Zoology Lab Manual

EXERCISE NO.
1
THE MICROSCOPE
Heidi C. Porquis and Marilou C. Marfil
I. INTRODUCTION
The microscope is one of the basic tools in biology for studying structures that
could not be seen by the naked eye. The first microscopes were light microscopes.
This used the principle of the refraction of light rays in producing enlarged images.
Simple lenses were among the first microscopes. Earliest reports on its use was by
Pliny and later by Leeuwenhoek who fabricated one so well that he was able to
discover bacteria with it.
Many changes and developments have been done to improve the light
microscope. The first of these was the introduction of the compound microscope
which is the type that you will use and study in this laboratory course. Its design
includes two sets of lenses, the ocular, and the objectives on opposite ends of a closed
tube. This was done to overcome the problem of the early microscope which was not
about magnification but about focal distance which would decrease as magnification
increases. This means that if magnification is increased the viewer suffers the
inconvenience of thrusting his eye into the surface of the lens in order to view the
object. More improvements have been made to overcome other problems later
encountered in light microscopy. The phase contrast, the light interference, the dark
field and the confocal microscopes are a few of these.
The electron microscope is also an important breakthrough which uses
electron beams instead of refracted light in producing highly magnified images. The
major problems however of all these new improvements on the microscope are cost
and size. For instance, an electron microscope requires one big room which adds to its
cost of acquisition and maintenance. However recent developments in microfluidics
and optics produced a new concept on design of microscopes. This is known as
Optofluidic microscopy (OFM). In this new concept, the lens is replaced with a metal
coated sensor called Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor (CMOS) etched
with an array of micrometer sized apertures.
II. OBJECTIVES
At the end of the exercise, the students should be able to:
1. identify the parts of the microscope and their functions;
2. demonstrate the proper use and care of the instrument; and
3. compute magnification on biological illustrations.
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III. MATERIALS
Light Microscope Pencil mounted butterfly specimen

Tissue paper Medicine dropper printed letter “a” from newspaper
Scissors Clear plastic ruler Glass slide and Cover slip
IV. PROCEDURE
a. Parts of microscope
(Note to the Student: the light microscope (LM) available to you in this exercise is a
compound microscope intended for student use.)
The parts of the microscope are classified either as optical or mechanical. Locate
these parts which are described as follows:
1. Mechanical Parts- These are the parts which are made of metal and function
to support and adjust the optical parts.
a. Base – the structure that supports the whole weight of the microscope;
may have horse-shoe shape or may just be a rectangular
flatbed.
b. Pillar - a supporting piece which arises from the base and forms a
short column to join the arm.
c. Arm - short curved structure used in holding the instrument
d. Body tube- hollow cylinder which bears the two separate lens
systems, the objectives at the lower end and the eyepiece at the
upper end
e. Draw tube - upper portion of the body tube which bears the eyepiece
f. Revolving nosepiece - structure at the lower end of the body tube
which can be rotated and bears the objectives
g. Dust shield - part above the revolving nosepiece which protects the
objectives from the dust
h. Stage - a square platform where the slide to be examined is placed
(Note the presence of an aperture at the center)
i. Stage clips - found on the stage to hold the slide
j. Diaphragm – found under the stage to regulate the amount of the light
admitted to the specimen. Your microscope may have either of
these two types:
1. Iris – immediately beneath the stage aperture whose opening is
regulated by a lever.
2. Disk- a plate with circular openings of varied diameters
k. Adjustment screw- maybe attached to the upper part of the arm or
pillar. This will move either the body tube or stage in order to get a
clear view of the specimen.
1. Coarse adjustment – produces greater movement (Be careful
when manipulating this screw.)
2. Fine adjustment – produces fine upward or downward
movement.
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2. Optical Parts - These consist chiefly of special type of glass and aligned on
optical axis.
WARNING: DO NOT TOUCH THE LENSES OR GLASS WITH YOUR

HANDS NOR ALLOW THESE TO COME IN CONTACT
WITH STAINS, SHARP OR DIRTY MATERIALS.
a. Mirror- found below the stage and is usually double-faced, one is flat
and the other is concave. For electric microscopes, a built-in light
system is instead present. Note: Electric microscopes should be
switched off when not in use to avoid overheating.
b. Condenser- if present, it is a secondary lens found immediately
beneath the stage to concentrate light rays and is provided with
separate adjustment screw. This maybe absent in the microscope.
c. Ocular or eyepiece- mounted in the draw tube where one peeps into
when viewing the microscope.
d. Objectives- attached to revolving nosepiece.
1. Very low power objective or scanner (may be absent) if present
this is the shortest tube which enables the viewer to see a larger
area of the object. It bears the number 3.5X or 4X.
2. Low power objective- gives a bigger image than the scanner and
more details of the specimens. Its magnification number is 10X.
3. High power objective- longer than the LPO; shows more details of
the specimen than LPO. Its magnification number is 40X or 45X.
4. Oil-immersion objective (may be absent)- if present, this is the
longest objective and gives the highest magnification; immersion
oil is placed in mounting the slide to enable the viewer to see the
object. It magnifies 100X.
Your instructor will let you see few other models of light microscopes available.
Identify differences in these models.
b. Preparing your microscope
Follow these preparatory steps every time you use a microscope.
1. Align the scanner with the aperture by turning the nosepiece. You will
then hear a “click” which means the objective is already set.
2. Align the large opening of the diaphragm with the stage aperture.
3. Look through the eyepiece. Do this with both eyes open (but this you have
to practice). You will then see a circular area called the microscopic field.
Take note also of the tiny rod seen through the eyepiece. This is called the
pointer.
4. Look again through the eyepiece at the same time adjust the mirror until
the microscopic field is lighted. (Do not let the mirror face direct sunlight).
Note: No need to do the step if your microscope has built-in light source.
5. Adjust diaphragm (with your eye on eyepiece) until the microscope field is
bright enough but not glaring.
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c. Preparing a Wet Mount
Materials for microscopic examination are mounted on a clean glass slide
using suitable mounting medium for stability. In a wet mount, a drop of liquid
like water or glycerin is used as a mounting medium for suspending the specimen.
Wet mounts cannot be stored. Aside from stabilizing the specimen, the mounting
medium will also enhance clarity/optical visibility of the structural details in the
specimen. This is in relation to the issue on refractive index. For light microscopy
the lesser the difference between refractive index of the medium and the specimen
the greater is the clarity of the image. To best illustrate this, consider directly
mounting a specimen on a slide. If you examine this under the microscope the
specimen will appear dark. This is because air which is the medium immediately
surrounding the specimen has a much lower refractive index (value of 1)
compared to the many hydrated biology specimens. Follow this step making a
temporary mount of a specimen.
a. With the use of medicine dropper place a drop of water on the slide. The
water here is a mounting medium which helps produce a clear image.
b. Place the newsprint letter “a” in the drop of water.
c. Cover your mount with the cover slip. To do this, hold the cover slip by
the edge. Let one edge touch the glass slide at an angle of about 45°. Then
lower the opposite upper edge carefully so as not to trap bubbles as they
will interfere with your viewing. Air bubbles appear as circular objects
with thick dark outlines. Be sure you do not confuse these with your
specimen.
Note: If your mount begins to dry, you can add a drop of water at the edge
of the cover slip.
d. Place the wet mount on the stage aperture and clip the slide to hold it in
place.
d. Focusing: Getting a clear view of the specimen.

1. Bring down the scanning objective by turning the coarse adjustment screw
while watching from one side of the stage.
2. Look into the ocular. Slowly raise the objective until the letter comes into
focus. The letter you see is called the image. Take note of its position.
Move the slide until the image comes into the center of the microscopic
field while still looking into the eyepiece and without removing the stage
clips.
3. Using the fine adjustment screw bring the image into its sharpest focus.
Try to adjust the opening of the diaphragm to get proper illumination.
This increases clearness of the image.
4. Align the LPO (Follow what you did with scanner in Procedure b).
5. Examine under the LPO. Follows steps 1-3 focusing (Procedure d). Note
the appearance of the image and also if the objectives are parfocal.
6. Watch from one side of the stage while you turn the nosepiece to align the
HPO. See to it that the HPO does not touch the cover slip. (at least 1mm
apart). This prevents breakage of the slide and cover slip and damage to
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the lens. To do this, turn the coarse adjustment screw while still looking
from one side.
7. You are now ready to examine with HPO. Get the sharpest focus using the
fine adjustment screw. NEVER USE THE COARSE ADJUSTMENT
SCREW IN FOCUSING WITH HPO. The reason should be obvious to
you. Note the appearance of the image. DO NOT DISCARD THIS SET
UP. YOU WILL USE THIS IN Procedure E. Align scanner back to the
aperture.
e. Magnification:
Magnification is an important information on biological specimens. Two
methods for computing will be done in this exercise.
1. Magnification of Microscopic Specimens. Theoretically, it is a
product of the magnification power of ocular and magnification power of objective
used. This is called LINEAR OR THEORETICAL MAGNIFICATION.
2. Magnification of Macroscopic Specimens. Make three proportional
drawings of a mounted butterfly (reduced, same size and enlarged) in your
illustration sheet. Compute the magnification index as follows:
L x W of drawing
X=
L x W of object
Where: L = length and W = width

Show your computation beside your drawings.
V. RESULTS AND OBSERVATIONS. Do the required tasks in the Data Sheet.
REFERENCES:
Gray, P. (1958). Handbook of Basic Microtechnique. McGraw-Hill Book Co. USA

Hickman, C. Jr., Roberts, L., Larson, A. & Anson, H. (2017). Laboratory Studies in
Integrated Principles of Zoology. 17th ed. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. USA
Samaniego, L.A., E.P. Leaño, H. C. Porquis and L.D. Obsioma. 2003. Basic
Microscopy and Photomicrography. In: A Manual of Basic Techniques in
Teaching Biology. Unpublished. Department of Biology, Central Mindanao
University.
Yang, C. (2009). Optofluidic microscope shrinks to fit on a chip.
http://images.iop.org/objects/optics/analysis/13/9/4/pdf.pdf
Website:
The importance of mounting medium refractive
index.http://www.microbehunter.com/the-importance-of-mounting-medium-
refractive-index
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Name: Rating:
Laboratory Schedule: Date Performed:
Laboratory Instructor:
DATA SHEET
EXERCISE 1
THE MICROSCOPE
V. RESULTS AND OBSERVATIONS
A. Parts of the Microscope
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
The Compound Microscope
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B. Magnification
1. Microscopic Specimen
X X X
Under scanner Under LPO Under HPO
2. Macroscopic Specimen
X X X
Smaller than the object Same size as the object Bigger than the object
VI. CONCLUSION
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VII. GUIDE QUESTIONS
1. Why do you think the microscope is considered an indispensable instrument in

the study of living things?
2. Using short sentences, list down at least 3 habits/guidelines which you should
develop/ observe in the care and use of the microscope.
a.
b.
c.
3. In light microscopy, what is the role of a mounting medium?
4. Which adjustment knob produces greater movement?
5. What is the position of the image under the microscope?
6. What is the direction of movement of the image as you move the specimen to
the right?
7. If the magnification index of the drawing is less than one, what does this tell
you of the object?
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EXERCISE NO. 2
THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD
Marilou C. Marfil and Evangeline B. Sinamban
I. INTRODUCTION
The scientific method is an organized way of solving a problem. It is a step-

by-step approach consisting of four essential steps namely: (1) Identifying and
defining a problem, (2) Formulating a hypothesis, (3) Testing the hypothesis by
experimentation or making further observations as natural events occur and, (4)
Making logical conclusion.
The scientific method starts when you ask a question about something that you
have observed (how, who, what, where, which and why). Observation is done
through collection of data by gathering observable and measurable evidences. A
hypothesis is an educated guess that explains the tentative solution to the problem. It
is often started to show relationship between cause “If”( do something) and effect
“then” (this will occur). Hypothesis in biology can be tested by conducting
experiments or by making further observation or investigation of available data. Then
a logical conclusion based on the results is made.
This process sometimes involves accepting or rejecting the hypothesis.
Sometimes it requires that the hypothesis should be modified in the light of new
things. Should this be the case, the hypothesis could be tested.
In this exercise, an experiment has been designed to determine the bread
flavor that attracts the most number of ants in a given time.
II. OBJECTIVES
At the end of the exercise, the student should be able to:
1. follow the steps of the scientific method in conducting an investigation;

2. perform an experiment properly and accurately; and
3. write a scientific report for the given problem.
III. MATERIALS
Tap water Celluloid Ruler Bread Knife
25% salt solution 5 pieces plastic cups Medicine Dropper
25% sugar solution 5 pieces plastic spoons Ants
Cooking Oil Graduated Cylinder Record Notebook
Vinegar 15 slices of loaf bread(each measuring 3 cm x 3 cm)
IV. PROCEDURE
1. Choose an area where plenty of ants can be observed.
2. From the 15 slices of bread, prepare 5 groups. (Each group will have 3
slices each slice serve as a replicate).
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3. Moisten loaf bread in group 1 with water (T0); loaf bread in group 2 with 10
ml of 25% salt solution (T1); loaf bread in group 3 with 25% sugar solution
(T2); loaf bread in group 4 with vinegar (T3); and loaf bread in group 5
with cooking oil (T4).
4. Place the flavored bread pieces in an area where ants are present.
5. Observe for one hour and 30 minutes.
6. Count the number of ants visiting the different bread flavors every 30 minutes.
7. Record your data in your record notebook or data sheet.
8. Make a scientific report which includes the following:
a. Statement of the Problem
b. Hypothesis
c. Methodology
d. Results and observations
e. Discussion of Results
f. Conclusion
g. References/ Literature Cited.
REFERENCES:
Hehman, R. (1984). General Biology Laboratory Activities. 6th Edition. Burges s

Publishing Company
Levetin, E. & K. McMahon, (2012). Plants and Society.6th ed. Mc-Graw-Hill. New
York.
Nayd, R. K., J.A. Krueger & K.M Hill .(2014). Biology Organisms and Adaptations.
International ed. Cengage Learning. Canada.
Perez, T.R., M.L.T. Borja, N.C. Lopez & R.T. Mancol.(1994). Laboratory notes and
guide in general botany. Centro Escolar University.
Scientific Method in Southwestern Center for Education and Natural Environment
(SCENE) [On-line] Accessed (20 March 2009). Available from
http://scene.asu.edu/habitat/s_method. html
Starr, C. (2003). Biology: Concepts and Application. 5th Edition. Brookes/Cole.
Wadsworth
Miller, S.A. & Harley J.P. (2016). Zoology. 10th ed. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
USA.
Reece, J. B., Urry, L. A., Cain, M. L. 1., Wasserman, S. A., Minorsky, P. V., Jackson,
R., & Campbell, N. A. (2014). Campbell Biology (Tenth edition.). Boston:
Pearson.
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Name: Rating:
DATA SHEET
EXERCISE NO. 2
THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD
1. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
2. HYPOTHESIS
3 MATERIALS AND METHODS
4 RESULTS/DATA AND OBSERVATION
A. Photographs/illustration of the set-up.
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Number of ants visiting the different bread flavors.
Bread Number of Ants Counted

Flavor 30 minutes 1 hour 1 hour and Total Average
30 minutes Count Per
Flavor
R1 R2 R3 R1 R2 R3 R1 R2 R3
Water
(T0)
25% salt
solution (T1)
25% sugar
solution (T2)
Vinegar
(T3)
Cooking oil
(T4)
Total
Average
Count for the
3 replicates
D. Figure
50
45
40 Legend :
35 T0 – Water
30 T1 – 25% Salt solution

Average
number 25 T2 – 25% Sugar solution
of ants
20 T3 – Vinegar
15
T4 – Cooking oil
10
5
0
T0 T1 T2 T3 T4
Bread Flavors
Bar graph showing the ant counts found in different bread flavors.
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5. DISCUSSION OF RESULTS
6. CONCLUSION
7. LITERATURE CITED/ REFERENCES
VI. GUIDE QUESTIONS
1. What is the importance of experimentation?
2. What is an experimental variable? Name the variables in this experiment.
3. What is the importance of the control set-up in an experiment?
4. Why should you keep a record of your observation?
5. What is the basis for making your conclusion?
6. What bread flavor do ants like to eat and visit? Why?
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EXERCISE NO. 3
MOLECULES OF LIFE
Reggie Y. Dela Cruz, Merced G. Melencion,

Kathleen Grace G. Paraguas and Chris Rey M. Lituañas
I. INTRODUCTION
The cell, as the basic unit of life, contains the four biomolecules –
carbohydrates, lipids, proteins and nucleic acids. Small molecules like
secondary metabolites are also produced by the cell. These molecules are very
important for the survival of the cell. They also differ in their building blocks.
The structure of each molecule is always related to their respective function.
This exercise focuses only on the first three molecules. The presence of
glycogen, sugar, lipids and proteins on given samples will be determined using
simple tests.
II. OBJECTIVES
At the end of the lesson, the learners shall be able to:
a. be familiar of the structure and function of carbohydrates, lipids and
proteins;
b. identify key structural features of example proteins that are important
for their functions; and
c. perform tests to detect the presence of carbohydrates, lipids and
proteins on given samples.
III. MATERIALS
14 test tubes laboratory gown (1) raw fish

stirring rod plastic gloves (2) fresh egg white
test-tube holder distilled water (3) milk
test-tube rack iodine solution (4) beef tallow
medicine droppers Benedict's solution (5) chicken liver
masking tape Biuret reagent (6) animal fat
Pencil newsprint paper (7 ) water
IV. PROCEDURE
A. Structure of Biomolecules
a. CARBOHYDRATES: Draw the chemical structure of the following:
1. glucose
2. fructose
3. glycogen
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b. LIPIDS: Draw the chemical structure of the following:
1. cholesterol
2. glycerol
3. stearic acid
c. PROTEINS: Selecting a Protein in the web: My Favorite Protein!
1. To select an animal related protein, go to www.rcsb.org (RCSB Protein

Data Bank).
2. You can find a special section called “Molecule of the Month”.
3. You can select “By category”, “By Date” and “By Title” to select your
protein.
4. Click on your selected protein.
5. Print the image of your protein and paste here. Describe your protein in
terms of the following: active sites, secondary motifs such as alpha-
helices and beta pleated sheets. Take note also of its function/s.
B. Testing the Presence of Biomolecules
1. Label 7 test tubes at the top edge of tube with the sample to be tested.
Mark the 7th tube with water. Label a second set of 7 test tubes with same
label.
2. Place 10 ml of liquid samples in their corresponding test tubes. For solid
samples, mash the samples in a mortar and pestle and add 10 ml water.
Filter.
Testing for Carbohydrates (GLYCOGEN)
1. Place 10 drops of samples into new properly labelled test tubes.

2. Add 3-4 drops of Lugol‟s or IKI solution to each test tube.
3. Observe and take note of color changes. If the substance in your test tube contains
glycogen, it will turn brown-blue in color when it mixes with the iodine solution.
4. Observe the contents of your test tubes. Record the amount of glycogen present
(0, +, ++, +++, ++++) in your data chart. The food that contains the most
glycogen should be recorded as ++++.
5. Empty, wash, and return each test tube to your test tube rack.
Testing for Carbohydrates (SUGAR)
1. Place 10 drops of each sample into the correct test tube.

2. Add 10 drops of Benedict's solution to each test tube. CAUTION: Benedict‟s
solution is poisonous. Never swallow!
3. Using a test-tube holder, carefully place the test tubes into the hot water bath. Heat
the test tubes for 2 to 3 minutes. CAUTION: Always use a test-tube holder to
handle hot test tubes. Point the open end of a test tube away from yourself and
others.
4. After 2-3 minutes, return the hot test tubes to the test-tube rack. If the substance in
your test tube contains sugar, Benedict's solution will change color. See below:
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Amount of
0 + ++ +++ ++++
Sugar
None Trace Little Moderate Much
Interpretation sugar sugar sugar
blue blue/green green yellow orange/red
Color
5. Observe your test tubes (using white paper as a background). Record the amount
of sugar present in your data table.
6. Empty your test tubes, clean them thoroughly, and return them to the test tube
rack.
Testing for Lipids
1. Use a medicine dropper to put ~1 drop of each sample onto the newsprint.
2. Observe and compare/contrast the translucence each food substance creates on the
newsprint. Record the information, in order of translucence (0, +, ++, +++, ++++)
in your data chart. The food that creates the largest spot (and thus containing the
greatest amount of lipids) should be recorded as ++++.
Testing for Protein
1. Put 10 drops of each sample into the correct test tube using a medicine dropper.
2. Carefully add 10 drops of Biuret reagent to each test tube. CAUTION: Biuret
reagent can burn your skin. Wash off spills and splashes immediately with plenty
of water and inform the teacher should this occur.
3. Observe the contents of each test tube (using white paper as a background). If the
sample contains protein, it will turn a pinkish purple. Record the amount (0, +, ++,
+++, ++++) of protein for each food substance in your data table. The food that
contains the most protein should be recorded as ++++.
4. Empty, clean, and return all materials. Before leaving, wash hands thoroughly.
V. RESULTS AND OBSERVATIONS. Do the required tasks in the Data Sheets.
References
1. Campbell, M.K., Farrell, S.O. McDougal, O.M. (2017). Biochemistry. 9th
Edition. USA: Cengage Learning.
2. Dela Cruz, R.Y., Doblas, G.Z., Marfil, M.C., Porquis, H.C. & Samaniego,
L.G.A. (Eds). (2017). General Biology I. Philippines: CMU Press
3. Hillsborough Community College - Ybor City Campus 1025C Laboratory
Exercise 2: Indicator Tests for Important Nutrients. Retrieved from:
https://www.hccfl.edu/media/571427/3-
indicator%20tests%20for%20important%20nutrients.pdf
4. Karp, Gerald. (2013). Cell Biology 7th edition. John Wiley & Sons (Asia) Pte
Ltd.
5. Urry, L. A., Cain, M. L., Wasserman, S. A., & Minorsky, P. V. (2016).
Campbell biology 11th Edition. Boston: Pearson.
6. www.db.org
7. www.rcsb.org
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Name: Rating:
DATA SHEET
EXERCISE NO. 3
MOLECULES OF LIFE
A. Structure of Biomolecules
a. CARBOHYDRATES
Drawing of structure Function
a. glucose
b. fructose
c. glycogen
b. LIPIDS
Drawing of structure Function
a. cholesterol
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b. glycerol
c. stearic acid
c. PROTEINS: Paste an image of your chosen molecule of the month below. Label.
Description:
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B: Testing the Presence of Biomolecules
Indicate (0, +, ++, +++, ++++) if the biomolecules is/are detected in the sample tested.
Starch Sugar
Food Lipids Protein
(Carbohydrates) (Carbohydrates)
(1) raw fish
(2) fresh egg
white
(3) milk
(4) beef tallow
(5) chicken liver
(6) lard
(7) water
VI. CONCLUSION

1. Compare and contrast:
a. starch and glycogen
b. lard and butter
c. saturated and unsaturated fats
2. Proteins
a. What does your chosen protein do in the cell or outside the cell?
b. Why is your chosen protein important for the survival of a cell

and/or a whole organism?
c. What are the special/unique characteristics of your protein?
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EXERCISE NO. 4
DNA ISOLATION
Reggie Y. Dela Cruz
I. INTRODUCTION
Every living organism is composed of cells. In each cell, the nucleus contains
the chromosomes. Chromosomes are made up of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA),
ribonucleic acid (RNA) and proteins. The DNA makes up the genes responsible for
the trait of the organism. Other than the chromosomes, the mitochondria, responsible
for cellular respiration, also contain DNA.
During DNA isolation, the cells need to be lysed to release the DNA.
Detergents such as sodium dodecyl sulfate are used to break open the cell and nuclear
membranes. Alcohol and salts such as sodium chloride allow the precipitation of the
DNA so that it becomes visible and can be separated from other cellular components
such as proteins, carbohydrates and lipids. In this exercise, the DNA from human
cheek cells and chicken liver will be extracted using materials available in the kitchen.
II. OBJECTIVES
At the end of the exercise, the student should be able to understand the basic
steps in DNA isolation for animal samples.
III. MATERIALS
A. B.
1 tbsp sodium chloride (table salt) 1 g chicken liver per group
1 small sachet liquid detergent 1 Mortar and pestle
100 ml 70% ethanol/isopropanol –chilled 1 100-ml beaker
in the freezer/ice before use
Drinking water 1 15-ml test tube
6 15-ml test tubes(1 per student) Warm water
6 Clean plastic cup (1 per student) 3% salt solution
1 Graduated cylinder Filter paper/strainer/cheese cloth
Microscope
Glass slide/cover slip
Bromthymol blue
Tooth pick
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IV. PROCEDURE
A. Isolating DNA from cheek cells
1. In a clean plastic cup, dissolve 1 tablespoon salt in 30 ml clean drinking water.
This is enough for all group members.
2. Swirl 3 ml of the salt solution in your mouth for 30 seconds. Gargle with
drinking water prior to doing this step. Note: The longer you swirl in your
mouth the salt solution, the more cheek cells will be obtained and the more
DNA you can isolate.
3. Spit the solution into a clean plastic cup.
4. Add two squirts of liquid detergent.
5. Mix gently by swirling.
6. Place 10 ml of ice-cold alcohol in a test tube.
7. Slowly add the mixture in #5 into the test tube with ice-cold alcohol.
8. Observe for whitish precipitate. This is your DNA! If you have isolated much
DNA, it will form strands which can be fished out using the toothpick.
9. You can view the DNA under the microscope. Add a drop of bromthymol
blue. Note the color reaction.
B. Isolation of DNA from chicken liver

1. Finely chop 1 g chicken liver and place in a mortar and pestle or blender.
2. Add 10 ml of warm 3% salt solution while pounding in the mortar.
Alternatively, a blender can be used instead of mortar and pestle.
3. Filter the mixture into a small beaker using cheese cloth or strainer.
4. Add three squirts of liquid detergent. Mix gently by swirling.
5. Fill a test tube with 10 ml ice-cold alcohol.
6. Slowly add the mixture in # 4 into the test tube with alcohol.
7. Observe for white strands. This is the DNA of the chicken liver.
V. RESULTS AND OBSERVATIONS: Do required tasks in the data sheet.

