CHAPTER - 1

DEVELOPMENT OF MILITARY SUBMARINES

DEVELOPMENT UP TO THE END OF WORLD WAR I

The history of submarine construction goes well back into ancient

times. Attempts at controlled submerged cruising were successful even
before the machine age.

The inventor Wilhelm Bauer was the first one among the numerous
former submarine designers, who was well up in the technics of controlled
submerged cruising, so that he favourably influenced subsequent
designers; therefore, a beginning is made with him. For the first time,
Wilhelm Bauer dived with "Brandtaucher" near Kiel in 1850. After a
submerged accident, he succeeded in making his escape out of this
vehicle. Bauer was very successful with the boat' built at St. Petersburg
(Leningrad) in 1855.

However true underwater vehicles could not be built until the

availability of machinery plants which, were not dependent on a steady
supply of outside air. The first boats of this type were propelled by
battery-powered electric motors. Their cruising range depended
essentially on the capacity of the storage battery, which was charged in
port or by an escort ship. They were suitable only for brief operations,
which were carried out mainly under water. The following were
milestones:

1. In 1887, J. peral, a Spaniard, built the first submarine provided with

storage batteries.

2. In 1888, Zede, a Frenchman, built a similar boat.

3. In 1902, the Germania Shipyard in Germany built the first
serviceable vessel with this type of propulsion, i.e. "Forelle", who
was sold to Russia in 1904.

The next stage of development was that of self-charging

submarines, these were capable of charging batteries while operating on
the surface and had a separate power plant for surface cruising. Different
types of propulsion plants (e.g., steam engines or petroleum engines)
were tried until, finally, the diesel engine proved to be the most useful
type of engine for surface cruising. The performance capability to be
reached by the diesel engines made it possible to use these submarines
for a variety of purposes.

Right from the start, a structural distinction was made between

double and single-hull boats. The double-hull beat was more seaworthy
for surface navigation than the single hull. At the beginning of World War
I, all the larger navies had a number of self-contained submarines, all of
which carried torpedo armament. Milestones in this development were:

1. In 1899, the French NARVAL, the prototype of the double-hull

submarine, was lunched.

2. In 1900, several U. S. submarines of the HOLLAND class (single

hull) were ordered.

3. In 1904, an order was placed for construction of the U-1 (double

hull) at the Germania Shipyard in Kiel.

There were many different opinions regarding the possible uses far
submarines.
 World War-I proved that the self-charging submarine was most
effective when used alone on long-range operations. Lang cruises were
generally, made and the surface, and the submarine usually submerged
only when the enemy was sighted during the day.

The submarine's main weapon, the torpedo, required that the attack
be launched at close range. The submarine could use its torpedoes in a
daytime attack while submerged or in a night attack while on the surface.
The approach to the enemy went unnoticed by day when the submarine
was submerged and using its periscope. A night approach on the surface
takes advantage of the law silhouette. Because of its ability to submerge,
the submarine could penetrate sea areas controlled by the enemy, escape
enemy attacks by diving, and attack any major target with its torpedoes.

The submarine was capable of carrying other types of weapons as

well as a minelayer, it could lay mines unnoticed in places, that were
inaccessible to surface vessels. Guns became very important in the
warfare against merchant ships. Individual submarines were fitted with
heavy, armored guns far engaging land-based targets. The submarine was
sometimes used or reconnaissance in cooperation with

units of a fleet. It became an extremely dangerous weapon in the

hands of a weaker naval power.

The fact that at that time submarines ran "blind " and "deaf" when
they cruised
Deeper than at periscope depth, i.e. "deep submerged" - as any acoustic
underwater sensors were not yet available, was a decisive factor in the
way in which they were used. At periscope depth, the visual ​range was
limited. The range of optical observation was much greater than the
surface, but, even when visibility was good, it could not compare with that
of surface vessels because of the relatively low observation level. Because
the chance of sighting an enemy was greater on the surface, the highest
possible surface speed was the measure of a submarines value. Conditions
permitting, the submarine could take advantage of its surface speed
during the daytime to take up a favorable position for launching a
submerged attack. Underwater attack speeds were generally slow due to
the temporary use of periscope. The night surface attack was the
preferred method because it enabled a

faster attack speed.

 Submerged drag was greatly increased by the requirement for
surface cruising and by the armament mounted on the upper deck.
However, since maximum submerged speed was considered of relatively
little importance, the speed and endurance for submerged cruising
continued to decrease. Especially it was sufficient if the submarine could
stay submerged, all day if necessary, until it could surface at night to
recharge its batteries.

The diving period, i.e. the period of transition between surface

cruise and submerged cruise was reduced significantly during World War I.
Vessels with these type features will be referred to in what follows as
submersibles.

The double-hull construction was preferred in Germany. Only three

series of small, single-hull submersibles were built.

The armament of small submersibles consisted primarily of

torpedoes or mines. In addition, medium-size submersibles carried guns
for use against merchant ships. Submarine cruisers, built for long-range
operations against merchant ships, gave preference to guns over
torpedoes.

The vessel was fully developed as a submersible vehicle with diesel

and battery-electric propulsion by the end of World War I.

A class of submarines (R class) was built in England during World

War I for making submerged attacks against submarines running on the
surface. The boats had a relatively high-submerged speed and a long
submerged operating range.

Vessels with these type features will be referred to as submarines.

2. DEVELOPMENT BETWEEN THE END OF WORLD WAR I AND
THE END OF WORLD WAR II

During World War I, Germany more than any other combatant was
committed to the use of submarines as a means of waging naval warfare.
Thus, Germany became a leader in submarine development and had the
most experience in the use of submarines. The results of German
developments were made available to all navies at the end of the war.
Among other things, the big German submarine cruiser became the model
for U.S. deep-sea submarines as well as for large Japanese and Russian
submarines.

In accordance with the 'provisions of the Treaty of Versailles, no

submarines were built or maintained in Germany immediately after the
war.

The Washington Naval Conference of 1921-22 failed to agree on

submarine construction. However, rules were established for calculating
the displacement of submarines.

The London Naval Conference of 1930 restricted the total submarine

tonnage of the United States and Great Britain to 1,50,000 tons and that
of Japan to 1,05,500 tons. The submarine was simply defined as “a vessel
designed for use under the surface of the water”.

The German-Anglo Naval Treaty of 1935 permitted Germany a

tonnage equal to that of Great Britain, but Germany voluntarily agreed not
to exceed 45 percent of the British submarine tonnage.
 In the period between the two world wars, developments consisted
mainly of improved features for submarines whose basic lines were those
of World War I.

"Air-bubble-free discharge tubes were introduced. Torpedo In

Germany, the "wakeless” torpedoes were developed, and in Japan the
super-heavy torpedoes.

