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Energy Reports 8 (2022) 1361–1370

www.elsevier.com/locate/egyr

TMREES22-Fr, EURACA, 09 to 11 May 2022, Metz-Grand Est, France

Hybrid thermoelectric generators-renewable energy systems: A short

review on recent developments
Zahra Wehbia , Rani Taherb , Jalal Farajc,d , Cathy Castelaine , Mahmoud Khaledc,f ,∗
a Energy and Thermo-Fluid Group, Lebanese International University (LIU), PO Box 146404 Bekaa, Lebanon
b College of Engineering and Technology, American University of the Middle East, Kuwait
c Energy and Thermo-Fluid Group, the International University of Beirut (BIU), PO Box 146404 Beirut, Lebanon
d Lebanese University, Faculty of Technology, Saida, Lebanon
e Laboratory of Thermal Energy of Nantes (LTeN), Polytech’ Nantes, University of Nantes, Nantes 44300, France
f University Paris Diderot, Sorbonne Paris Cite, Interdisciplinary Energy Research Institute (PIERI), Paris, France

Received 1 August 2022; accepted 5 August 2022

Available online 18 August 2022

Abstract
The development of different renewable energy techniques has shown their ability in limiting the environmental crisis and
meeting future needs. In recent years many efforts have been made in order to produce hybrid systems that work on integrating
renewable energy systems with thermoelectric generators (TEGs) in order to increase energy efficiency. This review attempts
to discuss and summarize different configurations of hybridizing TEGs with different renewable energy sources (solar, fuel
cell, biomass) underlying the concepts and approaches used to reach these hybridizations. This review will give necessary
information about this type of hybridization and encourage for future research due to its promising results.
© 2022 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the TMREES22-Fr, EURACA, 2022.

Keywords: Renewable energy; Thermoelectric generators (TEGs); Hybrid systems

1. Introduction
Recently, reducing environmental problems resulting from high energy demand has captured the global attention
for finding some strategies that compensate for the usage of fuel and decrease the level of pollution crisis [1].
Accordingly, alternatives such as heat recovery [2,3], energy management [4,5] and renewable energy [6–8] have
been adopted by many institutions and researchers all over the world in order to reduce energy costs as well as
environmental issues. The utilization of renewable energy technologies such as solar [9], wind [10], geothermal [11],
fuel cells [12] . . . etc. as clean energy production is significantly increased in many countries. However, renewable
energy sources are highly dependent on weather conditions like wind speed or solar irradiance [13,14]. To overcome
the drawbacks of a single renewable energy source system and to increase its efficiency, coupling of various energy
∗ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (M. Khaled).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.egyr.2022.08.068
2352-4847/© 2022 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.
org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the TMREES22-Fr, EURACA, 2022.
Z. Wehbi, R. Taher, J. Faraj et al. Energy Reports 8 (2022) 1361–1370

Nomenclature
TEG Thermoelectric generator
FC Fuel cell
ZT Figure of merit
PV Photovoltaic

systems is introduced forming hybrid systems that are more reliable and environmentally friendly [15]. In this
context, the hybridization of thermoelectric generators (TEGs) with a conventional power generation system has
been extensively introduced [16,17].
Thermoelectric generators are solid-state semiconductor devices that can generate electricity due to temperature
gradient using Seebeck effect [18,19]. These devices are characterized by their free gas emissions, simplicity in
maintenance with no moving parts which have the ability to generate power for a long-life span [20]. TEGs are
widely used in waste heat recovery applications mainly that of photovoltaic cells where excess electricity can
be generated and more than 23% efficiency enhancement might be reached [21,22]. From the literature, several
researchers have investigated methods in order to enhance the power and performance for renewable energy systems
upon integrating these systems with thermoelectric generators (Fig. 1). This paper presents a short review based on
recent studies that focuses on the applications of different renewable energy systems with thermoelectric generators.
The paper is divided as follows: Section 2 describes the development and working principle of thermoelectric
generators. Section 3 presents the performance of TEGs when integrated with several renewable energy systems
and Section 4 will be dedicated to conclusions and future perspectives.

Fig. 1. Studies performed on different renewable energy systems integrated with TEGs for the past 10 years.