REFERENCES:
Campbell, M.K., Farrell, S.O. McDougal, O.M. (2017). Biochemistry. 9th Edition.
USA: Cengage Learning.
Cheek Cell DNA Extraction. Retrieved August 5, 2010 at
www.basepair.library.umc.edu/FBLM/BASE%20PAIR%20LABS/Genes%20in
%20a%20Bottle.doc
DNA Extraction from Cheek cells. Retrieved August 5, 2010 at www.
biology.arizona.edu/sciconn/lessons2/Vuturo/extraction/extractinfo.htm
Extract your own DNA from Cheek Cells. Retrieved August 5, 2010 at
www.seplessons.org/node/222
Karp, G. (2013). Cell Biology 7th edition. John Wiley & Sons (Asia) Pte Ltd. 832 p.
Urry, L. A., Cain, M. L., Wasserman, S. A., & Minorsky, P. V. (2016). Campbell
Biology 11th Edition. Boston: Pearson.
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Name: Rating:
DATA SHEET
EXERCISE NO. 4
DNA ISOLATION
V. RESULTS AND OBSERVATIONS: Describe the DNA you have isolated.
A. Human cheek cell DNA
A. Chicken liver DNA
VI. CONCLUSION
VII.GUIDE QUESTIONS:
1. What is the function of soap solution?
2. What is the function of ethanol?
3. What is the difference between the DNA and RNA?
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EXERCISE NO. 5
THE CELLS
Reggie Y. Dela Cruz and Glenda Z. Doblas
I. INTRODUCTION
The cell is the basic structural and functional unit of life. It is able to perform
all life processes such as respiration, digestion, excretion, etc. There is also no other
smaller part of a living thing that is capable of growth and reproduction. According to
the cell theory (Schleiden and Schwann, 1839), the following are true of cells:
1. All living things are composed of cells.
2. The cell is the basic unit of life.
3. All cells come from pre-existing cells.
There are two general types of cells: prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.
Prokaryotic cells are found in organisms in Domain Archaea and Bacteria. All
organisms in Domain Eukarya are made up of eukaryotic cells.
II. OBJECTIVES
1. identify the basic parts of the cells; and
2. enumerate the differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells
III. MATERIALS
Compound microscope Petri dish
glass slides and cover slips Curved macaroni
medicine dropper Baby Lima pea
toothpick Blackeye peas
methylene blue solution Corn starch
Microslide films on animal cells Lima bean
(if available)
Microviewer ( if available)
Prepared slides on bacterial cells
IV. PROCEDURE
A. Microscopic Examination of Animal Cells
1. Human cheek cells. Gently scrape the inner lining of your cheek using a clean
toothpick. Dip the toothpick in a drop of water in the slide. Add a very small drop of
methylene blue stain using a clean toothpick. Do not add too much stain or the cell
parts will not be visible. Mix gently and add cover slip.
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Under the microscope, examine the prepared slide under the HPO. Label the
parts of the cell seen.
2. Human sperm cells. Obtain a prepared slide of the human sperm. Draw and label
the parts.
B. Microscopic Examination of Bacterial Cells

1. Obtain prepared slides of mixed and other bacteria.
2. Examine under the microscope. Start examining at the lowest objective, then
shift the objective to HPO. Get the right focus. Place a drop of immersion oil
on top of the cover slip. Then shift the objective to OIO. Obtain the right
focus.
3. Examine one cell. Note the size, shape and arrangement of the cells. Is it
spherical, rod-shaped, or spiral? Draw your observation in the data sheet.
4. Answer questions in the data sheet. What are the distinguishing features of
prokaryotes? What are the parts of a bacterial cell?
C. Modelling a Cell. Each group will be assigned a cell. Create a model of your cell
using the following: (You can be creative and make your model).
• Petri dish (cell wall-edge of dish)

• Curved macaroni (2 put together for nucleus)
• Baby Lima pea (mitochondria)
• Blackeye peas (vacuole)
• Corn starch (cytoplasm)
• Lima bean (chloroplast)
V. RESULTS AND OBSERVATIONS. Answer completely the answer/data sheet.
REFERENCES:
Campbell, M.K., Farrell, S.O. McDougal, O.M. (2017). Biochemistry. 9th Edition.
USA: Cengage Learning.
Dela Cruz, R.Y., Doblas, G.Z., Marfil, M.C., Porquis, H.C. & Samaniego,
L.G.A.(Eds). (2017). General Biology I. Philippines: CMU Press
Karp, Gerald. (2013). Cell Biology 7th edition. John Wiley & Sons (Asia) Pte Ltd.
Urry, L. A., Cain, M. L., Wasserman, S. A.,& Minorsky, P. V.(2016). Campbell
biology 11th Edition. Boston: Pearson.
Me & My Cells : An Introductory Look at Plant & Animal Cells.
http://www.cpalms.org/Public/PreviewResourceLesson/Preview/75800
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Name: Rating:
DATA SHEETS
EXERCISE 5
THE CELLS
A. Human cheek cell
X
B. Sperm cell
C. Bacterial cell
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VI. CONCLUSION
VII. GUIDE QUESTIONS:
1. Define a cell.
2. Differentiate prokaryotic from eukaryotic cells.
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3. Give the function of the following cell parts:
Cell Parts Functions
a. cell wall
b. plasma membrane
c. mitochondrion
d. ribosome
e. lysosome
f. ER
g. chloroplast
h. golgi body
i. nucleus
j. nuclear membrane
k. chromosomes
l. nucleolus
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EXERCISE NO. 6
ANIMAL CELL DIVISION
Glenda Z. Doblas and Heidi C. Porquis
I. INTRODUCTION
Cell division occupies the last process in the cell cycle. After all
preparatory processes in G1, S and G2, the cell undergoing cell division, is now
passing genetic information to the next generation of cells called daughter
cells. In the development of multicellular organisms, the zygote, generally
having two sets of chromosomes (2n), is the starting point.
There are two main types of cell divisions namely mitosis and meiosis.
This classification is based on how the genetic information is distributed into
the daughter cells. As a recall, please take note that in eukaryotic cells, the
genetic information (DNA) in the cell itself is already distributed into specific
chromosomes where the DNA is stabilized by proteins particularly histones. In
these cells, the structural development of these chromosomes begins during the
S phase of the cell cycle with DNA replication. And when the cell begins to
divide, these chromosomes appear at prophase as granular to threadlike, double
stranded structures. These strands are called sister chromatids which continues
to thicken until their fully contracted state at metaphase. At metaphase, these
double stranded chromosomes are on the equatorial region of the spindle. And
they can be easily counted if the cells during slide preparation are subjected to
special procedures to spread the chromosomes. In counting, each double
stranded structure is counted as one chromosome. This allows estimate of
chromosome number of the species. However, to do this one has to statistically
establish the number by taking the modal count for several cells.
Mitosis is the division that keeps chromosome number, hence the
genetic information/DNA, constant in all generation of cells in multicellular
organisms beginning at the zygote. This is accomplished, during anaphase
where the two strands/sister chromatids are pulled apart by the spindle fibers
earlier formed at the G2 phase of the cell cycle. The separated chromatids, now
individual chromosomes are continually pulled toward the spindle poles during
the final mitotic stage called telophase. As this happens partitioning of cell‟s
cytoplasm (cytokinesis) occurs. In animal cells, this is by way of the cleavage
furrow. As a result, two daughter cells are formed. These daughter cells carry
not only the same number but also the same kind of chromosomes reflected in
the zygote. Theoretically this means also that every detail in the quantity and
quality of the genetic information in the zygote is maintained in every
generation of cells during the development of a multicellular organism.
In the post embryonic development, mitotic cell division is needed for
growth and for repair and maintenance. Not all cells in the multicellular
organism can divide mitotically. Differentiated cells particularly those no
longer with nucleus cannot divide. Mature human red blood cells are examples.
Moreover, differentiated cells like muscle and nerve cells are focused on
certain specialized functions hence, their mitotic activity is genetically silenced.
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Some primordial cells in the germline divide by meiosis. This division
is needed in the formation of gametes such as sperm or egg cells which are
haploid cells (n) or cells having only one set of chromosomes. Meiosis differs
from mitosis in certain aspects. The first is that in meiosis, the cell undergoes
two main divisions: 1) The reductional division (Meiosis I) results to the
reduction of the original diploid chromosome number (2n) of the zygote/parent
cell into a haploid (n) condition in two daughter cells. 2) This is followed by
the equational division (Meiosis II) in which haploid (n) cells emerging from
Meiosis I divides mitotically resulting to a total of four daughter cells still
having haploid (n) condition.
The second is that in meiosis, there is reshuffling of parental genes
through crossing over at Meiosis I. These parental genes were transmitted to
the organism during zygote formation at fertilization. The reshuffling of the
original parental gene combination results in genetic variability among
daughter cells of meiosis. The third is that in multicellular organisms, meiosis
takes place only in specialized primordial cells of the germinal tissues testes
and ovary in animals.
II. OBJECTIVES
At the end of the exercise, the students should be able to

a. identify the different stages of mitosis in animal cells;
b. compute mitotic index;
c. prepare slide of grasshopper testis; and
d. identify the different stages of meiosis in animal cells.
III. Materials/Equipment
Prepared slides: whitefish blastula, grasshopper testis
Microscope
Slides and cover slips
Petri dish or watch glass
Reagents:
insect saline solution (7.5g NaCl in 1 liter distilled water)
glacial acetic acid-alcohol (25 ml glacial acetic acid in 75 ml ethyl alcohol)
aceto-orcein
IV. PROCEDURE
A. Animal Mitosis
1. Examine prepared slides of whitefish blastula/embryo. Start at the 4x
or 10x. Look for individual cells. Shift the objective to HPO or OIO.
Describe the shape of the cells and size of the nucleus.
Look for the following stages. Photograph and illustrate the
different stages in the data sheet. Label your drawings. Indicate the
number of chromosomes in each stage.
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a. Interphase
This is not a stage of mitosis but a very important stage of the
cell cycle. This is a stage wherein the cells are not dividing but are
actively preparing for the subsequent cell division. Proteins are
synthesized. The cell increases in size. Cellular organelles such as
centrioles begin to duplicate. The DNA replicates and chromosomes
duplicate. Each duplicated chromosome consists of two sister
chromatids.
Examine for cells where the nuclear membrane is still intact.
The nucleolus maybe seen as an enlarged dark spot. The chromosomes
are not visible since the chromatin material have not yet condensed.
Draw and label the nuclear membrane, nucleolus, chromatin and cell
membrane.
b. Prophase
This is the first stage in mitosis. The chromosomes, which are
made up of two sister chromatids, start to be visible because the
chromatin materials condense and shorten to form long, coiled
threadlike chromosomes. At the end of this stage, shortly before
metaphase, the chromosomes have become short and thick and the
nuclear membrane and nucleolus disintegrate. The centrioles start to
form the mitotic spindle apparatus composed of microtubules. Draw
and label the chromosomes and cell membrane.
c. Metaphase
This can be easily identified by the chromosomes aligned at the
equatorial plate. The nuclear membrane and nucleolus are no longer
visible. The spindle fibers maybe seen in some cells depending on the
light intensity. Draw and label the chromosomes, spindle fibers and
cell membrane.
d. Anaphase
The sister chromatids separate in this stage and migrate towards
opposite poles. Once separated, each chromatid is termed a
chromosome. Draw and label the chromosomes, spindle fibers and cell
membrane.
e. Telophase
This stage marks the end of karyokinesis and the start of
cytokinesis. The chromosomes have reached the poles. The nuclear
membrane and nucleolus are reconstructed. Cell furrow is formed
dividing the cell into two daughter cells, each with its own nucleus and
cytoplasm.
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2. Count 100 cells and identify the stages (prophase, metaphase,
anaphase, telophase). Determine the mitotic index using the formula
below. See data sheet.
Mitotic index (%) = (number of cells in mitosis / total number
of cells counted) x 100
B. Preparation of grasshopper testis for meiosis

1. Look for male grasshopper. Males are usually smaller than females.
Anaesthetize with ethyl acetate.
2. Place in a dish containing insect saline solution (7.5g NaCl in 1 liter
distilled water) throughout the dissection process.
3. While in saline solution, examine the body segments in the dorsal side.
Make a vertical cut in segment 5 or 6 to late the testes. The testis is the
yellow-orange structure that leaves from the white tubules.
4. Fix the testis with acetic acid-alcohol (25 ml glacial acetic acid in 75
ml ethyl alcohol).
5. Place 2-3 tubules of testes in a glass slide. Add few drops of aceto-
orcein stain. Place a cover slip over the tubules and wrap with filter
paper.
6. Warm the wrapped slide in a hot plate for 10 seconds.
7. Squash the testes by pressing the cover slip with the thumb.
8. Examine under the microscope.
C. Animal Meiosis
1. Examine prepared slide of grasshopper testis showing meiosis.
2. Focus on one seminiferous tubule and locate the basal lamina that
encloses the tubule. Adhering to the basal lamina are the
spermatogonia which are mitotically active. There are cells, the Sertoli
cells that extend from the basal lamina to the lumen.
3. Next to the spermatogonia are the primary spermatocytes. These cells
undergo meiosis 1. Identify the following stages.
a. Interphase – The cell in this stage is not yet dividing but is actively
preparing for cell division. There is protein synthesis, DNA
replication, chromosome duplication and cell growth. Look for
cells in which the nucleus shows darkly stained nucleolus and well-
defined nuclear membrane. The chromosomes appear are as long
fine threads and indistinguishable under the microscope since the
chromatin material have not yet condensed. Draw an interphase
cell and label the parts.
b. Prophase 1 – This is characterized by synapsis or pairing of the
homologous chromosomes to form a tetrad and allows crossing-
over or exchange of genetic material between homologous
chromosomes. The nuclear membrane and nucleolus start to
disintegrate. There is also formation of the mitotic apparatus. This
stage is further divided into 5 stages.
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c. Metaphase 1 – This is characterized by alignment of tetrads
(homologous chromosomes) at the equatorial plate..
d. Anaphase1 – The homologous chromosomes separate and move to
opposite poles.
e. Telophase 1 – The homologue reaches the poles. Nuclei and
nucleoli are reconstructed. A cell furrow is formed, dividing the
cell into two, each having its own nucleus and cytoplasm.
4. Next to the spermatocytes are the much smaller secondary
spermatocytes. These cells undergo meiosis 2. Look for the following
stages.
a. Prophase 2 – same as prophase in mitosis
b. Metaphase 2 – same as metaphase in mitosis
c. Anaphase 2 – same as anaphase in mitosis
d. Telophase 2 – same as telophase in mitosis
5. Near the lumen and next to the secondary spermatocytes are the
spermatids. These are small cells with darkly stained nucleus. These
cells mature into spermatozoa or sperm cells which are either
embedded in the Sertoli cells or released to the lumen.
References:
Enger, E., & Ross, F. C. (1999). Laboratory Manual to Accompany Concepts in

Biology. McGraw-Hill Science/Engineering/Math.
Integrated Principles of Zoology. 17th ed. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. USA
USA.
Pearson.
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Name: Rating:
DATA SHEETS
EXERCISE NO. 6
ANIMAL CELL DIVISION
1. Paste your photograph of the whitefish blastula showing interphase and the
various stages of mitosis.
2. Interphase and stages of mitosis. Draw and label parts.
Interphase Prophase Metaphase
Anaphase Telophase
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3. Mitotic index. Please check appropriate stage observed in the cell. Use
additional sheet.
Cell Interphase Prophase Metaphase Anaphase Telophase Total

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Mitotic index (%) = (number of cells in mitosis / total number of cells

counted) x 100
4. Paste your photograph of the grasshopper testis showing interphase and the
various stages of meiosis.
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5. Interphase and stages of meiosis. Draw and label parts.
Interphase Prophase 1 Metaphase 1
Anaphase 1 Telophase 1 Prophase 2
Metaphase 2 Anaphase 2 Telophase 2
VI. CONCLUSION

1. What happens during:
a. cytokinesis
b. karyokinesis
c. G1
d. S phase
e. G2
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2. Indicate the number of chromosomes.
Number of chromosomes per cell
A. Coregonus (Whitefish) blastula
Interphase
Prophase
Metaphase
Anaphase
Telophase
B. Grasshopper testis
Interphase
Prophase 1
Metaphase 1
Anaphase 1
Telophase 1
Prophase 2
Metaphase 2
Anaphase 2
Telophase 2
3. Compare mitosis in animal and plant cells.
Animal Mitosis Plant Mitosis

Centrosome
Aster
Furrowing of cytoplasm
4. Compare mitosis and meiosis.
Mitosis Meiosis
Number of division per cycle
Number of daughter cells
Chromosome number
Cell type undergoing division
Synapsis and crossing over
Are daughter cells identical? (Yes

or No)
Role in the animal body
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EXERCISE NO. 7
ANIMAL TISSUES
Reggie Y. Dela Cruz, Lorelie Gloria A. Samaniego,

Marilou C. Marfil, and Zeus S. Elumba
I. INTRODUCTION
In multicellular organisms, the cells with the same structure are arranged into
groups that function collectively as tissues. The cells are held together by a sticky
extracellular matrix. A number of tissues can combine to form an organ.
There are four major types of animal tissues: epithelial, connective, muscular
and nervous tissues.
II. OBJECTIVES

3. prepare slides of animal cells;
4. identify parts of the animal cells;
5. identify the different kinds of tissues in animals; and
6. determine the characteristic features of the different animal tissues
III. MATERIALS
Compound microscope Prepared slides:

Microslide films of animal tissues - human/frog blood smear
Microviewer - intestine x.s.
glass slides and cover slips -skeletal, cardiac, & smooth muscles
medicine dropper -nerve
toothpick -bone
methylene blue solution -cartilage
-adipose tissue
IV. PROCEDURE
A. Animal Cells
Using a clean toothpick, gently scrape the inner lining of your cheek. In a
glass slide, place 2 drops of distilled or tap water. Dip the toothpick in the water in the
slide. Add a small drop of methylene blue solution. Mix gently and add cover slip.
Under the microscope, examine the prepared slide under the scanner, LPO and
HPO. Label the parts of the cell seen using the different objectives.
B. Animal Tissues
Animal tissues are classified into four primary types. These are epithelial,
connective, muscular and nervous tissues.
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a. Epithelial Tissue – This tissue covers external body surfaces and lines body
cavities. The cells are compact and form a continuous layer or sheet; hence, it
protects the animal from infection, injury, and drying out. The three types of
epithelial tissue are squamous, cuboidal and columnar. Each type can be simple
(one cell thick) or stratified (2 or more cell layers thick).
1. Squamous Epithelium: The cells in the inner cheek lining you examined
in Part A compose a stratified squamous epithelium.
2. Columnar Epithelium: Examine a prepared slide of a x-section of the
intestine. Locate the innermost layer which is composed of tall and
narrow cells. This is a simple columnar epithelium. Identify the plasma
membrane, cytoplasm and nucleus. Draw representative cells of columnar
epithelium.
3. Cuboidal Epithelium: Obtain a prepared slide of kidney or liver tissue.
Look for cube-shaped cells and draw them.
b. Connective Tissue: A connective tissue supports and joins the body parts
together. It is composed of cells surrounded by a large quantity of intercellular
matrix. The main types of connective tissues are connective tissue proper,
cartilage, bone, adipose and blood.
Obtain a slide of human/frog blood. Examine under the HPO and identify the
numerous red blood cells and less numerous but larger WBC. Draw some blood
cells.
Examine also bone, cartilage and adipose tissues. Draw some representative
cells.
c. Muscular Tissue: This is a contractile tissue composed of cells called muscle

fibers. It is responsible for the movement of the different body parts. The three
types of muscles are skeletal (attached to the bones of the skeleton), cardiac (found
only in the heart), and smooth (makes up the walls of hollow internal organs, such
as the stomach, intestine, and blood vessels).
Study and compare prepared slides of the three types of muscle tissue. Draw
and label the parts visible.
d. Nervous Tissue: This is found in the brain, spinal cord, and nerves. It is composed
of two types of cells: neurons (transmit messages) and neuroglia (protects and
assists the neurons).
Examine a microslide film of a neuron. Draw and identify the parts.
REFERENCES:
Urry, L. A., Cain, M. L., Wasserman, S. A.,& Minorsky, P. V.(2016). Campbell
Holtzclaw, T.K. The Biology Place. http://www.phschool.com. Pearson education.
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Name: Rating:
DATA SHEETS
EXERCISE 7
ANIMAL TISSUES
Draw and label.
A. Epithelial Tissues
X X
Squamous Epithelium Columnar Epithelium
Cuboidal Epithelium
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B. Connective Tissues
X X
Blood Bone
X X
Cartilage Adipose
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C. Muscular Tissues
X X
Skeletal Muscle Tissue Smooth Muscle Tissue
Cardiac Muscle Tissue
D. Nervous Tissues
X
Neuron
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VI. CONCLUSION
VII. GUIDE QUESTIONS:
1. What is a tissue?
2. What is the difference between epithelial and connective tissues in terms of the
arrangement of cells? in terms of function? in terms of location. Fill the table
below.
Specific locations or
Type of Animal Tissue Functions
specific examples
A. Epithelial
1. squamous
2. columnar
3. cuboidal
B. Connective
1. Blood
2. Bone
3. Cartilage
4. Adipose
C. Muscular
1. Skeletal
2. Smooth
3. Cardiac
D. Nervous
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EXERCISE NO. 8
EXTERNAL ANATOMY OF THE FROG
Lorelie Gloria A. Samaniego
I. INTRODUCTION
The frog is the most commonly used representative to study the basic body
organization of a vertebrate organism but a toad can also be used. Frogs and toads
belong to Phylum Chordata, Subphylum Vertebrata, and Class Amphibia. The body is
divided into two regions: the axial and appendicular regions. The axial region
includes the head and the trunk while the appendicular region consists of the limbs.
The head is broad and flat and has no distinct neck. The trunk is elongated and
slightly cylindrical and tail is absent in the adult stage. The hindlimbs are powerful
and highly developed.
II. OBJECTIVE
At the end of the exercise, the students should be able to locate and identify
the principal external features of a frog/toad.
III. MATERIALS
Live frog/toad Surgical gloves

