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CHAPTER – (1)
Rotational Motion
Rigid body
A rigid body is a body that does not deforms or change shape.

Rotational motion under constant angular acceleration

The angular velocity of the rotating object changes at a constant rate, then we
can say that the angular acceleration is constant and the motion is called the rotational
motion under constant angular acceleration.

Tangential velocity
Since the direction of linear velocity is tangent to the path, the linear velocity is
also called tangential velocity.

Tangential acceleration
If the magnitude of the angular velocity of a rotating object changes, the
magnitude of linear velocity will also change and the object will have a tangential
acceleration.
aT = tangential acceleration
aT = r α
r = radius of the circle
α = angular acceleration
Centripetal acceleration
For uniform circular motion, the centripetal acceleration vector points towards
the centre of the circular path while the linear velocity vector is tangential to the path.
This acceleration is called centripetal acceleration.
𝑣2 a𝑐 = centripetal acceleration
a𝑐 = v = tangential velocity
𝑟
r = radius of the circle
2
ac = r 𝜔 𝜔 = angular velocity
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CHAPTER – (2)
Forces in circular motion
Centripetal force
Centripetal force is the force acting on an object in circular motion which is
directed towards the axis of rotation (or) centre of curvature.

F𝑐 = 𝑟 𝑎𝑐 𝑚 𝑣2 F𝑐 = 𝑟 𝜔 2
F𝑐 =
𝑟

F𝑐 = Centripetal force
r = radius of the circle
m = mass of the object
v = linear velocity
𝜔 = angular velocity

Centrifugal force
Centrifugal force in a circular motion is not a real force; it acts radially away
from the centre of the circle. It results fromthe effect of inertia.
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Centrifuge
A centrifuge is a piece of equipment that puts an object in rotation around a fixed
axis (spins it in a circle).

Sedimentation principle
In a laboratory centrifuge that uses sample test tubes,the radial acceleration
causes denser particles to settle to the bottom of the tube, while low density substances
rise to the top. This effect is known as sedimentation principle.

Angle of banking
The angle that the inclined track makes with horizontal is called angle of
banking.
𝑣2
tan θ =
𝑟𝑔
𝜃 = banking angle of a road
v = limiting speed
r = radius of the circular path
g = acceleration due to gravity

Centrifugal Pump
Centrifugal pump is a hydraulic machine which converts mechanical energy into
hydraulic energy (i.e., pressure energy) by the use of centrifugal force acting on the
fluid.

Centrifugal Governor
The centrifugal governor is a device used to measure and regulate the speed of a
machine, such as an engine.
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CHAPTER – (3)
Fluid Dynamics
Streamline
In the flow of fluids, the path or flow of the fluid particles is called streamline.

Laminar flow
If fluid particles are moving steady in smooth paths in layers, with each layer
moving smoothly past the adjacent layerswith no mixing; such a flow is called laminar
flow.

Turbulent flow
If the flow or path of the fluid particles are irregular, their direction is always
changing or whirling; this fluid movement is called turbulent flow.

Bernoulli's Theorem
The sum of pressure energy, kinetic energy and potential energy per unit volume
of an incompressible, non-viscous fluid in a streamlined laminar flow remains constant.

Dynamic viscosity
One way to measure fluid's resistance to flow when an external force is applied.
This is known as dynamic viscosity.
Kinematic viscosity
The other way is to measure the resistive flow of a fluidunder the weight of
gravity. It is known as kinematic viscosity.
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Newton's Law of Viscosity
Newton's law of viscosity states that the shear stress between the two adjacent
layers of fluid is directly proportional to the negative value of the velocity gradient
between the same two adjacent fluid layers.
dv dv
In symbols, shear stress τ ∝ (or) τ = - η
dy dy
F
Shear stress is the shearing force per unit area, τ =
A
𝜂 = the viscosity (coefficient of viscosity)
F = the shearing force acting between two adjacent
layers of a fluid
A = the area of fluid layer
dv
= velocity gradient
dy

Viscosity
Viscosity is defined as the ratio of shearing stress to the velocity gradient.
𝐹⁄
η = 𝐴
𝑑𝑣⁄
𝑑𝑦
𝜂 = the viscosity (coefficient of viscosity)
F = the shearing force acting between two adjacent
layers of a fluid
A = the area of fluid layer
dv
= velocity gradient
dy

Capillary action (Capillarity)

Capillary action is defined as the spontaneous flow of a liquid into a narrow tube
or porous material.

2 𝛾 cos 𝜃 h = height which the liquid can be lifted

h = 𝛾 = surface tension
𝜌𝑔𝑟
𝜃 = contact angle
R = radius of the tube
𝜌 = density of the liquid

Surface tension
Surface tension is defined as the force per unit length that acts across any line on a
surface tending to pull the surface apart.
F = Force
𝐹
γ = L = length
𝑙 𝛾 = surface tension

Determination of kinematic viscosity using Stokes' law

Stokes law expresses the drag force resisting the fall of small spherical objects
hrough a fluid medium under the influence of gravity.
It states that the drag force F acting upward in resistance to the fall of a spherical
object in a viscous liquid is F = 6 𝜋 𝜂 r v
F = the drag force
𝜂 = the coefficient of viscosity of the liquid
r = the radius of the sphere
v = the constant velocity of fall (terminal velocity)
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CHAPTER – (4)
Sources of Energy and Environmental Impacts
Energy demand
Energy demand is the consumption of energy by human activities.

Energy crisis
Energy crisis is the concern that the worldsdemands on the limited natural
resources that are used to power industrial society are diminishing as the demand rises.

Non - renewable energy

A non - renewable energy is a natural substance that is not replenished with the
speed at which it is consumed.

Renewable energy sources

Renewable energy sources (also called non-conventional energy sources) are
continuously replenished by natural processes.

Solar energy
Solar energy is the radiant light and heat from the sun that has been harnessed
by humans since ancient times using a range of ever - evolving technologies.

Photovoltaic effect
Conversion of light energy into electrical energy is based on a phenomenon
called photovoltaic effect.

Wind energy
Wind energy is the energy generated or produced by harnessing the power of the
wind.

Hydroelectric energy
The flowing water and water stored in huge dams is also very important source
of energy which is known as
a hydroelectric energy.

Geothermal energy
Geothermal energy is a type of renewable energy taken from the earth's core (the
internal heat of the earth) and it is one of the oldest types of natural sources of heat.

Fossil fuels
Fossil ftels, such as coal, oil and natural gases, are important non - renewable
sources of energy.

Acid rain
Acid rain is caused by a chemical reaction that begins when compounds like
sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides are released into the air. These substances can rise
very high into the atmosphere, where they mix and react with water, oxygen, and other
chemicals to form more acidic pollutants, known as acid rain.

Solar cell
A solar cell (also known as photovoltaic cell) is defined as an electrical device
that converts light energy into electrical energy through the photovoltaic effect.
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Coalification
Coal is formed in a way similar to the other fossil fuels, though it goes through
a different process called coalification.

Methane
Methane is a common gas found in swamps and is also the by-product of animals'
digestive system.

Nuclear energy
Nuclear energy is non - renewable energy as the uranium fuels used are
consumed in the nuclear fission reaction and hence are non - replenishable.

Irradiance
The total amount of radiation energy passing through per unit area and per unit
time is called irradiance.

Solar panels
Individual solar cells can be combined to form modules commonly known as
solar panels.

Biomass
Biomass is renewable organic material that comes from plants and animals.
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