PORT SAID UNIVERSTIY

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING
NAVEL ARCHTICTURE AND MARINE ENGINEERING

SUBMARINE
DESIGN
Prepared By
Karem Mohamed - Karem Abdelkhalik
Under Supervision
Assoc.Prof .Dr /Arwa Hussein
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 Table of Contents

CONTENTS

1- ACKNOWLEDGEMENT………………………..…………3

2- HISTORY OF SUBMARINE.........................................................4

3- INTRODUCTION TO SUBMARINE DESIGN.....................8

4- GENERAL ARRANGEMENT OF SUBMARINE...............13

5- SUBMARINE STABILITY...................................................19

UNIQUE TANKS ON A SUBMARINE...................................22

6- STRUCTURE DESIGN OF A SUBMARINE.......................40

7- SUBMARINE CONSTRUCTION ........................................51

8- CASE STUDY ......................................................................65

9- CONCLUSION……………………………………………..76

10- REFRANCES…………………………………………77

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

First, we thank God for the most mercy for enabling

us to present this project in the best form that we
wanted to be, we would like to thank our supervisor
of this project, Assoc.Prof.Dr. Arwa Hussien for
her valuable help and advice to come out with this
project.
We thank our faculty and doctors that provided us
with all the knowledge. Most of all we are all thankful
for our families for their endless love, assistance,
support, and encouragement. And for our friends for
their understanding and support for us to complete
this project.

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 DEVELOPMENT UP TO THE END OF WORLD WAR I

The history of submarine construction goes well back into ancient times. Attempts
at controlled submerged cruising were successful even before the machine age.
However true underwater vehicles could not be built until the availability of
machinery plants which were not dependent on a steady supply of outside air. The
first submarines of this type were propelled by battery-powered electric motors.
Their cruising range depended essentially on the capacity of the storage battery
which was charged in port or by an escort ship. These submarines were combat
ready only for brief operations, which were carried out mainly under water. The
following were milestones:

1. In 1887, J. Peral, a Spaniard, built the first submarine provided with storage
batteries.
2. In 1888, Zede, a Frenchman, built a similar boat.
3. In 1902, FORELLE, the first successful vessel with this type of propulsion,
was built in Germany at the Germania Shipyard and was sold to Russia in
1904. The next stage of development was that of self-charging submarines;
these were capable of charging batteries while operating on the surface and
had a separate power plant for surface cruising. Different types of propulsion
plants (e.g., steam engines or oil engines) were tried until, finally, the diesel
engine proved to be the most useful type of engine for surface cruising. The
performance capability of the diesel engines made it possible to use these
submarines for a variety of purposes. Right from the start, a structural
distinction was made between double- and single-hull boats.

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The double-hull boat was more seaworthy for surface navigation than the single-
hull. At the beginning of World War I, all the larger navies had a number of self-
contained submarines, all of which carried torpedo armaments. Milestones in this
development were:

1.In 1899, the French NARVAL, the prototype of the double-hull submarine,
was launched.

2.In 1900, several U. S. submarines of the HOLLAND class (single hull) were
ordered.

3. In 1904, an order was placed for construction of the U-l (double hull) at the
Germania Shipyard in Kiel. There were many different opinions regarding the
possible uses for submarines. World War I proved that the self-charging submarine
was most effective when used alone on long-range operations. Long cruises were
invariably made on the surface, and the submarine usually submerged only when
the enemy was sighted during the day. The submarine's main weapon, the torpedo,
required that the attack be launched at close range. The submarine could use its
torpedoes in a daytime attack while submerged or in a night attack while on the
surface. The approach to the enemy went unnoticed by day when the submarine
was submerged and using its periscope.

A night approach on the surface took advantage of the low silhouette. Because of
its ability to submerge, the submarine could penetrate sea areas controlled by the
enemy, escape enemy attacks by diving, and attack any major target with its
torpedoes. The submarine was capable of carrying other types of weapons as well.
As a mine layer, it could lay mines unnoticed in places that were inaccessible to
surface vessels. Guns became very important in the warfare against merchant
ships.
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Individual. Submarines were fitted with heavy, armored guns for engaging land-
based targets. The submarine was sometimes used for reconnaissance in
cooperation with units of a fleet. It became an extremely dangerous weapon in the
hands of a weaker naval power. The fact that at that time submerged submarines
ran "deaf" and "blind" was a decisive factor in the way in which they were used.
The visual range was limited to periscope depth. The range of optical observation
was much greater on the surface, but, even when visibility was good, it could not
compare with that of surface vessels because of the relatively low observation
level. Because the chance of sighting an enemy was greater on the surface, the
highest possible surface speed was the measure of a submarine's value. Conditions
permitting, the submarine could take advantage of its surface speed during the
daytime to take up a favorable position for launching a submerged attack.

Underwater attack speeds were generally slow because the periscope could not be
used continuously. The night surface attack was the preferred method because it
enabled a faster attack speed. Submerged drag was greatly increased by the
requirement for surface, cruising and by the armament mounted on the upper deck.
However, since maximum submerged speed was considered of relatively little
importance, the speed and endurance for submerged cruising continued to
decrease.

Basically, it was sufficient if the submarine could stay submerged, all day if
necessary, until it could surface at night to recharge its batteries. Diving time was
reduced significantly during World War I. Submarines with these types of features
will be referred to in what follows as submarines (tauchboots).

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The double-hull construction was preferred in Germany. Only three series of small,
single-hull submarines were built. The armament of small submarines consisted
primarily of torpedoes or mines. In addition, medium-size submarines carried guns
for use against merchant ships. Submarine cruisers, built for long-range operations
against merchant ships, gave preference to guns over torpedoes.

During World War I, two unarmed cargo submarines were built in Germany for
operation between the United States and Germany. The submarine was fully
developed as a submersible vehicle with diesel-electric propulsion by the end of
World War I. A class of submarines (R class) was built in England during World
War I for making submerged attacks against submarines running on the surface.
The boats had a relatively high submerged speed and a long submerged operating
range. Submarines with these type features will be referred to as submersibles (U-
Boats).

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 Introduction to submarine design

Submarines are underwater self-propelled crafts that are designed and built to
perform underwater operations for a stipulated amount of time. The submarine
design consists of a single or double-hull system that houses all the necessary
systems and manpower required for completion of their mission.

This, though, is a very simple description of a very complex engineering product,

which are used for a wide range of purposes such as underwater research,
underwater rescue, and submarine warfare; the last one being the most widely
used.

we will study the design of naval submarines. Then, we will not go into the design
process, rather, we will familiarize ourselves with the design and functionalities of
a submarine, its parts, general arrangement, structural design and arrangement, the
stability of a submarine, the systems used in a submarine, etc.

Once we have looked into these, it would be easy for us to touch on the submarine
design process. Though the design process followed by all navies is confidential
and different from each other, the basics still remain the same.

The primary submarine design objectives are:

• The submarine should cater to the functional purpose of the customer.

• The design should be capable of being constructed with available resources.
• The cost of the project should be acceptable to the customer.

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Parts of Submarine

Outer Hull and Pressure Hull:

Most designs of submarines have two hulls. The hull that houses all the
accommodation spaces, weapons, weapon control systems, communications and
control room, battery banks, main and auxiliary machinery, is the pressure hull. It
is called the pressure hull because it is designed to withstand the hydrostatic
pressure at the maximum operable depth of the submarine.

Cylindrical Pressure hull and Outer hull of a submarine.

The pressure hull is housed inside the outer hull, which is not pressure tight. Why?
Because, in submerged condition, the spaces between the outer and the inner hull
always remain flooded with seawater. Hence, the hydrostatic pressure on the outer
hull is negligible.

Main Ballast Tanks (MBTs):

Now, the “floodable” spaces are compartmentalized into tanks, which in submarine
terminology, are called Main Ballast Tanks. The distribution of main ballast tanks
in a submarine depends on the shape and interaction of the outer and pressure hull.

We will understand the working of MBTs after we deal with the process of
submerging a submarine, and submarine stability. Some designs have MBTs only
at the forward and aft regions, and the rest of the pressure hull is flushed with the
outer hull.
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Other designs have completely different outer and pressure hull, with space for
ballast between them. Some arrangements of MBTs are shown in the figures
below.

Exposed Pressure Hull (MBTs at forward and aft).

Enclosed Cylindrical Pressure Hull (MBTs throughout the length).

Waisted Pressure Hull (MBTs at certain parts of the length).

Exposed pressure hull reduced at ends (MBTs at forward an aft).

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Sail or Bridge Fin
The sail is the streamlined shaped non-pressure resistant part of the submarine over
the outer hull. It’s different types of masts that are deployed from within the
submarine when snorkels or sails just under the free surface.

The different masts used in a submarine are periscope mast, communications mast,
radar mast, weapon sensor mast, etc. These are raised from the bridge fin when the
submarine requires surface monitoring in stealth mode. Figure 6 shows the sail in a
submarine when the masts are not deployed.