Dissecting instruments Laboratory gown
Dissecting tray/pan 95% ethanol
Large jar Cotton/Paper towels
IV. PROCEDURE
Anaesthetize the frog (a toad may also be used) by placing it in large jar with
cotton or paper towel soaked in 95% ethanol. The jar should be big enough to contain
the frog/toad and the wet cotton/paper towel. Cover the jar tightly and wait until the
frog becomes frail or limp. The frog is now ready for observation. Place the frog in a
dissecting tray or pan. If the frog shows signs of recovery during the observation, put
it back into the jar until it becomes limp again.
Examine the broad, flat head. Note the triangular-shaped snout at its anterior
end. It has two small openings at the tip, the nostrils or external nares. Behind the
nares are the two conspicuous eyes bordered by a fleshy lower eyelid and a less
prominent upper eyelid. Closely attached to the front of the eyeball is a third,
transparent inner eyelid, the nictitating membrane. This membrane helps keep the
eye moist while the frog is on land and helps protect the eye from abrasion when
under water. Posterior to the eyes are the circular tympanic membranes.
The anterior half of the trunk is the thoracic or chest region. In toads, it is
here where the parotoid or poison glands are found. The posterior half is the
abdominal or lumbar region. An opening at the posterior end between the point of
origin of the legs is the anus.
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Examine the short, anterior appendage which is the forelimb. It is divided into
a proximal upper arm, a middle forearm, the wrist or carpus, and a distal manus or
hand with fingers or digits. The long posterior appendage is the hindlimb which
includes the thigh (the 1st segment attached to the trunk), the shank, the tarsus or
ankle, pes or foot, and the toes or digits. On the inner side of the foot is the prehallux
or carcar, which is a rudiment of a missing toe. It can be felt near the hallux
(corresponds to the big toe of man). Connecting most of the length of the toes is a
membranous structure, the web, used for swimming.
V. RESULTS AND OBSERVATIONS: Do completely the tasks in the Data Sheet.
References:
Adams, B.J. & Crawley, J.L. (2013). Van de Graaf’s Photographic Atlas for the
Zoology Laboratory. 7th ed. Morton Publishing Company.
Campbell, N.A., Reece, J.B., Urry, L.A., Cain, M.L., Wasserman, S.A., Minorsky,
P.V. & Jackson, R.B. (2008). Biology. 8th ed. The Benjamin Cummings
Publishing Co., Inc.
Clegg, C. J. (2000). Introduction to Advanced Biology. John Murray (Publishers) Ltd.
London.
Dela Cruz, R.Y., Marfil, M.C., Porquis, H.C. & Samaniego, L.G.A. (Eds.). (2015).
General Biology Laboratoty Manual. 3rd ed. CMU-Instructional Material
Development Center, CMU, Musuan, Bukidnon.
Laboratory Manual in Biology 15 (Fundamentals of Biology). CMU-
Instructional Material Development Center, CMU, Musuan, Bukidnon.
Enger, E.D., Ross, F.C. & Bailey, D. (2005). Concepts in Biology. 11th ed. McGraw-
Hill Companies, Inc. USA.
Gunstream, S.E., Benson, H.J., Talaro, A. & Talaro, K.P. (2005). Anatomy and
Physiology Laboratory Textbook, Essentials Version. 3rd ed. McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc. USA.
Laraga, S.H., Buenavista, D.P., Opiso, J.G. & Samaniego, L.G.A. (2013). Animal
Physiology Laboratory Manual. CMU-Instructional Material Development
Center, CMU, Musuan, Bukidnon.
Lytle, C.F. (2000). General Zoology Laboratory Guide. 13th edition. McGraw-Hill
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Name: Rating:
Lab. Schedule: Date Performed:
Lab. Instructor:
DATA SHEET
EXERCISE NO.8
EXTERNAL ANATOMY OF THE FROG
V. RESULTS AND OBSERVATIONS: Identify the external parts of a frog.
d.
a.
e.
b.
f.
c.
g.
h.
VI. GUIDE QUESTIONS
1. How do you distinguish:

a. a toad from a frog?
b. a male from a female frog?
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EXERCISE NO. 9
ANIMAL ORGANS AND ORGAN SYSTEMS:
THE INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM
Kathleen Grace S. Paraguas
I. INTRODUCTION
The integumentary system is the largest and one among the most complex
organ system consisting of the skin and its derivatives. It functions as the body‟s first
line of defense by preventing harmful substances and pathogens from entering the
body. It regulates body temperature and serves as insulating structures that trap heat
within the body. Further, it houses different sensory receptors giving the ability to feel
pressure, temperature and pain (Shier, 2007; Solomon, 2008). The outer covering of
the body is referred to as the integument. It includes the skin and its associated
structures such as the hair, setae, scales, feathers, and horns.
II. OBJECTIVES
At the end of the exercise, the students shall be able to:
1. determine the structure of the layers of the human skin;
2. determine the structure of a human hair;
3. identify sweat gland and its distribution; and
4. enumerate the types of skin derivatives and its function among different
animals.
III. MATERIALS
Microscope Prepared Slide of a Human Skin
Glass slide Frog and Toad
Cover slip Hair samples
Dropper Dissecting set
IV. PROCEDURE
a. Pithing (BSL Frog Lessons, 2001)
a. Firmly hold the frog/toad in your left hand and gently bend its head with
your forefinger to expose the non-bony gap between its first vertebra and the
occipital region of its cranium.
b. Forcefully insert the pithing rod into the cranial vault and move it from side
to side to destroy the brain. Also sever the spinal cord by turning the
dissecting rod around the vertebral canal.
c. Test for reflexes by touching its eyelid and pinching its leg. There will be no
response if pithing is successful.
b. Gross Anatomy Examination
Frog
1. Put and pin the frog/toad dorsally on a dissecting pan.
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2. Carefully examine the skin. Note the presence of the parotid glands in frogs
and toad. Is exoskeleton (scales, hairs, claws, etc) present? Is it moist and
slimy?
3. Compare the ventral and dorsal surface of the skin. Which is darkly
pigmented and slightly thicker?
Human Skin
4. Using a hand magnifier, observe the skin of your hand and forearm. Note the
distribution of hairs.
5. Compare your observations with your frog and toad specimens.
6. Draw and label your observations.
c. Microscopic Examination of the Skin
Examine a prepared slide of Human and frog skin (x/s). Observe the different
layers and cell components. Note the presence of the pigment-producing
cells, or melanocytes located among the deeper layers of the epidermal cells.
Draw and label your observations. Locate the following:
1. Epidermis – the outermost, thinner, stratified layer of the skin. In
humans, this is divided into several layers namely stratum corneum,
stratum lucidum, stratum granulosum, stratum spinosum and stratum
germinativum. In frogs, only stratum corneum and stratum
germinativum are prominent.
2. Dermis – the true skin and located beneath the epidermis. In humans,
it contains tough connective tissue, blood vessels, nerves, smooth
muscles, hair follicles, sweat and sebaceous glands. Are hair follicles
and glands present in the frog skin? Deeper down the dermis is the
subcutaneous tissue or hypodermis containing fats and connective
tissue.
d. Microscopic Examination of the Hair

a. Obtain hair sample from the head of two people of different hair types by
gently plucking from the root. Example: two different NATURAL colors
and two different textures.
b. Make a WET MOUNT of the hair samples and examine under the
microscope.
c. Observe the tip of the hair, a portion of the shaft and the root. Note the scale-
like parts that make up the shaft.
d. Make a cross section of each hair samples and examine under the
microscope.
e. Draw and label your observations.
e. Vertebrate Integuments
Identify the different types of integument present among vertebrates.
Complete the table provided in your answer sheet.
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V. RESULTS AND OBSERVATIONS. Do completely the required tasks in the
Data Sheet.
References:
Chanco, C.R & Dela Paz, R.M. (1992). General Zoology Laboratory Manual. The
Chanco-Buelo Enterprise, Pasay City, Metro Manila
Luker, H., & Luker, A., (1971). Laboratory Exercises in Zoology. Butterworth & Co
(Publishers) Ltd. Curity Avenue, Toronto Canada
Martin, T.R., Shier, D., Butler, J., & Lewis, R. (2003). Human Anatomy and
Physiology Laboratory Manual. William C. Brown Publishing
Shier, D., Butler, J., & Lewis, R. (2007). Hole‟s Human Anatomy and Physiology
(11th ed.). McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Solomon, E., Berg, L., & Martin, D. (2008). Biology (8th ed.). Thomson Higher
Education, Davis Drive, Belmont, California, USA
The Integuments and its derivatives. Retrieved from
http://www.zoology.ubc.ca/~millen/vertebrate/Bio204_Labs/Lab_2 Integument
..html
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Name: Date Performed:
Lab. Schedule: Group No.:
Lab. Instructor:
DATA SHEET
EXERCISE NO. 9
THE INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM

A. Gross Anatomy of the Skin
X
Frog
X
Toad
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X
Human Skin
Differentiate the specimens examined by completing the table below.
Morphological characteristics of the specimens examined:
SKIN
Characteristics
Toad Frog Human
Texture (smooth or rough)
Wet, moist or dry
Presence of verrucae (warts)
Presence of coni (pointed appearance)
Integumentary structures present
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B. Microscopic Examination of the Skin. Draw and label.
C. Microscopic Examination of the Hair. Draw and label.
X
Hair Sample 1
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X
Hair Sample 2
D. Vertebrate Integuments
List all possible integuments that can be observed in the following vertebrates.
Integumentary structures among vertebrates.

INTEGUMENTS
VERTEBRATE
TYPE FUNCTION
Snakes
Birds
Turtles
Fishes
Whales
Ungulates
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VI. CONCLUSION

1. What is the importance of integuments in the body? Site examples.
2. Describe the components of human integumentary system and their basic

function.
3. Explain how your skin on your palm differs from the skin of your forearm.
4. Explain and describe the differences of the type and distribution of hair on
your palm, anterior portion and posterior portion of your forearm.
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EXERCISE NO. 10
THE SKELETAL SYSTEM
I. INTRODUCTION
The skeleton is composed primarily of bone and cartilage. It includes any

hardened portion of the body. As such, it supports the various parts of the body,
protects the soft and delicate organs, provides surfaces for attachment of skeletal
muscles, and serves as leverage for locomotion.
II. OBJECTIVE
At the end of the exercise, the students should be able to identify the bones
that make up the frog‟s skeleton.
III. MATERIALS
Frog or Toad skeleton Lab gown
IV. PROCEDURE
The skeleton of the frog is organized into two basic divisions: the axial
skeleton and the appendicular skeleton. Obtain a frog/toad‟s skeleton from the
stockroom. Examine and locate the following parts.
A. Axial skeleton – This includes the bones that make up the main axis of the body.
These are:
1. The Skull – This is the anterior part of the axial skeleton and houses the brain
and the sense organs. On the dorsal side of the skull, identify the following
bones:
a. premaxilla – a V-shaped teeth-bearing bone
b. nasals – a triangular pair of bones
c. fronto-parietal – a pair of bones united by a suture
d. sphenethmoid – a cartilage bone found at the anterior part of the braincase.
It is between and partly concealed by the nasals and the fronto-parietal
e. prootics – join the squamosal to the fronto-parietal and occipital bones
f. squamosals – a pair of hammer-shaped bone
On the ventral side of the skull, the following bones can be seen:
a. vomers – corresponds to the nasals dorsally. It is a pair of flat, triangular
bones and bears the vomerine teeth
b. palatines – a pair of irregular bones at the front tips of the fronto-parietal
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c. parasphenoid – a dagger-shaped median bone forming the floor of the
braincase
d. pterygoids – a pair of tri-radiate bones. At the median side, these are in
contact with the base of the parasphenoid
The lower jaw is composed of paired bones which are divided into three
parts. These are:
a. mentomekelian – a small anterior bone
b. dentary – the middle portion
c. angulo-splenial – the posterior part of the lower jaw
2. The Vertebral Column
There are ten vertebrae making up the vertebral column of the frog/toad. The
atlas is the first vertebra and articulates with the base of the skull. It is the only
cervical vertebra in the frog/toad and has no transverse processes. Vertebrae 2 to 8 are
more or less similar and are called the typical vertebrae. The 9th vertebra has two long
transverse processes. This is the sacral vertebra (sacrum). The 10th vertebra is the
urostyle which is a long, slender triangular bone with a dorsal keel.
Examine a typical vertebra. It is composed of
a. centrum - the body of the vertebra

b. neural arch - arise dorsally from the centrum
c. neural canal - the canal at the center of the centrum
d. neural spine - short dorsal projection from the neural arch
e. transverse processes - pair of long lateral projection
f. zygopophyses - articular surfaces or facets at the anterior and posterior end of
each vertebra
3. The Sternum – the breastbone. This is made up of the
a. episternum - the anterior rounded cartilage

b. omosternum - below the episternum. It is bony and inverted Y-shaped
c. mesosternum - a bony part posterior to the epicoracoid cartilages
d. xiphisternum - the posterior terminal cartilage
B. Appendicular Skeleton – This includes the bones of the appendages and the
girdles supporting them.
1. The Pectoral Girdle and Forelimbs
The pectoral girdle supports the forelimb. It is composed of the following:
a. Suprascapular - a wide, flat bone at the dorsal part

b. Scapula - articulates with the suprascapula and has a concavity, the glenoid
fossa, where the head of the humerus fits
c. Clavicle - an anterior slender bone ventro-medial to the scapula; and
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d. Coracoid - a posterior bone and opposite the clavicle. It forms the remaining
part of the glenoid fossa. The two halves of the pectoral girdle are joined by
the epicoracoid cartilages.
The forelimb has the following bones:
a. Humerus - the bone of the upper arm wherein its bones of the wrist composed
of six short bones;
b. Metacarpals - the palm bone
c. digits or the phalanges - the bones of the fingers
2. The Pelvic Girdle and Hindlimbs
The pelvic girdle is a set of three pairs of bones supporting the hindlimb. It is
composed of the ilium, ischium and pubis.
a. ilium - is a long bone that articulates with the transverse process of the sacrum
b. ischium - is a short posterior bone on the dorsal side
c. pubis - the triangular bone on the ventral side which is wedged between the
ilium and ischium
d. acetabulum - a cuplike depression found at the junction of the three bones
e. pubic symphysis - joins the two halves of the pelvic girdle at the median
ventral portion
The bones of the hindlimb include the following:
a. femur - the bone of the thigh; the head fits into the acetabulum
b. tibiofibular - the fused bone of the shank
c. tarsals - the bones of the ankle and composed of two large bones, the outer
calcaneum or fibulare and the inner astragalus or tibiale
d. metatarsals - five long bones of the sole
e. phalanges - the bones of the toes or digits
References:
London.
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Integrated Principles of Zoology. 17th ed. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. USA.
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Name: Rating:
DATA SHEET
EXERCISE NO. 10
THE SKELETAL SYSTEM
V. RESULTS AND OBSERVATIONS: Answer completely.
Identify the bones marked with letters.
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
h.
i.
j.
k.
l.
m.
n.
o.
p.
q.
r.
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VI. CONCLUSION

1. Differentiate a cartilage from a bone.
2. How does a tendon differ from a ligament?
3. What are the types of skeleton? Characterize each.
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EXERCISE NO. 11
THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM
Benjo A. Logramonte and Glenda Z. Doblas
I. INTRODUCTION
The muscular system is concerned with the movement of an organism. Muscles
attached to the bones are skeletal muscles, those that make up the heart is cardiac, and
those making up the walls of internal organs and blood vessels are smooth muscles.
Movement can be voluntary or involuntary.
II. OBJECTIVES
1. distinguish the muscles of a toad; and
2. identify the movements of these muscles.
III. MATERIALS
Live toad Surgical gloves
Dissecting pan Dissecting set (needle, scissors, scalpel, etc)
Lab gown Face mask
IV. PROCEDURE
To paralyze the toad, you can either pith or anaesthetize the toad. To pith, insert a
dissecting needle in the foramen magnum found at the back of the head. To test if the
pithing is successful, poke the eye of the toad using a blunt probe or try to test for
other reflex actions. To anaesthetize, 95% ethanol can be used. If you feel that these
procedures are very hard to follow, don‟t hesitate to ask assistance from your
instructor.
Lay the toad with its dorsal side against the dissecting pan. Pin the toad by
extending its appendages using long pins. To expose the muscles of the toad, loosen
the skin by carefully lifting the skin of the abdomen using forceps. Make an incision
from the posterior part of the abdomen up to the chest area. Make lateral cuts at both
ends and pin the loose skin in the dissecting pan. This should be done with care as not
to damage the blood vessels and muscles underneath the skin. Examine the muscles
below:
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A. Muscles of the thigh (dorsal)
1. Triceps femoris – the largest and most anterior muscle of the thigh. It has three
heads: the dorsal vastus externus, the middle rectus femoris anticus, and the ventral
vastus internus
2. Gluteus – a small and thick muscle anterior to the vastus externus and medial to the
rectus femoris anticus.
3. Biceps femoris – a slender muscle posterior to the triceps partly covered at the
proximal end by vastus externus
4. Semimembranosus – a large muscle immediately posterior to the biceps femoris
and notable for its oblique markings
5. Piriformis – a slender short muscle located between the vastus externus and
semimembranosus
B. Muscles of the thigh (ventral)

6. Sartorius – the flat muscle that runs obliquely downward
7. Adductor longus – a flat muscle underneath the sartorius. Cut the sartorius to see
this muscle.
8. Adductor magnus – immediately posterior to the adductor is a thick triangular
muscle
9. Gracilis major – immediately posterior to the adductor magnus is a large muscle
with oblique markings along its belly
10. Gracilis minor – at the posterior margin of the thigh is a long narrow strip of
muscle
11. Semitendinosus – posterior to the femur is a two-headed muscle. This is best seen
when the gracilis major is separated from the adductor magnus.
C. Muscles of the shank
12. Gastrocnemius – the largest muscle in the shank; also the most posterior muscle in
the shank
13. Peroneus – immediately anterior and partly covered by the gastrocnemius
14. Tibialis anticus – located most anteriorly in the shank; slits distally into two slips
15. Tibialis posticus – long, narrow and thick muscle anterior to the gastrocnemius
16. Extensor cruris – short, slender muscle located at the anterior proximal half of the
tibio-fbula
17. Flexor tarsi anterior – a narrow muscle located distal to the extensor cruris
D. Muscles of the head and trunk
Dorsal
18. Temporalis – posterior to the eye and at the level of the tympanic membrane is
a pair of stout muscles.
19. Depressor mandibulae – immediately posterior to the temporalis is a flattened
muscle
20. Dorsalis scapulae – underneath the depressor mandibulae is a large broad
muscle
21. Latissimus dorsi – immediately posterior to and partly covered by the depressor
mandibulae is a pair of large flat triangular muscle
22. Longissimus dorsi – the muscle posterior to the latissimus dorsi. It lies along
the middorsal line and tapers posteriorly.
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23. Iliolumbaris - lateral to the longissimus dorsi
Ventral
24. Mylohyoid – the muscle at the ventral side of the floor of the mouth.
25. Triceps brachii – the large muscle at the posterior side of the upper arm
26. Deltoid – the muscle at the top of the shoulder joint.
27. Pectoralis – the large muscle at the chest region
28. Rectus abdominis – the large muscle forming the ventral abdominal wall
29. External oblique – the outer, thin, lateral, and obliquely directed muscle of the
abdomen
V. RESULTS AND OBSERVATIONS. Do completely the tasks in the data sheet.
References:
Galan, G., C. Batbatan, & D. Buenavista. (2011). Animal Organ Systems in

Laboratory Manual in General Biology. 3rd ed. CMU-Instructional Materials
Development Center.
Lytle, C.F. and Meyer, J.M. (2013). General Zoology Laboratory Guide. 16th edition.
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. USA.Mader, S. (2016). Biology. New York,
NY: McGraw-Hill Higher Education
Mader, S. (2016). Human Biology. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Higher Education
USA.
Pearson.
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Name: Rating:
DATA SHEET
EXERCISE NO. 11
THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM
Illustrate and label the muscles of the:
Thigh (dorsal) Thigh (ventral)
Shank Head and Trunk
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Give the movement/function of the following muscles:
Muscle Movement/Function
1. Adductor longus
2. Adductor magnus
3. Biceps brachii
4. External oblique
5. Gastrocnemius
6. Gluteus maximus
7. Gluteus medius
8. Latissimus dorsi
9. Rectus abdominis
10 Sartorius
.
VI. CONCLUSION
1. Define insertion, origin, and action.
2. Discuss the significance of antagonistic pairing of muscles.
3. Differentiate abductor and adductor muscles.
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EXERCISE NO. 12
THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
Zeus S. Elumba
I. INTRODUCTION
The digestive system functions for the ingestion and digestion of foods, and
for absorption of nutrients from the digested food. The digestive system of frogs
consists of a digestive tract and accessory organs and glands. The digestive tract
comprises of organs such as the mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine,
large intestines and cloaca. Accessory organs and glands include the tongue, teeth,
salivary glands, gastric glands, pancreas, liver, and gallbladder. These organs work in
tandem to digest or break down the ingested food into smaller molecules or nutrients,
which are easier to absorb and assimilate. These nutrients are absorbed into the
bloodstream and utilized by the cells and tissues of the body for carrying out the vital
body processes.
II. OBJECTIVES
a) identify the organs and glands in the digestive system and their
respective functions; and
b) explain the processes of mechanical and chemical digestion.
III. MATERIALS
preserved toad (from previous exercises) hand soap

dissecting pan detergent powder
dissecting kit: rubbing alcohol
scalpel
pins
forceps
surgical gloves
face mask
III. PROCEDURE
a) Wear your gloves and masks before handling the toad.