Bottom mines with magnetic which are difficult to fuses, sweep,

were developed in Germany. Light air defense weapons were added to the
gunnery. Some big submarines carried seaplanes, which were housed in
large hangars.

Submergence depth and protection against explosion were increased

by using stronger steel and by introducing electric welding.. Engine
durability and efficiency were in creased by improving the design of the
diesel engines and electrical installations. However, although surface
speed increased slightly on the average, the underwater speed remained
the same.

Listening devices were developed which enabled submarines to pick

up an enemy while remaining submerged to escape detection.

Communication equipment was improved. Submarines could

transmit over long distances while operating on the surface and could
receive communications by radio while running at periscope depth, thus
improving tactical capabilities. The use of submarines had, at least in part,
been planned in conjunction with surface fleets. In this case, for example,
the maximum surface speed of the big American and Japanese
submersibles was adapted to the speed of the surface fleet.

In the meantime, antisubmarine warfare (ASW) tactics proved as a

result of the development of active underwater sound detecting devices
(asdic or sonar) and more effective depth charges. For this reason, it was
by no means clear at the beginning of World War II whether single
submarines could operate effectively in enemy ocean areas. If submarine
detection devices were really as effective as claimed, a single submarine
would surely fall victim to a searching combat unit.

The first phase of World War II showed that the submarine could
generally defend itself against the type of A5W waged by light surface
forces, The range of the underwater detection devices proved to be so
short in comparison so the enormous ocean areas that the possibility of
their detecting a submerged submarine was extremely low in the absence
of other clues, "Contact" by asdic or sonar was usually
accomplished after the submarine had already attacked.

When attacked, German submarines proved able to dive much

deeper than their peacetime requirements, a submarine at maximum
depth was very hard to hit with depth charges.

At the beginning of World War II (just as in World War I), surface

cruising, accounted for most of the operating time. Therefore the
submarine had to contend with search and attack aircraft during the day.

Because diving time became considerably faster, the submarine had

an opportunity to dive before it was spotted by aircraft or, if already
sighted, submerge to such depths that it could avoid being hit by aircraft
bombs.

Submarines were successful primarily in night surface attacks, but

they also had good capability for a submerged day attack by using the
periscope. At that time, Germany used the type 7 boats (medium size)
and type 9 boats (bigger size), whereas the small type 2 boats generally
served as training boats. In this connection, see Specification Sheet 1 for
main particulars and Table 1 for type sketches.
 Enemy countermeasures comprised a widely extended V.L.F., L.F.,
and H.F. direction finding system obtaining radio messages to be
transmitted by the submarines, ISO that clues on long-range movements
could be gained. Moreover escort vessels of convoys were fitted with an
H.F. direction finder obtaining submarine radio signals at close quarters,
so that they could directly be attacked. Radar (1943) placed submarines
at an additional disadvantage. Surfaced submarines could now be
detected both at day and night, in clear and overcast weather, by aircraft
at very long ranges, and by ships at long ranges. Radar warning devices
were subsequently introduced in submarines to indicate when a submarine
had been picked up by enemy radar, and, under certain circumstances,
gave the submarine sufficient time to dive before it was attacked. But
radar detection devices kept submarines down for longer and longer
periods of time and thus deprived them of their mobility and capability for
making surface attacks. Attempts to engage attacking aircraft with heavy
guns while on the surface were generally unsuccessful.

American radar-equipped submarines used against Japan were very

effective for locating the enemy in the vast ocean areas and for keeping
contact during night surface attacks. Because the Japanese themselves
had no effective radar, the effectiveness of radar-equipped American
submarines was considerably enhanced without any change in tactics.

Once radar was fitted to ASW units, submarines could stay in areas
where the enemy had air or naval superiority only if they remained
submerged. This was possible after the installation of the snorkel which
enabled diesel engines to operate when the ship was submerged to
periscope depth.

However, pre-World War II submarines that had to stay submerged

for very long period of time were so clumsy that their success was greatly
reduced. Substantial innovations in torpedo armament did nothing to
change this.

During World War II, Germany developed torpedoes with homing

warheads as well as torpedoes whose path could be changed by a preset
programme; both of these developments increased hit chances.

This development naturally led from the pure submersible to the

true submarine (capable of remaining submerged continuously) with
characteristics that met the requirements for submerged cruising.

The big German boats of type 21 and the small ones of type 23
offered a solution (1944). In this connection, see Specification Sheet 1 for
main particulars and Table 2 for type sketches. Improvements in the
electric power installation and in boat shape enabled the speed for
submerged cruising to approximately double and the submerged running
time to increase several fold. The snorkel made it possible to charge
batteries while at periscope depth. In the same period, similar steps were
taken by the Japanese.

The necessary transition from the submersible to the true submarine

increased the long-standing endeavors towards realization of a
"completely air-independent propulsion system".

The high-horsepower engines for submarines developed in Germany

by H. Walter between 1936 and 1945 were a very important step in this
direction; however, they were not operational at the end of the war. In
this connection, see Specification Sheet 1 for main particulars, and Table
3 for type sketches. While submerged, these plants operated on a
combustion principle; the submarine carried liquid oxygen compound and
was not dependent on a supply of fresh air simultaneously with these
engines, a special hull design was developed particularly suitable for high
submerged speeds. The new hull form was also used for the Type 21 and
was also influential in- the design of the Type 23.

Improved listening devices and active underwater detection devices

made it possible for the new submarines to detect enemies even at long
range, while submerged. They could then take advantage of their
increased speed for attack purposes. Although boats of the Type 23 were
used on several missions shortly before the end of WW II, boats of the big
Type 21 were commissioned but never used for war missions. By the end
of the war, however, it was evident that these new types constituted an
effective weapon and that the submarine had gained the upper hand in
the struggle between submarines and ASW devices.

3. DEVELOPMENT SINCE THE END OF WORLD WAR II

Postwar submarine construction progressed in the direction

characterized by the German Type 21. The snorkel was introduced in all
navies. Many American fleet-type submarines were converted into GUPPY
type ​(​Greater Underwater Propulsion Power). More efficient electric
machinery, bigger batteries, and lighter diesel generator sets were
provided; drag of appendages could be reduced thus increasing
submerged performance of the submarines.

The new buildings of the first postwar generation being influenced

by Type 21 are mentioned as follows:

TANG class (USA), PORPOISE and OBERON classes (Great Britain),

NARVAL
Class (France), and "W" class (USSR).

These submarines are true torpedo carriers. In this connection, see

Specification Sheet 2 for main particulars, and Table 4 for type sketches.
Due to the shapes of these ocean-going submarines, nearly equal surface
and submerged speeds were possible, i.e. they are
submersible/submarine combination types.

The U.S. American BARBEL class is a submarine class provided with

diesel and battery /electric propulsion, whose shape points to the best
performance during submerged cruise.