Bridge Fin or Sail in a submarine.

The profile of the bridge fin in a submarine design is always an aerofoil shape, as it
acts as a hydrofoil with the submarine sails with just the fin above water. This
shape reduces the drag on the submarine. It is very important to keep the drag
within limits as it prevents eddies and subsequently minimizes the acoustic
signature of the submarine.

Control Surfaces:
When the submarine is in submerged condition, changes in direction and depth is
carried out by use of hydroplanes that act as control surfaces. To understand the
application of hydroplanes, we first need to know the nature of motions
experienced by a submarine in submerged condition.

Unlike a surface ship, submarines are subjected to lesser heave and pitch motions
due to the absence of surface wave effects. A pair of hydroplanes or fins at the

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forward and aft are used to control the heave and pitch independently. The
hydroplanes or fins are shown in Figure below.

Fins on a submarine.

Two hydroplanes mounted at the aft in the vertical plane are used to change the
lateral direction of the submarine when in motion. These are basically called
rudders. Do note that unlike ships, the rudders of a submarine are forward of the
propeller.

Why? Because in case of a ship, the rudder requires the propeller outflow for
maximum lift efficiency. But in a submarine, since the entire hull is submerged,
undisturbed streamlined flow is incident onto the rudder surface.

If the submarine rudder were placed aft of the propeller, the flow onto the rudder
would be more turbulent, increasing the probability of cavitation.

One important thing to note is, hydroplanes operate at optimum efficiency only at
high speeds.

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General Arrangement of Submarine:
Before moving onto knowing the operation and functions of the different systems
on a submarine, it is vital to know the spatial distribution of the main
compartments and systems along the length and breadth of the hull. This will be
best understood when referred to Figure 8.

Schematic General Arrangement of a Diesel Electric Submarine.

The pressure hull and outer hull are clearly distinguishable in the above figure of
the submarine design. The forward part of the pressure hull houses the weapon
systems and sensors. The sensors are usually housed in the flooded space between
the forward of the pressure hull and the outer hull.

Sensors are always placed at the forward for reduction of noise from turbulent flow
at the aft and obstruction of machinery in case of aftward position. The weapon
system includes the torpedo tubes which house the torpedoes, torpedo launching
system, and torpedo operating tanks.

The forward-most part of the pressure hull is used to store the weapons. They are
loaded into the torpedo tubes which are located partially within in the pressure hull
and extends up to the forward most periphery of the outer hull.

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The midship portion of the pressure hull is used for the
following purposes:

• Ship and Weapon Control Systems:

All the systems on the submarine are remotely operated from the ship and
weapon control center. This compartment houses all the navigational control
systems, the weapon firing systems, machinery control and monitoring
panels, diving and surfacing system, steering control system, etc. All
communication between the submarine crew and the naval base or any
external source of data is carried out from this compartment. Submarines
today are automated to such extent, that all the operations on a submarine
during normal patrolling and war missions can be carried out from this
compartment, with no crew required to be present anywhere outside the
control room.

• Accommodation and Life Support:

The accommodation modules, toilet modules, galley, cool and cold rooms
are placed at the midship compartment of the pressure hull. Such positioning
is not only beneficial functionally but also provides easy access to the
forward and aft parts of the submarine. Since this position is also under the
sail, it makes escape most feasible for the crew in emergency conditions.

• Battery bank:
The source of power on a diesel submarine is hydrogen cells. These are
charged by diesel alternators. Batteries comprising of hydrogen cell units are
stacked in arrays and placed in a compartment called the battery bank.
Usually, a submarine would have a battery bank in more than one watertight
compartments for redundancy.
Each battery bank has a capacity sufficient for supporting all the operations
of the submarine for its endurance period. Ventilation and elimination of
hydrogen from the battery compartment is a top priority, as any presence of
hydrogen in the compartment may lead to explosions.

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 • Machinery and Auxiliary Machinery:
The main and auxiliary machinery contributes to about one third the weight
of the submarine. The main machinery consists of the main diesel alternators
that are used to charge the batteries and its associated systems, the air
conditioning plant, main high-pressure air system, etc. The auxiliary
machinery compartment is separated from the main machinery compartment
by a watertight bulkhead. The auxiliary or economic electric motor, auxiliary
AC plant, auxiliary high-pressure air system, etc. are housed in the auxiliary
machinery compartment. The diesel alternators are used to charge the
batteries, which in turn power the main and auxiliary electric propulsion
motors.

• Propulsion Compartment:
Located at the aft of the pressure hull, this compartment houses the main
electric propulsion motor, the main propulsion shaft and its associated
systems, the tail shaft, and the forward and aft glands that are used to attain
watertightness at the pressure hull and outer hull openings. In the design of
diesel-electric submarines, the reduction gearbox is also located in the
propulsion compartment.

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Hull form of Submarine Design:
The most initial submarines used a hull form which was much different from those
used in modern-day submarines. The evolution of hull form and the reasons behind
it is hence an interesting aspect of submarine design. The most ideal shape of a
submarine hull for minimum drag is the ideal streamlined shape with a parabolic
bow and an elliptical stern, as shown in Figure 9.

Ideal streamlined hull form.

The first submarines in the 1940s used this shape for minimum power requirement
and negligible flow separation around the hull. But it was observed that due to the
streamline shape, the usable volume within the hull was insufficient, as the radius
of the hull saw a steep decrease from just aft and forward of the midship region.
This not only kept the production costs high but also weakened the possibility of
incorporating multiple deck levels.

Modern submarine hull form with cylindrical mid-body.

The hull form used in modern submarines (since the late 1970s) is the long
cylindrical mid-body with elliptical bow and stern.

Though a shift from the ideal streamlined shape increases the drag and subsequent
power requirements, the additional fuel costs over the lifetime of the submarine are
offset by the low production costs, since cylindrical sections are much cheaper and
easier to construct. This shape also enables the incorporation of multiple decks
within the same hull volume, hence ensures more spatial use.
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It is important to know that the shape and geometry of a submarine hull is an
important starting point of the design since it would not only dictate the
aforementioned point but also affect a range of other factors of the submarine as
discussed below.

A cylindrical hull form increases the maneuverability of the submarine due to

larger hydrodynamic forces generated by hydroplane action. It has also been
observed that the minimum overall drag on the hull and best maneuverability
characteristics are obtained for Length to Breadth ratios ranging from 6 to 8.

The diameter of the submarine is decided primarily based on the length. And the
length is fixed based on the required pressure hull volume and displacement of the
submarine. Multiple decks increase the usability of pressure hull volume, and the
number of possible deck levels in a submarine is decided primarily by its diameter.

A submarine with one deck would have two levels within its pressure hull.
Submarines with hull diameters ranging from 4 to 7 meters are restricted to one
deck. It would allow two accessible levels – below deck level and above deck
level, as shown in the figure below.

Possible deck levels for different hull diameters.

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Twin decks with three accessible levels are possible in submarines with hull
diameter ranging from 7 to 8 meters. Large-sized diesel-electric submarines are
usually of this dimension.

Triple decks and dour deck designs are used for hull diameters ranging from 9 to
11 meters and 11 to 13 meters. Such large diameters are used mostly in nuclear-
powered submarines where large vertical space is required for the nuclear power
plant.

With the aspects of submarine design discussed in this article, the moot point to be
extracted is that having known the parts and functions of the submarine and its
systems, the art and skill of a good designer lies in trying to achieve maximum
volumetric efficiency for a design.

There are some spaces within the submarine with may be highly volume-specific
(for example, main ballast tanks), whereas some may have only a few specific
dimensions (example, battery bank). There would also be cases where there are
specific volumetric demands, but not shape specific (for example torpedo operating
tanks and main ballast tanks). Depending on such demands, a good designer would
prioritize the stages of design and the parameters that are fixed at each stage.

One of the most vital aspects of submarine design is its stability. Though it may
seem simple as compared to ships, the understanding of submarine stability is more
complex than that of a ship, as it would operate in both, surfaced and submerged
conditions.

And the stability parameters of a submarine change drastically the moment a

submarine dives into the water or resurfaces, which gives rise to a point where the
submarine is at the tipping point of floundering.

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 Submarine stability

Submarine stability refers to the ability of a submarine to maintain its

balance and prevent capsizing. It's achieved through careful design, ballast control,
and the placement of weights and tanks. Submarines use various systems to control
their stability, such as ballast tanks and control surfaces.

The most unique feature of submarine design stability is that unlike ships,
submarine stability is studied at two conditions:

• Surfaced Stability (when part of the submarine is above the waterline), and
• Submerge Stability (when the submarine is completely submerged, and no
part or appendages are above the waterline).