b) Wash your formalin-preserved toad with water and liquid detergent. Rinse
thoroughly.
c) Open the mouth wide by cutting through the sides of the jaws. Identify the
different parts of the buccal cavity.
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d) To expose the digestive organs, cut the skin and the muscles in a crosswise
direction towards the anterior portion of the mid-ventral side of the limbs.
e) Locate the internal digestive and accessory organs.
f) Answer questions in the answer sheets.
The Digestive Tract
1. Mouth/buccal cavity - use for ingestion which involves catching their prey.
Examine the tongue which is sticky, cleft, and bilobed. The tip of the tongue is
folded backwards. In male specimens, vocal sacs are found on each side of the
floor of the mouth cavity.
2. Pharynx - after the food is moistened by the saliva, it moves from the mouth into
the pharynx. This is the throat region. Open the mouth and examine the thickening
at the mid posterior region. This is the laryngeal prominence. At the center of this
prominence is a narrow longitudinal slit, called the glottis, which opens into the
larynx.
3. Esophagus - a small tube that is located in the anterior section of the digestive
tract. It connects the pharynx to the stomach, and acts as a passageway for food.
4. Stomach - this is a muscular sac that lies at the end of the esophagus. It performs
the function of storage and digestion of food.
5. Small intestine - this is a long narrow coiled tube extending from the pyloric
sphincter to the iliac sphincter. This is supported or held in place by a fold of
membranous tissue called mesentery. It is where the active absorption of nutrients
takes place. The anterior portion is called duodenum while the posterior portion is
called ileum. Bile and pancreatic juice are secreted to the small intestine by the
liver and aid in the process of digestion. Gallbladder is a small sac located under
the liver and it acts as a reservoir for bile.
6. Large intestine and cloaca - thick short tube joining the small intestine. This
temporarily stores the undigested food. It also performs the function of absorbing
water from the food residue. The solid waste moves towards the cloaca. Water or
liquid waste moves to the urinary bladder. Solid as well as liquid waste is expelled
out of the body through the cloacal opening.
Digestive Glands
1. Liver - Largest reddish brown gland found in the anterior region of the body
cavity close to the heart and lungs. It consists of two lobes - the right and the left.
These two lobes remain connected with each other by a narrow bridge of liver
tissue. It secretes bile.
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2. Pancreas - An irregular, branched, flattened and pale-coloured gland of exocrine
and endocrine function, which is held by a mesentery between the stomach and
duodenum. It is traversed by the common bile duct into which the pancreatic
ducts also open which is now called as hepatopancreatic duct.
References:
Acma, F.M., Amoroso, V.B., Batbatan, C.G., Buenavista, D.P., Dela Cruz, R.Y.,
Ediza, M.M., et al. (2011). The Animal Organ Systems Laboratory Manual in
General Biology (3rd Edition). CMU Instructional Materials Development
Center. Musuan, Bukidnon.
Kumar, R. (2013). Applied Zoology. Random Publications. New Delhi, Ind.
Mader, S. (2016). Biology. McGraw-Hill Education, N.Y., USA.
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Name: Rating: _
Laboratory Schedule: Date performed:
DATA SHEET
EXERCISE NO. 12
THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
Identify the parts of the digestive system
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
h.
i.
j.
k.
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VI. CONCLUSION
1. Differentiate chemical digestion from mechanical digestion.
2. What are the substances secreted by the liver and pancreas? What are their
functions?
3. What is the function of sphincters in small intestines?
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EXERCISE NO. 13
THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
Jennifer G. Opiso, Marilou C. Marfil and Felisa Jyl C. Marfil
I. INTRODUCTION
When mentioning respiratory system, people generally think of breathing. In
fact, breathing is synonymous to life. Life starts and terminates with breathing.
However, it is important to note that breathing is only one of the processes of this
system besides being a help in regulating pH of the blood, facilitate diffusion of
oxygen and metabolic gases to and from bloodstream. Cells need a continuous supply
of oxygen for metabolic processes that are essential for perpetuation of life. In tandem
with circulatory system, respiratory system enables the living organism to possibly
exchange oxygen and carbon dioxide between the atmosphere and the body cells.
Respiratory system in toads or frogs involves the following structures;
External nares (bring air into internal nares), Internal nares (bring air into mouth),
buccal cavity or bucco-pharyngeal cavity (holds air and food in digestive system),
Glottis (transport air from mouth to trachea), Trachea (transports air from glottis
to bronchi), Bronchi (transports air from trachea to lungs), Lungs with alveoli (gas
exchange), Vocal sac (creates sound for mating purposes) and Eustachian tube
(equalizes air pressure between mouth and tympanic membrane). The components of
respiratory system join forces with the circulatory system creating substantial efforts
in facilitating proper and efficient diffusion of oxygen into the blood stream to every
cell and receive waste carbon dioxide from the blood to atmosphere.
In this laboratory exercise on respiratory system of the toad or frog, you will
dissect and examine the distinct structures concerning this system. As you are
working, observe the organization and structure of the organs and how the system is
organized compared with those of humans.
II. OBJECTIVE:
At the end of this exercise, the student must be able to identify differences and
similarities in the respiratory system of frog/toad to humans.
1. Identify the different organs of the toad‟s respiratory system;
2. trace the flow of air during inhalation and exhalation;
3. determine the function of each structure of the toad‟s respiratory system;
4. compare the structure and organization of the organs with those from the
human systems; and
5. explain how a frog is adapted to its environment.
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III. MATERIALS
Frog a dissecting pan dissecting scissors dropper

forceps probe 10 large dissecting pins hand lens
paper towels disposable gloves
IV. PROCEDURE
1. Position the frog on the dissecting tray, ventral side up, anterior end pointing
away to conveniently do the incisions. Refer to the diagram below and follow
the broken lines in cutting. Cut through the skin only along line a, from
posterior to anterior. Then cut the skin along incision lines b, c, d, and e
(Figure 1). Pin the cut skin to the dissecting tray to expose internal organs. To
easily locate and identify the structures inside the body cavity (COELOM),
blot the blood inside the cavity with paper towels.
2. Locate the following structures on your own specimen and label them on your
own picture on the answer sheet part; external nares, internal nares, mouth
(buccal cavity), glottis, trachea, bronchi, lungs, alveoli, vocal sac, and
eustachian tube.
3. Position the frog/toad, dorsal side up, in a dissecting pan. Locate and identify
distinctive structures.
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a. External nares – small openings located on the top of a frog's snout, these make it
possible for the frog to float on the surface of the water, leaving its external
nares above the water level for inhaling oxygen. Poke a pin through one of the
holes to see if it leads in the mouth cavity.
b. Buccal cavity/mouth cavity – Examine the mouth, open it wide using scissors to
cut the hinge joints at both corners of the mouth. Spread the mouth open. You
can find the internal nares. In male specimens, vocal sacs are found on each
side of the floor of the mouth. Also inside the mouth behind the tongue is
the pharynx, or throat.
c. Internal nares – Located on the roof of a frog's mouth. An inner paired openings
from the paired canals outside the mouth.
d. Pharyngeal region – the throat region. In the pharynx, there are several openings:
one into the esophagus (digestive system), the tube into which food is
swallowed; one into the glottis and the Eustachian tubes (on the sides of the
upper jaw) which connect the pharynx to the ear. Open the mouth and examine
the thickening at the midposterior region. This is the laryngeal prominence. At
the center of this prominence you can observe a narrow longitudinal slit
e. Glottis - located in the back of the mouth (median slit-like structure on the floor of
pharynx), which opens into the larynx. Insert a dropper into the glottis of the
specimen. Pump air into the lungs and note observation.
f. Larynx – the voice box (supported by two arytenoids and one cricoids cartilages)
g. Lungs – two, spongy, thin-walled sacs that are pinkish in color
V. RESULTS AND OBSERVATIONS. Do required tasks in the Data Sheet.

References:
Batbatan, C., G. Galan & Buenavista, D. (2015). The Animal Body. In: Laboratory
Manual in Biology 15 (Fundamentals of Biology). Department of Biology.
Instructional Materials and Development Center, Central Mindanao
University, Musuan, Bukidnon.
Evangelista, E., L. Evangelista & L.A. Evangelista. (2013). Work text in General
Zoology. C&E Publishing, Inc. Philippines
Iuliis, G.D. & Pulera, D. (2011). The Dissection of vertebrates. 2nd ed. Academic
Press, MA, USA. ISBN 978-0-12-375060-0.
Miller & Levine. (2005). Biology: The Living Science Laboratory Manual Annotated
Teacher‟s Edition. Prentice Hall. USA.
Pearson.
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Name: Rating: _
DATA SHEET
EXERCISE NO. 13
THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

Draw and label properly:
A. The Buccal Cavity of the Toad
B. Internal Respiratory Tract of the Toad
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VI. CONCLUSION

1. Describe briefly what happened when air was pumped into the lungs of your
specimen through the glottis?
2. Diagram the pathway of air in toads during inhalation and exhalation.
3. Can both male and female toads croak? Why and how do toads croak?
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4. How is the location of the nares in toads an adaptation to living in water?
5. Describe and explain the features of the lungs with regards to its function.
6. How do frogs breathe when submerged for longer periods of time?
7. Discuss cutaneous and pulmonary respiration of the frog.
8. How does the respiratory system change as the frog undergoes metamorphosis
from a tadpole to an adult frog?
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EXERCISE NO. 14
THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
Jennifer G. Opiso, Marilou C. Marfil and Felisa Jyl C. Marfil
I. INTRODUCTION
Nutrients, oxygen, molecular messages and instructions are made available to

every cell in a living organism‟s body through the circulatory system. This system is
composed of the heart which is the main pumping organ, the blood as the transport
medium, and the blood vessels including the arteries (carry blood from heart), veins
(carry blood towards the heart), and capillaries (carry blood from arteries to tissues
and from tissues back to veins) that confine the blood allowing the two circuitous
routes; the pulmonary (conducts blood between heart and lungs) and systemic
(carries blood away from the heart to most organs and tissues and returns to heart
again) circuits. The components of circulatory system join forces, with remarkable
homogeneity, creating substantial efforts leading to the proper and efficient
circulation of blood to every cell.
In this laboratory exercise on circulatory system of the toad or frog, you will
dissect and examine the distinct structures concerning the system. As you are
working, observe the organization and structure of the organs and answer how the
system is organized as compared with those of humans.
II. OBJECTIVES
At the end of this exercise, the student must be able to identify differences and
similarities in the circulatory system of frog/toad to humans.
1. identify the different parts of the frog/toad‟s heart;
2. distinguish the arterial system from venous system;
3. trace the pathway of blood during pulmonary circulation; and
4. trace the pathway of blood during systemic circulation.
III. MATERIALS
Frog a dissecting pan dissecting scissors

Probe 10 large dissecting pins hand lens
forceps paper towels disposable gloves
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IV. PROCEDURE
1. Position the frog on the dissecting tray, ventral side up, anterior end pointing
away to conveniently do the incisions. Refer to the diagram below and follow
the broken lines in cutting. Cut through the skin only along line a, from posterior
to anterior. Then cut the skin along incision lines b, c, d, and e (Figure 1). Pin
the cut skin to the dissecting tray to expose internal organs. To easily locate and
identify the structures inside the body cavity (COELOM), blot the blood inside
the cavity with paper towels.
2. Using the freshly dissected specimen, locate the heart and identify its parts.
Observe the heartbeat. The heart is enclosed by a thin sac called the
pericardium. Using the sharp tip of the scissors, cut open the pericardium with
utmost care. It is surrounded by the three-lobed LIVER. Identify these parts of
the heart: VENTRICLE, the ATRIUM, the right and left VENA CAVA, the
SINUS VENOSUS, the CONUS ARTERIOSUS (Bulbus cordis) and the
TRUNCUS ARTERIOSUS which can be seen on the dorsal side.
3. Remove the musculature ventral to the pericardium to expose the vessels

anterior to the heart. Make a longitudinal, midventral slit through the
pericardium to open the pericardial cavity and expose the heart. Several of the
heart‟s components are plainly visible in ventral view. Its most prominent
structure is the single ventricle, which lies in the posterior half of the pericardial
cavity. Lift the ventricle to see the sinus venosus. The right and left atria (sing.,
atrium) are the conspicuous structures anterior to the ventricle. Between them,
the bulbus cordis extends from the ventricle anteriorly and slightly to the left.
This anterior part of the heart may be covered by fat and connective tissue.
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Carefully pick away at and remove it. In an injected specimen the structures are
clearly identifiable and easy to expose. In uninjected specimens the vessels are
harder to identify and the thin walled atria readily torn, so proceed cautiously.
The bulbus cordis leads into the truncus arteriosus, which continues a short
distance anteriorly before bifurcating into right and left branches, each of which
extends anterolaterally and gives rise to three large arteries.
4. Return to the heart, lift the ventricle, and examine the sinus venosus, which leads
into the right atrium. Note the large vessels, the right anterior vena cava and
the left anterior vena cava, extending along the lateral edge of the atria and
passing into the sinus venosus. The vena cavae collect blood from the head and
forelimbs, as well as the skin. Indeed, the branching patterns of the right and left
venae cavae may vary. The anterior vena cava collects blood from several vessels
and empties into the sinus venosus.
5. Using a scalpel, remove the heart and place it in the dissecting tray. Slice the
heart open sideways (make a coronal cut). Make use of the hand lens to see the
chambers. If you are unable to observe the chambers, you may request to view
the dissected specimen of another group.
V. RESULTS AND OBSERVATIONS. Answer the required tasks in the Data

Sheet.
References:
. and D. Buenavista .(2015). The Animal Body. In: Laboratory Manual in Biology 15
(Fundamentals of Biology). Department of Biology. Instructional Materials and
Development Center, Central Mindanao University, Musuan, Bukidnon.
. L. Evangelista & L.A. Evangelista. (2013). Work text in General Zoology. C&E
Publishing, Inc. Philippines
Iuliis, G.D. and D. Pulera. (2011). The Dissection of vertebrates. 2nd ed. Academic
Press, MA, USA. ISBN 978-0-12-375060-0.
Mehler, R.E. (2014). How the Circulatory System Works. John Wiley and Sons.
ISBN 1118951107, 9781118951101.
Miller & Levine. (2005). Biology: The Living Science Laboratory Manual Annotated
Teacher‟s Edition. Prentice Hall. USA.
USA.
Pearson.
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Name: Rating: _
DATA SHEET
EXERCISE NO. 14
THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
V. RESULTS AND OBSERVATIONSS:

Draw and label:
A. Toad’s Heart
Dorsal View Ventral View
B. Draw a picture of the open heart, labeling the chambers:
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C. Pathway of Pulmonary Blood Circulation
VI. CONCLUSION
1. Compare the total number of chambers, the number of atria and the number of
ventricles in the frog and human heart.
2. How can you distinguish between atrium and ventricle? Which has thicker walls,
the ventricle or atrium? Explain why.
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3. Compare the difference in pulmonary circulation in frogs and humans.
4. What kind of circulatory system does a frog have? EXPLAIN.
5. Why is it important to have two different pathways for circulation?
6. Differentiate arterial system from venous system in terms of its respective

components and function.
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EXERCISE NO. 15
THE EXCRETORY SYSTEM
I. INTRODUCTION
The excretory system is responsible in removing nitrogenous and other

metabolic wastes from the blood in the form of urine. It also plays a role in
homeostasis by removing excess ions and other substances and by conserving those
substances which are of limited availability. The excretory structures are similar in
both male and female frogs.
II. OBJECTIVES
At the end of the exercise, the students should be able to locate and identify
the organs of the excretory system.
III. MATERIALS
Dissecting instruments Dissecting tray/pan

Live frog/toad or preserved specimen Lab gown
Preserving jar 10% formalin
Surgical gloves
IV. PROCEDURE
Use the same specimen utilized when the other body systems were studied.
Cut through the pelvic girdle at the pubo-ischiac symphysis. Locate the large intestine
and cut across the posterior part. This must be carefully done so that any organ in the
pleuroperitoneal cavity will not be destroyed. Identify the following excretory
organs:
1. Kidneys – The two kidneys are found on the dorsal body wall. These are
flattened, oval and dark red structures. Near the anterior end of each kidney are
the yellow, fingerlike projections called the corpora adiposa or fat bodies, which
serve as storage structures for reserved food.
2. Mesonephric duct or Wolffian duct – found along the lateral margin of each
kidney and extends posteriorly to enter the cloaca.
3. Urinary bladder – a bilobed sac which serves for the storage of urine. It enters
the ventral wall of the cloaca by means of a single opening.
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4. Cloaca – the enlarged posterior portion of the large intestine. It is a common
passage way for the products of the digestive, excretory, and reproductive
systems.
5. Anus/Vent – All of the wastes pass out by way of the posterior opening.
V. RESULTS AND OBSERVATIONS: Do the required tasks in the Data Sheet.
References:
London.
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Name: Rating:
DATA SHEET
EXERCISE NO. 15
THE EXCRETORY SYSTEM
V. RESULTS AND OBSERVATIONS: Answer completely.
Identify the labeled parts.
MALE FEMALE
d
a. a.
b. b.
c. c.
d. d.
e.
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VI. CONCLUSION
1. What form of nitrogenous waste is excreted by the following group of animals?

a. Reptiles
b. Amphibians
c. Mammals
d. Fish
e. Birds
2. What excretory structure is used is used by the following animals?

a. earthworm
b. insects
c. planaria
d. man
e. tilapia
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EXERCISE NO. 16
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
Glenda Z. Doblas
IV. INTRODUCTION
The nervous system coordinates and controls all activities in the body. It
gathers information inside and outside of the body, integrates this information, and
produces a response activating the muscles or glands. Structurally, this system
consists of two components, the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous
system. The brain, spinal cord and its nerves compose the central nervous system
while the sensory neurons, ganglia, and nerves connecting to one another and to the
central nervous system compose the peripheral nervous system. Functionally, the
nervous system consists of two components, the somatic and autonomic nervous
system. The former is voluntary and consists of nerves that connect the brain and
spinal cord to the muscles and sensory receptors in the skin while the latter is
involuntary and regulates several body processes.
V. OBJECTIVES
At the end of the exercise, the student should be able to identify the organs and
structures in the nervous system and discuss their respective functions.
VI. MATERIALS
preserved toad (from previous exercises) hand soap

dissecting pan detergent powder
dissecting kit: rubbing alcohol
scalpel
pins
forceps
surgical gloves
face mask
VI. PROCEDURE
g) Wear your gloves and masks before handling the toad.

h) Wash your formalin-preserved toad with water and liquid detergent and rinse
thoroughly.
i) Position the frog in the dissecting pan with the dorsal side up. Using the
pointed tip of the scalpel, remove the roof of the cranium, the nasal bone and
the neural arches of the vertebral column. Lift the brain and spinal cord
carefully and place on a petri dish with its dorsal side up. Note the five lobes of
the brain.
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1. Starting from the most anterior lobe, locate the two olfactory lobes.
Posterior to the olfactory lobes are the two cerebral hemispheres or
cerebrum. The olfactory nerves extend anteriorly from the olfactory
lobes. The diencephalon can be found as a depressed lobe. The pineal
gland is located at the median dorsal surface and the thalamus is
located at the lateral walls of the diencephalon. The pituitary gland is
located below the diencephalon. Immediately posterior to the
diencephalon are two large optic lobes. Immediately posterior to the
optic lobes is a narrow transverse portion of the brain called the
cerebellum. The most posterior part of the brain is the medulla
oblongata which tapers gradually into the spinal cord.
j) Turn the brain and spinal cord with its ventral side up. At the ventral side of
the diencephalon is the optic chiasma. A bilobed flattened extension of the
diencephalon immediately posterior to the optic chiasma is the infundibulum.
A small brownish gland posterior to the infundibulum is the hypophysis.
VII. RESULTS AND OBSERVATIONS. Do completely the tasks in the data

sheet.
References:
Lytle, C.F. and Meyer, J.M. (2013). General Zoology Laboratory Guide. 16th edition.
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. USA.
USA.
Pearson.
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Name: Rating: _
DATA SHEET
EXERCISE NO. 16
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
Draw the nervous system of the frog. Label the parts.
Brain, Spinal Cord and Cranial Nerves Brain, Spinal Cord and Cranial Nerves
Dorsal View Ventral View
VI. CONCLUSION
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1. Identify the function and origin of the following: (For the origin, choose from the
ff: telencephalon, diencephalon, mesencephalon, metencephalon, myelencephalon)
Function Origin
a. Cerebrum
b. Cerebellum
c. Medulla oblongata
2. What are the membranes enclosing the brain and spinal cord?
3. Name the cavities of the brain and spinal cord.
4. Name the 12 cranial nerves in order.
a. g.
b. h.
c. i.
d. j.
e. k.
f. l.
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EXERCISE NO. 17
THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
Kathleen Grace S. Paraguas
I. Introduction
The endocrine system (endo - within; krinein - to secrete) includes cell, tissues
and organs that secrete substances called hormones into the bloodstream, regulating
the chemical reaction in cells. These hormones bind to a specific target cells,
regulating its chemical reactions and direct a variety of response to keep the body in
homeostasis (Fig. 1) (Allen, C. & Harper, V.,2009; Shier et al., 2007)
Figure 1. The endocrine system processes
II. Objectives
At the end of the activity, the students should be able to:
1. identify the major endocrine glands found in frogs; and
2. enumerate the different hormones secreted, its target tissues and functions.
III. Materials
Dissecting pan Dissecting microscope
Dissecting pins Scalpel
Dissecting needles Frog
Dissecting scissors
IV. Procedure
1. Pithing (BSL Frog Lessons, 2001)
a. Firmly hold the frog with your left hand and gently bend its head with your
forefinger to expose the non-bony gap between its first vertebra and the
occipital region of its cranium.
b. Forcefully insert the pithing rod into the cranial vault and move it from
side to side to destroy the brain. Also sever the spinal cord by turning the
dissecting rod around the vertebral canal.
c. Test for reflexes by touching its eyelid and pricking its leg with needle.
There will be no response if pithing is successful.
2. Frog dissection (BSL Frog Lessons, 2001; Tyler, M.J., 2009 )
a. Place the frog ventrally, spread out its limbs, and pin them to the
dissecting pan.
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b. Using forceps, gently lift the skin between the hind legs and make a small
incision with a scalpel and continue cutting towards the center with a
scissor. Make horizontal incisions just above the legs and just below the
arms. Use forceps to hold the skin away from the muscles and pin them to
the dissecting pan.
c. Repeat the incision but this time cutting through the muscle layer. Cut the
muscle layer till below the arms and make a horizontal cut above the arms.
Cut the sternum and remove from the body. Use forceps to hold the
muscles and pin them to the dissecting pan.
3. Anatomical examination
a. Look into the body cavity. One may observe yellow finger-like projections
on the sides and if the specimen is a female, well-developed eggs may fill
the body cavity. Remove them in order to see the organ clearly.
b. Examine the different endocrine glands found in the frog. Note is location
within the body and draw in the answer sheet provided.
c. Remove the adrenal gland and the pancreas and examine them under the
dissecting microscope.
d. Draw and label your observations
VI. RESULTS AND OBSERVATIONS. Do the tasks in the data sheet.