Several navies carried on development of the "Walter" principle,

however, any realizations have not been effected with the exception of
EXPLORER and EXCALIBUR built and tested in Great Britain.

Diesel/battery electric submarines have the disadvantages of limited

maximum submerged speed (approximately 1 hr) and the need to use the
snorkel to charge batteries. The submarine is exposed to increased danger
when snorkeling because it radiates more noise. The snorkel head can be
picked up by enemy surface detection devices (even though only to a
limited extent); moreover, the submarine must remain at a constant
shallow depth during the snorkeling operation. The nuclear-powered
plants later developed in the United States avoided these disadvantages.
A nuclear plant generates very high max. speed and gives the submarine
unlimited submerged cruising range.

As to the "completely air-independent propulsion system", this was

realized by the nuclear plants. Since 1954, about 110 U.S. American new
buildings were equipped with nuclear propulsion systems, which should be
named submarine ships.
69 of these are armed with torpedoes, and 41 submarine ships are
provided with missiles against land targets. Not so long ago, missiles for
the attack against surface ships may also be carried in the torpedo tubes.
The USSR have followed the American nuclear developments by building
about the same number of submarine ships with similar armament. Great
Britain and France have also developed nuclear-powered submarine ships.
Up to date, 9 torpedo-carrying submarine ships and 4 ones armed with
missiles against land targets have been built in Great Britain, as well as 4
ones with missiles against land targets in France (see Specification Sheet
3 for main particulars of nuclear-powered submarine ships). Because of
their size (several thousand tons), these submarine ships cannot be used
in coasta1 waters, and their high cost has constrained construction in any
quantity to the two Great Powers, USA and USSR.

For these two reasons, development of the submarine with

diesel/battery electric drive was continued, which is able to carry torpedo
armament with proper detection means similar to those of
nuclear-powered submarine ships, and equipment for missiles against
surface ships is also possible. Moreover, they are appropriate for laying of
mines. These second generation submarines are difficult to detect due to
their small size: particularly near the coast, they are most suitable ​for
anti-submarine missions.

In France, the ARETHUSE class (about 470 tons) and, afterwards,

the DAPHNE class (about 720 tons) have been built: the AGOSTA class
(about 1,200 tons) is under construction.

Sweden has built 6 submarines of the DRAKEN class 770 tons} and
5 ones of the SJOORMEN class (about 1,150 tons).

Six submarines of about 430 tons and 18 ones of 450 tons have
been commissioned in the Federal Republic of Germany. 15 submarines of
similar construction were built-in the Federal Republic of Germany for
Norway, and two of same type were built in Denmark.

Italy has built 4 submarines of the TOTI class (about 460 tons), and
has two SAURO class submarines (about 1,000 tons) under construction.
 An especially fast, torpedo-armed submarine was developed in the
Federal Republic of Germany for export purposes. Between 1970 and
1977, various navies have ordered 28 of this type, in tonnages ranging
from 1,000 to 1,200, and most of them have meanwhile been delivered
(see Specification Sheet 4 for main particulars, and Table 5 for type
sketches).

Development of t​ he diesel/battery electric submarines is by no

means at an end. It remains to be seen whether the navies building
nuclear-powered submarine ships, at present, will be following the French
example and reverting to the classic diesel/battery electric propulsion
system, in parallel, as the two type’s of submarine seem to be
complementary one to the other with regard to their effective range.

CHAPTER - 2

DEVELOPMENT OF NON-MILITARY (COMMERCIAL)

SUBMARINES
 Civil submarines had been developed much later than military ones.
Two civil submarines were built in Germany during World War I (1915),
i.e. DEUTSCHLAND and BREMEN, who were intended for the
transportation of valuable goods from the U.S.A. and to under run the
blockade which prevented the commercial surface shipping traffic. Their
carrying capacity was 470 tons. Since then, any freight-carrying
submarines were never built: however, there have been a number of
projects covering fast nuclear-powered submarine tankers of large
tonnage. But it is not possible to use such submarine tankers in the rather
shallow depths of water of the route Alaska - U.S. east coast which also is
passable by surface tankers under difficult conditions only. For economical
reasons, submarine tankers are not suitable for the general trade in open
waters.

Development of underwater research vehicles was begun in the

fifties. In this connection, mention should be made of TRIESTE designed
by Professor Piccard and his son Jacques Piccard (completed in 1953) and
of BATHYSCAPHE TRIESTE
(Completed in 1958) which, in 1960, dived in Marianas Trench of the
Pacific Ocean down to a depth of 10,916 m, i.e. the deepest depth existing
on the Earth. Since that time, a total of about 60 different small
submersibles have been built, most of them in the U.S.A., for research
purposes and for the performance of specific tasks such as search and
salvage of important military gear. The large economic tasks for manned
underwater vehicles have resulted thanks to discovery of oil and gas in
the North Sea, in the last time only. The prospects of manned underwater
gear can be seen in this field. Their tasks are as fallows:
- Observation and records,
- Search and salvage,
- Rescue, personnel transfer,
- Use as submerging diver lockout vehicle,
- Assistance during burying of pipings and cables,
- Checking, and inspection e.g. of underwater structures and
pipelines.

An increasing fleet of small submersibles supported by mother ships

operates in the North Sea. However, only part of the abovementioned
tasks may be fulfilled by them. Development of novel, and partly bigger
submersibles has been started in order to meet the great variety of
demands in the future (see Specification Sheet 5 for main particulars).
 CHAPTER - III

CHARACTERISTICS OF SUBMARINES

There are submarines for both military and non-military (commercial)

uses.

MILITARY SUBMARINES

They may be equipped with torpedoes, mines, and guns for use
against surface targets, antiaircraft (AA) guns, and missiles. The individual
weapon systems include detection and fire-control installations.
Submarines can also serve as logistics support vessels to supply other
submarines with fuel, food, and ammunition; as transports for war
material; and as submerging radar picket stations; they can be equipped
to carry seaplanes, small submersible craft, and underwater demolition
teams. Submarines have now taken over many combat missions, which
previously could be undertaken by surface ships.

Concerning the areas of use, a distinction is made between

oceangoing and coastal submarines. Oceangoing submarines must be able
to remain at sea for long periods of time and this requirement
necessitates greater tonnage. Because they are used in shallow depths
and are vulnerable to mines coastal submarines have smaller tonnages.

Submarines to be used primarily in the tropics must have special

facilities for housing the crew. Those operating in the northern regions
need deicing devices for intake air and, under certain circumstances,
reinforcement for operation in ice, special navigation devices, etc.
 With respect to the type of duty, a distinction must be made
between submarines and submersibles. The submersible cruises primarily
on the surface and submerges only on occasion. Practically speaking, it is
a submersible surface vessel. On the other hand, the submarine cruises
mainly under water and surfaces only on certain occasions. Hence the
cruising features of the first type are conditioned primarily by the
requirements of surface cruising whereas those of the submarine are
conditioned primarily by the requirements of submerged cruising. Rapid
diving is important for the first type and of secondary importance for the
submarine.

