exchange, which favors the
creation of a global mind and spirit; It develops the value of tolerance, respect and
solidarity, by exposing the person to environments different from their usual one.

e) Political or citizen education.

Democracy is a lifestyle and a system of political and social organization; and in its double
scope it is a dynamic, progressive structure: it changes continuously, it is renewed in an
incessant way.

As a lifestyle, says Fukuyama (1995), democracy arises from man's conscious effort to
reflect on his situation in society and create rules and institutions that, in some way, are in
accordance with his own essential nature.

As a system of political and social organization, democracy is the active participation of the
population to meet the requirements of the common good. As Herrera (1986) points out, in
political society people have a common task that unites them: the common good,
understood as the material and spiritual well-being of all.

In our case, when we are emerging from a crisis situation as serious as the one we are
experiencing, we must not only think about defending and consolidating democratic
institutions but we must rethink them to be able to seriously commit ourselves to the
construction of a national development project (to short, medium and long terms) above
ideological, doctrinal differences and desire for power.

This project must ensure the reconstruction of the national picture. Reconstruction that
allows real multiethnic society, the only possible way to integrate its various components,
which consists of assuming, at the institutional level, an openly multinational character. A
project that manages to redistribute property and income, and stimulate the progressive
horizontal and vertical integration of economic sectors.

Democracy has ceased to be an exclusive topic of political science and is also a

fundamental problem of education. Democracy lacks momentum without the energizing
force of education since this is a social and cultural process that can forge free and
responsible men, capable of fulfilling duties and defending rights. It can prepare the free
man to rationally face change and to promote it.
Mayor Zaragoza (1998) affirms that the future of our lives will depend on this man's ability
to discern, without outside influences; of his creative force; of their willingness to go
against the wind of short-term interests and lies. It will depend on whether they learned to
be, to share, to rebel and not accept the unacceptable, to always defend their lives and
never act by force.

f) Intercultural education.

Interculturality, Heise (1992) points out, is seen as a dimension of human life in society
that has to do with the entire social, political and economic fabric. As a commitment to
respect for the plurality of rationalities and the heterogeneity of ways of life. It is a
challenge to try to establish horizontal links between men from diverse cultures. The will to
understand the other without placing conditions makes it possible for empathy and
communication to flow, overcoming the obstacles that originate from the fear of openness
and insecurity.

From an educational point of view, interculturality allows us to understand cultural codes

different from those of one's own culture; that promotes and enables Spanish-speaking
students, from the initial to the higher level, the knowledge, evaluation and critical
appropriation of the most significant elements of our diverse cultures.

Therefore, interculturality must be the guiding axis of the curriculum, which means
designing and developing "culturally relevant curricula", that is, based on the best and
most valuable of each of the spatial areas" (universal, Western, Latin American , national
and local), incorporating at the same time the most significant contributions from the past,
present and future projects.

g) Inclusive education.

Inclusive Education is taken as a challenge. Inclusion is seen as part of a broader fight

against exclusivist practices and discourse, and ideology that considers each individual as
separate and independent. Inclusion is based on school improvement.

Cárdenas (2004) states that although inclusive education usually quickly leads us to think
about children with disabilities, its purpose is not linked only to this group. Inclusive
education should lead us to think about an education for diversity that includes girls, boys
and young people with different cultural traditions, of different sexes, with various
disabilities or who find themselves in different life situations. Inclusive education is an
education designed beyond a standard student.

Diversity is an inherent characteristic of human nature, it is a possibility for the

improvement and enrichment of social and cultural conditions between people and
between social groups. Therefore, diversity must be seen as a broad and comprehensive
approach, which includes traits of different kinds that, interacting with each other, make us
always different from others.

When we talk about inclusion we are referring to a broad and dynamic process of
instruction and reconstruction of knowledge that arises from the interaction between
different people in terms of values, ideas, perceptions, interests, abilities, cognitive and
learning styles that favor the conscious and autonomous construction of personal forms of
identity and thought and that offers diversified, adequate and flexible educational
strategies and procedures with the double purpose of responding to a heterogeneous
reality and contributing to the improvement and enrichment of social conditions and
relationships and cultural.