References:
Allen, C. & Harper, V. (2009). Laboratory Manual for Anatomy and Physiology. 3rd
ed. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
BSL Frog Lesson. (2001). Frog Pith & Preparation. Retrieved from BIOPAC
Systems, Inc.
Integrated Principles of Zoology. 17th ed. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
USA.
USA.
Pearson.
Shier, D., Butler, J., & Lewis, R. (2007). Hole‟s Human Anatomy and Physiology
(11th ed.). McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Tyler, M.J. (2009). Frogs and Toads as Experimental Animals. ANZCCART Fact
Sheet A13
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Lab. Instructor:
DATA SHEET
EXERCISE NO. 17
THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
A. Using the illustration below, draw and label the endocrine glands observed to
show these locations with the frog‟s body.
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B. Draw and label the parts of the different endocrine glands examined under the
microscope.
X
Adrenal Gland
X
Pancreas
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C. Complete the table below for each of the given vertebrate hormone, its target tissue
and its action.
ENDOCRINE TARGET
HORMONES ACTION/FUNCTION
GLAND TISSUE
1. Aldosterone
2. Antidiuretic
hormone (ADH)
3. Cortisol
4. Epinephrine
5. Estrogen
6. Follicle-stimulating
hormone (FSH)
7. Glucagon
8. Insulin
9. Luteinizing hormone
(LH)
10. Melanocyte-
stimulating hormone
(MSH)
11. Melatonin
12. Norepinephrine (NE)
13. Oxytocin (OT)
14. Parathyroid hormone

(PTH)
15. Progesterone
16. Testosterone
17. Thymosin
18. Thyroid-stimulating
hormone (TSH)
19. Thyroxine (T4)
20. Triiodothyronine
(T3)
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VII. CONCLUSION
VIII. GUIDE QUESTIONS

1. Explain the relationship between the endocrine gland and the nervous system?
2. Explain why the hypothalamus is classified as a neuroendocrine organ?
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EXERCISE NO. 18
ANIMAL REPRODUCTION
Benjo A. Logramonte
I. INTRODUCTION
Reproduction is a vital process to ensure the continuity of the species. It is
through this process also that the genetic materials of the parents are passed on to
their offspring. Reproduction does not always involve gametes. Gametes are haploid
sex cells that could unite during the fertilization process to form the zygote. In lower
forms of animals, sexual reproduction (involves gametes) may be limited or absent. In
this case, animals reproduce asexually (reproduction without involving gametes).
Offspring produced through asexual reproduction are genetically identical to their
parents, while those produced sexually are generally hybrids of their parents.
II. OBJECTIVES
a. distinguish the basic parts of the toad‟s male and female reproductive system;
b. identify the basic parts of the human sperm and egg cells; and
c. enumerate different modes of asexual reproduction.
III. Materials
Live toad Human semen
Compound Microscope Cover slips
Human egg cells prepared slides Glass slides
Human reproductive system models Dropper
Prepared slides of animal asexual reproduction Dissecting pan
Dissecting set Surgical gloves
Lab gown
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IV. PROCEDURE
A. Anatomy of reproductive system
Following standard dissecting procedure, sacrifice a male and a female toad
and examine their reproductive organs. Locate the testes, vasa efferentia, and
ureters in male toads and ovary, oviduct, and uterus in female toad samples.
B. Morphology of human gametes

Collect fresh samples of human semen. Wash hands thoroughly before and
after collection. Place the samples in a clean beaker. Using dropper, transfer some
samples near the edge of a clean glass slide. Using another clean glass slide,
smear the samples by carefully spreading the semen thinly and evenly on the
glass slide (your instructor will demonstrate the proper smear procedure). Caution
should be observed while smearing to avoid crushing the sperm cells. Top with a
clean cover slip and examine under LPO.
Under the LPO/HPO, examine and identity the three main regions of the
human sperm cell: the head, midpiece, and tail/flagellum. A normal sperm has a
head, midpiece, and tail/flagellum.
For human egg cell, examine prepared slide under the microscope (LPO or
HPO).
C. Asexual reproduction
Using reference materials, draw the different types of asexual reproduction in
animals.
V. RESULTS AND OBSERVATIONS. Do tasks in data sheet.
References:
Galan, G., C. Batbatan, & D. Buenavista. (2011). Laboratory Manual in General
Biology. 3rd ed. CMU-Instructional Materials Development Center
Mader, S. (2016). Biology. New York, NY: McGraw Hill Higher Education
Mader, S. (2016). Human Biology. New York, NY: McGraw Hill Higher Education
Reece, J., L. Urry, M. Cain, S. Wasserman, P. Minorsky, & R. Jackson. (2011).
Campbell Biology. 9th ed. Pearson Benjamin Cummings
Shier, D., J. Butler, and r. Lewis. (2007). Hole’s Human Anatomy and Physiology.
11th ed. McGraw Hill Higher Education
Samaniego, L., S. Laraga, and D. Buenavista. (2013). Animal Physiology Laboratory
Manual. Instructional Materials Development Center, Central Mindanao
University.
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Lab. Instructor:
DATA SHEET
EXERCISE NO. 18
ANIMAL REPRODUCTION
A. Illustrate the reproductive system of a toad
Male Reproductive System Female Reproductive System
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B. Anatomy of human gametes
Human Sperm Cell Human Egg Cell

x x
C. Asexual Reproduction
Budding Fission Fragmentation

Example: Example: Example:
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Parthenogenesis Sporulation
Example: Example:
VI. CONCLUSION

1. In what ways are the human male and female reproductive organs similar?
How different are they from each other?
2. Describe how sperm cells are produced. Describe the path of sperm from
testes to outside of the male‟s body?
3. Describe how egg cells are produced. Trace the path of egg production and
fertilization.
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EXERCISE NO. 19
ANIMAL DEVELOPMENT
Kathleen Grace S. Paraguas and Reggie Y. Dela Cruz
I. INTRODUCTION
Sexually-reproducing organisms develop from an egg fertilized by a sperm. In

animals, the formed zygote will then undergo cell division or cleavage. A ball-shaped
embryo called morula is then formed. The next stage is the blastula stage where a
cavity is formed at the medulla. Then the neural tube starts to form and the embryo is
now termed neurula. The next step is the formation of germ layers and the embryo is
called gastrula. These germ layers- ectoderm, endoderm and mesoderm- give rise to
the different tissues of the organisms. Tissue forms organs of the different organ
systems in the adult.
This exercise will focus only on frog embryonic development and
metamorphosis.
II. OBJECTIVES
1. grow or culture frog eggs in vitro;
2. identify the different stages of embryonic development of the frog;
3. determine the basic parts of frog embryos; and
4. monitor the metamorphosis of tadpoles to frogs.
III. MATERIALS
250 ml beaker Microscope Frog eggs
Aquarium/basin Glass slide
Aquarium air pump Cover slip
Scissors Forceps
IV. PROCEDURES
A. Frog Culture (Modified from Culturing Frog Eggs and Tadpoles, 2016)
a. Collect frog eggs from ponds;
b. From the collected egg samples, obtain about 20-30 eggs by cutting the
masses of eggs with the use of scissors.
c. Placed the egg clusters in at least 200 ml water. Water temperature should
remain relatively constant at 200 to 260 C and water pH should be slightly
acidic. Provide aeration to the culture media by using an aquarium air pump.
Note: pond water, spring water or chlorine-free tap water can be used. Do not
use distilled water or deionized water.
d. Keep culture at room temperature and out of direct sunlight.
Activity:
➢ Observe the embryonic development of frog eggs under the
microscope. Illustrate and label the stages.
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e. When the tadpole starts to emerge from the culture, increase the amount of
water to one liter per 10 tadpoles.
f. Once the tadpole‟s starts to feed, increase the water to one liter per tadpole and
move them into an aquarium to minimize overcrowding. Note: Prior to the
development of tadpoles mount parts, they feed on a built-in food source
consisting of the yolk sac. Once their mouth parts are developed, most species
will need to be fed daily either on bits of boiled lettuce, water spinach and
watercress leaves and flake fish food.
g. On the 6th-9th weeks of the development, tadpole legs will start to appear. At
this time, tadpoles will require sloping/slanted rocks so that they can climb
partially out of the water.
h. The aquarium should remain covered once the legs will start to appear since
the animal will soon begin to jump. Note: At this time begin to feed the
tadpoles with hard-boiled egg yolk or small pieces of raw liver 2-3 times per
week.
i. On the 10th-12th weeks of development, the tadpoles will become froglets and
will start to morph into fully-developed frogs.
Activity:
➢ Illustrate the metamorphosis of tadpoles to frogs.
V. RESULTS AND OBSERVATIONS. Do the required tasks in the data sheet.
References:
2016. Culturing Frog Eggs and Tadpoles. Flinn Scientific, Inc.

Cutlturing Frog Eggs and Tadpoles.
https://www.flinnsci.com/globalassets/flinn-scientific/all-free-
pdfs/dc10588.pdf
Urry, L. A., Cain, M. L., Wasserman, S. A., & Minorsky, P. V. (2016). Campbell
Helfrich, L.A., Neves, R.J., & Parkhurst, J. (2009). Commercial Frog Farming.
Communications and Marketing, College of Agriculture and Life Sciences,
Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University
Lutz, C.G. & Avery, J., (1999). Bullfrog Culture. Southern Regional Aquaculture
Center, USA
Raising Tadpoles, frogs and toads. Retrieved from

http://aquariusite.free.fr/amphibians/frogs-toads-tadpoles.html
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Lab. Instructor:
DATA SHEET
EXERCISE NO. 19
ANIMAL DEVELOPMENT

Embryonic Development of Frogs:
frog egg zygote
morula neurula
gastrula tad pole
adult frog
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Frog metamorphosis (base your drawings from literatures)
Tadpole at 20 days Tadpole at 24 days
adult frog
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VI. CONCLUSION
1. Draw the life cycle of the frog, showing the number of days.
2. Indicate the derivatives of the different germ layers:

Ectoderm:
Mesoderm:
Endoderm:
3. What is metamorphosis?
4. What is regeneration?
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EXERCISE NO. 20
HEREDITY AND VARIATION
Glenda Z. Doblas and Reggie Y. Dela Cruz
I. INTRODUCTION
Genetics is the science that deals with the transmission of traits (termed
heredity) from parents to offspring and the variations that occur during transmission.
Heredity is governed by different laws postulated by the father of Genetics, Gregor
Mendel. The law of dominance and recessiveness, law of segregation and law of
independent assortment are true for all living organisms.
This exercise allows the students to have hands-on activities to gain basic
understanding on heredity and variation.
II. OBJECTIVES
Generally, this exercise aims to enhance discussions on basic concepts of

Mendelian genetics and support conclusions using statistical tools. Specifically, the
students should be able to:
a. Demonstrate how to breed fruit flies.
b. Differentiate parental, F1 and F2 generations;
c. Demonstrate monohybrid and dihybrid crosses;
d. Construct a Punnett square;
e. Determine if a trait is sex-linked or autosomal;
f. Use Chi-square analysis to support conclusion; and
g. Create models to understand the laws of heredity.
III. MATERIALS
A. F.
2 transparent small jars bottle caps or foam cuts or tissue
ethyl acetate paper cartoons
cotton push pin
gauze or leg stockings paper clips
scissors modelling clay
colored pens paper cutouts
calculator
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IV. PROCEDURE
A. Breeding fruit flies
1. Obtain a small slice of ripe banana and place inside a clean transparent
jar. Label it as jar A. Expose jar A outside, uncovered, for several
hours. Then, cover with a gauze or a clean leg stocking. Secure cover
with an elastic band. Wait for several days for the eggs to hatch into
adult flies.
2. Obtain another clean jar and label as jar B. Bring the two mouths of the
jar together and slowly remove the gauze cover of jar A to allow the
adult flies to move into jar B. Cover both jars with a gauze.
Anaesthetize the flies in jar B with cotton containing ethyl acetate.
3. Distinguish male from the female fruit flies by examining the legs and
abdomen using a dissecting microscope or hand lens. Males have sex
combs which are dark bristles in the inner surface of the forelimbs.
Also, males have blunt and darker abdomen while females have long,
pointed lightly striped abdomen.
4. Examine other observable characteristics or phenotypes. Are the eyes
large and red? Red eye is a wildtype phenotype. Examine for mutant
phenotypes such as sepia eyes, white eyes, ebony body and wingless.
B. Monohybrid Cross (Bench activity only)

1. Examine the flies again in jar A. The adult flies are the parental
generation (P) while the eggs are the F1 (first filial generation) eggs
which will hatch to become F1 adults. Simulate crossing experiments
by following the next steps. You can create flies by cutting the images
from the “Fruit fly Pool” and assembling it together. You may use
colored pens or paper to give the appropriate phenotype of the eyes and
body. You may paste the bristles to the inner surface of the forelimb to
indicate sex of the fly.
2. Get a red-eyed female and white-eyed male fly to act as the parental
generation. Assume these parents are true-breeding individuals, red eye
is wild type (+) and white eye (w) is recessive mutant. Allow the
parents to mate and produce the first filial generation or F1.
Construct a Punnett square and tabulate the possible gametes of parents

and the possible types (phenotype and genotype) of the progenies.
a. Identify the genotypes of the parents. Since the parents are assumed to
be true-breeding, then both must be homozygous, but one is wildtype
and the other is mutant. Use + and w to denote wildtype and mutant,
respectively. Examples of genotypes are ++ (homozygous red), +w
(heterozygous red) and ww (white).
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b. Identify the gametes of the parents. The genotype ++ has only one type
of gamete which is + while the genotype +w has two possible gametes,
+ and w.
c. Make a 2x2 table. Write the female gametes in column 1 row 2 (C1R2)
and the male gametes in C2R1.
Table for F1 Genotype of Monohybrid Cross
F1 Gametes
d. Combine the entries in C1R2 (female gamete) and C2R1 (male

gamete) and write this in C2R2. This is the genotype of the F1
progenies. There is only one possible genotype of the F1 progenies
since the parents are homozygous. In writing a heterozygous genotype,
write first the dominant/wildtype allele followed by the
recessive/mutant allele.
3. Mate the F1 offspring among themselves to produce the second filial

generation or F2.

a. Identify the genotype of the F1. Examples of genotypes are ++
(homozygous red), +w (heterozygous red) and ww (white). In a
heterozygous case, the dominant/wildtype allele must be written
first before the recessive/mutant allele. For example, +w is
correctly written but not w+.
b. Identify the gametes of the parents. Note that the F1s are acting as
the parents in this cross. The genotype ++ has only one type of
gamete which is + while the genotype +w has two possible
gametes, + and w. Since the F1s are all heterozygotes, then both
male and female individuals each produces two possible gametes,
the + and w.
c. Make a 3x3 table. Write the female gametes in C1R2 and C1R3,
and the male gametes in C2R1 and C3R1.
Table for F2 Genotype of Monohybrid Cross
F1 Gametes

gamete) and write this in C2R2. Combine C1R2 and C3R1 and
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write in C3R2, C1R3 and C2R1 and write in C2R3, C1R3 and
C3R1 and write in C3R3. How many different genotypes are there?
4. Show these crosses in the data sheet. Determine the phenotype and
genotype of the offspring. Determine also the phenotypic and
genotypic ratio in the F1 and F2 generations.
C. Dihybrid Cross (Bench activity only)

1. Ebony body (e) and eyeless (y) are autosomal recessive traits. Mate an
ebony eyeless fly with a wildtype fly (yellow body and red-eyed).
Assume these individuals are true-breeding.

and the possible types (phenotype and genotype) of the F1 progenies.
1. Identify the genotype of the parents. Since we are following
two traits at the same time, the genotype must contain the
alleles of both traits. Example, ++++ is the genotype of a true-
breeding wildtype fly, +e+y is the genotype of a fly
heterozygote for both traits, and ee+y is for ebony and
heterozygote red-eyed fly.
2. Identify the gametes of the parents. The gametes must contain
an allele of both traits. Example, the genotype ++++ has only
one type of gamete which is ++ while the gamete of genotype
eeyy is ey. There are four possible gametes for the genotype
+e+y. These are ++, +y, +e and ey. These are obtained by
combining the 1st allele of 1st trait with the 1st allele of 2nd
trait, 1st allele of 1st trait with the 2nd allele of 2nd trait, 2nd allele
of 1st trait with the 1st allele of 2nd trait, and 2nd allele of 1st trait
with the 2nd allele of 2nd trait.
3. Make a 2x2 table. Write the female gametes in C1R2 and the
male gametes in C2R1.
Table for F1 Genotype of Dihybrid Cross
P1 Gametes
4. Combine the entries in C1R2 (female gamete) and C2R1 (male

gamete) and write this in C2R2. How many different genotypes
are there?
2. Mate the F1 offspring among themselves to produce the F2s.

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a. Identify the genotype of the F1.
b. Identify the gametes of the parents. Note the F1s are acting as the
parents in this cross. Since the F1s are all heterozygotes, both male
and female individuals each produce four possible gametes.
c. Make a 5x5 table. Write the female gametes in C1R2, C1R3, C1R4
and C1R5, and the male gametes in C2R1, C3R1, C4R1, and
C5R1.
Table for F2 Genotype in a Dihybrid Cross
F1 Gametes

gamete) and write this in C2R2. Combine C1R2 and C3R1 and
write in C3R2, C1R2 and C4R1 and write in C4R2, C1R2 and
C5R1 and write in C5R2. and so on. How many different
genotypes are there?
3. Show these crosses in the data sheet. Determine the phenotype and
genotype of the progenies. Determine also the phenotypic and
genotypic ratio in the F1 and F2 generations.
D. Autosomal and sex-linked traits

1. Consider the tables below. Note that the parents are true-breeding
individuals.
Case 1
F1 Phenotypes and Number of
Individuals
Male 6 red eyes
Female 4 red eyes
F2 Phenotypes and Number of Individuals

Red eyes Sepia
Male 9 1
Female 4 2
Is the cross illustrated Monohybrid or dihybrid? Why?

Does it involve Autosomal or sex-linked gene? Why?
Reflect your answer in the data sheet.
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2. Case 2.
F1 Phenotypes and Number of

Individuals
Male 6 red eyes
Female 4 red eyes
F2 Phenotypes and Number of Individuals

Red eyes Sepia
Male 9 3
Female 4 0
Is the cross illustrated Monohybrid or dihybrid? Why?

Does it involve Autosomal or sex-linked gene? Why?
Reflect your answer in the data sheet.
E. Chi-square Analysis
1. Use the data in case 1 above. Formulate your null hypothesis based on
the expected ratio of the offspring resulting from the mating of two
heterozygous red-eyed flies.
2. Determine if your results (table in case 1) support your hypothesis
using the chi square test. Calculate the chi square using the formula
x2 = ∑{(o-e)2/e}
3. Determine the degrees of freedom. This is the number of categories or
events minus 1.
4. Using the chi square table, Note the tabular x2 value at probability, P=
.05for your specified degrees of freedom. Interpret. If your calculated
value for chi square is less than the tabular x2 value at P= .05, will you
accept or reject your null hypothesis?
Fruit fly Pool. Cut the images and assemble to obtain the appropriate phenotype. Use
colored pens or paper for the eye.
Anterior Posterior Posterior Sex Combs
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F. Breeding Drobots: Demonstrating Mendel‟s Law of Inheritance.
Drobots are imaginary animals, made of bottle cap or foam cutouts, paper clips
and push pins. They have 16 chromosomes (8 pairs of chromosomes).
1. Cut out the 16 chromosomes of the mom and dad drobots in the next page.
2. Place the chromosome cards face down. Make sure the mom and dad
chromosomes are on separate sides of the table.
3. Chromosome pairing: Chromosomes of the same length/structure are termed
homologous chromosomes or homologs. For mom‟s, sort the homologous
pairs. Do the same for dad‟s.
4. Gamete formation: Randomly take one chromosome from a pair of
homologous chromosomes from the mom chromosomes and place them in a
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separate envelope labeled “egg chromosomes”. Do the same for the dad
chromosomes and place them in another envelop labeled “sperm
chromosomes”.
5. Fertilization: Carry out „fertilization” by mixing the egg and sperm
chromosomes to form the “baby chromosomes”.
6. Determine the homologous chromosomes of your new individual.
7. Write in the provided table, the letters that you have obtained in your “baby
chromosomes”. For example. If you have one card of letter D and another one
with the letter d, put Dd in the box for color of the legs.
8. After completing the table, create your baby drobot models using the
materials.
9. Compare your baby drobot with the other groups. This is one explanation why
siblings coming from the same parents differ from each other.
Genotype and Phenotype guide

CHARACTER ALL POSSIBLE GENOTYPES AND PHENOTYPES
ISTIC
Antennae AA = 2 antennae Aa = 2 antennae aa= no antennae
Body segments BB = 6 body Bb= 3 body bb = 2 body
segments segments segments
Tail CC = curly Cc = curly cc = straight
Color of legs DD = blue Dd = red dd = orange
Color of nose RR = red Rr = orange rr = yellow
Eyes EE = 4 eyes Ee = 5 eyes ee = 2 eyes
Spines HH = 1 spine Hh = 1 spine hh = 3 spines
Sex XX = female XY= male
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Mom drobot chromosomes
A A
B b
C c
D d
R r
E e
H h
X X
Dad drobot Chromosomes
A A
B b
C c
D d
R r
E e
H h
X Y
V. RESULTS AND OBSERVATIONS. Answer required tasks in data sheet.
References:
Brooker, R. J. (2015). Genetics: Analysis and principles (Fifth edition.). New York,
NY: McGraw-Hill Education.
Pierce, B. A. (2014). Genetics: A conceptual approach (Fifth edition.). New York:
W.H. Freeman and Company.Reece, J. B., Urry, L. A., Cain, M. L.,
Wasserman, S. A., Minorsky, P. V., & Jackson, R. B. (2011). Campbell biology
(Vol. 9). Boston: Pearson.
Holtzclaw, T.K. The Biology Place. http://www.phschool.com. Pearson education.
Making Reebops: a model for meiosis. http://www.nuffieldfoundation.org/practical-
biology/making-reebops-model-meiosis
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Lab. Instructor:
DATA SHEET
EXERCISE NO. 20
HEREDITY AND VARIATION
VI. RESULTS AND OBSERVATIONS
1. Draw male and female flies. Emphasize the differences in the legs and abdomen.
Male Female
2. Wild type and mutant phenotypes.
Wildtype: Mutant:
Wildtype: Mutant:
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3. Monohybrid Cross
Parental Generation:
Female Male
Paste your fly here. Paste your fly here.
Genotype: Genotype:
Phenotype: Phenotype:
F1 Generation:
Paste your fly here.
Genotype:
Phenotype:
F2 Generation:
Paste your fly here. Paste your fly here. Paste your fly here. Paste your fly here.
Genotype: Genotype: Genotype: Genotype:

Phenotype: Phenotype: Phenotype: Phenotype:
Genotypic Ratio:
Phenotypic ratio:
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4. Dihybrid Cross
Parental Generation:
Female Male
Paste your fly here. Paste your fly here.
Genotype: Genotype:
Phenotype: Phenotype:
F1 Generation:
Paste your fly here.
Genotype:
Phenotype:
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F2 Generation:




Genotypic Ratio: Phenotypic ratio:
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VI. CONCLUSION

1. Give the scientific name of fruit fly.
2. What is the role of the banana in the fly breeding set-up?
3. Compare and contrast

a. Heredity vs. Variation
b. Chromosome vs. Locus
c. Gene vs. Allele
d. Chromatids vs. Homologous Chromosomes
e. Phenotype vs. Genotype
f. Wildtype and mutant
g. Parental, F1 and F2 generations?
h. Autosomal and sex-linked traits
4. Define a gene.
5. Autosomal and sex-linked inheritance.