In terms of design, there is a distinction between single hull and

double-hull submarines (see Fig. 2).

In the case of the single-hull submarine, the pressure hull is the

external shell. True single-hull submarines are no longer being built. A
second, external shell covers at least the ends of the pressure hull. This
second shell usually holds ballast tanks and Free flooding spaces, and it is
also used for fixed ballast.

In the case of the double-hull submarine, the pressure hull

envelopes only those parts of the boat that must not be subjected to
diving pressure. The outer hull is not pressure-resistant: it holds ballast
tanks, diesel fuel, and the ballast and free-flooding spaces.

An intermediate type forms the transition from the single to the

double-hull type.
 Submarines have different tonnage specifications; the surface
displacement is the displacement corresponding to the weight of the
submarine in ready-to-dive condition. The submerged displacement is the
displacement corresponding to the weight of the ready-to-dive vessel plus
the weigh of the contents of the ballast tanks. The type displacement
(standard displacement) is a weight index that was established at the
Washington Conference of 1921-22. It is defined as the weight of the
surfaced boat in ready-to-dive condition minus the following weights:
diesel fuel supply, ​motive means supply, m
​ otor oil supply, a
​ nd water of
any type. The type displacement is measured in long tons (a long ton is
equivalent to 1016 kg (2240 lb}).

The form displacement is the volume (in cubic meters)

bounded by the external shape of the vessel. A distinction is made
between submerged form displacement (volume of the total external
form) and surfaced form displacement (that portion of the submerged
form displacement below the line of flotation).

The influence of hydrodynamic aspects on the shape of such

submarines is not so much important: however, it is of great consequence
that shapes be applied, which considerably reduce the danger of the
submarine being entangled in submerged condition.
 CHAPTER - IV

GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF A SUBMARINE

Figure.1 is a schematic of the interior of a modern submarine, which

is equipped with diesel-electric and torpedo armament. Hull shape,
superstructures, and arrangement of the machinery of the vessel shown
indicate that it is a submarine, i.e. a vehicle generally operating under
water. The construction is that of a single hull boat with a second
envelope at the ends.
 Most the diesel fuel is stored inside the pressure hull. In a
double-hull submarine, the diesel fuel would all be stored outside the
pressure hull.

The pressure hull is cylindrical amidships and at both ends has

conical sections closed by end bulkheads. A pair of ballast tanks is located
in the midship section of the pressure hull, but functionally they are not
part of the pressure hull.

Two bulkheads subdivide the pressure hull. The aft bulkhead is the
spatial and acoustic partition of the unmanned machinery space towards
forward; for rescue purposes, the submarine i​ s divided into two
compartments by the forward bulkhead, which, for this reason, is of
pressure-proof construction.

The aft compartment (machinery space) contains the electrical

machinery for propulsion, the pressure-tight duct of the propeller shaft,
the thrust block, the steering gear for the steering rudder and stern plane,
the aft trim tank, the diesel generator sets, and various auxiliary
machinery, The main fuel tanks and a lubricating oil supply tanks are
located below the diesel generator sets.

The space forward of the engine room bulkhead contains the aft
battery room with a partial storage battery in the lower part. The fresh
water, tanks are located at the sides. The control room is arranged above
the floor, which contains the switchboards as well as all means for
operation and remote control of the machinery. The starboard space
houses the waterman's station together with the main ballast and bilge
pumps and the sea connections, the trimming equipment, the compressed
air station, and the controls for main ballast tank venting.

The next space is the combat information centre (C.I.C) its upper
section houses the steering gear controls and instruments for operation of
the vessel, i.e., control consoles for steering rudder and hydroplanes and
accessory instruments. Furthermore, the inboard instruments of detection,
navigation, and fire control equipment are also arranged in the combat
information centre. The pressure hull in way of the combat information
centre is penetrated by such retractable devices as the periscope; whip
antenna, snorkel, etc. The two compensating tanks are located in the
lower section of this compartment: the midship ballast tanks which are
open to the sea through flood holes are located forward of them.

The lower section of the space forward of the C.I.C contains the
forward battery room with a partial battery. The fresh water tanks are
located alongside the battery room. Quarters for the captain and. the
officers as well as the radio rooms are located, above the battery room.
The galley with provisions space and a sanitary room with shower and
toilet are also situated in this area.

The space forward of the pressure-proof bulkhead (bow space) ends

at the forward end bulkhead which is penetrated by the six torpedo tubes.
The after third of these tubes extend into this area. This compartment also
contains storage space for eight spare torpedoes. Fuel tank, two fresh
water tanks, two torpedo tanks, the forward pair of trim tanks, and the
bow plane motor are also located under the torpedo storage
compartment. The area aft of the torpedo tubes serves as crew quarters,
subdivided into spaces for petty officers and ratings. Two sanitary spaces
with shower and toilet are also located there. The double torpedo-loading
hatch is located in the upper section of the aft end and functions as a
service hatch when the boat is in port. The anchor windlass motor and the
control station for the windlass (which is located outside) hang under the
deck head of the compartment. A torpedo-loading device can be
assembled for loading torpedoes, but the forward quarters must be partly
dismantled for this purpose.

The outer hull envelopes the conical sections of the pressure hull
fore and aft. A free-flooding narrow superstructure above the pressure
hull connects the forward and aft sections of the outer hull. The bridge fin
is located amidships, and the keel is arranged below the pressure hull.

The aft section of the outer hull contains the aft ballast tanks, the
carriers for the steering rudder and the stern planes, and a stabilizer fin
on either side. The stern tube with the propeller shaft and the rods for the
steering rudder and stern planes pass through the ballast tank.

The forward section of the outer hull contains the forward ballast
tanks. The torpedo tubes run through the ballast tanks. Forward they are
supported by the torpedo bulkhead that forms the forward bulkhead of the
ballast tank. The area forward of the torpedo bulkhead is free flooding

It contains the pressure-resistant muzzle doors, which are paired

with corresponding shell doors. The carrier for the bow plane and the
hawser pipes are in the free-flooding area below the forward ballast tank.
A balcony for the upper part of hydrophone transducers is situated in the
free-flooding forward end.
 The free-flooding superstructure above the pressure hull is provided
with a narrow bridge deck which contains the supply and exhaust air lines
and the ducts of the exhaust gas system in its after section. The anchor
windlass is located forward. The trunks of the after hatch and of the
torpedo hatch penetrate the superstructure and are sealed by paired
hatch covers at deck level.

The free-flooding bridge fin is streamlined and high enough to

completely contain such retractable devices as the periscope, snorkel, and
antenna when in retracted condition. The superstructure encloses the
pressure-resistant access trunk with the hatch whose upper part contains
the cockpit-like surface control stand.