The fundamentals of floatation and Archimedes’ Principle are used to arrive at

the equation of floatation of a submarine, that is, in either of submerged or
surfaced condition, the weight of the submarine is equal to the buoyancy force
acting on it. This also implies that for a surfaced submarine to submerge, the total
weight of the submarine has to increase. It is only then that in submerged
condition, the buoyancy on the volume of the submarine above the waterline (in
surfaced condition) can be balanced by the additional weight.

So how weight is added to the submarine? Remember Main Ballast Tanks

(MBTs)? Sea water is taken into these tanks, and this added weight of the sea
water increases the weight of the submarine, which allows the submarine to dive.

We will first look into the diving and surfacing techniques before going further
into stability and understanding how submarine works.

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Diving and Surfacing of Submarine
We will look into the parts and components of a main ballast tank to understand
the sequence followed in diving and surfacing. The following figure illustrates a
transverse section of an MBT.

Transverse Section of Main Ballast Tank.

The two vital parts of MBTs are the:

• flood ports, and

• air vents

Flood ports are openings at the bottom most position of the outer hull that allows
water to enter and leave the tank.

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Air vents risers, one on port and starboard side each, are routed from the tank to
the main air vent at the top of the pressure hull. For a surfaced submarine to dive,
the air vent at the top is opened. This allows the air in the tank to escape, and sea
water floods in from the flood ports below. The ballast weight now added helps the
submarine to dive in.

Now, the operating depth of most modern submarines is 300 to 450 meters. For a
submarine to surface from that depth, it first uses its hydroplanes to reduce its
depth up to 3 to 4 meters below waterline. Once it cruises at that depth, high
pressure air at approximately 15 bar is introduced into the tank through the air
valve. The air pushes the water out of the tank through the flood ports. Once this
weight is lost, the submarine is now positively buoyant and rises up to surfaced
condition.

The figure below shows the flooding conditions of the MBTs and freely flooded
regions (forward dome, aft cone, and the sail) during submerged and surfaced
conditions.

Submarine in Submerged and Surfaced Conditions.

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Unique Tanks on Submarine
Though some of the tanks used in a submarine are similar to that used on surface
ships, most of them are different and unique to the nature of operation of a
submarine, which makes it an important aspect to be studied in detail.

For a quick glimpse, did you know why a submarine uses a system of four tanks
just in the process of firing one torpedo?

We will first look into the tank plan of a diesel electric submarine and when we
familiarise ourselves with their terminologies, we will study their functions, the
reason behind their location, and other design aspects related to them.

Tank Plan of Submarine:

Along with the general arrangement drawing, the tank plan is prepared to locate
the position of each tank. Their names, along with the fluid to be carried in them, is
specified in the tank plan itself. The capacity of each tank is listed on a separate
document called the tank capacity plan.

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The following figure shows the tank plan of a double hull diesel electric
submarine.

Tank Plan of a Diesel Electric Submarine.

Compensating Tank
Remember discussing how when a submarine is positively or negatively buoyant,
it takes actions to maintain a condition of neutral buoyancy by adjusting its
weight? This is achieved with the help of a compensating tank, a component
uncommon to the traditional concepts of ship design.
Compensating tanks are located at or in close vicinity to the longitudinal center of
gravity of the submarine
Why? Because any changes in weight caused at significant distance from the
longitudinal center of gravity would create a trimming moment, which is
unwanted, as the submarine only needs to adjust its weight. It is located within the
pressure resistant hull and takes water or pumps water to the sea depending on the
situation to be tackled.

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The compensating tank can be emptied by a pump or high pressure air (in case of
low noise operation), but for high pressure air to be a feasible option, the tank
structure must be pressure resistant to the extent that it can withstand an internal
pressure higher than the external pressure.

The following alterations in weight and buoyancy balance are compensated for by
compensating tanks:

When a submarine dives to greater depths, it enters waters that have a varying
density than that at the surface. Specific gravity of sea water usually increases from
1.008 to 1.028 with depth. Since density is directly proportional to the buoyancy,
the buoyancy increases, therefore making the submarine positively buoyant. To
achieve neutral buoyancy, the compensating tank takes water from the sea till the
weight cancels out the buoyancy.

Weight differences are caused due to consumption of stores such as provisions, fuel
oil, fresh water, lubricating oil, and other solid stores. Water is taken into the tank
to compensate the effect. An interesting thing happens in case of fuel oil
consumption. In submarines, as and when fuel oil is used up, the vacant volume in
the fuel oil tank is automatically filled with sea water, such that fuel oil always
floats on sea water. This is done to prevent free surface effects. But since water
takes up the volume of the consumed fuel, the weight of the submarine increases
due to this. The compensating tank is also used to offset this change in weight.

At deeper depths, the high external pressure results in compression of the pressure
hull. This reduces the pressure resistant volume of the submarine, which reduces its
buoyancy. The lost buoyancy is compensated by releasing water from the
compensating tank. Usually, for submarines having maximum diving depth from
200 to 350 meters, volume available for this purpose in the compensating tank
ranges from from 0.3 to 0.4 percent of the total pressure hull volume.

A submarine designer considers two special border loading conditions to estimate

the capacity of the compensating tank for a particular design. The loading
conditions are listed below:
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Load-Case 1

At the end of a very long, slow cruise in sea water with maximum density. At the
end of a very long and slow cruise, all the consumables like fresh water, stores,
food are used up, but relatively sufficient amount of diesel oil is left. The vessel is
sailing in sea water of maximum density, which means buoyancy is higher. Both
the conditions together require the compensating tank to be filled to its maximum
capacity.

Load-Case 2

At the end of a very short, fast cruise in sea water with minimum density. In this
condition, the consumables have been partially used up, and the diesel fuel is
completely consumed. Since the sea water density is minimum, the buoyancy is
least. In such a case, the water required in the compensation tank would be
minimum.

In actual case, when a submarine begins its cruise, the volume of water in the
compensation tank is somewhere between those corresponding to the two border
cases. It has be observed by parametric studies, that compensating tanks usually
have volume of 2.5 to 3 percent of total pressure resisting volume of the
submarine. This data is also used by designers in the preliminary design stages.

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Trim Tanks:

Trim tanks are used to maintain the longitudinal center of gravity just under the
center of buoyancy, so that the submarine can be maneuvered to a neutral trim
condition. These tanks are equal in size, and are located inside the pressure hull
and as far forward and aft as possible so that the trimming moment caused by them
is maximised (note the trim tanks in Figure 1). The trim tank system consists of
two pairs of tanks, one pair at forward (port and starboard), the other at the aft
(port and starboard).

These tanks are interconnected by pipes called trim lines, and the fluid used is
called trim water. Trim water is circulated among the forward and aft depending on
the required trim condition. Circulation is carried out either by pumps or by low
pressure air.

The dimensions of the trim tank are estimated using border conditions determining
load-cases and trim conditions and analysing them with the method similar to that
of compensating tanks. Trimming effects due to weight shift during firing of
torpedoes are also taken into account. For empirical purposes, the volume of
trimming water required is 0.5 percent of the pressure hull volume.

An added use of trim tanks is its multi-functional properties, where it can be used
as both, trim and compensating tank. In such designs, the trim tanks are provided
with flood ports. If say, forward trimming is required, then the forward trim tank is
filled and the aft tanks are emptied. If the submarine is to reduce her weight
without any change in trim, then both the pairs of tanks are emptied to the required
amount. This system offers added advantages with regard to space allocations, as
submarines are very space restrictive.

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Negative Tanks or Quick Diving Tanks:

These tanks are used as auxiliary means to dive in waves. When a submarine dives
in waves, the added buoyancy due to wave action prevents it from diving promptly,
and hinders its ability to dive to a deeper depth. As troughs of waves pass across
the submarine, the free flooding parts at the topmost deck levels (at the sail and
upper deck) remain partially flooded, resulting in failure to dive.

In order to combat this effect, a tank with flood ports is provided at a low level,
just forward of the center of gravity of the submarine. Not its location in Figure 1.
Flooding this tank would not only add negative buoyancy (or add to the weight),
but due to its longitudinal position with respect to the CG, it also trims the bow and
helps in quick diving. Due to this, they are also called quick diving tanks. Once the
submarine has dived and all the free flood areas are filled with water, the negative
tank is drained out quickly by using compressed air.

Torpedo Tanks

Torpedoes are fired from torpedo tubes that are located at the forward section of a
submarine. The weight of each torpedo, in general, is approximately 4 to 5 tons.
Hence, once a torpedo is fired, the loss of significant weight from a position away
from the CG of the submarine causes a trimming moment, which if not prevented,
would hamper the course keeping ability of the submarine. The firing of a torpedo
from a submarine involves a sequence of steps to prevent the above.