2. Thermoelectric devices and their working principle

Thermoelectric technology is one of many green technologies which is able to convert heat into electricity and
vice versa. Seebeck effect which goes back to 1821 and is based on potential generation across a certain load due
to temperature difference between two junctions (hot and cold) is the fundamental concept for a thermoelectric
generator. Until 1990s, thermoelectric devices were uncommonly used due to their low processing efficiency.
However, renewed interest in thermoelectric devices has been introduced into research due to global warming alerts
and the need of a sustainable, durable and reliable electric source [23,24].
There are many types of thermoelectric materials that can be classified based on their thermal and electrical
conductivities as well as Seebeck coefficient such as BaUO3, CoSb3, SnSe, and many others. However, Bismuth
Telluride (Bi2Te3) is the most commonly used one due to its high effectiveness at room temperature. The working
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principle of a thermoelectric device can be either as a power generator or as a thermoelectric cooler. These devices
consist of flat arrays of P (charged holes h+) and N (charged e−) types that are connected electrically in series
and thermally operating in parallel. As a power generator, the temperature difference causes the movement of both
electrons and holes from the hot side to the cold side resulting in a potential difference that will drive current
through the device when it is connected to an external load (see Fig. 2). The temperature gradient between the two
junctions of a thermoelectric device directly affects the output power which can be increased by the increase of this
gradient and the efficiency of the device. The efficiency of a thermoelectric generator is given as the ratio of the
power supplied to the external load by the heat absorbed at the hot junction [25–28].

Fig. 2. Structure of a TEG based on Seebeck effect.

Thermoelectric cooler works opposite to thermoelectric generator using Peltier effect. In this case a direct current
passing through the two junctions can produce or absorb heat based on the direction of the current as shown in
Fig. 3. This type is highly recommended upon controlling the temperature of a certain device or system however it
is quite dependent on many parameters such as ambient temperature, thermoelectric properties and the current flow.
Due to their ability to convert low amount of heat into electricity, optimizing a thermoelectric material in order to
reach the best performance is crucial and highly dependent on the type of the material used. The performance of the
TE device is estimated depending on its operating temperature and the figure of merit (ZT). Figure of merit depends
on the seebeck effect, the thermal and electrical conductivity. Thus, improving the figure of merit and decreasing
the thermal conductivity of a thermoelectric material can significantly enhance its performance [29–32].

Fig. 3. Schematic for TE cooling or heating based on Peltier effect.

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3. Hybrid thermoelectric devices (TEG) – Solar photovoltaic systems

The solar renewable energy systems are the most widespread technologies due to high solar radiations available.
To utilize the harnessed energy in useful applications, solar energy systems in its two versions solar thermal
modules and photovoltaic cells (PV) are able to convert the solar radiation directly into thermal and electrical
energy respectively. Solar photovoltaic system (PV) are excessively used and integrated into buildings due to their
high-power density compared to other renewable energy technologies. In order to increase the conversion efficiency
of a PV system, several cooling technologies that take into consideration the surface operating temperature have
been utilized. Due to the fact that the rise in a PV surface temperature can drop its efficiency, thermoelectric modules
are introduced in order to utilize the waste heat dissipated from the photons below or above the solar cell band-gap
energy and convert it to electricity. [33–35]
Recently, integrating a PV solar cell with a thermoelectric module is widely performed and studied, where, the
overall output power of the hybrid system is the total sum of the power of the PV and TE modules [36,37]. To date,
the hybridization of PV/TE systems can not only increase the efficiency conversion of a solar cell, but also helps
in reducing the heating up of these cells and consequently increasing their life span. The methods of developing
an optimized hybrid PV/TE system can be merged with other additional components like cooling systems and can
be classified into two designs; spectrum splitting PV-TE and a combined PV-TE as shown in Fig. 4. As shown in
Fig. 4 (a), when the sunlight is subjected to the two parallel modules (PV and TEG), the PV works to absorb the
UV regions and convert it directly to electricity. As for underlying TEG module it is able to absorb the rest of the
radiations (IR region) and heats up the hot side of the TEG device [38]. A heat sink can be placed at the bottom
side of the combined system to ensure a temperature gradient through the thermoelectric module. In Fig. 4. (b) the
solar radiations are divided into two parts; the solar radiation below the cut-off wavelength is absorbed by the PV
cell and radiations above this wavelength are reflected to the thermoelectric device (TEG) [39].

Fig. 4. Schematic of the hybrid PV-TEG: (a) combined (PV-TEG) system; (b) spectrum splitting (PV-TEG) system.