The keel structure contains ballast for stabilization and is so rigidly

constructed that the submarine can dock on it.

Fig. 1 - Interior of a Diesel – Electric Propulsion Submarine

Legend to Figure 1:

1. Propeller 36. Exhaust gas outlet

2. Steering rudder 37. Radar
3. Stabilizer fin 38. C.I.C.
4. Stern plane 39. Rod antenna
5. Stabilizer fin 40. Snorkel
6. Aft ballast tanks 41. Compensating tanks
7. Stern tube 42. Ballast tanks
8. Steering rudder drive 43. Hydroplane control console
9. Stern plane drive aft 44. Steering rudder control
console
10. Ballast tank venting 45. Navigation, detection, and
fire control instruments
11. Aft trim tank 46. Search periscope
12. Thrust bearing 47. Attack periscope
13. Resilient coupling 48. Radio room
14. Electric propulsion motor 49. Captain's quarters
15. Converter 50. Washroom with shower and toilet
16. Auxiliary machinery 51. Officer’s quarters
17. Fuel tank 52. Provisions storeroom
18. Fuel tank 53. Galley
19. Generator 54. Bridge fin
20. Diesel engine 55. Access trunk

21. Fuel tank 56. Cockpit

22. Luboil supply tank 57. Life raft container
23. Escape hatch 58. Pressure-proof bulkhead
24. Exhaust gas silencer 59. Washrooms
25. Exhaust gas fittings 60. Torpedo hatch
26. Sound-absorbing bulkhead 61. Petty officers and crew
quarters
27. Control room 62. Fuel tanks
28. Switchboards and control instruments 63. Torpedo tanks
29. Waterman’s station 64. Spare torpedoes
30. Ballast and bilge pumps 65. Torpedo tubes
31. Battery room 66. Forward trim tank
32. Fresh water tanks 67. Forward ballast tanks
33. Exhaust gas line 68. Anchor equipment
34. Snorkel flaps 69. Hydroplanes
35. Supply air 1ine 70. External fuel tank
35. Supply air 1ine 71. Transducer of detection
device
 CHAPTER -V

DIVING AND STABILITY

1. DIVING

The submarine has two floating conditions, one on the surface and
the other submerged. In either case, Archimedes principle has to be
fulfilled. The transition from surface to submerged cruising is achieved by
flooding the ballast tanks. They are empty for surface cruising and
completely flooded for submerged cruising.

The diving process may be interpreted in two ways. In the first

interpretation, the water used to flood the ballast tanks may be
considered as ballast, increasing the weight of the submarine by the
weight of the ballast water. At the same time, the volume of the
submarine increases. The center of buoyancy and, in most cases, the
center of gravity shift in vertical and longitudinal directions. The diving
process is completed when the ballast tanks are filled and the vessel is
submerged. The vessel is now heavier and displaces the whole weight.
This interpretation is common in many foreign countries.

The second interpretation has been used in Germany since about

1938. The water used to flood the ballast tanks during the dive is not
considered part of the submarine weight, and so the weight of the
submarine is the same on the surface as when submerged. The center of
gravity also remains the same with respect to height and length on the
surface as when submerged. During surface cruising, the ballast tanks are
empty; when the boat submerges they are filled. Thus on diving, the only
change is the center of buoyancy with respect to height, and usually with
respect to length, because the pressure resisting parts above the line of
flotation are submerged and the displacement of the contents of" the
ballast tanks is eliminated. This interpretation is easier to use during the
design phase. Unless otherwise indicated, this is the interpretation that
will be used in what follows.
 The pressure-resisting displacement (Vu + Vo) includes (Figure 2)
the displacement of the pressure hull including shell plating and
additionally outside the pressure hull, all structural members making up
the ballast tanks, fuel tanks and free-flooding areas, as well as the stern
tube, propeller, pressure-resistant piping (e.g. supply and exhaust air
lines), compressed air flasks, retractable equipment (periscopes,
antennas, etc.) and, finally, the fuel outside the pressure hull.

Thus, a submarine that is ready to dive must have an underwater

weight that corresponds to its displacement. The weight has to be varied
only according to the density of the seawater. If the submarine dives in
denser water, it should be made heavier.

Maximum and minimum densities that may be encountered must be

established for design purposes in order to keep a submarine submerged.
E.g., the oceans and their bordering seas have a seawater density of
1.028 - 1.030. The Baltic Sea has a density of 1.012 in the Western area
but drops to 1.005 in the Eastern Baltic. Large areas near estuaries
consist of almost pure fresh water.
 Fig. 2 - Displacement Relationships for Submarines

In figure 2,

Vu is the pressure-resisting displacement below the line of flotation 1n

cubic meters,

Vo is the pressure resisting displacement above the line of flotation in

cubic meters,

Tu is the content of the ballast tanks below the line of flotation in cubic
meters,

To is the content of the ballast tanks above the line of flotation in cubic
meters,

is the free-flooding area,

P is the weight of the boat in Mp, and

0 is the density of seawater in (Mp/m​3​)

Thus, the following relation is valid

For surface cruising: P = ​V (​ Vu + Tu )

For submerged cruising; P + V (Tu + To) = V(Vu + Tu + Vo +

To)

From these: V(Vu + Tu + Tu + To) = V(Vu + Tu +

Vo + To)
and thus: Tu = To

This means that the volume of ballast tanks below the line of
flotation is as large as the pressure-proof displacement above the line of
flotation.

When the submerged vessel ​is ​trimmed so that it hovers on an

approximately even keel without reserve or negative buoyancy, the
submarine is said to have neutral trim without reserve buoyancy.

When a submarine of this type surfaces by fully blowing its tanks,

i.e., by emptying its ballast tanks, it can float on the surface only on a
fixed trim determined by the design as long as the weight condition
corresponds to the submerged neutral trim without buoyancy. This surface
trim condition depends on the shape of the submarine and on the location
and size of its ballast tanks. All the consumed items on- board, such as
stores, fresh water and
fuel must be compensated for within the submarine by changing the
counterweights. Thus, when a submarine is on the surface and "ready to
dive", it is impossible to tell whether it is completely loaded with fuel and
supplies or whether some of these items have been consumed.

When a submerged submarine hovering without engine power is

considered to be neutrally trimmed, it is assumed to be acting il1
accordance with Archimedes principle. Actually, this is practically not
entirely possible because a state of equilibrium can be obtained only
approximately when submerged. The seawater is only to a small extent
compressible.
 Young's modulus of seawater amounts to about 1.96 x 104 bar, Le.
Young's modulus of steel exceeds that of water by about the hundrefold
figure.