Please check below.
Case 1 Case 2
Monohybrid
Dihybrid
Autosomal
Sex-linked
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Give the genotypes.
Case 1 Case 2
Male Parent
Female Parent
F1 male
F1 female
F2 male red eyes
F2 female red eyes
F2 male sepia
F2 female sepia
6. Chi square analysis

a. State your null hypothesis.
b. Complete the table below.
Observed (o) Expected (e) o-e (o-e)2

Red
Sepia
x2 =
c. What is the degree of freedom?

d. What is the probability value at .05 of the calculated chi square?
e. Will you accept or reject your null hypothesis? Why?
F. Breeding Drobots
Table 2. Alleles and Phenotype of the baby drobot

CHARACTERISTIC ALLELE ALLELE PHENOTYPE
FROM MOM FROM DAD
1. Antennae
2. Body segments
3. Tail
4. Color of legs
5. Color of nose
6. eyes
7. spines
8. Sex
Drawings/Photographs of the Baby Drobots of all groups. Use additional sheet.
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EXERCISE NO. 21
PROKARYOTIC ORGANISMS
Glenda Z. Doblas, Zeus S. Elumba, and Merced G. Melencion
I. INTRODUCTION
Prokaryotic organisms belong to Domains Archaea and Bacteria.

These are unicellular organisms measuring about 1-2um in size and lack
nucleus and membrane-bound organelles. Domain Bacteria possesses cell
wall made up of peptidoglycan while Domain Archaea consists of organisms
that live in extreme environments and having no peptidoglycan in their cell
wall. Bacteria affect man and animals in different ways. As decomposers, they
help recycle nutrients in the environment. They are also used in
bioremediation, in food industry and biotechnology. However, a number of
species are pathogens of animals and human beings.
II. OBJECTIVES
At the end of the exercise, the students should be able to

a. enumerate the characteristics of prokaryotes,
b. recognize the groups of prokaryotes,
c. list some prokaryotes considered as human pathogens,
d. list economically important prokaryotes,
e. isolate animal-associated bacteria, and
f. perform Gram-staining as pre-identification of the isolated bacteria.
III. MATERIALS
Prepared slides:
Escherichia coli immersion oil
Staphylococcus aureus scalpel
1 nutrient agar plate per group forceps
1 sterile test tube with 5 ml dH2O
1 piece sterile plastic cellophane
inoculating loop/wire loop
Glass slides and cover slips
alcohol lamp
Gram-staining kit
IV. PROCEDURE
A. Prokaryote Groups
Prokaryotes are ubiquitous in nature. They are highly diverse microorganisms that
inhabit virtually all types of environment and are believed to be the first inhabitants of
the planet. Based on morphological, physiological, or ecological similarities, bacteria
can be grouped as purple sulphur bacteria, green sulphur bacteria, cyanobacteria,
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spirochaetes, chemolithotrophs, facultatively aerobic Gram-negative rods, rickettsias,
Gram-positive cocci, and Mycoplasmas. They are also classified according to
morphology, mode of nutrition, Gram reaction, temperature, pH, and oxygen
requirements. See table in the data sheet for their classification and fill-up the table
for the information asked for.
B. Bacteria as Human Pathogens
Some bacteria are detrimental to man and animals by causing various diseases.
Some of these are listed in the Data Sheet. Determine the diseases caused by these
bacteria. See answer sheet and complete the table.
C. Economically important bacteria in animals
The widespread application of genetic and genomic approaches has revealed a
bacterial world astonishing in its ubiquity and diversity (Lozupone, et al., 2012). The
vast range of animal–bacterial interactions (Kieft & Simmons, 2015), whether in
shared ecosystems or intimate symbioses, is fundamentally altering our understanding
of animal biology (De Vrese & Schrezenmeir, 2008).
In the Data Sheet, explain and investigate the relationships between and among
bacteria and their animal partners in understanding of the natural world.
D. Isolation, culturing and Gram-staining of bacteria from fish gut.

1. Prior to bacterial isolation, each group should prepare 1 nutrient agar (NA)
plate and sterile test tube with 5 ml distilled water. Refer to your instructor on
how to prepare these materials.
2. Wear your gloves, lab gown and face mask, and always observe proper aseptic
techniques for the next steps.
3. In the laminar flow, place the tilapia fish in a sterile plastic cellophane and
carefully dissect the fish by making a horizontal incision along the ventral fins
to expose the intestines.
4. Remove the intestines and place it in a sterile Petri dish. Using a sterile
scalpel, cut the intestines into pieces. Pick-up the intestines using sterile
forceps and place it in a test tube with sterile water and mix gently.
5. Using a micropipette and sterile yellow pipette tip, obtain 100 μl of the water-
intestine mixture and dispense it to the surface of the NA plate. Spread the
inoculum using a glass spreader.
6. Incubate the NA plate at 35°C (incubator) for 24 hours.
7. Check for the presence of bacterial colonies in the agar surface. Set aside your
agar plates for Gram-staining.
8. Prepare and heat-fix smear.
a. Wash a glass slide thoroughly and pat it dry. Place one drop of distilled
water in the center of the slide.
b. Using a sterile wire loop, pick one isolated colony from the agar plate
culture and mix it with the water in the slide.
c. Spread the water-inoculum mixture in a rotational motion by using the wire
loop.
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d. Air-dry the bacterial smear.
e. Heat-fix the air-dried smear by passing the slide over the flame 3 to 5 times.
9. Flood the smear with crystal violet stain for 1 minute. Drain the stain and
wash the smear with water using a wash bottle.
10. Flood the smear with gram‟s iodine for 1 minute. Drain the reagent and wash
the smear with water using a wash bottle.
11. Add drops of 95% ethanol to the smear for 15-20 seconds. Do not prolong this
step because it may cause over decolorization.
12. Add drops of safranin to the smear for 1 minute. Drain the reagent and wash
the smear with water using a wash bottle.
13. Blot-dry the stained smear using a tissue paper.
14. Add a drop of immersion oil to the stained smear and examine under OIO.
15. Identify the Gram reaction of the cells and determine the cell‟s morphology.
16. Record your observation.
V. RESULTS AND OBSERVATIONS. Do the tasks in the data sheet.
References:
Engelkirk, P. G., & Duben-Engelkirk, J. L. (2015). Burton's microbiology for

the health sciences (Tenth edition.). Philadelphia: Wolters Kluwer Health.
Harley, J. P., & Prescott, L. M. (2005). Laboratory exercises in microbiology.
New York: McGraw-Hill.
Kieft, T. L., & Simmons, K. A. (2015). Allometry of animal-microbe
interactions and global census of animal-associated microbes.
Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences.
http://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2015.0702
Lozupone, C. A., Stombaugh, J. I., Gordon, J. I., Jansson, J. K., & Knight, R.
(2012). Diversity, stability and resilience of the human gut microbiota.
Nature. http://doi.org/10.1038/nature11550
Talaro, K. P., & Chess, B. (2018). Foundations in microbiology. McGraw-Hill.
Tortora, G. J., Funke, B. R., & Case, C. L. (2016). Microbiology: An
introduction (Twelfth edition.). Boston: Pearson.
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Lab. Instructor:
DATA SHEET
EXERCISE NO. 21
PROKARYOTIC ORGANISMS

1. Draw your Gram-stained bacteria as seen under the HPO/OIO.
2. Classify the above bacteria based on:

a. shape of the cell:
b. Gram reaction:
VII. CONCLUSION
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VIII. GUIDE QUESTIONS
1. Differentiate prokaryotes from eukaryotes.
2. What are the two major groups of prokaryotes?
3. Draw a prokaryotic cell and label the parts.
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4. Classification of prokaryotes.
Classification Example Important Roles Disease they cause

(Scientific (if any) (if any)
name)
A. Morphology:
1. Coccus
2. Bacillus
3. Spiral
a. spirochete
b. spirilli
c. vibrio
B. Gram staining
1. Gram-Negative
2. Gram-Positive
C. Mode of nutrition
1. Phototrophs
2. Chemotrophs
3. Autotrophs
4. Heterotrophs
D. Optimum temperature
for growth
1. Psychrophiles
2. Psychrotrophs
3. Mesophiles
4. Thermophiles
5. Hyperthermophiles
E. Optimum pH for
growth
1. Acidophiles
2. Alkaliphiles
3. Neutrophiles
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Classification Example Important Roles Disease they cause
(Scientific (if any) (if any)
name)
F. Oxygen requirement
for growth
1. Obligate aerobes
2. Facultative
anaerobes
3. Aerotolerant
anaerobes
4. Microaerophiles
5. Obligate anaerobes
5. Bacterial groups based on morphological, physiological and ecological similarities.

Characteristics Example
Purple sulphur bacteria
Green sulphur bacteria
Cyanobacteria
Spirochaetes
Chemolithotrophs
Facultatively aerobic Gram-

negative rods
Rickettsias
Gram-positive cocci
Mycoplasmas
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6. Human pathogenic bacteria.
Name of Bacteria Disease

Staphylococcus aureus
Streptococcus pyogenes
Salmonella typhi
Neisseria gonorrhoeae
Neisseria meningitidis
Yersinia pestis
Helicobacter pylori
Mycobacterium tuberculosis
Bacillus anthracis
Clostridium tetani
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EXERCISE NO. 22
ANIMAL-LIKE PROTISTS: PROTOZOA
Glenda Z. Doblas
I. INTRODUCTION
In the 5-kingdom classification by Whitakker, the protozoa is a

subkingdom of the Kingdom Protista. The protozoans are unicellular
organisms dubbed as animal-like protists. They inhabit almost all kinds of
moist habitats. There are more than 50,000 described species, several of which
are free-living while others are commensals, and some are parasitic. Some
protozoans are causative agents of some human diseases. Examples are
Toxoplasma, Entamoeba and Plasmodium. Analysis of rRNA genes and
proteins has led to the revision of protozoan classification into several phyla.
However, in this laboratory, we will stick to the informal groupings based on
the locomotory organelles.
II. OBJECTIVES

1. culture representative protozoa; and
2. discuss the structure and characteristics of representative protozoa.
III. MATERIALS
Petri dish
Jar
Pondweed
Water
Hay, straw or grass clippings
Yeast
Dropper
Glass slide and cover slip
Prepared slides: Amoeba proteus, Paramecium, Euglena, Any parasitic
protozoan
IV. PROCEDURE
D. Culture of protozoa
1. To culture Amoeba proteus, obtain a few pondweeds from a pond and
place in a petri dish. Add water just enough to cover the plants. Place
the dish in a dark room and leave it for several days until a brown
scum forms at the surface. Prepare a wet mount by placing a drop of
the culture on the slide and cover with a cover slip. Examine under the
microscope. Look for transparent jelly-like structures changing shape
and with projection-like structures as they move along the surface.
151 | P a g e
Observe the movement and watch the formation of pseudopodia.
Photograph and draw the organism. Label the parts.
2. Hay infusion for mixed protozoa. Obtain hay, straw or dead grass
clippings from your backyard. Place a handful in a jar half-filled with
water (tap or pond water). Add a pinch of yeast. Leave the jar in a
warm place overnight. Obtain drops from the surface and place on a
glass slide. Cover with a cover slip and examine under the microscope.
Do the same from samples near the grass and bottom of jar. Identify
and draw the protozoans and label the parts.
E. Classification and characteristics of protozoa
1. Sarcodina. Examine a prepared slide of Amoeba proteus. Locate the
pseudopodia, ectoplasm, endoplasm, and nucleus. What are the
characteristics of this phylum? What are the other representatives of
this phylum?
2. Ciliophora. Examine prepared slide of Paramecium. Identify the
macronucleus and micronucleus, vacuoles, endoplasm, ectoplasm,
pellicle and cilia. What are the characteristics of this phylum? What are
the other representatives of this phylum?
3. Mastigophora. Examine a prepared slide of Euglena. Identify the
flagellum, nucleus and chloroplast. What are the characteristics of this
phylum? What are the other representatives of this phylum?
4. Apicomplexa. Examine prepared slide of Plasmodium. Is it free-living
or parasitic? Motile or non-motile? Draw the organism. What are the
other representatives of this phylum?
V. RESULTS AND OBSERVATIONS. Do the tasks in the Data Sheets.
References:
Cavalier-Smith, T. (1993). Kingdom protozoa and its 18 phyla. Microbiological

reviews, 57(4), 953-994.
USA.
Kite, L. P. (2009). Unicellular organisms. Chicago: Raintree.
Lee, J. J., Huntner, S. H., & E.C. Bovee. (1985). An illustrated guide to the protozoa.
Society of Protozoologists.
USA.
Murray, P. R., Rosenthal, K. S., & Pfaller, M. A. (2016). Medical microbiology (8th
edition.). Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier.
Tortora, G. J., Funke, B. R., & Case, C. L. (2016). Microbiology: An introduction
(Twelfth edition.). Boston: Pearson.
Pearson.
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Lab. Instructor:
DATA SHEET
EXERCISE NO. 22
ANIMAL-LIKE PROTISTS: PROTOZOA
1. Draw the protozoans observed in the culture and in the prepared slides.
Label the parts.
Name: Name: Name:

Phylum: Phylum: _ Phylum: _
Name: Name: Name:

Name: Name: Name:

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VI. CONCLUSION

1. What characteristic makes the protozoans animal-like?
2. What characteristic makes the protozoa a member of the microbial world?
3. Compare the 4 groups of protozoans in terms of its locomotory organelle.

Mastigophora
Ciliophora
Sarcodina
Apicomplexa
4. What are the two life/developmental stages of protozoans?
5. Enumerate disease-causing protozoans.

Scientific name Disease
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EXERCISE NO. 23
DIVERSITY OF ANIMAL LIFE:
THE SPONGES (PORIFERA)
Emmanuel P. Leaño and Marilou M. Ediza
I. INTRODUCTION
Members of this phylum are commonly called sponges. Their bodies are
perforated with openings giving them the name “pore-bearing animals”. The sponges
are the simplest of the multicellular animals because the cells are not organized into
definite tissues and organs. They are also asymmetrical (have no symmetry), sessile
(adults are unable to move), and filter-feeding animals. They are entirely aquatic,
most of which are marine (live in saltwater) and a few are fresh water forms.
Water and food enter the sponge through a series of small pores called
ostioles. The ostioles lead into radial canals which empty into a large chamber inside
the sponge called the spongocoel. Water is circulated through the sponge by many
flagellated collar cells, which line the radial canals. These collar cells ingest tiny
organisms and organic matter. Mobile amoebocytes transport the nutrients and wastes
to and from other parts of the sponge within the jelly-like middle layer of the sponge
wall called the mesoglea. Amoebocytes are also responsible for forming spicules
(sponge skeleton) and reproductive cells. Sponges can also reproduce asexually by
budding.
II. OBJECTIVES
At the end of the exercise, the student should be able to identify the parts of a
sponge, and classify sponges at the class level.
III. MATERIALS
• Microscope and Dissecting Microscope
• Preserved specimens of sponges
• Prepared slides of sponges and spicules
IV. PROCEDURE
1. Using a dissecting microscope, examine the exterior of the sponge and locate
the main opening called the osculum. In the body wall, examine also the
smaller pores called ostioles or ostia.
2. Obtain some spicules and examine under the microscope. Draw.
3. Obtain preserved sponges available in the laboratory. Classify to the class
level based on the type of spicules.
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References:
USA.
R., & Campbell, N. A. (2014). Campbell biology (Tenth edition.). Boston:
Pearson.
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Lab. Instructor:
DATA SHEET
EXERCISE NO. 23
THE SPONGES (PORIFERA)
Drawing: Draw and label.
Sponge Spicules
VI. CONCLUSION
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1. Name the three major classes of this phylum and give examples for each.
Characteristics Example
Calcarea
(calcareous sponges)
Hexactinellida
(glass sponges)
Demospongiae
(bath sponges)
2. Give the economic importance of the sponges.
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EXERCISE NO. 24
THE COELENTERATES (CNIDARIA)
I. INTRODUCTION
This is commonly called a phylum of sac-like animals. The coelenterates are
radially symmetrical organisms, which are entirely aquatic and mostly marine. They
have tentacles armed with cnidoblasts (stinging cells). Each organism has a blind
digestive cavity called the gastrovascular cavity. It has only one opening (mouth) for
food to enter and wastes to exit. Coelenterates have a tissue level of organization with
contractile fibers and a nerve net with sensory cells, but no brain. They lack well-
defined organ systems.
Coelenterates may have two body forms: the sessile polyp and the free-
swimming medusa. Some coelenterates pass through both body forms during their life
cycle.
II. OBJECTIVES
1) identify the parts of Hydra,
2) identify the preserved/mounted specimens and classify them.
III. MATERIALS
Preserved Specimens: corals, jellyfish, and sea anemone
Microscope
Prepared slides: Hydra and Obelia
IV. PROCEDURE
1. Hydra. Obtain a prepared slide of Hydra and identify its basal disc (point of
attachment), body, tentacles and mouth (located in the center of the ring of
tentacles). Hydra reproduces by budding. A new individual grows from a bud in
the side of the body of the parent. Identify the kinds of buds present in the
specimen (if any).
2. Obelia. Observe the demonstration slides of Obelia. This is a marine, colonial

coelenterate, which passes through both forms during the life of the same
individual. The main stage in the life cycle is the polyp. The body of an organism
is encased in a hard, protective sheath called the perisarc. In the colony there are
two types of polyps. The feeding polyps have mouths and tentacles. The
reproductive polyps produce medusa by asexual budding. Male and female
medusae produce sperm and eggs, respectively, which fuse to form zygotes. The
zygotes develop into free swimming larvae that migrate away, settle down and
develop into new polyp colonies.
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3. Jellyfish. Observe several examples of jellyfish. Identify their bell-shaped
bodies, tentacles and mouths. The Portuguese man-of-war is somewhat an
exception to this. It is actually a colony composed of a large medusa (float) and
suspended polyps.
4. Sea Anemones. Observe some examples of sea anemones. These marine

coelenterates are the largest of the polyps. On the sea anemone identify the basal
disc, body, mouth, and tentacles.
5. Corals. Observe several examples of corals. The corals are polyps, which secrete
calcium carbonate cups around them. The individual cups remain after the
polyps die and accumulate to form reefs.
Examine these and other available specimens. Draw and label the parts.
References:
USA.
Pechenik, J.A. (2015). Biology of the Invertebrates. Boston: Pearson: McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc.
Pearson.
160 | P a g e
Lab. Instructor:
DATA SHEET
EXERCISE NO. 24
THE COELENTERATES (CNIDARIA)
Drawing:
Hydra
Obelia
161 | P a g e
Jellyfish
Portuguese Man-of-war
Sea Anemones
162 | P a g e
Corals
VI. CONCLUSION
VII. GUIDE QUESTION

1. Differentiate between polyp and medusa body forms of coelenterates.
2. What is meant by diploblastic?
3. Name the major classes of Phylum Cnidaria. What is the conspicuous body
form in each class?
4. Give and describe briefly the 3 types of reefs.
5. Explain the ecological and economic importance of coelenterates.
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164 | P a g e
EXERCISE NO. 25
THE FLATWORMS (PLATYHELMINTHES)
I. INTRODUCTION
The flatworms are bilaterally symmetrical, aquatic or parasitic animals with
well-defined organ systems. They have highly developed muscular system and ladder
type nervous system with primitive brains. Some flatworms have simple eyes that are
able to perceive changes in light intensity, but cannot focus images. The digestive
system consists of a mouth, pharynx, (muscular organ used for tearing and
swallowing) and a blind intestine (has no exit). They also have primitive excretory
systems. Flatworms are acoelomate (lack body cavities).
II. OBJECTIVES
1) identify the parts of representative flatworm specimens;
2) name the common parasitic flatworms and the diseases caused by
them; and
3) diagram the life cycle of a fluke and a tapeworm.
III. MATERIALS
• Prepared Slides (Planaria, Fasciola, Schistosoma, Taenia)
• Microscope
IV. PROCEDURE
1. Planarian. Observe the demonstration slide of a stained planarian.