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 Torpedo tubes (Top View)

The torpedo tube is a pressure resistant cylindrical structure that has a door at the
forward (Muzzle door) and one at the aft (Breech door). A submarine usually has
multiple torpedo tubes and can fire more than one torpedo simultaneously. About
one thirds of the length of a torpedo tube is inside the pressure hull, and the
remaining is located outside the pressure hull, in the free flooded region leading to
the forward most point of the outer hull where the front door is located. The
portion of the tube in the free flooded region is subjected to external pressure, and
is stiffened externally to protect it from buckling.

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Step One:
First, the aft door is opened, and the torpedo is loaded into the tube. Once the rear
door is closed, water from the Weapon Round Tank (WRT) is admitted into the space
between the torpedo and the inner walls of the tube. The volume of WRT is sufficient
to provide enough water for firing all the torpedoes, without requiring a refill.
The location of WRTs is always just above or below the torpedo tubes. Why? If WRTs
were located longitudinally away from the torpedo tubes, shifting of water from WRT
to the torpedo tubes would have caused unwanted trimming moments, causing the
submarine to trim by the bow.

Torpedo being loaded into a torpedo tube. (Breech doors open)

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Step Two:
The front door always opens in the outer direction, but it cannot be opened at this
stage, because at large depths the external pressure is higher than the internal
pressure. Hence, the water inside the torpedo tube is pressurized so that the internal
and external pressures equalize. Once this is done, the front door is opened
hydraulically, and the torpedo is fired.

Step Three:
Once the torpedo is fired, the space inside the torpedo tube that was occupied by
the torpedo is automatically occupied by sea water that floods in.

Step Four:
Though the volume of the torpedo inside the torpedo tube is occupied by sea water,
the weight of the sea water is less than the torpedo. In order to prevent a trimming
moment, additional water is to be taken in to compensate for the difference in
weight. This additional amount of water is taken into another tank called the Air
Inboard Vent (AIV), which is located just below or above the torpedo tubes.

Step Five:
Now, to reload another torpedo into the same tube, first the front door of the tube is
closed, while the tube is flooded. The water in the tube is first drained to another
tank called Torpedo Operating Tank (TOT), and then another torpedo is introduced
into the dry tube. The TOT is located so as to prevent any longitudinal weight shift.
The volume of the TOT is sufficient to carry all the water required to be drained
out of the torpedo tube if all the torpedoes are fired.

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Hover Tanks:
As and when the submarine dives or rises, its depth-maintaining capability is
challenged due to changes in density and resultant compressibility effects. In many
stealth operations, naval submarines are required to hover at a fixed depth whilst
stationary. In such a case, a constant balance of the weight-buoyancy equation is
required. This balance can be achieved by a sensor-controlled system dedicated to
a special tank where water can be taken in when the submarine rises, and water
from the same tank can be pumped out when the submarine sinks. This exchange
of water is rapid and is required to be carried out on a continuous basis. Hence a
special tank called Hover Tank located outside the pressure hull, is used to cater to
this purpose. The reason behind its location in the outer hull (unlike a
compensating tank, which is inside the pressure hull) is to maintain its contents at
ambient sea pressure so that continuous inflow and outflow of water is possible.

However, in cases where the submarine is to be designed to hover near to the

surface, the hover system needs to be more robust so as to compensate the
destabilizing effects of wave action.

The other types of tanks used in a submarine are fuel oil tanks, lubricating oil
tanks, sludge oil tanks, bilge tanks, and fresh water tanks. They have not been
discussed here as their operation and purpose are similar to those of surface ships.
It is however, important for a designer to carry out parametric studies of tank
capacities of various existing designs before parametrically reaching an estimate
for capacity and plan for the tanks of a new design.

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Surface Stability of Submarines
A submarine in surfaced condition has to satisfy the same stability principles as
that of a surfaced ship. The primary requirement in surfaced condition is that, it
should remain afloat even after any kind of damage. Which means, there should be
a significant volume of the hull above the waterline.

This is called the Reserve of Buoyancy (ROB). The figure below represents the
volume of the hull that contributes to reserve of buoyancy.

Volume of Hull contributing to ROB of a submarine.

Understanding the concept of ROB is very vital to a designer, as in, it helps the
designer to arrive at a primitive value of the required volume of MBTs for a given
pressure hull volume.

The ROB of a submarine is basically the ratio of the effective volume of all the
MBTs to the volumetric displacement of the submarine in surfaced condition. The
effective volume is the total “blowable” volume of the tanks (i.e. volume of the
tank required to be filled to submerge the submarine). And just like surfaced ships,
the surface displacement of the submarine is the weight of the submarine minus the
free flood water. Now note in Figure 2, that in submerged condition, the only
structure providing buoyancy is the pressure hull. Hence, the weight of the
submerged submarine minus the free flood water is equal to the buoyancy on the
fully pressure hull.

The above definition and analysis of ROB helps us to arrive at the following
relation between the ROB and pressure hull volume to achieve the total blowable
volume of MBT required.

The amount of ROB that needs to be incorporated in a design depends on the size
of the submarine. Smaller submarines will have lesser freeboard; hence the larger
ROB is desirable in smaller submarines than larger ones. ROB in submarines
usually range from 10 percent to 20 percent, and the value can reach higher limits
in case of double hull submarines.
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The transverse stability analysis of a submarine is similar to that of a surface ship,
as both follow the same hydrostatic principles. The stability criteria of the
submarine in surfaced condition is its metacentric height (GM), as shown in the
figure below.

Surfaced Stability of Submarine.

In the above case, when the surfaced submarine heels, the center of buoyancy (B)
shifts to a new position (B1). The metacenter (M) if above the center of gravity,
creates a righting moment that brings the submarine back to upright position.

Submarines are very weight sensitive, as in, during the entire operation of a
submarine, all operations are to be carried out in such a way so that there is
minimum shift in the longitudinal position of the center of gravity. As shown in the
figure below, the slightest change in longitudinal center of gravity will cause a
trimming moment that results in a drastic decrease in the water plane area. Since
the longitudinal metacentric height will be proportional to the on the waterplane
area, any trimming moment rapidly reduces the metacentric height.
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 Change in waterplane area due to trimming moment.

Submerged Stability of Submarines:

When the MBTs are blowed and pressed full, the submarine dives, and now enters
an environment of operation that is not familiar to most engineers and designers of
surface ships. The first property of a submerged submarine is its ability to execute
motions in all six degrees of freedom. The minimum and maximum allowable
depths are called ceiling and floor. The above properties are similar to that of an
aeroplane, but there is one aspect that makes a submarine unique, that is, unlike an
aeroplane, a submarine does not depend on forward motion to support its weight.
The fins on a submarine are only used to invoke lift forces that help it to alter
depth. But a submarine can remain static in a submerged condition without any
forward motion, and without the help of its fins, why?

The answer lies in the weight-buoyancy relation maintained in submarines. When

the weight of the submarine is more than the buoyancy, it sinks until any corrective
action is taken to reduce the weight or increase the buoyancy. This condition is
called Negatively Buoyant.

Similarly, when the weight is less than the buoyancy, the submarine is said to be
Positively Buoyant, and floats up until corrective action is taken to increase the
weight. But all submarines in submerged condition operate on a condition that lies
between the above two, such that the weight and buoyancy are always equal. The
submarine, in this condition, is called Neutrally Buoyant.

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 Submarine in Positively, Negatively, and Neutrally Buoyancy Conditions.

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The transverse stability criteria of a submarine changes significantly in submerged
condition. Since any angle of heel in a submerged submarine does not cause a
change in the underwater volume, the center of buoyancy remains unchanged. In
other words, the metacenter of a submerged submarine coincides with the center of
buoyancy. Hence, the metacentric height (GM) is transformed to (BG), as shown in
the figure below. Now, there can be two cases here. One, when the center of
gravity (G) is below the center of buoyancy (B). Two, when the center of buoyancy
(B) is above the center of gravity (G)
:

Stable and Unstable Conditions in a Submerged Submarine

As shown, when the G is below B, a righting moment is developed, which brings

the submarine to its upright position, whereas, when the G is above B, the
submarine capsizes. It is due to this reason, the center of buoyancy of a submerged
submarine is always maintained above the center of gravity. Or in other words,
since the position of B is fixed for a particular submarine, it is always ensured that
the G is below B. There are special tanks and systems used to maintain this
condition.

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The stability criteria of a submerge submarine is BG, and the variation of the
righting lever GZ with the angle of heel is as shown in the figure below.

Stability curve of a submerged submarine.

Buoyancy and Weight Elements

A study unique to the design of submarines is the identification of the buoyancy
and weight elements in a submarine. Before we do that, we will first know the
meaning of each, and why they are required during the design process.

Buoyancy Elements
The components of a submarine that constitute to its total buoyancy are
collectively called buoyancy elements. To identify them, let us start with the
easiest one. Most of the buoyancy acts on the pressure hull (refer figure 2), and
hence the entire pressure hull volume is a buoyancy element. But since the
components inside the pressure hull are not in contact with sea water, they do not
contribute to the buoyancy, and cannot be categorized as buoyancy elements.