Different approaches have been conducted by researchers for optimizing the PV-TE systems for a better
performance. Studies take into consideration PV and TE parameters, additional systems (Heat sinks, cooling
mediums or concentrators) in analysing any proposed system. Fig. 5 shows the increase in the overall efficiency
in a hybrid PV-TEG system compared to a stand-alone PV system based on the same operating conditions. The
efficiency increment shows that the enhancement in the overall efficiency may exceed 30% for a certain design
or condition. The optimization and developments of a hybrid PV-TEG system is based on modifications and
enhancements regarding materials and operating conditions and designs of both PV cells and TEG modules that
can affect the conversion efficiency of the combined system. Table 1 shows the effect of each operating condition
on the performance of the system.

4. Hybrid thermoelectric devices (TEG/TEC) – Fuel cells

4.1. Fuel cells

Fuel cells are electrochemical systems that use the chemical energy of the fuel in order to produce electricity
and heat without any moving parts. These cells are characterized generally by their low emissions and high energy
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Fig. 5. Efficiency increment of a hybrid PV-TEG system compared to a stand-alone PV system.

Table 1. The performance of a hybrid PV-TE system.

Parameters Effect on hybrid PV-TE performance
PV type Affects the conversion efficiency of the system.
The most common types are: Silicon and dye sensitized PV cells.
TE material Depends on the figure of merits ZT.
Optimal ZT can increase the hybrid system overall efficiency.
PV structure Nano-structure surface of a PV cell and cooling system integration are essential for a better performance.
Nanofluid proved their ability to remove access heat more efficiently than water.
TE structure Decrease in the thermoelectric leg length and surface area can increase the temperature gradient between
the hot and cold side and consequently increase energy generation.
Concentration ratio The overall efficiency varies with the increase of the CR depending on the PV-type used.
Solar irradiance Its increase can increase the system power gain.
Ambient temperature Conversion efficiency decrease with ambient temperature increase.
Power generation The amount of output power of the hybrid system is relatively higher than stand-alone PV and TE
modules.
Overall efficiency Integrating the best way to couple the PV and TE modules for a better thermal resistance optimization
based on the system’s working conditions.
Cost The hybrid PV-TE cost is significantly higher than a stand-alone PV.
TE contributes the highest part of the total cost.
Compared to the amount of energy generated by the TE device, the hybrid system is not economically
feasible and needs more improvements.
Life cycle Hybrid PV-TE increases the life span of the PV module.

efficiency. A typical fuel cell consists of two electrodes, the anode and the cathode in addition to an electrolyte
placed in between with high conductivity. The fuel oxidation (hydrogen) happens at the anode forming electrons
flowing through the load circuit and releasing cations H+ from the reactants and flow out through the electrolyte
to the cathode (oxygen), where the electrons reduction takes place. [40–44] The electrochemical reaction occurring
in the fuel cell results in water, heat and electricity production. As shown in Fig. 6 the basic reactions taking place
in a fuel cell model are as follows:
At the anode: H2→2H + +2e−
At the cathode : 1/2O2 + 2H + +2e−→H2O
Overall reaction : H2 + 1/2 O2→H2O + Heat + Electricity
Five different categories of fuel cells are classified in the literature depending on the type of the electrolyte
used: Alkaline fuel cell (AFC), Phosphoric acid fuel cell (AFC), Proton exchange membrane Fuel cell (PEMFC),
Molten carbonate fuel cell (MCFC), Solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC) and direct fuel cell that uses liquid fuel such as
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Fig. 6. Schematic diagram and operating principle of a fuel cell.

methanol, ethanol, etc. Generally, all fuel cell types are clean and sustainable energy sources and they are highly
advantageous due to fuel flexibility. However, fuel cells can generate a significant amount of waste heat during their
operation, so managing the operating conditions such as temperature and efficiency, and reducing losses such as
ohmic, concentration losses and many others in a fuel cell are critical approaches in several thermal applications or
heat exchangers for enhancing energy production. [45,46]
Hybridization of fuel cell with thermoelectric devices has been actually valid in 2010 where a modelledTEG-
PEMFC system for recovering waste heat from the high temperature PEM fuel cell stack was presented. To support
the co-design and co-optimization of the system a three-dimensional TEG module in ANSYS FLUENT has been
implemented. In addition, an experimental validation was carried out in which the TEGs were installed at the
exhaust pipe surface. However, this study did not make a clear optimization of the performance or the operation of
the system. Based on the reviewed state or arts, waste heat recovery, thermal management, efficiency improvements
and cogeneration processes are main strategies that are studied within a fuel cell and thermoelectric device hybrid
system in order to improve its function and increase energy savings. Table 2 shows some studies based on the
hybridization between fuel cells and thermoelectric generator systems.