A school that includes children and young people with different needs must offer a service
that is assumed by all members of the institution, that is, 'with common objectives, with a
shared vision, with an axiological framework where respect for rights is raised. human
rights, equity and equal opportunities, recognize the right of family participation in school
life, but above all assume the commitment to provide a true quality of life to all its
participants, transforming us day by day into better human beings .

h) Ethical education.

Ipiña (1996) points out that there would be no point in doing science without forming
awareness.

We feel more and more powerful, either to destroy nature and end our own work and
existence, when we are guided by selfishness and manipulated information or, on the
contrary, to progress and improve our quality of life without detriment to safeguarding and
increase cultural and environmental heritage.

From this follows our fundamental lack of ethical values, coherently exercised, which has
led us to a dangerous hedonistic, consumerist and wasteful lifestyle as a way of
expressing our selfishness from the ignorance in which we frequently move. (Díez
Hochleitner, 1996)

Education must propose and develop an ethic of life that does not exhaust itself in life itself
as survival, but rather triggers situations that generate an ethic of nature, an ethic of
development, an ethic of politics, an ethic of benefit, and above all, an ethic of solidarity.

5.2. Guidance policies or strategic or instrumental content.

From a strategic point of view, we have to be convinced that to renew ourselves it is

necessary to have an innovative mentality and willingness to innovate.

But we must also keep in mind that, as Gelpi (1991) indicates, innovations at the scientific
and technological levels do not always constitute a break with previously accumulated
knowledge. On a pedagogical level, "it is useful to highlight continuity", that is, to return to
those experiences that have demonstrated validity.

a) Quality education.

Educational excellence or quality is a subjective concept and not a tangible reality. I

understand it as the relevance of educational projects, as their capacity to respond to
social demands, as the possibility of facilitating significant learning for the person and for
society.

From a more operational perspective I am opting for a holistic and systemic conception in
which the components contribute to the overall effect in an integrated way, and in which
quality is determined by the conjunction of the concurrent elements in a dynamic way, as
Scheerens would say. (1992):
 ability, dedication and motivation of the students;

 relevance of the contents, appropriate for the local environment (local problems,
employment opportunities, cultural identity, etc.) and national and global problems;

 availability and efficient use of educational means (libraries, educational materials and
equipment for teaching, experimentation and workshops), adequate financing of
investments and ordinary expenses;

 intra- and inter-institutional educational research, including the evaluation of results

regarding the model and the formulated goals, as well as on cultural, sports, etc.
extracurricular activities;

 effective pedagogical and professional guidance services; and

 computerized academic management that allows a high degree of flexibility and

efficiency, as well as business management of the center that guarantees its highest
performance. (Díez Hochleitner, 1996)

From this we can infer the great importance that the correct application of the principle of
school autonomy, exercised in a responsible manner, has for the quality of an educational
center. Autonomy is the best antidote to prevent uniformist and, consequently, misleading
quality criteria from being applied to educational institutions.

At the level of programs and objectives, quality is related to the development of productive
and creative operations, as well as reproductive ones, in a stimulating and conducive
environment for creative thinking and attitude where the learner is respected, valued and
listened to, where their spontaneity is encouraged. criticism, dialogue, flexibility, curiosity,
autonomy, fantasy, intuition, etc.

But learning corresponds not only to people but also to social groups, to societies.
Therefore, learning must be meaningful for students but also for social groups.

b. Equity

One of the challenges with the greatest applications in society as a whole is to associate
equity not only with the expansion of educational coverage, but above all, with greater
possibilities of access to quality education that allows the various sectors of the population
to build socially significant knowledge.

Facing this challenge requires the redistribution of resources allocated to the different
levels of the educational system. It requires concrete actions from the different sectors in
charge of formulating social policy to confront poverty and inequality in access to
resources and new information and knowledge technologies.

...traditional networks, and especially telematic networks, could contribute to the fight
against social exclusion, offering instead a diversified offer to adults who have already
passed the age of normal entry to university and to social sectors and countries excluded
from her (López, 1997).
Precisely, one of the central recommendations of the International Commission on
Education, Equity and Economic Competitiveness in Latin America and the Caribbean is to
"increase investment per student in basic education." (PREAL, 1997).