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The displaced volume of the outer hull (that is, the volume displaced by the steel
plates of the the outer hull) also contributes to buoyancy. Note that the volume
enclosed by the outer hull is not being considered here.

In some cases, the forward and aft structure that is freely flooded, may contain
tanks that are not flooded. In such cases, the enclosed volume of those external
tanks are considered as buoyancy elements.

The sail is freely flooded in submerged condition, and it also contains the conning
tower (escape trunk), periscopes and an array of masts. The volume occupied by
these structures add to the buoyancy, and hence their enclosed volumes are
considered as buoyancy elements.

In the forward region, part of the torpedo tubes are within the pressure hull, and
part of them are outside the pressure hull in the freely flooded region, as depicted
in the figure below. The enclosed volume of the torpedo tubes in the freely flooded
region acts as a buoyancy element.

The propeller shaft passes through a tube which is freely flooded, hence the
volume of the portion of the propeller shaft in the freely flooded region acts as
buoyancy element.

The buoyant volume occupied by all the appendages like propeller, rudders,
forward fins, aft fins, sonar arrays, etc. also contribute to the buoyancy.
Additionally, any air pockets created in the ballast tanks are also buoyancy
elements, and hence these are unwanted as they unexpectedly increase the
buoyancy on the submarine, therefore creating a positively buoyant situation.

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Weight Elements
Components on a submarine that contribute to its total weight are called weight
elements. All the fixed weight on the submarine as listed below are among the
primary weight components:

• Pressure hull structure that includes pressure hull plating, circular stiffening
frames, tanks, brackets, etc.
• Main propulsion plant that includes the diesel alternators, the electric
propulsion motor (for a diesel electric submarine), shafting system, thrust
block, thrust bearings, propeller, and associated machinery.
• Batteries stored in battery banks.
• Weapons stowed inside the submarine.
• Weight of all other machinery, component, and permanent fixtures on the
submarine.

Apart from the fixed weight elements, there are variable weight elements, that is,
their magnitudes change with time:

• Weight of crew.
• Weight of stores (e.g. fresh water, food, etc)
• Weight of consumables (diesel oil, lube oil, etc.)
• Weight of bilge, and solid waste.
• Weight of ballast.

A proper listing of all the weight and buoyancy elements are required, along with
their individual weight, center of gravity, enclosed volume, and center of
buoyancy. Once all the buoyancy elements are listed with their volumes and center
of volumes, the data is used to arrive at the total buoyancy of the submarine, and
the 3D coordinates of the center of buoyancy. Similar analysis is done for all the
weight elements to arrive at the CG and weight of the submarine. This data is used
to correlate the weight buoyancy relationship for a submarine.

Though this article has provided a lot of new insight on analysis of stability for
submarines, there are significant parts that are related to this, but will require
further knowledge to be understood. Which brings us to the next article, where we
will discuss all the different types of tanks in a submarine, and their functions, and
how design decisions are taken for each type of tank depending on their purpose.

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 Structure Design of a Submarine
Approximately 40% of the focus and priority in the entire submarine design
process is given to its structural design. The full process of designing its structure
also takes up majority of the time, as it is not only related to strength factors, but
also to a nexus of functional aspects that are interrelated to it.

Structural design always begins with the process of identifying the loads that the
structure would be subjected to. The loads on a submarine during its mission can
be classified into the following:

1. Loading Due to Diving Pressure:

Depth is one of the most important and deciding structural design criteria. The
pressure hull is the primary structural element of the submarine and is designed to
be able to withstand external hydrostatic pressure. It is designed for a particular
collapse depth, at which complete failure is expected within a very narrow range.
The collapse depth is calculated by multiplying the maximum operable depth
(MOD) or service depth with a factor of safety. The hydrostatic pressure at this
depth is considered as the design pressure for all the pressure hull calculations.

In usual design, safety factors of 1.5 are used, and submarines designed to such
limits should not go below the service depth. Whereas, in designs allowing higher
safety factors like 2.5, they can dive deeper than the service depth, but only in
emergency conditions.

2. Shock Loads:
A submarine is designed to withstand the loads generated by underwater
detonations (for example, mine explosions, pressures generated by bursting of
large underwater gas bubbles).

The physics of underwater explosions is a very interesting subject, as in, it is

remarkably unique when compared to an explosion in air. To understand it, watch
the video below, and notice how the explosion ball is created and how it contracts
and explodes again, to release a cloud of gas bubbles.

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At the instant of explosion, a shockwave is created, which applies radial outward
pressure on the water around the point of explosion. This ball of explosion expands
to the point where the internal pressure on the inner wall of the ball becomes equal
to the external hydrostatic pressure due to the water around it. Now that the ball
has expanded, the pressure at its centre is lower than the external pressure. This is
what causes it to contract and implode. This implosion generates a cloud of gas
bubbles which expands radially. The same process of contraction, implosion and
expansion recurs in series till the energy of the explosion is completely dissipated.
The diameter and magnitude of each recurrent explosion is less than the previous.

The study thus helps us conclude, that when a submarine is subjected to an

explosion, it should be able to withstand not one, but a series of shockwaves. It has
also been observed during tests, that due to each contraction of the explosion
cloud, the submarine has a tendency to be sucked towards the centre of the
explosion cloud. The worst case scenario is an explosion under a submarine, as a
result of which the suction is downwards, and it if caused at maximum service
depth, can result in the submarine being sucked into larger depths, causing
additional risk to the structure due to hydrostatic pressure.

Apart from the direct shock load imparted from the explosion, each shockwave
from a single underwater explosion causes a wave of vibration to propagate along
the pressure hull. Vibratory loads not only reduce the fatigue life, but can cause
resonance resulting in major structural failure.

3. Other Loads:
Like a surface ship, a submarine in surfaced condition is subjected to longitudinal
bending loads, transverse shear forces on transverse structures, and torsional loads
caused due to wave action.

Local loads like longitudinal and torsional vibrations are caused by action of
engine. The structure is to be so designed that the level of vibrations are well
within the limits.

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Strength of the Pressure Hull:
The cylindrical pressure hull in dived condition is subjected to
longitudinal compressive stress. This longitudinal stress is of half the magnitude of
the hoop stress or the circumferential stress.

The following expression for the longitudinal stress on the pressure hull is used for
obtaining the required thickness of the hull and the scantlings of the stiffeners
required to prevent failure of the pressure hull by buckling.

The longitudinal stress therefore is a function of the external pressure, the radius of
the pressure resistant hull, and the thickness of the hull plate. Now, what role does
a submarine designer play with this equation? The radius of the pressure hull is an
input from the client, as in, the radius of the submarine is specified along with a
range, and this would mean that the pressure hull radius is a fixed entity for the
entire structural design.

The hydrostatic pressure at the collapse depth is considered as the external pressure
in this calculation. Since the collapse depth is also specified in the contract, it
remains fixed. The remaining variable in thickness of pressure hull. Now, the
maximum longitudinal compressive stress on the pressure hull is determined by the
yield strength of the material used. What a designer calculates for a particular
material, is the minimum thickness that is required to keep the stress within limits.

The following observations can be made from the above relation:

• For a fixed MOD, a submarine with larger diameter requires thicker pressure
hull plate than a submarine with lesser diameter.
• The minimum thickness of the pressure hull required for a submarine can be
reduced by using material with higher yield strength. A lesser thickness
would be advantageous in reducing the weight, but comes at a cost of higher
price.

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The pressure hull shell absorbs all the forces in the longitudinal direction without
the requirement of transverse ring stiffeners. However, the shell is stiffened by ring
stiffeners that can absorb the circumferential stresses originated due to buckling
loads. The ring stiffeners (usually T profiles) are welded to the pressure hull shell,
and the entire system acts as one unit.

The pressure hull can fail in three modes, and the probability of occurrence of each
mode depends on the arrangement of the stiffeners, as discussed below:

Failure Mode 1:
The first mode of failure occurs when the ring stiffeners have high scantling and
are placed very close to each other. This results in yielding of the shell plate
between two consecutive frames. The yielding occurs over the circumference of
the shell between two frames, and hence, is also called symmetrical buckling, as
shown in the image below.

Yielding of shell plate between two frames.

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Failure Mode 2:
This mode of failure happens when the scantling of the frames are too low, and
they are placed too distant from each other, that is, in case of larger frame spacing.
The shell plate, in this case buckles in the form of a wave throughout the
circumference between two consecutive frames. One buckle will be directed
inward, while the next one will be directed outward, as shown in the schematic
figure below.

Second Mode Buckling (transverse view).

Note that the number of waves created in the above case is five, hence it is called a
five-lobe buckling. The number of lobes created can vary from two to five,
depending on the spacing between the stiffeners and the stress. The following
figure shows a real image of shell buckling between frames.

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 Shell buckling between frames.