The pressure hull is elastic and with the exception of very deeply
diving submarines is thus more compressible than the ambient seawater.
If a, submarine having such a pressure hull, submerges more deeply, the
pressure hull consequently is more compressed, and the pressure-proof
displacement is reduced; the submarine sink more rapidly.

Therefore, the analogous condition achieved by a balloon floating

in the air cannot be established in this case.

A vessel can remain in the stopped condition at a specific depth

under water only by alternately flooding and draining tanks. This condition
can be reached automatically a hydrostatic gauge that floods and drains
the compensating tanks. The diving pressure serves as the impulse
transmitter. The desired hovering depth can be set on this vice.

However, there are certain areas, the Strait of Gibraltar for

example, where there are distinct strata of seawater with a layer of
denser water below. A vessel can drop into such strata and remain above
the denser layer. It can penetrate the denser layer only by taking on more
water in the compensating tanks.

Very deeply submerging submarines, the pressure hulls of which -

due to the materials used - are less compressib1 than the ambient sea
water/ must take additional ballast water into their interior when diving
deeper. Such submarines are able to hover in submerged condition
without any mechanical means. In 1969, BEN FRANKLIN took advantage
of this fact, when it hovered, power off, in the Gulf Stream for three
weeks.

2. ARRANGEMENT OF THE TANKS WITH RESPECT TO THE

REQUIREMENTS FOR SUBMERGED CRUISING

Ballast Tanks

Ballast tanks provide the vessel with the buoyancy necessary for
surface cruising (Figure 3). They are empty during surface cruising and
completely flooded during submerged cruising. They are communicating
with the open sea during submerged cruising and thus are not included in
the pressure-resisting displacement. On the surface, the submarine floats
on the air cushions in the ballast tanks, which are under internal pressure
on the surface. The pressure head i​s d​ etermined by the distance between
the line of flotation and the lower openings of the ballast tanks.
 1. BALLAST TANK 6. TORPEDO TANK
2. COMPENSATING TANK 7. FREE-FLOODING AREA
3. TRIM TANK 8. BALLAST TANK VENT
4. NEGATIVE TANK 9. FLOOD SLIT FOR BALLAST
TANK
5. FUEL TANK

Fig. 3 - Principal Arrangement of Tanks in a Double-Hull

Submarine

These lower openings of the ballast tanks are slit-shaped and

located as deep as possible. During the dive, air escapes through vent
valves or flaps; these are located on top of and as far to the rear of the
ballast tanks as possible because the dive maneuver makes the ship
bow-heavy. The diving process starts by opening the vents fast. The vents
are closed again after the maneuver is completed.

At one time, some of the flood openings of the ballast tanks were
fitted with flood flaps that were always kept open when the vessel was
ready to dive. They also provided an extra guarantee of submarine
floatability during surface cruising when the vessel was not ready to dive
or while in port.

After the submarine has emerged up to periscope depth by dynamic

means, i.e. by its propulsive power and by means of the hydroplanes,
preparations for normal surfacing begin by blowing the flooded ballast
tanks with compressed air. The submarine then rises: after it has broken
the surface, the pressure-tight conning tower hatch in t​ he bridge fin c
​ an
be opened. The rest of the water is then blown out by low-pressure
compressed air furnished by a blower or by the diesel engine exhaust gas.
Atmospheric air needed for the L.P. blowing process is sucked through the
open hatch or an open​-​air feeder mast. The
L.P. blowing process is completed when air, or diesel exhaust gas, ascends
from the flood slits.

For submarines having to reckon with very few surfacing

manoeuvres only, for tactical reasons, and for simple and small
submarines, a special blowing-out installation may not be provided. In
such cases, the entire ballast tank volume can be blown-out by
compressed air.

The volume of the ballast tanks is approximately 10 to 40 percent of

surface displacement. Submersibles, for which seaworthiness is important,
have a larger ballast tank volume than do submarines that run primarily
submerged. Larger vessels can manage with a comparatively smaller
ballast tank volume than smaller vessels.

If a submarine cruises on the surface in heavy sea, the ballast tanks

re-flood if the flood holes arranged at the lower end are open. For the
determination of the amount of re-flooding and, consequently, of the
magnitude of the ballast tank volume beiI1g actually effective in heavy
sea, it is assumed that the ballast tank in heavy sea completely loses its
positive air pressure due to the submarine sailing through troughs of the
sea and heeling. The amount of re-flooding (whether larger or smaller)
depends on the arrangement of ballast tanks. The assumed extent of heel
may be 45​0​.
 The amount of re-flooding is smaller in case of ballast tanks located
deep when compared with ballast tanks located above. Re-flooding is
smaller in case of ballast tanks having their flood holes at their
mid-breadth than in case of such tanks with the flood holes located in an
external wall.

The shortest time for ballast tank flooding is approximat​e​ly 1

​ 0 secs.
Flooding usually takes longer for submarines than on submersibles. Ballast
tanks located deep below the line of flotation require smaller, openings for
a given flooding time than do tanks located higher up.

When leaving a dry-dock or a floating dock, a submarine must be

blow its ballast tanks with compressed air in order to establish the
previously mentioned internal pressure: otherwise draft will be greater
and the designed reserve displacement will not be available, after
undocking.

Non-military submersibles often are provided with comparatively

large ballast tanks arranged in the outer hull. They usually are blown out
by compressed air; however, they are emptied by a pump in some
individual cases.

Compensating Tanks

They serve to control the weight of the boat to correspond to the

submerged pressure-resisting displacement. These compensating tanks
are arranged amidships and as close as possible to the longitudinal center
of gravity of the submerged pressure-resisting displacement. They are
within the pressure-resisting displacement and can be flooded from the
sea or emptied into the sea by choice. The tanks can be emptied by a
pump: compressed air can also be used because of less noise and in order
to be independent of the electric power supply in a case of emergency. For
this latter case, the compensating tanks must be so pressure resistant
that they can withstand an internal pressure that is greater than the
diving pressure. The compensating tanks are provided with vent lines,
which lead into the inner submarine.
 There are two or sometimes four compensating tanks. With four tanks,
the operation may be as follows. Two compensating tanks operate as
"flood compensating tanks" with open vents. Th​e ​other two are employed
to empty the tanks silently by way of compressed air. Their vents are
closed. One is operated by a compressed air cushion at medium pressure;
it serves as a "shallow depth compensating tank".

When the ship is running at periscope depth. The other has a

compressed air cushion at high pressure: it serves as a "deep

depth-compensating tank" and is always available for emptying tanks

when the vessel dives to maximum depth.

The following weight differences must be compensated for by the

compensating tanks:

1. Differences in the specific weight of the seawater. If the submarine

dives where seawater density ranges between 1.008 and 1.028, there
must be compensation for a weight difference of 2 percent ​of ​the
pressure-resisting displacement.

2. Differences in consumption ​of s

​ tores such as provisions, fresh water,
fuel, lubricating oil consumable stores.