Identify the simple eyes, mouth, pharynx and three-lobed branched
intestine.
2. Fluke. Examine prepared slides of Fasciola (liver fluke) and Schistosoma

(blood fluke). Flukes are parasites with complex life histories requiring
two hosts. Adult flukes infect the livers, intestine, blood, lungs or skin of
vertebrates. Larval stages infect snails. Flukes differ from planarian in
having no pharynx, no simple eyes and a blind intestine with only two
lobes.
3. Tapeworm. Tapeworms are two-host parasites in vertebrates. The adults

infect the intestines of meal-eating vertebrates, while the larval stages
infect the muscle of herbivores like cows and pigs. Tapeworms are
segmented and lack digestive system. The brain is located in a head-like
structure called the scolex. Each segment has a complete set of body parts.
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Examine a prepared slide of Taenia showing the segments of a
tapeworm. Start on the left-hand side of the slide. Identify the scolex with
its four large suckers and two rows of hooks used for attaching itself to the
host. As you move to the right of the slide you are moving farther and
farther away from the scolex down the body of a tapeworm (which may
reach 10 m long). As you move away the segments become more and more
mature. The dark structures, which begin to appear in the segments, are the
reproductive organs, and the swellings on the side of each segment are the
genital pores. Eggs are fertilized and develop into zygotes inside the
mature segments. The segments containing the zygotes will eventually
pass out the body with the feces. If cows or pigs ingest them they will
become infected. Each zygote will develop into a larva, which will burrow
through the intestine wall and encyst in the muscle tissue of the cow or
pig. Eating poorly cooked meat infects predators.
References:
USA.
Companies, Inc.
Pearson.
166 | P a g e
Lab. Instructor:
DATA SHEET
EXERCISE NO. 25
THE FLATWORMS (PLATYHELMINTHES)
Drawing:
Planarian
Fluke
Tapeworm
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Outline the life cycle of Schistosoma japonicum below.
VI. CONCLUSION
VII. GUIDE QUESTION
1. Name some parasitic flukes and tapeworms and the diseases they cause.
a. Flukes
Scientific Name/Common Name Disease
b. Tapeworms
2. Define the following:

a. acoelomate
b. tripoblastic
c. hermaphroditic
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EXERCISE NO. 26
THE ROUNDWORMS (ASCHELMINTHES)
I. INTRODUCTION
The roundworms are bilaterally symmetrical animals that occur nearly
everywhere (aquatic, terrestrial or parasitic). The muscular system is poorly
developed and allows only thrashing movements. The nervous system consists of a
primitive brain and four nerve cords. Roundworms are the first animals to have
developed a one-way digestive system. It consists of a mouth, pharynx, long intestine
and anus. The excretory system consists of two long collecting tubes, which empty to
the outside through the excretory pore. Roundworms are pseudocoelomate (have false
body cavities filled with fluid). The body cavity is considered to be false because
initially it is not completely lined by mesoderm (embryonic tissue which forms
muscle). As a result most of the internal organs are not surrounded by muscles, as
yours and mine.
II. OBJECTIVES
1) identify the parts of Ascaris sp. as representative roundworm; and
2) name some nematode which are parasitic to humans or domesticated
animals.
III. MATERIALS
• Ascaris sp. (Preserved and prepared slides)
• Preserved and prepared slides of other roundworms
• Dissecting Pan
• Dissecting Set
• Gloves
• Mask
• Sanitary Kit
IV. PROCEDURE
1. Ascaris
Obtain a parasitic roundworm to dissect. Males are 15-30 cm long and
have sharply curved posterior ends. Females are usually longer and are
straight. Identify the mouth and examine the three lips under a dissecting
microscope. Sensory receptors are located in the lips. On the ventral surface
just posterior to the mouth is the excretory pore not easily visible. In female
roundworms, about a third of the way down the body from the mouth on the
ventral surface is the genital pore (exit for the reproductive system). Slightly
anterior to the tail end on the ventral surface is the anus (exit for the digestive
system).
With the scalpel, make a shallow incision along the length of the body.
Spread the skin apart and pin it down. The cavity you see is the pseudocoelom
169 | P a g e
(false body cavity). In it locate the pharynx, intestine and parts of the
reproductive system. You will be held responsible for both sexes, so make sure
you examine another group‟s specimen of the opposite sex as well as your
own.
2. Study some prepared slides of roundworms.
VII. RESULTS AND OBSERVATIONS. Do the tasks in data sheets.
References:
USA.
Companies, Inc.
Pearson.
170 | P a g e
Lab. Instructor:
DATA SHEET
EXERCISE NO. 26
THE ROUNDWORMS (ASCHELMINTHES)
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
F.
A G.
H.
I.
J.
K.
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VI. CONCLUSION
1. What is meant by sexual dimorphism?
2. Distinguish between male and female nematodes.
3. What is meant by pseudocoelomate?
4. What is the advantage of having a body cavity?
5. How do intestinal roundworms resist digestion?
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EXERCISE NO. 27
THE SEGMENTED WORMS (ANNELIDA)
I. INTRODUCTION
Segmented worms are bilaterally symmetrical, segmented animals which are

coelomate. They have true body cavity (coelom) filled with the fluid and initially
completely lined with mesoderm (embryonic tissue which forms muscles). As a
result, this is the first phylum to have muscle around the internal organs as well as the
outer body wall.
The nervous system in the segmented worms consists of a primitive brain and
a single ventral solid nerve cord. There are small swellings on the nerve cord in each
segment called ganglia. Some segmented worms have simple eyes capable of
distinguishing different intensities of light, but not images.
The segmented worms have well-developed muscular system. The digestive
system consists of a mouth, pharynx, esophagus, crop (food storage chamber), gizzard
(muscular organ which grinds food with the help of sand grains) intestine and anus.
The excretory system consists of a pair of nephridia in each segment. A nephridium is
a funnel lined with cilia, which empties by means of a long tube out through an
excretory pore. It removes metabolic waste products from the fluid in the coelom.
Segmented worms have well-developed circulatory system consisting of five
paired hearts, a dorsal blood vessel, a ventral blood vessel and a smaller connecting
blood vessels. The blood consists of plasma containing dissolved hemoglobin for
oxygen transport and white blood cells for disease protection.
Since the blood never leaves the blood vessels, the circulatory system is said to be
closed.
Most segmented worms are hermaphroditic (have both male and female
reproductive organs in the same body).
II. OBJECTIVES
At the end of the exercise, the student should be able to identify the parts of
earthworm as a representative annelid and identify and classify other annelids.
III. MATERIALS
Preserved Specimens (leech, earthworm, sandworm)
Earthworm model
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IV. PROCEDURE
1. Sandworms (Class Polychaeta). Sandworms are marine holotrophs (eat other

organisms).
Nereis. Observe a sandworm Nereis. Identify the parapodia, distinct head with
tentacles and hard black jaws.
Comparison of major classes of annelids.
Distinctive Features Polychaeta Hirudinea Oligochaeta

Examples Sandworms Leeches and Earthworms &
Blood suckers night crawlers
Habitat Marine Freshwater Terrestrial
Setae (bristles used for Present Present Present
locomotion)
Parapodia (fleshy appendages Present Absent Absent
used for locomotion)
Distinct head with tentacles Present Absent Absent
Free-swimming larvae Present Absent Absent
Simple eyes Present Present Absent
Jaws Present Present Absent
Suckers Absent Present Absent
Clitellum (swelling which Absent Present present
secretes a cocoon around the
fertilized eggs)
2. Leeches and Bloodsuckers (Class Hirudinea). Leeches and blood suckers are
aquatic parasites. They attach to the skin of larger animals and suck blood and
wait for a new host to come along.
Hirudo. Observe the medicinal LEECH. Identify the small anterior sucker and
large posterior sucker. The mouth is located in the anterior sucker. These leeches
were once used by physicians to remove blood (and therefore disease-causing
substance) from patients.
3. Earthworms and Night Crawlers (Class Oligochaeta). Earthworms are

terrestrial saprotrophs (digest organic matter in the soil).
Lumbricus. Obtain an earthworm for dissection. Identify the clitellum, mouth and
anus. On the ventral surface of the segment 15, identify the paired male genital
pores. The paired female genital pores are located on the ventral surface of
segment 14, but are not easily seen.
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With a scalpel carefully cut a shallow line down the dorsal surface of the
worm from the mouth posteriorly to just below the clitellum. Carefully open up the
coelom, exposing the internal organs. The flaps of tissue, which separate the segments
internally, are called septa.
Identify the five paired hearts (segments 7-11) and the dorsal blood vessel,
which appears as a dark line down the intestine. Identify the pharynx, esophagus,
crop, gizzard and intestine.
In the area of the hearts you will see some yellowish, swollen bodies. These
are the seminal vessicle (part of the reproductive system). In each segment posterior to
the gizzard locate the tiny white nephridia. They are located against the body wall.
With forceps carefully remove the hearts and digestive organs. This procedure
should expose the ventral blood vessel (dark line running the length of the body).
Below the ventral blood vessel is the ventral nerve cord (white line running the length
of the body). Note the ganglia (swellings) along its length.
Follow the nerve cord anteriorly to find the pair of swellings, which compose
the primitive brain. Beneath the nerve cord you may see a smaller blood vessel called
the subneural blood vessel.
Earthworm Model. After you finish your dissection, locate the parts on the
earthworm model and relate the structures with their functions.
V. RESULTS AND OBSERVATIONS. Do tasks in data sheet.
References:
USA.
Companies, Inc.
Pearson.
175 | P a g e
176 | P a g e
Lab. Instructor:
DATA SHEET
EXERCISE NO. 27
THE SEGMENTED WORMS (ANNELIDA)
A. D.
B. E.
C.
A. I.
B. J.
C. K.
D. L.
E. M.
F. N.
G. O.
H. P.
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Q. T.
R. U.
S. V.
Drawing:
Neries sp.
Hirudo sp.
178 | P a g e
VI. CONCLUSION
1. What two blood components are missing?
2. What human organ is comparable in function to the crop and gizzard?
3. What would be the function of the ganglia?
4. What would be the function of the brain?
179 | P a g e
180 | P a g e
EXERCISE NO. 28
THE SOFT-BODIED ANIMALS (MOLLUSCA)
I. INTRODUCTION
The mollusks are bilaterally symmetrical, unsegmented animals. They are

coelomate, but the coelom is greatly reduced in size. Their relatively fleshy bodies
consist of four basic parts:
a) Head (usually with tentacles)
b) Foot (muscular organ used for locomotion)
c) Visceral mass (main body trunk containing most of the internal organ
systems)
d) Mantle (leathery layer of the epidermis, which completely surrounds
the body of the mollusk and is responsible for secretion of the shell).
The nervous system of the mollusks typically consists of a well-developed
brain and a single ventral solid nerve cord. Most also have well-developed sense
organs. The muscular system is also well-developed.
The digestive system consists of a mouth with mouthparts, esophagus,
stomach, intestine, anus and liver. The nephridia of the excretory system are grouped
into one or two kidneys.
The circulatory system consists of arteries, veins and a heart with one or two
atria and one ventricle. The blood from the arteries drains into spaces in the tissues
called blood sinuses which are also connected to veins. Since the blood does not
always remain in the blood vessels, this type of system is referred to as open.
The blood consists of plasma containing a copper-based oxygen carrier called
hemocyanin instead of hemoglobin. It is blue when it is carrying oxygen and colorless
when it is not. Mollusks have white blood cells also.
The mollusks are the first group we have studied to evolve respiratory
systems. The respiratory organs in aquatic forms are gills (special membranes filled
with blood vessels and covered with cilia that absorb oxygen from water and release
carbon dioxide). The land snails have evolved lungs.
Most species (except some snails) have separate male and females.
1) Chitons (Class Polyplachora). The chitons are the most primitive living
mollusks. They are marine algae-eaters.
2) Clam, Oysters and Mussels (Class Bivalvia). Bivalves are burrowing,

freshwater or marine filter feeders. They are characterized by the presence of
a shell composed of two-hinged valves.
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Comparison of major classes of mollusks.
Distinctive Polyplacophora Bivalvia Gastropoda Cephalopoda

Feature
Examples Chitons& Clams, Snails & Squid &
Oysters Slugs & Nautilus Octopus
Mussels
Habitat Marine Marine and Marine, Marin

Freshwater Freshwater,
Terrestrial
Shell type 8 valves 2-hinged 1 coiled, 1 coiled,

valves unchambered chambered
valve valve, pen or
absent
Protection Shell Shell Shell Camouflage,

Ink glands +
shell
Means of Foot Foot Foot Siphon

locomotion
Type of movement Creeping Burrowing Creeping Jet propulsion
Mouth parts Radula Labial Palps Radula Radula and

Beak
Brain Simple 3 Ganglia Simple Advance
Respiratory organs Gills Gills Gills or Gills

Lungs
Circulatory system Open Open Open Closed
Siphons Absent 2 Siphons Absent 1 Siphons
Torsion Absent Absent Present Absent
Eyes Absent Absent Simple Complex
Tentacles Absent Absent 2 pair 8-10-many
182 | P a g e
II. OBJECTIVES
At the end of the exercise, the student should be able to identify the parts of
representative mollusks and be able to classify them.
III. MATERIALS
• Dissecting Pan
• Dissecting Set
• Mollusks (clam, snail, squid)
IV. PROCEDURE
1. Class Bivalvia. Observe some examples of various species of clams, oysters and
mussels.
Clam. Obtain a clam for dissection. Identify its dorsal, ventral, anterior and
posterior surfaces. The hump on the dorsal side of each valve is the umbo. It is the
oldest part of the shell. Notice the concentric growth rings, which emanate from the
umbo. Unfortunately, several rings may be produced in the same year, so they cannot
be used to accurately estimate the age of the individual.
With a scalpel cut the two large adductor muscles, which keep the clam shell
closed. As you pull the two valves apart, carefully separate the body of the clam from
the valve. Identify the posterior adductor muscles and the anterior adductor muscle.
Adjacent to these are the smaller posterior and anterior retractor muscles which are
used to retreat the foot into the shell. The leathery flap, which covers the rest of the
clam, is the mantle. Between the two mantle flaps on the posterior end, locate the
siphons. The incurrent siphons (one farthest from the posterior adductor muscle) draw
water into the mantle cavity. The gills remove oxygen from this water and food
particles are filtered out and transferred to the mouth by the labial palps. Other
mollusks have a rasp-like radula to scrape and tear in place of the labial palps. Water
and wastes exit from the mantle cavity through the excurrent siphon (one nearest the
posterior adductor muscle).
Cut away the mantle to expose the mantle cavity. Identify the visceral mass,
foot, labial palps and gills.
Ask for the instructors help. He/she will show you how to cut a longitudinal
section through the visceral mass to expose the internal organs.
Inside the visceral mass identify the esophagus, stomach, intestine (cream-
colored tube), liver (greenish, pulpy material) and gonads (yellowish, pulpy material).
The gonads are part of the reproductive system. Just above the visceral mass you can
find the continuation of the intestine as it runs posteriorly toward the excurrent
siphon. The swelling midway along the intestine is the heart.
2. Class Gastropoda (Snails and Slugs). Gastropods are slow moving aquatic or
terrestrial mollusks whose bodies have undergone torsion. This means that the
visceral mass has twisted back on itself 1800 placing the mouth and anus in the same
region. Gastropods have two pairs of sensory tentacles, simple eyes, capable only of
perceiving changes in light intensity, which are located at the tips of the long
tentacles. The terrestrial gastropods are the only members of the mollusks to have
183 | P a g e
developed lungs. Aquatic gastropods still have gills. Some gastropods secrete coiled,
unchambered shells.
Snails (observed some example of snails, identify the coiled shell, foot, head
and sensory tentacles with simple eyes).
3. Class Cephalopoda (Nautilus, Squid and Octopus). Cephalopods are marine
carnivores. In this group, the head and foot regions are fused to form a head with
tentacles and are covered with adhesive suckers which are used for capturing prey.
Most cephalopods rely on camouflage (they can change the colors of their skin
pigments to match their surroundings) and ink glands (secrete the brown-black
pigment melanin through the anus to form a smoke screen for protection although
more primitive members like the nautilus, have coiled chambered shells). The squid
has only a small internal shell called a pen, and the octopus has no shell at all.
Cephalopods have well-developed brains and are capable of learning. Their
complex eyes are better than our own. They can focus clear images in living color.
Human eyes focus by changing the shape of the lens. Cephalopod eyes focus by
moving the lens forward or backward, like a camera. This gives them much greater
depth of vision.
Nautilus (Observe a Nautilus and identify the coiled chambered shell and
many tentacles).
Squid (Observe a squid and identify the finned mantle, head-foot with
complex eyes, siphon and tentacles with adhesive suckers).
Cephalopods move by forcing water out of the siphon. This provides a means
for rapid movement by jet propulsion.
Octopus (Observe an octopus and identify the visceral mass, head-foot with
complex eyes, siphon and tentacles with adhesive suckers).
VI. RESULTS AND OBSERVATIONS. Do the tasks in the data sheet.
References:
USA.
Companies, Inc.
Pearson.
184 | P a g e
Lab. Instructor:
DATA SHEET
EXERCISE NO. 28
THE SOFT-BODIED ANIMALS (MOLLUSCA)
Clam Snail
Slug Squid
Octopus
185 | P a g e
Drawing:
Nautilus
VI. CONCLUSION

1. What blood vessels do the mollusks lack?
2. What two blood components are missing?
3. How many gills does the clam have?
4. What is the major difference between a slug and a snail?
5. How many tentacles does a squid have? Are they all the same length?
6. What is the major problem with the placement of the siphon?
7. How many tentacles does the octopus have? Are they all the same length?
8. Which would you assume could swim faster, an octopus or a squid? Why?
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EXERCISE NO. 29
THE JOINT-LEGGED ANIMALS (ARTHROPODA)
Alma B. Mohagan
I. INTRODUCTION
There are so many reasons to study arthropods. They have unsurpassed

diversity and niche. The knowledge gained on them can provide an in-depth
understanding of nature and the many ways the biological problems could be met. For
example, 60% of arthropods are agricultural pests. Most of them are insects like
locust that attacked on plants, corn borers and others. Some of them are used as
indicator of a quality environment. They are adapted to varied habitats and their
speciation is very high. The knowledge of arthropods is essential as we manipulate
ecosystems for increased food production and better health. They consume or spoil
sufficient crops and products causing million to starve each year. Some of them
transmit diseases both to humans and crops. They remain a threat to health and
civilizations.
Arthropods have ecological, economic and socio-cultural uses so knowledge
of the subject can be applied in the field of agriculture, medicine, industries and
environmental management and conservation. Ecologically, most insects are biomass
converters, pollinators and indicator of a quality environment. Economically, most
insect pests serve as biocontrol by controlling the growth of other insects.
OBJECTIVES
1. examine the body plan of representative members in each class and order;
2. document the immature and adult stages of arthropods in CAS
surrounding; and
3. classify and identify them at least at the order level.
III. MATERIALS
Hand lens or Stereomicroscope Dragonfly Butterfly Millipede
Mosquito Centipede Grasshopper
IV. PROCEDURE
1. Body Plan
Obtain a grasshopper and examine using a hand lens. Identify the parts, draw
and label. Do the same using the other arthropod specimens.
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2. Taxonomy of Phylum Arthropoda (adapted from Miller and Harley, 2016)
Examine the members of Phylum Arthropoda. They are a monophyletic taxon
and differed from many other invertebrates by having the following characteristics to
examine: 1. bilateral symmetry, 2. exoskeleton with chitin that provide support and
protection and is modified to form sensory structures, 3. segmented bodies by
tagmatization for specific function, 4. appendages modified for feeding or sperm
transfer, 5. a hemocoel instead of coelom and open circulatory system, 6. Absent
cilia, 7. a ventral nerve cord and dorsal brain, 8. growth accompanied by ecdysis or
molting, 9. with complete digestive tract, and 10. metamorphosis often present that
reduces competition between immature and adult stages. They are more closely
related to nematodes, nematomorpha and other animals that shed a cuticle during
growth. It has 5 subphyla.
Subphyla and classes:
1. Subphylum Trilobitomorpha - the members are marine animals. All are
extinct, having lived from Cambrian to Carboniferous periods, bodies divided
into three longitudinal lobes, head, thorax and abdomen present, one pair of
antennae and biramous appendages.
2. Subphylum Chelicerata - utilize chelicerae for feeding. The body of the
members is divided into prosoma and opisthosoma; first pair of appendages
piercing or pincerlike (chelicerae). It has 3 classes:
a. Class Merostomata (horse-shoe crab) - marine with book gills on
opisthosoma. It has 2 subclasses: Eurypterida – extinct giant water
scorpions and Xiphosura - horseshoe crab Limulus. Draw and label the
prosoma, opisthosoma and the chelicerae.
b. Class Arachnida (spiders, harvestmen, scorpions and mites & ticks) –
antennae absent, 4 pairs of legs. Mostly terrestrial with book lungs, trachea
or both. Draw 1 representative each and label the parts highlighting the
book lungs and or trachea. It has 4 orders:
1. Order Scorpionida - scorpions
2. Order Aranae - spiders
3. Order Opilliones - harvestman
4. Order Acarina - mites
c. Class Pycnogonida (sea spiders) - reduced abdomen, no special respiratory
and excretory structures; 4 to 6 pairs of walking legs; common in all oceans
Draw a representative and label the parts.
3. Subphylum Myriapoda - body divided into head and trunk; four pairs of
head appendages; uniramus appendages (Millipedes and centipedes). It has 4
classes:
a. Class Diplopoda (millipedes) - 2 pairs of legs per segment. Draw a
representative.
b. Class Chilopoda (centipedes) - 1 pair of legs per segment, with 1st pair
modified to poison claws, spiracles lacking , gills absent. Draw a
representative and label each tagma.
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c. Class Pauropoda - small 0-5-2mm size animals, soft bodied with 11
segments and 9 pairs of legs. Lives in leaf molds.
d. Class Symphyla- small animals with 2-10 mm in size, long antennae,
centipede-like, 10-12 pairs of legs, live in soil and leaf mold.
3. Suphylum Crustacea- members are mostly aquatic animals, head 2 pairs of

antennae, 1 pair of mandibles, and two pairs of maxillae, biramous appendages.
Draw a representative on each group. Their antennae are 2 pairs, one pair
maybe greatly reduced and 5 pairs of legs. It has 5 classes:
a. Class Remipedia - ocean dwelling crustaceans. Body 30 segments that bear
uniform, biramous appendages.
b. Class Cephalocarida - small 3mm marine crustacean with uniform leaf-like
and triramous appendages
c. Class Branchiopoda - Flattened leaflike appendages used for respiration,
filter feeders and mostly found in fresh water (Brine Shrimp, fairy shrimp,
clamp shrimp and water fleas.
d. Class Malacostrata (crabs, lobsters, crayfish, shrimps, krill and isopods) -
appendages possibly modified for crawling, feeding and swimming. Mostly
are terrestrial. Draw a representative and label the parts.
e. Class Maxillopoda (barnacles and copepods) - with six thoracic and 4
abdominal somites plus telson.
4. Subphylum Hexapoda- body divided into head, thorax & abdomen, wings
may be present, 3 pairs of legs and 3 pairs uniramous appendages on thorax.
Head with 5 pairs of appendages. It has 2 classes:
a. Class Enthognatha - members are with mouth appendages hidden within the
head, mandibles with single articulation, and legs with one undivided
tarsus. It has 3 orders:
Order Diplura - campodians and japygids
Order Protura - proturans
Order Collembola - springtails
b. Class Insecta - most appendages of the members are exposed and projecting
from head, mandibles usually with 2 points of articulation, with well-
developed Malphigian tubules. It has 3 subclasses:
Subclass Archeognatha - bristle tails
Order Archeognatha-bristle tails
Subclass Zygentoma
Order Thysanura - silver fishes
Subclass Pteregota - wingless insects
Infraclass Paleoptera - Anceint winged. Wings incapable of being
folded at rest.
Order Ephemeroptera - mayflies
Order Odonata - dragonflies
Infraclass Neoptera-Wing folded at rest, venation reduced. Draw
them all.
Order Blattaria - cockroaches, walking sticks
Order Isoptera - termites
Order Orthoptera - grasshoppers and crickets
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Order Dermaptera - earwigs
Order Embioptera - embiids
Order Plecoptera - stoneflies
Order Zoraptera - zorapterans
Order Corrodentia - psocids, booklice
Order Phthiraptera - chewing and sucking lice
Order Thysanoptera - thrips
Order Hemiptera - bugs (Homoptera and Heteroptera)
Order Megaloptera - dobsonflies
Order Neuroptera - lacewings
Order Raphidiodea - snakeflies
Order Hymenoptera - bees, ants and wasps
Order Diptera - flies
Order Mantodea - praying mantis
Order Phasmida –leaf and stick insect
V. RESULTS AND OBSERVATIONS. Do tasks in data sheets.