Failure Mode 3:
The first and second modes of failure were local failures, and any such occurrence
would not post immediate threat to the integrity of the complete structure of the
pressure hull. But failure in mode three involves buckling of the pressure hull over
its entire length, and this causes the transverse rings to bend out of axis, as shown
in the image below. The effect would extend to the length of the pressure hull
between two heavy transverse structures like bulkheads or heavy web frames. This
is also called total collapse of pressure hull. This is caused due to inadequate
strength of the material, or when the submarine dives to depths more than collapse
depth.

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Other than the above three modes of failure, some other failure modes for a
pressure hull are as discussed below:

• General instability of the pressure hull shell, circular frames, bulkheads and
decks caused by improper welding or improper scantling calculations may
lead to local failures or failures extending to a series of frames.
• Snap-through buckling may occur at the forward elliptical bulkhead (dome)
or the aft conical bulkhead as these shapes are subjected to varying
compressive loads.
• Low cycle stresses on the pressure hull structure may lead to development of
cracks followed by crack propagation.
• Failures due to stress concentration at regions of discontinuity in shape, for
example: the joint between the cylindrical section of the pressure hull with
the aft conical and forward elliptical ends is subject to high stresses.

The following figure summarizes the nature of failures that a pressure hull is prone
to, and their effects on the geometry of the structure.

Forms of failure of a submarine pressure hull.

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Quick Fact:
The pressure hull of submarines can be stiffened either internally or externally. But
external stiffening is ore preferable due to the following reasons:

1. It has been observed that external stiffeners of the same scantling as that of
internal stiffeners, provide 5 percent more strength than the latter.
2. Since external stiffening occupies the space between the pressure hull and
outer hull, a lot of usable space can be obtained within the pressure hull.

But some designs, especially where the pressure hull is itself the outer hull for
most part of the submarine’s length, internal stiffening remains the only option.

Just like a surface ship has a midship drawing, and drawings of structural
components at all transverse frames, the following figure shows the structural
components of a double hull submarine at a section that contains the sail. The right
half of the drawing is the arrangement at an ordinary frame, and the part to the left
of the centreline is a web frame (usually at three to five frame spaces).

Structural components of a submarine (transverse view)

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Pressure Hull Penetrations:
The pressure hull is a pressure tight enclosed structure with atmospheric pressure
within its enclosed volume. Even then, it is required to provide means to pass from
inside to outside in both, surfaced and submerged conditions. For this purpose,
circular hatches (conning tower at the centre, one hatch at forward and aft, each)
are provided for access of personnel. Penetrations are provided for access of
pipelines and cables that connect equipment which are housed outside the pressure
hull but are actuated from inside.

The forward elliptical dome bulkhead also has a number of penetrations, the
primary ones being for the passage of torpedo tubes, and the secondary ones
providing access to pipelines for the weapon compensating tanks. Penetrations on a
forward bulkhead of a submarine is shown in the figure below.

Pressure hull penetrations on the forward elliptical bulkhead of a submarine.

48 | P a g e
These are very critical structures because they are unavoidable discontinuities on
the pressure hull, and the edges of the penetrations (whether circular or elliptical)
become points of high stress concentrations. Hence, welding processes of pressure
hull penetrations is a highly scrutinized process and usually more than one type of
non-destructive testing (NDT) is conducted on the welds of pressure hull
penetrations.

Class of Structures on a Submarine:

Submarine structures are broadly categorized into three types depending on

the effect their failure would have on the submarine.

Class I Structures:

These are the structures which if damaged, would render the submarine
completely incapable of carrying out any operation or remain afloat, and
would also pose threat to the safety of the personnel. The complete primary
structure of the pressure hull (the shell and the stiffeners) is Class I structure.
Strictest NDT requirements are followed for certification of the quality of these
structures. The pressure hull is also pre-tested to its design pressure by
creating vacuum inside it, before other structural outfits are carried out on it.

Class II Structures:

These structures, if damaged or undergo complete failure would only hinder a

part of the submarine’s capability of carrying out its mission. Though damage
to Class II structures does not render the submarine inactive, it would affect a
system or a part of a system that carries out a vital function in the submarine.
Such damages are often repairable on board or by dry-docking the submarine.
Class II structures also dictated by stringent NDT standards. Examples of these
are ballast tanks, trim tanks, regulating and compensating tanks, pressure hull
penetrations

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Class III Structures:
Damage to Class III structures would pose no threat ot have negligible effect on
the sea worthiness of the submarine. Such damages can be repaired while the
submarine is in operation. Example of Class III structures are knee brackets,
equipment supports, etc.

To conclude, the design and analysis of submarine structures is a process that is

way more complex than that of ship structures due to the improbabilities of shock
loads coming into effect. Every submarine design company conducts extensive
finite element analyses for a combination of load cases that the structure could be
subject to. What leaves scope of research in this field is, submarines are not tested
projects like many surface ships. Each design is new depending on the navy and
other inter-related requirements of the project, and this leaves the designers with a
lot of scope to improve on the next.

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 Submarine construction
Submarine construction is a complex process that involves various
engineering disciplines and technologies. Here's a general overview of
the key aspects of submarine construction:

Design and Planning

Conceptualization: Engineers and naval architects work together to
design the submarine, taking into account its intended purpose, size,
and capabilities.
Hydrodynamics: Understanding the underwater environment and
ensuring the submarine's design minimizes drag and noise is crucial.
Materials
Submarines are typically constructed using high-strength steel or
advanced composite materials. The choice of materials depends on
factors like strength, buoyancy, and cost.
Hull Construction
there are several elements that contribute to its overall strength and integrity:
Outer Hull:
The outer hull of a submarine is the external layer that provides streamlined shape,
protection, and buoyancy. It is typically constructed from materials such as high-
strength steel, aluminum alloys, or advanced composites.

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Inner Hull (Pressure Hull):
The inner hull, also known as the pressure hull, is the primary structural
component that houses the crew and critical systems. It is designed to withstand
the external water pressure at different depths during submarine operations. The
pressure hull is usually cylindrical in shape and made from materials with high
strength.

Frames and Stringers:

Frames and stringers are structural members within the inner hull that provide
additional support and help maintain the shape of the submarine. Frames are
vertical members, and stringers are longitudinal members that run parallel to the
length of the submarine.

Bulkheads:
Bulkheads are vertical walls within the inner hull that divide the submarine into
compartments. They enhance structural integrity, provide additional strength, and
contribute to the safety of the submarine by compartmentalizing different sections.

Longitudinal Girders:
Longitudinal girders are large structural members that run parallel to the length of
the submarine. They contribute to longitudinal strength and support, especially in
areas where higher loads are anticipated.

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Keel:
The keel is the backbone of the submarine's hull and runs along the bottom. It is a
longitudinal stiffener that provides structural support and helps maintain the
alignment of the submarine.

Sonar Dome (if applicable):

Some submarines have a sonar dome on the forward part of the hull. The sonar
dome houses the transducers of the sonar system, allowing the submarine to detect
and identify underwater targets.
These components work together to create a strong and resilient structure that
enables the submarine to operate safely and effectively in various underwater
conditions. The specific design and materials used depend on the submarine class,
mission requirements, and technological advancements at the time of construction.

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 HYDRODYNAMIC DESIGN IN SUBMARINE
Hydrodynamic design is crucial in the development of submarines to ensure
optimal performance and efficiency while submerged. The primary goal of
hydrodynamic design for submarines is to reduce drag and resistance as much as
possible, allowing the submarine to move through the water with minimal
resistance and noise.

Here are some key aspects of hydrodynamic design in submarines:

Streamlined Shape

Submarines are designed with a streamlined shape to minimize water resistance.

This shape helps in reducing drag and allows the submarine to move smoothly
through the water.
The hull is typically cylindrical or tapered, with a pointed front (bow) and a
tapered rear (stern). This design reduces turbulence and minimizes the creation of
waves, which could give away the submarine's position.

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Smooth Surfaces

Smooth surfaces on the hull further reduce drag. Irregularities or rough surfaces
can create additional resistance as water flows around the submarine.
Special coatings or materials may be used to create a smooth and low-friction
surface.

Sail Design

The sail is the portion of the submarine that protrudes above the water and houses
various sensors and communication equipment. It also plays a role
in hydrodynamic performance.
The sail is designed to minimize water resistance and reduce the impact on the
submarine's overall drag.

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Control Surfaces
Hydroplanes and rudders are used for controlling the submarine's depth and
direction. These control surfaces are carefully designed to provide precise
maneuverability without creating excessive drag.
The placement and shape of these surfaces are optimized to minimize disturbances
in the water flow.

Propulsion Systems
The propulsion system is a critical factor in hydrodynamic design. Propellers or
pump-jet systems are used to move the submarine through the water.
The design of the propulsion system, including the shape and positioning of
propellers, is important for minimizing noise and maximizing efficiency.