During the voyage, the weight ​of ​provisions etc. is continuously

reduced by the consumption of s
​ tores, including that ​of ​fuel. However,
diesel fuel is stored floating on water. When 1 m​3 ​of d
​ iesel oil is
consumed, it is replaced by 1 m3 of s
​ eawater, so that contents of fuel
tanks becomes heavier.
3. Differences arising from decreases in volume during deep dives. In
case of submarines having diving depths of less than 200 m,
approximately 0.3 percent of the pressure-resisting displacement is
necessary. This a mount represents the minimum filling which has to be
available in the compensating tank during surface cruising in order to
maneuver the submarine in even the greatest depths.

The special calculations made to determine the size of the

compensating tanks take into account the border cases of the loading. The
following loading conditions may occur as border cases for a particular
submarine type:

Case 1 - the condition at the end of a very long, slow cruise in

seawater with maximum density. For example, at the end of a very long,
slow cruise during which food, fresh water, and supplies have been used
up but a relatively large amount of diesel fuel is still left, the vessel is
cruising in seawater with the maximum required density. In this case, the
compensating tanks should be filled to the maximum.

Case 2 - the condition at the end of a very short, fast cruising in

seawater with minimum density. For example, at the end of a very short,
fast cruise during which food, fresh water, and supplies have been only
partially used up but the diesel fuel is completely gone, the vessel is
cruising in sea water with the minimum required density. In this case, the
compensating 'tanks should contain a minimum of water, only enough to
compensate the weight for the reduction in volume during deep diving.

When the fully equipped submarine begins its cruise, the actual
filling of the compensating tanks usually lies somewhere between these
two border cases. The compensating tanks usually have a volume 2.5 to
3.0 percent of the pressure-resisting displacement.
 As a rule, non-military submersibles empty their compensating
tanks by means of a pump, requiring particular technical resources if their
diving depth is large.

The compensating arrangement of Piccard’s TRIESTE should be

mentioned as particularity. In order to cause the submarine to fall down,
gasoline was discharged out of the external structure and replaced by
seawater so that the vessel became heavier. Emerging was effected by
iron ballast, which was dropped by de-energizing of electric holding
magnets. So this was an irreversible cycle.

Trim Tanks

They are part of the trim equipment, which serves to bring the
center of gravity vertically beneath the submerged centre of buoyancy so
that the vessel can be maneuvered into a neutral trim condition. The trim
tanks, which are equal in size, are located inside the pressure-resisting
displacement and as far forward and aft as possible. The trim tanks are
inter-connected by the trim lines. Trim water is moved back and forth wit
low noise, either by a particular pump or by low-pressure air, which is
reciprocally admitted to tanks. Tank strength depends on the pressure
head of the compressed air.

There are usually two pairs of trim tanks (see Fig. 92) if compressed
air only is used to trim the submarine. These are connected by a
starboard and a port line. Compressed air is supplied e.g. to the forward
port tank and the starboard after tank; the stern is trimmed with the port
pair and bow with the standard pair. When one of the pressurized tanks
has become empty, the sides can be changed, i.e., air pressure is fed to
the port aft tank and the forward starboard tank while the other two tanks
are vented. The boat can now be Trimmed bow-heavy at port side and
stern-heavy at starboard side.
 The quantity of water to be trimmed is one-half that the entire trim
tank capacity. Trim tank dimensions a based on calculations that
determine the extreme load conditions by a rnethod similar to that for the
compensating tanks. Weight shifts that result when torpedoes are fired
are also taken into account. The volume of trimming water is
approximately 0.5 percent of the pressure-resisting volume.

Furthermore, it is possible to combine the functions of compensating

and trim tanks by arranging flooding and emptying equipment for the trim
tanks at the ends of the submarine. If trimming is required, then for
example the forward tank is flooded and the aft one is emptied. If the
submarine is to change her weight, then e.g. both the forward and aft
tanks are emptied. Such systems offer advantages with regard to space
allocation in the overall submarine design. However, they are more
expensive with regard to mechanical arrangement and control and more
unfavorable with regard to energy expenditure.

Non-military submersibles also require trimming equipment. If

sufficient length is available in-the pressure hull, it is possible to shift a
weight in fore-and-aft direction in a channel by mechanical means. In a
certain case, the arrangement was such that the propulsion batteries
could be shifted for t​ rim purposes. If the length available in the pressure
hull is not sufficient, the trim equipment' should be provided in the
non-pressure-proof external structure.

In such a case, the trim system may consist of two

non-pressure-proof spheres arranged at the vessels ends, which are
connected to each other by a lower and an upper pipeline. The system is
entirely filled with liquid, half of which is mercury and the other half is oil.
The oil may be pumped to and fro causing the mercury to be moved into
the other direction, so that trimming is effected (see Fig. 4).

Fig. 4 - Trimming equipment in external structure of deeply diving

submersibles

Negative Tanks

Negative tanks are used on submersibles as an auxiliary means for

diving in waves. When diving in waves, a vessel takes on added buoyancy,
which hinders the getting deeper. As waves roll across the submarine,
their troughs prevent the free-flooding part of the upper deck and the
superstructure from being filled completely, and so the vessel ready to
dive may remain "floating" on these free-flooding parts.

A diving maneuver in waves is easiest in broadside waves, more

difficult in aft waves, and most difficult in head on waves.

Flooded negative tanks provide the vessel with additional negative

buoyancy during surface cruising. They are located forward of the
longitudinal center of gravity of the vessel to provide additiona1bow
weight when diving. They can be emptied quickly with compressed air
after the diving maneuver. Only then can the submarine be trimmed
under water. The negative tanks will be flooded immediately after
surfacing. They have the same strength as the compensating tanks, and
their volume is approximately 0.7 percent of the displacement.
 In some cases, foreign vessels are provided with particular negative
tanks, by means of which the vessel slowly cruising below the surface is
caused to fall down more rapidly. These negative tanks are situated far
forward in the vessel, and during normal submerged operation they are
empty. Adequate negative buoyancy and trim by the head is effected by
flooding. The tanks are fully blown out by compressed air after the vessel
having arrived at the deeper depth desired. If safety aspects are taken
into account, objections should be made to the use of negative tanks for
such purpose, as the vessel cruising below the surface with her negative
tanks being flooded does no longer fulfill the principle of Archimedes. Any
troubles during blowing-out operations at large depths may possibly come
to a danger due to excess in depth, in particular, if e.g. due to an
underwater explosion shock, the propulsion plant fails at the same time.

STABILITY

The surface stability of a submarine is different in the longitudinal

and transverse directions just as in the case of surface ships.

The transverse metacentric height is calculated as for a surface ship

by taking the free surfaces into consideration. The free surfaces should
include particularly the surfaces of the, residual water in the main ballast
tanks in addition to those existing within the pressure hull.