References:
Ballentes, M.G., Mohagan A.B., Espallardo C.P. & Zarcilla M.O. (2005). Arthropod
Faunal Diversity and Interrelationships of Critical Resources in Mt.
Malindang Environs.
Borror, D.J., Triplehorn C.A. & Johnson (1989). An Introduction to the Study of
Insects 6th ed. USA: Thompson Learning Inc..
Elzinga. R.J. (1997). Fundamentals of Entomology 4th ed., Upper saddle River New
Jersey: Prentice Hall.
Gapud, V. (2005). The status of Insect Biodiversity in the Philippines. Samut-sari.
Gibbon, B. (1997). Fascinating World of Butterfly and Moth. London: Granga Book.
Miller, S.A & Harley J.P. (2016). Zoology 10th Edition. USA: McGraw-Hill
Education.
Page, M.G.P. & Treadaway, C.G. (2003). Revised Checklist of Lepidoptera:
Papilionidae found in the Philippines together with their island
Distribution, endemicity and Occurrence. Suppl.. 7-58; Keltern
(Goecke & Evers).
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Lab. Instructor:
DATA SHEET
EXERCISE NO. 29
THE JOINT-LEGGED ANIMALS (ARTHROPODA)
Drawing: Body Plan of Arthropod. Draw and label parts.
Grasshopper
Subphylum Chelicerata
Horse-Shoe Crab Scorpion Spider Harvestman
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Subphylum Myriapoda
Centipede Millipede
Subphylum Crustacea
Crab Lobster Shrimp
Subphylum Hexapoda
Dragonfly Cockroach Wasp Fly
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VI. CONCLUSION

1. What is the diagnostic characteristic of the phylum?
2. How are the structures differed from one subphylum to another?
3. What is entomology?
4. What are the applications in knowing arthropods?
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EXERCISE NO. 30
THE SPINY-SKINNED ANIMALS (ECHINODERMATA)
Joliesa Mae S. Toledo and Benjo A. Logramonte
I. INTRODUCTION
VII. Known as the spiny-skinned animals, the phylum includes sea urchins, brittle
stars, sea cucumbers, sea stars, sea lilies, sand dollars, sea biscuits, and others.
Nearly all approximately 6,500 species are marine or estuarine, but none are
freshwater species. Cephalization is absent, while body surfaces are designated as
being oral (bearing the mouth) and aboral (bears the anus). A superficial five-part
radial symmetry is observable is adults, and bilateral symmetry in larval stages.
An echinoderm such as the starfish typically has a mouth surrounded by five

arms that bear minute, fleshy tube feet with which the animal clings and crawls. The
tube feet are supported by a complex internal hydraulic system that is inflated with
seawater. Some echinoderms, especially brittle stars, crawl or swim by moving their
arms. Sometimes, as in sea urchins, rows of tube feet extend along the body surface,
and arms are absent. The spines are particularly well developed in sea urchins. The
skeleton, made up of calcium carbonate, may form a large proportion of the body, or,
as in some sea cucumbers, it may be quite small. Deviations from the five-rayed
pattern are common as shown in the fossil record and still found today, with some
having up to 50 rays. The animals have a well-developed gut, but the nervous and
circulatory systems are simple. Echinoderms are slow-moving and without complex
behavior patterns.
I. OBJECTIVES
At the end of this laboratory exercise, the students will be able to:
a. determine the important characteristics of all echinoderms,
b. distinguish among the five main groups of echinoderms, and
c. discuss some important life functions of the echinoderms.
II. MATERIALS
Preserved and lived echinoderm specimen forceps
dissecting pan T-pins
scissors scalpel
III. PROCEDURE
A. Representative Echinoderms
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1. Examine the sand dollars and sea urchins. Write down your observations
about the sand dollar and sea urchins. Include the descriptions of the
morphology (external appearance) and their differences.
2. Examine the sea cucumber. Write down your observations about the sea
cucumber, including descriptions of the morphology.
B. General Body Plan and Self-Guided Sea star Dissection (optional)
(Aboral Surface)
1. Obtain a preserved or live sea star and place in the dissecting pan with its
dorsal or aboral (top) surface upward. Determine its symmetry and locate
the central disc. Count and record the number of arms or rays the sea star
has.
2. Locate the small, round hard plate called the madreporite near the edge of
the central disc. Water enters through this into the water vascular system.
3. The anus, for excretion following digestion, is a smaller opening right next
to the madreporite.
4. To expose the internal structures of the sea star, cut one of the arms along
the horizontal plane. This should give you a better view of the internal
structures of the sea star. Note: Don‟t cut the arm bearing the madreporite.
(Oral Surface):
5. Turn the sea star over to its ventral or oral surface (underside). Look at the
tip of each arm and find the eyespot. Locate the mouth in the center of the
central disc.
6. Find the groove that extends down the underside of each arm. This is called
the ambulacral groove.
7. Feel the numerous, soft tube feet inside each groove. These are part of the
water vascular system & aid in movement and feeding.
IV. RESULTS AND OBSERVATIONS. Do tasks in the data sheets.
References:
Anderson, D.T., Ed. (2001). Invertebrate Zoology. Oxford, UK: Oxford University
Press.
Davis-Berg, E.C. (2011). Teaching the Major Invertebrate Phyla in One Laboratory
Session. The American Biology Teacher 73(5):281-284.
USA.
Pechenik, J. (2015). Biology of the Invertebrates. Boston: Pearson
USA.
Pearson.
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Lab. Instructor:
DATA SHEET
EXERCISE NO. 30
THE SPINY-SKINNED ANIMALS (ECHINODERMATA)
General Body Plan of Echinoderm. Draw and label the parts.
Starfish
Class: Crinoidea (sea lilies)
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Class: Ophiuroidea (brittle stars)
Class: Echinoidea (sea urchins and sand dollars)
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V. CONCLUSION
VI. GUIDE QUESTIONS
1. Do sand dollars and sea urchins have radial symmetry with 5, or multiples of
5, arms?
2. Echinoderm tube feet

a. What are tube feet? Write a clear definition in your own words.
b. How do tube feet operate in echinoderm locomotion?
c. How are tube feet adapted to different uses in the groups of

echinoderms?
d. Compare echinoderm locomotion to modes of locomotion used by

other invertebrate phyla. Discuss in terms anatomy, life history, and
body symmetry.
3. Echinoderm skeletal structures
a. How are skeletal structures similar across all echinoderm groups?
b. How does the arrangement of skeletal structures differ in sea urchins,

sea stars, and brittle stars?
c. How do these differences establish the way these animals move?
4. How do sea urchins, brittle stars, sea cucumbers, and crinoids protect
themselves from predators attempting to eat them?
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EXERCISE NO. 31
THE CHORDATES (CHORDATA)
Zeus S. Elumba, Emmanuel P. Leaño and Marilou M. Ediza
I. INTRODUCTION
The chordates are bilaterally symmetrical, coelomate animals that usually have
endoskeletons. All chordates have notochord (semi-rigid, rod-like structures which
provide support), dorsal hollow nerve cord and paired gill slits at some point in their
development.
II. OBJECTIVES
a. differentiate the different classes of chordates;
b. identify the parts of the representative chordates; and
c. determine the functions these parts.
I. MATERIALS
• Prepared slides of representative chordates
• Microscope
• Amphioxus model
• Prepared specimens of chordates (sharks, bony fishes, frogs, reptiles, birds,
mammals)
IV. PROCEDURE
1. Tunicates, Ascidians and Sea Squirts (Subphylum Urochordata).

Tunicates are sessile, marine filter feeders with bottle-shaped bodies enclosed
in tunics of cellulose. They have numerous gill slits and open circulatory
system. They are unsegmented and have two siphons to circulate water through
the tunics. Tunicates have free-swimming, tadpole-like larvae with muscular
tails, notochords, dorsal hollow nerve cord and brains. All these features
disappear in the adults. Examine the representative specimens of tunicates,
ascidians and sea squirts.
2. Lancelets and Amphioxus (Subphylum Cephalochordata). Lancelet are

marine filter feeders, which lives in burrows in sand. Their bodies are
transparent and dish-like but lack distinct heads. They have no paired
appendages, are segmented and have many gill slits. Their circulatory system is
open and lack hearts. Notochord and dorsal nerve cord are present throughout
their life cycles, although they lack brains. Amphioxus (observe some
preserved specimens of Amphioxus.) In the Amphioxus Model identify the
mouth, segment, gill slits, notochord and dorsal hollow nerve cord.
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3. Vertebrates (Subphylum Vertebrata). Vertebrates are aquatic or terrestrial,
segmented animals that have endoskeletons (internal skeletons). A dorsal
hollow nerve cord is found in all vertebrate adults, but the notochord and gill
slits may be present only in the embryo in some groups. A typical vertebrate
has a head, neck, trunk, tail and two pairs of jointed lateral appendages. The
skeletal system usually consists of bones, cartilage and ligaments, although
bones are absent in some groups. The endoskeleton is composed of two basic
units. The axial skeleton is composed of the skull, vertebral column and ribs.
The digestive system consists of a mouth with a tongue, jaws, and

teeth, a pharynx, an esophagus, a stomach, an intestine, an anus, a liver, and a
pancreas. In the excretory system the kidneys drain by means of ureters into
the urinary bladder and out through the urethra. The main excretory product
may be ammonia (liquid), urea (liquid) or uric acid (solid) depending upon the
species. The circulatory system in the vertebrates is closed. It is composed of a
two to four chambered hearts, arteries, capillaries, and veins. The blood
contains plasma, erythrocytes, with hemoglobin, leukocytes and thrombocytes.
The cardiovascular system is often aided by a lymphatic system composed of
lymph vessel and lymph. The major respiratory organs are lungs, in terrestrial
species and gills in aquatic species.
The reproductive system in the vertebrates is well developed with

separate males and females. In addition to the other systems, birds and
mammals have well-developed endocrine system.
A. Lampreys and Hagfishes (Class Agnatha). Lampreys and hagfishes are

freshwater or marine carnivores. They have strange features of having
only one nostril, lacking a stomach and having the teeth located on the
tongue. Observe examples of these primitive eel-like organism.
B. Sharks and Stingrays (Class Chondrichthyes). Sharks and stingrays are

marine carnivores. They are similar to the lampreys and hagfishes in that
they lack bones. Their skeletons are composed entirely of cartilage.
Observe an example of a shark and shark jaws.
C. Bony fishes (Class Osteichthyes). Bony fishes may live in freshwater or

marine environments and may have a wide range of eating habits
depending upon the species. (Observe examples of bony fishes).
D. Amphibians (Class Amphibia). Amphibians, as adults, are terrestrial

carnivores. (Observe examples of several amphibians).
E. Reptiles (Class Reptilia). Reptiles are terrestrial carnivores (Observe

some examples of reptiles).
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F. Birds (Class Aves). Birds are terrestrial vertebrates capable of flight.
They can have a wide variety of eating habits depending upon the species.
(Observe examples of some common birds).
G. Mammals (Class Mammalia). Mammals are primarily terrestrial

vertebrates, although there are some marine mammals. (Observe some
examples of mammals.)
Comparison of the major classes of vertebrates.

Distinctive Features Agnatha Chondrichthyes Osteichthyes
Example Lampreys and Sharks and sting Bonyfishes

hagfishes rays
Habitat Aquatic Marine Aquatic
Nutrition Carnivores Carnivores Holotrophs
Paired appendages Absent 4 fins 4 fins
Notochord in adults Present Present Present
Skeleton Cartilage Cartilage Bone
Secreted skin coverings Mucous Mucous and Mucous and
placoid scales dermal scales
Mouth Ventral sucker Ventral jaws Terminal jaws
Salivary glands Absent Absent Absent
Excretory products Ammonia or Ammonia or Ammonia or
urea urea urea
Heart (number of chambers) 2 chambers 2 chambers 2 chambers
Respiratory System External gills Internal gills Internal gills
Endocrine System Absent Absent Absent
Lymphatic System Absent Absent Present
Body Temperature Cold-blooded Cold-blooded Cold-blooded
Fertilization of Eggs External Internal External
Fertilization of Eggs None (shed into Hatched None (shed into
water) internally water)
Care of young None None None
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Table cont… Comparison of the major classes of vertebrates
Distinctive Features Amphibian Reptilia Aves Mammalia
Examples Newts, Turtles, Birds Whales,

salamanders, snakes, lizards rabbits, cats,
frogs and toads and crocodiles bats, apes and
man
Habitat Terrestrial Terrestrial Terrestrial Terrestrial
adults but (few marine)
aquatic larvae
Nutrition Carnivores Carnivores Holotrophs Holotrophs
Paired appendages 4 legs 4 legs 2 legs + 2 4 legs or 2 legs
wings + 2 wing or 2
legs + 2 arms
or 4 fins
Notochord in adults Absent Absent Absent Absent
Skeleton Bone Bone Bone Bone
Secreted skin coverings Mucous Dermal scales Feathers + Hair
dermal
scales
Mouth Terminal jaws Terminal jaws Terminal Terminal jaws
or beak beak
Salivary glands Present Present Present Present
Excretory products Urea Uric acid Uric acid Urea
Heart (number of 3 chambers 3-4 chambers 4 chambers 4 chambers
chambers)
Respiratory system Lungs in adults Lungs Lungs + air Lungs
but external sacs into
gills in larvae bones
Endocrine system Absent Absent Present Present
Lymphatic system Present Present Present Present
Body temperature Cold-blooded Cold-blooded Warm- Warm-blooded
blooded
Fertilization of eggs External or Internal Internal Internal
internal
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Table cont… Comparison of the major classes of vertebrates
Distinctive Features Amphibian Reptilia Aves Mammalia
Protection of fertilized Jelly coat Leathery shell Hard limy Nourished and
eggs (shed into (buried on shell hatched
water) land) (hatched in internally
nests)
Care of young None None Fed and Fed and
trained trained
Cold-blooded animals cannot control their body temperatures and are only
active when it is warm. Warm-blooded animals can control their body temperatures
by creating heat in the muscles and distributing it in the blood stream. Excess heat is
loss through perspiration.

Answer completely the answer/data sheet.
References:
USA.
Pearson.
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Lab. Instructor:
DATA SHEET
EXERCISE NO. 31
THE CHORDATES (CHORDATA)
Draw representative species of the chordates specified below. Indicate the scientific name.
Urochordate Cephalochordate
Agnatha Chondrichthyes
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Osteichthyes Amphibia
Reptilia Aves
Mammalia
208 | P a g e
VI. GUIDE QUESTIONS
1. What other group of animals has two siphons?
2. Is it possible that you could be in the same phylum with a tunicate? Explain.
3. What is the average length of Amphioxus in centimeters?
4. Aside from features listed above, what other two features that will distinguish
Class Agnatha from all other classes of vertebrates?
5. Name two features present in sharks and stingrays but absent from lampreys
and hagfishes.
6. What is unusual about shark jaws?
7. List two examples of freshwater fish.
8. List two examples of marine fish.
9. In addition to the facts that true fish tails are symmetrical while shark tails are
asymmetrical, that true fish have swim bladders while shark don‟t have, and
that the gill slits are covered by bony plates while the sharks are exposed, list
two other features present in true fish but absent from sharks.
10. List three examples of amphibians.
209 | P a g e
11. Name one feature that distinguishes the amphibians from all other classes of
vertebrates.
12. List two examples of reptile with four legs and jaws with teeth.
13. List an example of reptile with a BEAK instead of jaws with teeth.
14. List an example of a reptile without legs.
15. The reptiles are better adapted to dry environments than the amphibians. List
three adaptations found in reptiles that are well suited to dry conditions.
16. How could you tell a lizard from a salamander?
17. List two examples of common birds.
18. Are birds the only vertebrates capable of flight?
19. Name one feature that distinguishes the birds from all other classes of
vertebrates.
20. List an example of a mammal with four fins.
21. List an example of a mammal with wings.
22. List two examples of mammals that have four legs and are herbivores.
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23. List two examples of mammals that have four legs and are carnivores.
24. List two examples of mammals that have four legs and are carnivores.
25. List two features that birds and mammals have in common that are not found
in any other classes of vertebrates.
26. List a feature, other than the presence of mammary glands for feeding young
offspring that distinguishes the mammals from all other classes of vertebrates.
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EXERCISE NO. 32
AN INTRODUCTION TO FIELD WORK IN ECOLOGY
Hannah P. Lumista and Heidi C. Porquis
I. INTRODUCTION
Success and safety in ecological field work require students to follow and
observe basic steps and reminders. This exercise will give students the needed
experiences that they can use for future field work in higher biology courses.
II. OBJECTIVES

1. submit an appropriate letter of entry protocol;
2. record the general physical information and animals of a habitat; and
3. enumerate problems encountered during the sampling.
III. MATERIALS
Field Notebook
Pencil with eraser
GPS (global positioning system)
IV. PROCEDURE
A. ENTRY PROTOCOL
As future researchers doing fieldwork you have certain obligations throughout

the study period. And at the start of the study, it is appropriate that you make one
(whichever is applicable) or all of the following requests:
1. Letter to the head of your institution requesting for a permission to conduct

fieldwork. For in-campus activity this permission can be requested from
appropriate unit heads. The letter has to state the true purpose of the study.
This is for your security.
2. Letters to the Municipal Mayor and Barangay Captain of the area where you
intend to conduct the study. If your study area falls under a private property
you also need to make a similar request to the land owner. Be honest in telling
the real intention of your study.
3. Letter to the DENR requesting permission to conduct your study if your study
area is under NIPAS or is considered a conservation priority area. A request
for gratuitous permit (GP) from the DENR if you are going to do field
extraction should also be expressed in this letter. This secures you as
researcher against penalties relating to RA 9147 (Wildlife Resources
213 | P a g e
protection and Conservation Act and Executive Order No. 247 on Bio
prospecting.
4. If your study site is in within the ancestral domain you will further need to
comply with requirements of the tribal community through the tribal chief.
5. Although some field work require all of the above letters, in this introductory
field work exercise, only one appropriate letter to suit your need is required.
Your letter will be passed through channels. This exercise will enable you also
to experience facing authorities.
6. It is important that you seek approval of your entry protocol letter from the
concerned/proper authorities prior to actual field work for your safety. This is
also to keep you and your school from legal problems.
B. PROTOCOLS FOR ECOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS
Select a study site and give information on the items that follow:
1. Habitat, the place where an organism or group of organisms lives can vary in
scale. It can be as big as the entire earth or as small as a log. There are two broad
categories of habitats:
1.1 Macrohabitat: Naming macrohabitats in general is based on the following
criteria:
1.1.1 Presence of Dominant Physical Features: Ex. Terrestrial, Aquatic
1.1.2 Presence of Dominant Vegetation: Ex. Grassland, Forest
1.2 Enumerating/identifying Microhabitats – ex. Log
2. Temporal Information should be accurately recorded. This is necessary because

the distribution and abundance of many biotic components as well as physico-
chemical factors depend on these factors. The following are included:
2.1. Date and time of day
2.2. Season
3. Spatial Information: Results of ecological studies could not be adequate if it

cannot provide complete information on other relevant aspects. Spatial features are
necessary such as:
3.1 Locality (latitude, longitude, section number, political units such as
country, province, etc., direction such as north, south, etc.
3.2 Topography (elevation; slope; curvature; direction of slope; general land

forms such as mountains, hills; water bodies; nature and size of man-made
features). The GPS data can be used for getting some information for 1 and 2
4. Biological Profile: (Animals) make a general survey of the community types

found in the study area and identify the animals present. Record its microhabitat and
abundance (few if 1-10 individuals; many if more than 10 individuals). Take note
also of other life forms observed, such as plants and fungi)
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V. RESULTS AND OBSERVATIONS. Do the required tasks in the data sheet.
References:
DENR Administrative Order No. 97-33. (1997). Guidelines on the Issuance of permit
for the Collection and Transport of Biological Materials Retrieved from
http://www.denr.gov.ph.
Ediza, M. E., Leaño, Lumista, H., Marfil, F., Marfil, M., Porquis, H. (2015). Ecology
Laboratory Manual Revised Edition. Central Mindanao University: CMU
Press.
UN-REDD Programme. (2013). Guidelines on Free Prior Informed Consent.

Retrieved from http://Thereddessk.org.
Wildlife Resources Conservation and Protection Act (2001). Available from

http://Chanrobles.com.
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Lab. Instructor:
DATA SHEET
EXERCISE NO. 32
AN INTRODUCTION TO FIELD WORK IN ECOLOGY
A. Write a sample letter of Entry Protocol

(Use separate sheet and submit a copy together with this report sheet.)
B. Protocol for Ecological Investigations: (Accomplish the given form.)
Name of Habitat: Date:
Locality/Topography: Time:
List of animal life forms with its microhabitat and abundance.
Name of Species Microhabitat Abundance

(Scientific Name/ Common Name)
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VI. CONCLUSION
1. Explain the importance of complying with entry protocol requirements.
2. What is the dominant animal life form found in the area? What roles do animals
play in this habitat?
3. What other life forms are observed in the area aside from animals? Give the
roles they play in the habitat. (Tabulate your answers to this question.)
4. How important is ecological balance to you?
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EXERCISE NO.

Heidi C. Porquis and Marilou C. Marfil

Light Microscope Pencil mounted butterfly specimen

WARNING: DO NOT TOUCH THE LENSES OR GLASS WITH YOUR

d. Focusing: Getting a clear view of the specimen.

Where: L = length and W = width

Gray, P. (1958). Handbook of Basic Microtechnique. McGraw-Hill Book Co. USA

V. RESULTS AND OBSERVATIONS

A. Parts of the Microscope

The Compound Microscope

1. Why do you think the microscope is considered an indispensable instrument in

3. In light microscopy, what is the role of a mounting medium?

4. Which adjustment knob produces greater movement?

5. What is the position of the image under the microscope?

Marilou C. Marfil and Evangeline B. Sinamban

The scientific method is an organized way of solving a problem. It is a step-

At the end of the exercise, the student should be able to:

1. follow the steps of the scientific method in conducting an investigation;

V. RESULTS AND OBSERVATIONS. Do the required tasks in the Data Sheet.

Hehman, R. (1984). General Biology Laboratory Activities. 6th Edition. Burges s

V. RESULTS AND OBSERVATIONS

1. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

3 MATERIALS AND METHODS

4 RESULTS/DATA AND OBSERVATION

A. Photographs/illustration of the set-up.

Bread Number of Ants Counted

30 T1 – 25% Salt solution

7. LITERATURE CITED/ REFERENCES

VI. GUIDE QUESTIONS

1. What is the importance of experimentation?

2. What is an experimental variable? Name the variables in this experiment.

3. What is the importance of the control set-up in an experiment?

4. Why should you keep a record of your observation?

5. What is the basis for making your conclusion?

6. What bread flavor do ants like to eat and visit? Why?

Reggie Y. Dela Cruz, Merced G. Melencion,

14 test tubes laboratory gown (1) raw fish

c. PROTEINS: Selecting a Protein in the web: My Favorite Protein!

1. To select an animal related protein, go to www.rcsb.org (RCSB Protein

B. Testing the Presence of Biomolecules

Testing for Carbohydrates (GLYCOGEN)

1. Place 10 drops of samples into new properly labelled test tubes.

Testing for Carbohydrates (SUGAR)

1. Place 10 drops of each sample into the correct test tube.

Testing for Lipids

Testing for Protein

V. RESULTS AND OBSERVATIONS. Do the required tasks in the Data Sheets.

V. RESULTS AND OBSERVATIONS

VII. GUIDE QUESTIONS

b. lard and butter

c. saturated and unsaturated fats

b. Why is your chosen protein important for the survival of a cell

c. What are the special/unique characteristics of your protein?

Reggie Y. Dela Cruz

B. Isolation of DNA from chicken liver

V. RESULTS AND OBSERVATIONS: Do required tasks in the data sheet.

V. RESULTS AND OBSERVATIONS: Describe the DNA you have isolated.

A. Human cheek cell DNA

A. Chicken liver DNA

1. What is the function of soap solution?