Quieting Technologies

Submarines incorporate quieting technologies to reduce noise, making them less

detectable by sonar systems. This includes the reduction of cavitation noise caused
by the rotation of propellers.
Advanced materials and engineering techniques are employed to absorb and
dampen sound within the submarine.

Materials and Coatings

The choice of materials and coatings on the submarine's hull can impact its
hydrodynamics. Non-reflective and non-corrosive materials are often used to
reduce maintenance needs and avoid detection.

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Underwater Vehicle Dynamics

Understanding the dynamics of underwater vehicle motion is crucial.

Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulations and physical model testing help
optimize the design for various operating conditions.
Hydrodynamic design is a multidisciplinary field that involves naval architecture,
fluid dynamics, materials science, and engineering. The integration of these
principles ensures that submarines can navigate underwater efficiently, quietly, and
with minimal resistance.

Systems Integration
Submarines have complex systems, including propulsion, navigation,
communication, and life support. These systems are integrated into the
submarine during construction.

Propulsion Systems
Submarines use various propulsion methods, such as nuclear or diesel-
electric engines. Nuclear-powered submarines have a reactor for power,
while diesel-electric submarines rely on diesel engines on the surface
and batteries when submerged.
Testing
Submarines undergo rigorous testing to ensure they meet safety and
performance standards. This includes pressure testing, sea trials, and
operational testing of all systems.

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Assembly and Launch
Once construction is complete, the submarine is assembled, and final
preparations are made for launch. Submarines are typically launched
from a shipyard into the water for the first time.

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Commissioning
After launch, the submarine goes through a commissioning process,
where it is officially brought into service. This involves extensive testing
and training for the crew.
Maintenance and Upgrades
Submarines require regular maintenance throughout their operational
life. They may also undergo upgrades to incorporate new technologies
and extend their service life.
It's worth noting that nuclear-powered submarines have additional
considerations related to the nuclear reactor, which requires specialized
construction and maintenance procedures. The construction process
can vary depending on the type of submarine, its intended use, and the
technologies involved.

stiffeners system inside submarines

Stiffeners are structural elements used to provide strength and stability
to the hull of a submarine or any other vessel. They are essentially
longitudinal or transverse members that reinforce the structure, helping
it withstand the various forces it may encounter, especially in
underwater conditions. The stiffeners contribute to the overall
structural integrity of the submarine's hull.In the context of submarine
construction, there are several types of stiffeners commonly use
• Longitudinal Stiffeners
These run along the length of the submarine, parallel to the keel. They
help distribute the loads and provide longitudinal strength to the hull.

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 • Transverse Stiffeners
These run across the width of the submarine, perpendicular to the keel.
They contribute to the lateral strength of the hull, helping it resist
bending forces.

• Frames and Bulkheads

Frames and bulkheads are specialized forms of stiffeners. Frames are
vertical stiffeners that help support the hull's sides, while bulkheads are
vertical walls that divide the submarine into compartments. Both
frames and bulkheads contribute to the overall structural stability.

• Ring Stiffeners
These are circular stiffeners that reinforce the cylindrical sections of the
hull. They help prevent deformation and enhance the overall structural
integrity.
The arrangement and design of stiffeners depend on the specific
requirements of the submarine's design, taking into consideration
factors such as the intended operational depth, pressure
considerations, and the overall structural load the submarine may
experience.

In submarines, especially those designed for deep-sea operations, the

hull must withstand significant external pressure. The stiffeners play a
crucial role in ensuring that the hull maintains its shape and integrity
under these extreme conditions. Additionally, they help distribute the

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loads generated by the equipment, systems, and other components
inside the submarine.

It's important to note that submarine design and construction involve a

careful balance of factors to achieve optimal strength, buoyancy, and
maneuverability while considering the constraints of underwater
operation
type of hull
Submarines can have different types of hull designs, each serving
specific purposes and having distinct advantages. The two primary
types of submarine hulls are:
Cylindrical or "Cigar" Hull
This is the traditional and most common type of submarine hull. It has a
cylindrical shape, often referred to as a "cigar" or "tube." This design is
well-suited for submerged operations as it offers good hydrodynamic
performance, reducing drag and making it easier for the submarine to
move through the water. The pressure hull, which contains the crew
and critical systems, is usually located inside the cylindrical outer hull.
Many conventional submarines and some nuclear-powered submarines
have cylindrical hulls.
Teardrop or "Tear Shape" Hull
The teardrop hull design is more streamlined than the cylindrical hull
and resembles a teardrop or a fish. It is characterized by a pointed bow
that gradually widens toward the stern. This shape is optimized for
minimizing hydrodynamic resistance and noise, providing improved
submerged performance. The teardrop hull is often associated with

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modern nuclear-powered submarines, as it enhances their speed and
maneuverability underwater. The pressure hull is typically integrated
into the streamlined shape of the outer hull.
The choice between a cylindrical and teardrop hull depends on various
factors, including the submarine's intended use, operational
requirements, and propulsion system. While cylindrical hulls are simpler
to build and maintain, teardrop hulls offer better hydrodynamic
efficiency, making them well-suited for high-speed and stealthy
underwater operations.
It's worth noting that within these broad categories, there can be
variations and modifications based on specific submarine classes,
technological advancements, and the evolving needs of naval forces.
The design of the hull is a critical aspect of submarine development,
impacting the overall performance, maneuverability, and stealth
capabilities of the submarine.

Cylindrical structure
The cylindrical structure refers to a structural design of objects that
takes the form of a cylinder, having a straight and regular section. In the
context of submarines, the cylindrical structure involves a configuration
represented by a cylinder extending along its length.

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For submarines utilizing a cylindrical structure:
Outer hull
There is an external cylindrical structure forming the outer shell of the
submarine. This shell provides protection and structural stability for the
submarine.
Pressure Hull
Within the cylindrical structure, there is another structure known as the
pressure hull, which contains the main crew compartment, vital
equipment, and primary systems. This pressure hull is designed to
withstand the pressure created underwater.

Manufacturing
The cylindrical structure is sometimes easier to manufacture compared
to other structural designs, facilitating construction and maintenance
operations.

Submersion and Buoyancy

The design of the cylindrical structure facilitates submersion and
buoyancy, presenting an effective hydrodynamically shaped structure.
This type of design is primarily used in conventional submarines with
diesel-electric engines and offers a good balance between cost and
performance for various maritime applications.

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CASE STUDY
TITAN SUBMARINE

The objective of this study is to identify and analyze the potential causes that may
have contributed to the implosion of the Titan Submersible. By examining the
factors such as repeated stress, fatigue, structural vulnerabilities, and any other
relevant aspects, we aim to gain a comprehensive understanding of the underlying
reasons behind the implosion event.
The findings of this analysis will help improve safety measures, inform future
submersible designs, and enhance deep-sea exploration protocols to prevent
similar incidents in the future.

Titan Submarine

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What is a Titan Submersible?

The Titan Submarine, operated by Ocean Gate Inc., is a certified submersible

vessel specifically designed for in-depth exploration of the wreck of the iconic
British Ocean Liner “Titanic”. It has received certifications from the US Navy and
the NOAA (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration). Since its launch in
2018, the submersible has successfully completed numerous dives to the Titanic
wreck, providing opportunities for tourism, research, and data collection.
With the capability to accommodate five people, the Titan submersible is
engineered to reach impressive depths of 3800 meters. It was meticulously
constructed by Ocean Gate Expeditions, catering to various purposes such as
tourism, research, and data collection. Notably, it stands out as the only manned
submersible to incorporate an integrated real-time health monitoring system. This
innovative feature allows continuous analysis of pressure changes and structural
impacts during deep dives.
Constructed primarily from carbon fiber and titanium, the Titan submersible
boasts remarkable durability and strength. Its design, shaped like a sphere,
encompasses a titanium hull and a carbon fiber pressure sphere, enhancing both
structural integrity and weight reduction for convenient transportation and
deployment.
Beyond its technical prowess, the Titan submersible showcases an innovative
design. Its spherical shape enhances stability and maneuverability compared to
traditional submersibles. Moreover, the inclusion of a spacious window provides
passengers with an expansive view of the mesmerizing underwater environment
during their explorations.
The versatile capabilities of the Titan submersible extend beyond tourism. Its
applications encompass diverse research endeavors and comprehensive data
collection. It has been proven instrumental in surveying underwater shipwrecks,
conducting studies on marine life, and serving as a testing platform for cutting-
edge underwater technologies.

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In summary, the Titan Submarine by Ocean Gate Inc. combines advanced
engineering, innovative design, and cutting-edge technology to enable thrilling
explorations of the Titanic wreck. With its certifications, robust construction, real-
time health monitoring system, and multifaceted applications, the Titan
submersible remains at the forefront of deep-sea expeditions, offering invaluable
opportunities for research, data collection, and awe-inspiring adventures.