In the next century, anyone who is forced to stop learning will fall into four types of
marginalization: "from the world of work, from the exercise of citizenship, from access to
certain forms of culture, and from the management of the quality of daily life." of their
family nucleus" (Arocena, 1997). This is how equity is related, in addition to access to
permanent education for "everyone", children, youth and adults, with other social policies
such as health, work, social security, job training, with the purpose of overcoming poverty
and creating equality. of opportunities.

c) Education and construction of knowledge.

Betancur (1996) points out that learning has become the focal axis of societal change, it
has become one of the primary functions of education and one of the most exciting topics
of epistemology in our time.

Mayor Zaragoza (1996) defends that we have to look at education not from teaching but
from learning. Putting ourselves less in the place of the administration, the institution and
the teachers and putting ourselves more in the place of those who receive the education,
in the subjects of education; on the students more than on the teachers' side.

In recent times, the findings of cognitive research related to metacognitive and self-
regulation processes as well as the development of mental models during learning have
led to the reconceptualization of the teaching-learning process as one of knowledge
construction, giving rise to the so-called constructivism.

Constructivism, in the strict sense, is not a theory but rather a movement, a current or,
better yet, an explanatory framework that, starting from the social and socializing
consideration of school education, integrates diverse contributions whose common
denominator is an agreement. around constructivist principles. (Sol‚ and Coll, 1995)

For Glasersfeld (1989), the main working hypotheses of the constructivist movement
would be:

 Knowledge is not received passively, it is actively constructed by the knowing subject.

 The function of the cognitive construct is adaptive in the sense of being viable or
adjusted, rather than equalization between construct and reality.

 The process of knowledge allows the knower to organize his or her experiential and
experimental world, rather than discovering an ontological reality.

d) Education and language proficiency.

Today it is increasingly argued that learning is favored by mastery of the four basic
languages: mother tongue, mathematics, foreign language and computer science.
The mother tongue and mathematics should be a subject of curricular treatment in basic
education and it would be ideal for the same to happen with the foreign language and
computing.

Regarding reading-writing and mathematics systems, I agree with Ahumada and

Marinkovich (1997) that reading comprehensively is a complex process, which brings into
play physical, cognitive, linguistic and affective factors; with Cassany (1987) that it is
necessary to focus the analysis of writing from a psycholinguistic point of view, in the
sense that both psychological and linguistic processes intervene in it, in addition to
considering the perceptual and motor aspects; and with Gómez (1995) that mathematics is
made up of a set of notions, elements and relationships: complex relational systems that
influence each other and that the complexity with which the child acquires said set is not in
a total or linear order, but rather progressive ("learning by successive approximations").

Regarding the foreign language and computer science, I want to point out that:

No one escapes the importance that the English language has acquired in recent times.
Apart from the traditional communication value, today it is essential for the management of
information through networks such as the INTERNET, which requires reading
comprehension (texts written in texts and in software), the capture and intellection of oral
messages (conferences, teleconferences, auditory computer networks, etc) and, to a
lesser extent, the communication essential for normal development in environments where
only English is spoken.

We are moving towards a world where knowing knowledge (virtual knowledge) will be the
indispensable value for survival and development, towards a "knowledge society"
(Drucker, 1994), global but peculiar, in which each of We must have the necessary
aptitude to be a citizen of the world - through our vision, our horizons and our information -
but we will also have to be able to draw on our native roots, and in turn enrich and nourish
our own local culture.

It must also be taken into account that a sustainable society will not be based on
information but on the ability to transform the current accumulation of information in
continuous and unstoppable increase - into valid knowledge, and apply it, with ethical and
moral criteria, not only in the solution of the most immediate problems but also to
contribute to solving global problems of all kinds that ultimately matter to everyone.

On the other hand, it must be noted that if new technologies and new media, which create
virtual scenarios in which relationships with various networks develop - in which space is
cyberspace and time is virtual - are not used as a catalyst. and a tool for educational
innovation or reform, will serve only to facilitate the creation of a class system based on
knowledge, a society in which the uninformed will no longer be able to compete in the
labor market.

e) Education management.