5. Hybrid thermoelectric devices – Biomass energy systems

The chemical energy that results from the burning biomass is considered as a promising and reliable alternative
for heat production which can be directly converted to different energy forms (electricity, heating, agricultural uses,
etc.). Biofuel significantly competes coal, petroleum fuel or nuclear fuel as a recycled energy source that can help in
preventing or reducing some environmental problems. Biomass energy systems differs from other renewable energy
systems when it comes to their high dependency on weather conditions and changes like solar or wind energy.
However, biomass power plants encounter many challenges like costs, capacity or location. Studies on biomass
energy systems are based on their design to energy conversion system about their configuration size in addition
to their hybridizations with other renewable energy system. Table 3 shows recent studies on the hybridization of
biomass systems and TEGs.

6. Conclusions
Renewable energy systems and technologies have been developed in order to meet the worldwide energy
demands. Introducing thermoelectric generators into renewable energy systems has been widely used in order to
increase their efficiencies since they are highly relying on ambient conditions. Thermoelectric generators can be
integrated with renewable energy sources like solar, biomass systems in order to implement a hybridized system
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Table 2. Studies on the hybridization between TEG and fuel cells.

Reference Hybridization Research approach
[47] FC-TEG A 3-D finite element model developed in COMSOL Multiphysics that simulates both the FC and the
TED subsystems. the proposed model can easily simulate the TED as both a thermoelectric
generator (TEG) or as a Peltier device for cooling and heating.
[48] FC-TEG This study uses the thermoelectric device to further improve the exergetic and temperature
performance of the conventional fuel cell based combined heat and power (FC-CHP) system.
[49] FC-TEG The hybrid system is superior to the stand-alone MCFC system as the bottoming TEG can
effectively increase the maximum power density
[50] MCFC-TEG A new MCFC-based hybrid system to harvest the waste heat from MCFC for additional cooling
production.the power density and efficiency of the proposed system is effectively increased by 3.4%
and 4.0% comparing with the stand-alone MCFC.
[51] FC-TEG A thermoelectric device is proposed to recover the waste heat from a PAFC. Maximum power
density and the corresponding efficiency are increased by over 2.0%.
[52] FC-TEG The equivalent maximum power density of the AFC can be increased by up to 23%. The effects of
the operating current density, operating temperature, heat conductivity, and integrated parameter on
the performance of the hybrid system are revealed.
[53] TEG-FC The system presents a thermal management system for a fuel cell who exploits the bi-directional
characteristics of the TE device to achieve both temperature control and the possibility for energy
harvesting when active control is not required.

Table 3. Recent studies on hybrid systems between biomass and TEGs.

References Integration of TEG with Research approach System performance
biomass energy systems
[54] The TEG module is placed Testing the feasibility of a The performance of the TEG is enhanced
between two stainless steel biomass power plant and a with a better contact between its surfaces
plates. At the bottom of the TE device for the best and the cooling and heating structures.
plate a heat gun supplies the integration. A better compression rate leads to a higher
heat flow. The top plate is power output and surface heat uniformity.
cooled by water.
[55] The TEG system is placed Examine the wasted heat that The maximum and minimum conversion
on the surface of a catalytic is recovered from a biomass efficiencies of the TEG ranges between
reactor, which is used for gasifier. 10.9% and 2.8%
cleaning which serve as a The performance of the TEG shows a
heat source of hot junction maximum power output of 6.1Wand a
on the TEG. power density of 193.1 W/m2 .
[56] The hot side of the TEG The electric energy amount Analysing different thermoelectric materials
device is inserted into the that could be recovered by a it has been found that the best material for
flue gas duct, whereas a fresh TEG module when integrated the temperature range 300–573 K is the
air duct is placed at the cold to a biomass fired thermal oil p-type (Bi,Sb)2Te3 and n-type hot forged
side. heater. Bi2Te3.the maximum electrical power of the
module is 4.4 W.
[57] Adding the TE WHRSs at Integrating a thermoelectric The total output heat from the stack enter
different locations of a WHRS in a biomass power the WHRS the efficiency will improve by
system consisting of a gas generation system for 0.35%, where it will increase by placing the
turbine, ORC and domestic improving its performance. WHRS at the condenser of the ORC.
water heater. The operating parameters of the system
significantly affects its performance.

with high efficiency. Further studies can be performed on the hybridization between thermoelectric generators and
geothermal energy systems.
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Declaration of competing interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could
have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

Data availability
The authors are unable or have chosen not to specify which data has been used.

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