Specifications

• The specifications of Titan Submersible are as follows:

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Length: 6.7 m
Weight: 10,432 kg
Hull Thickness: 12.7 cm
Internal Diameter: 1.42 m
Construction Materials: Carbon Fiber and Titanium
Connectors (Joining Material): Titanium Rings
Porthole (Viewing Port) Material: Clear-Coat Acrylic Glass
Porthole (Viewing Port) Diameter: cm
Max. Crew Capacity: 5
Max. Operating Depth: 3.8 km
Operating Depth Limit: 3 km
Operating Water Pressure: 4285 psi (29.54 MPa; 291.6 atm)
Operating Speed: 5.6 kmph
Max. Independent Operating Time: 4 days (96 hrs.)
Thruster Type: Electric
Number of Thrusters: 4 (2 horizontal and 2 vertical)

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Pictorial Representation

Details of Repair Work

2020: It was discovered that the hull, serving as the outer shell of the vehicle,
exhibited signs of cyclic fatigue, gradually weakening over time due to repeated
stress. Consequently, the maximum safe depth for the vehicle was reduced from the
default 3.8 km to 3 km as a precautionary measure.

2020–21: The hull underwent repairs or was rebuilt to restore its strength. During
the process, the company’s leader revealed that the carbon fiber used in the vehicle
was acquired at a discounted price from Boeing, an aeroplane manufacturer, as it
did not meet their standards for aircraft use. This advantageous arrangement
allowed Ocean Gate Inc. to obtain cost-effective carbon fiber for constructing the
submersible.

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Submersible Implosion Data

Date: 18th of June 2023

Location: North Atlantic Ocean, near the wreck of Titanic

Depth: 3.5 km

Water Temp.: 0 to 1°C

Type: Maritime Disaster

Participants: Ocean Gate and passengers

Outcome: Submersible destroyed by implosion

Deaths: 5

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What is an Implosion?

Implosion is the process of collapsing or inwardly collapsing under the force of

external pressure. It occurs when an object or structure cannot withstand the
external pressure being exerted on it, causing it to collapse inwardly or implode. In
an implosion, the object or structure crumbles or collapses inward due to the
imbalance of external and internal pressures.

On the other hand, explosion refers to a rapid release of energy, typically

accompanied by a sudden expansion of gases, resulting in a violent outward force.
It occurs when there is a rapid release of stored energy within an object or
substance, leading to a rapid expansion of gases, heat, and pressure. Explosions
tend to produce outward forces and result in the scattering or fragmentation of
materials surrounding the explosion.

In summary, the key difference between implosion and explosion lies in the
direction of the forces and the resulting movement of materials. Implosion involves
inward collapse due to external pressure, while explosion involves outward force
and dispersal of materials due to rapid energy release.

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What Happens During an Implosion?

The immense depth at which the vessel operated subjected it to an extraordinary

amount of water pressure, which is 300 times the atmospheric pressure at the sea
level, equivalent to the weight of tens of thousands of tons, comparable to that of
the iconic Eiffel Tower in Paris, France. In the event of a rupture to the structure,
the external pressure would far exceed the internal pressure, leading to a drastic
compression of the vessel.

When a submarine hull collapses, the inward movement is incredibly rapid,

occurring at an astonishing speed of approximately 2414 kmph or 671 m/s (in other
words, the inward movement occurs at Mach 2 speed or twice the speed of sound).
The collapse itself is an incredibly swift process, taking merely one millisecond,
which is a mere one thousandth of a second. Within the submarine, the air consists
of a relatively high concentration of hydrocarbon vapours. As the hull collapses, the
air undergoes auto-ignition, resulting in a subsequent explosion following the initial
rapid implosion. This combustion reaction is triggered by the sudden increase in
pressure and temperature within the vessel.
In such catastrophic circumstances, the human bodies present within the submarine
would incinerate almost instantaneously, transforming into ash and dust. The
extreme forces and energy released during the implosion and subsequent explosion
leave no chance for survival.
These intricate details emphasise the immense power and destruction involved in
the collapse of a submarine hull at great depths, highlighting the vital importance of
engineering and design integrity to ensure the safety of deep-sea exploration and the
well-being of tho
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Why the Titan Submersible Imploded?

The sphere is considered “the perfect shape” because it allows water pressure to be
evenly distributed across all areas. However, the elongated cabin space of the
submersible created increased pressure loads in the mid-sections, leading to greater
fatigue and delamination loads.

Over the course of approximately two dozen previous dives, the Titan’s hull, which
was 127 mm thick, experienced repeated stress. Each dive introduced small cracks
in the structure, initially insignificant and undetectable, but they soon became
critical and rapidly grew uncontrollably.

While composites are generally tough and durable, they can fail differently than
other materials. Excessive loads or poor design leading to stress concentrations can
shorten the lifespan of composites.

A former director of marine operations expert advised the company to perform non-
destructive testing, such as Ultrasonic Scans, to identify areas where the composites
might be deteriorating. However, the company refused to conduct these tests,
despite their potential benefits in detecting structural issues at their initial stages.

As a result, a lawsuit was filed against the company, alleging that their testing and
certification procedures were inadequate and could expose passengers to extreme
danger in an experimental submersible. Numerous third-party organisations also
expressed concerns about the size of the Titan, its construction materials, and the
lack of thorough examination of the prototype.
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However, the company criticised the third-party certification process, arguing that it
was time-consuming and hindered innovation. They believed that requiring external
entities to review every innovation before real-world testing would impede rapid
progress.

The company defended its track record, citing thousands of dives to similar depths
in collaboration with other countries without any incidents of this nature occurring
in the past.

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Possible Reasons of Implosion

Based on the information provided, the below listed factors could have contributed
to the potential implosion:

Structural Fatigue: The repeated stress and pressure load experienced by the
submersible during dives may have weakened the hull over time, leading to the
development and rapid growth of cracks. These cracks could have eventually
compromised the structural integrity of the vessel, potentially resulting in an
implosion.

Delamination: The increased pressure loads in the midsections, combined with the
elongated cabin space, could have caused delamination within the composite
materials used in the construction of the submersible. Delamination refers to the
separation of layers within the material, which could have further weakened the hull
and made it susceptible to implosion.
Insufficient Testing and Certification: The company’s refusal to conduct non-
destructive testing, such as ultrasonic scans, might have prevented the detection of
critical structural issues. The absence of thorough examination and certification
processes could have resulted in undetected vulnerabilities within the submersible’s
construction, potentially contributing to the risk of implosion.
The lawsuit and concerns expressed by third-party organizations regarding the size
of the submersible, its construction materials, and the lack of thorough examination
may indicate potential design or safety shortcomings. These concerns highlight the
importance of rigorous testing, certification, and external review processes in
ensuring the safety and reliability of submersible vehicles.
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In conclusion, the Titan Submersible operated by Ocean Gate Inc. faced substantial
challenges related to the structural integrity of its hull, necessitating repairs and
rebuilding to restore strength. The identification of signs of cyclic fatigue and
weakening due to repeated stress shed light on the importance of rigorous testing,
monitoring, and adherence to material standards in the construction of underwater
vessels.

Furthermore, the acquisition of discounted carbon fiber from Boeing showcased the
value of cost-effective solutions in submersible development. These experiences
underscore the commitment of Ocean Gate Inc. to enhancing submersible technology
and advancing deep-sea exploration. Although the loss of Titan represents a
significant setback for the field, the incident serves as a valuable lesson that will
contribute to future submersibles’ safety, reliability, and overall improvement in the
realm of deep-sea exploration.

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CONCLUSION

Concluding this comprehensive exploration of submarine design, this book has

ventured into the depths of innovation, revealing the intricate interplay of science,
engineering, and imagination necessary to conquer the underwater frontier. From
the evolution of stealth technology to the refinement of propulsion systems and
life-sustaining environments, this journey has illuminated the relentless pursuit of
efficiency, safety, and operational prowess in submarine construction.

As we navigate the complexities of underwater engineering within these pages, this

book stands as a testament to human ingenuity and perseverance. It underscores the
insatiable drive to master the depths while emphasizing the criticality of
sustainability, technological advancement, and the vast potential that lies ahead in
the captivating world of submarine design.

May this book serve as a beacon, inspiring future innovators and engineers to
continue pushing the boundaries of possibility, ensuring that the marvels of
submarine design evolve in harmony with our planet and humanity's quest for
exploration.

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REFRENCES

Benford, H. (1191). Naval Architecture for Non-Naval Architects.

Burcher, R., & J. Rydill , L. (July 1994). Concepts in Submarine Design.
Cambridge University Press.
Chakraborty, S. (May 17, 2019). Introduction to Submarine Design. Marine Insight
.
Hutter, K., & Rowe, J. (February 1, 1991). Submarine Technology for the 21st
Century.

(Hutter & Rowe, February 1, 1991; Chakraborty, May 17, 2019) (Burcher & J.
Rydill , July 1994)

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