Educational institutions are becoming increasingly complex and expensive organizations,

which is why they have to be well managed. To the doctrinal demands that each
educational center poses, we must add the expectations of its users and society so that it
adapts to the demands of scientific and technological progress.
This is why educational institutions work on management models that include new forms of
strategic leadership that allow the development of more systematic and well-planned work.
All this without losing sight of the fact that education is outside the market and, therefore,
the results of the application of a certain procedure do not and will not be appreciated as
quickly as it can be done with respect to an industrial or commercial company.

In the perspective with which I have been working in the presentation, doing educational
management means leading an institution to achieve the purposes of its educational
project. Management is not only a technical matter, but fundamentally political. Therefore,
management and institutional project are inseparable. Without an institutional project it is
not possible to carry out management.

As a management instrument, the institutional project turns out to be a systematized way

of making the vision and mission of the institution viable and consists, in turn, of the design
and organization (programming of a strategy) of a series of operational processes,
coherent and demanding of varied resources (resource management), through which
certain inputs are transformed into specific products with a high degree of quality (process
quality). (Hax and Majluf, 1990; Himmel, 1992).

Therefore, educational management can be understood as the overall management of an

educational institution in its two essential components: the pedagogical and the commonly
called administrative.

Those who, within this trend, believe that education should be organized as a productive
entity and should aim to achieve optimal results - says Sánchez Moreno (1997) - propose
adopting the following management principles:

 knowledge, as the main wealth-producing resource and as a strategic factor in the new
order of international competition;

 the conception of the organization as a system open to learning;

 the development of "management skills": vision, communication, motivation,

negotiation, decision making and resource allocation;

 beneficiary-centered management;

 the participatory structures of horizontal communication that privilege the creativity and
collective commitment of educational agents;

 continuous improvement as a strategy of permanent change, with the purpose of

providing high quality services that meet the changing demands of the beneficiaries;

 personnel development through increasing qualifications adjusted to the needs of the

organization;

 cooperation-negotiation as a way to increase effectiveness and mutual benefits.

 Knowledge management requires special mention. In effect, what is important is not

the information, what is important is the structuring of the information in terms of
 knowledge and the translation of that assimilation into terms of generative knowledge
that is capable of sniffing out everything that is demanded of us in the future.

Let's look at two positions that complement each other.

Schwen, Kalman, Hara and Kisling work on these epistemological perspectives when
discussing knowledge management:

 Information management: has to do with the management of artificial intelligence,

intranets, the Internet and the construction of information systems.

 People management: has to do with capturing people's know-how or knowledge,

improving individual skills and building competencies.

Kinney, for his part, makes a distinction between two types of management:

 The first identifies and codifies knowledge, which implies that the organization
documents and catalogs the knowledge that individuals possess or any other form of
intellectual capital within the organization. It is carried out through directories or databases
that are accessed by computer or documentary means.

 The second type facilitates the sharing of knowledge within the organization. This can
be achieved via e-mail on the Internet or intranet, through interactive software, but also
through face-to-face exchange.

Therefore, knowledge management facilitates the decision-making process by improving

problem solving; It facilitates the provision of adequate knowledge, when it is needed, in
the precise amount and at the time it is needed, therefore allowing the generation of
solutions during the process and accelerates individual and collective learning.

6. Training and improvement of teachers.

I have left for last a modern educational trend with which I want to conclude this section.
This is what Díez Hochleitner (1996) calls the conviction that the highest priority in any
reform, whether comprehensive or partial, must correspond to the training and
improvement of teachers.

I fully agree with Imbernón (1994), that teacher promotion and training are inseparable.
This means the professional development of teachers in the context of a new professional
culture in which training is not the only element; The incidence of labor, economic,
selection, evaluation, etc. elements is also evident.

We are moving towards the generation of this new culture based on a

"reprofessionalization" of teaching performance based on a dynamic and contextualized
conception that allows us to gain democracy, control and autonomy.

In that culture, the dignity of the teaching profession is a truly fundamental task. It is true
that vocation, dedication and the sense of responsibility are values that are not exercised
or achieved by money or other means, but it is no less true that the State and society have
to recognize the role and socioeconomic status that correspond to professionals. of
Education.
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