In case of submarines having main ballast tanks being arranged off

amidships and provided with open flood holes, the metacentric height in
surface cruise still is reduced by the fact that the immerging ballast tank is
re-flooded due to heeling, whereas the emerging ballast tank is emptied
(see Fig. 5).
Fig. 5 - Re-Flooding and re-emptying of ballast tanks arranged off
amidships, during heeling

For small angles, the reduction in stability due to re-flooding and

re-emptying is:

DELTA GM BAR = 2 . b​2 ​. f . v / P . ( f . h . V )

where

b = eccentricity of free surfaces (m)

f = area of free surface (m2) (for port or starboard sides)
V = volume of ballast tank (for port or starboard sides)
h = t (depth of free surfaces below line of flotation (m) + 10 m
 P = ship's weight (metric tons)

The reduction of initial stability becomes the larger, the larger the
eccentricity of ballast tank is (b squared is entered into the equation); it is
also large if the flood holes of ballast tank are arranged high up (h as
small value).

The extent of the stability during surface cruising is usually so great

that it is not necessary to calculate the lever arms of the static stability.
However, the extent of the stability has to be taken into account when
dealing with basically new types of boats.

The longitudinal metacenter is usually not calculated he cause the

standard trim moment calculated from it is generally not accurate enough
for the surface trim calculation,
If, as usually is the case, the form of frames deviate much from the
vertical in way of the line of flotation.

When cruising on the surface, submarines usually have little reserve

displacement compared with surface ships and so tend to roll heavily. This
is particularly apparent when the waves are coming from aft. In this case,
the seas can wash over the center section of the line of flotation for some
time. As a result, the component of the widest section of the line of
flotation is lost for transverse stability, and this results in surprisingly
heavy heels.

There is no line of flotation submerged (Fig. 6), and so the

metacenter M coincides with the center of buoyancy F, provided that no
tanks are inside the submarines with free surfaces.
G = Center of Gravity F = Center of Buoyancy M = Metacenter

Position of G, F and M for interpretation 2: Diving by Shifting

Displacement

Fig. 6 - Stability Relationships

The submarine is suspended like a pendulum, with its weight

at the center of gravity G and its buoyancy at the center F. The
submerged stability in both the longitudinal and transverse directions is
the same because there is no line of flotation.

The free s
​ urfaces inside the boat reduce this stability by an amount
generally small and different in the longitudinal and transverse directions.
The value of FG is different depending on whether the dive is considered
to be created by added weight (Interpretation l) or by a change in the
form of displacement (Interpretation 2). The corresponding moments of
stability are naturally the same for ​both interpretations. The heeling
moments are small when the submarine is submerged. However, the trim
moments can be considerable. A submerged submarine is very sensitive
to weight shifting along the longitudinal direct ion because of limited
longitudinal stability.

A man walking from fore to aft can cause a noticeable change of trim
during submerged cruising. Thus it is necessary for the crew to remain at
specific points ("diving stations").
 Since the center of gravity is below the center of buoyancy when the
submarine is submerged, it will heel in a turning circle toward the inside.

In most of cases, such a heel still is importantly increased by

hydrodynamic influences.

There is a transition from surface to submerged stability during

diving and surfacing. This transitional condition s investigated by special
stability calculations. For some types, particularly double-hull submarines,
a very small, sometimes even negative, static stability can be obtained for
certain intermediate conditions during the surfacing and submerging
operations. However since this loss in stability occurs only for a short
period of time, the associated heels are small. Single-hull vessels are
often statically stable during the entire diving procedure.

Heavy heeling may occur if a submarine at a great depth attempts

to surface quickly by heavily blowing its ballast tanks, which are located

deeply in the submarine. This is because the center of buoyancy slopes

down and already approaches its lower surface position while there is still

no line of flotation, which could contribute to the transverse stability by its

transverse moment of inertia. As the submarine rises in a state of reduced

stability, the \superstructure is subjected to a flow from above which can

generate a considerable amount of heel. This is the reason why the ballast

tanks are usually blown only as a sub marine approaches the surface.

The free-flooding superstructures cause additional heel if the water

remaining in them does not drain rapidly enough when the submarine
breaks the surface quickly.

Submarines that are in diving trim are able to ground by means of

negative buoyancy. This causes a reduction in stability analogous to the
stranding of a surface vessel. The bottom area of the keel must be wide
enough to keep the submarine upright despite the decrease in stability.

Damaged submarines that fall on the seabed by inrush of water

often lose their stability and list heavily.

Due to their overall arrangement, single hull submarines always

offer a stability being smaller on the surface than in submerged condition.
If only circular frame sections are situated above the line of flotation, the
contribution of transverse moment of inertia 'to the stability is deleted (A
homogeneous cylinder swimming in water is if neutral equilibrium no
matter how deeply it immerges).

If there are circular frame sections above the line of flotation and on
the assumption of same height of centre of gravity above base line for
main ballast tanks and pressure hull, the submerged stability is larger
than the surface stability by the value of

M = Va . a (m) / V

Where

Va = volume of pressure proof parts situated outside the pressure

hull above line of flotation (m3)

a = distance of centre of gravity of these parts from pressure hull axis

(m)

V = pressure-proof displacement of the vessel ready to dive

M = surface displacement (m3)

 The stability of single-hull submarines should very often be
determined according to the necessary minimum surface stability resulting
in a submerged stability being unnecessarily large.

In case of double hull submarines, it is possible to achieve, by the

arrangement of ballast tanks, a wider line of flotation supplying an
additional contribution to stability by the transverse moment of inertia
during surface cruise. Therefore, the surface stability of double hull
submarines may be adapted to the requirements according to the
submerged stability.

The moments of s
​ tability are determined by surface and underwater
heel tests, which allow calculation of the position of the center of gravity
above base line. These heel tests are similar to those for surface vessels.
If there are differences between the surfaced and submerged heights of
the center of gravity, it is simply the result of inaccuracies in performing
the tests (Interpretation 2 for diving). The surface heel test is much more
inaccurate than the submerged heel test for the case of a submarine
whose ballast tanks have flood slits open, so that the residual water in the
ballast tanks is communicating with the surrounding water. This explains
why the submerged heel test result is preferred; the height of the center
of gravity is taken from the submerged heel tests, even for the surface
position, and is used to calculate the surface metacentric height. Even a
submerged trim test, in which the angles of trim (about the transverse
axis) and the corresponding trim moments are measured, will have to
yield the same height for the submerged cruising center of gravity
because of the above-mentioned equality of longitudinal and transverse
stability.
 However, it is more difficult to obtain the same accuracy for the
submerged trim test as for the submerged heel test.

CHAPTER - VI

DYNAMICS

1. SHAPE OF THE SUBMARINE VERSUS THE

SUBMERSIBLE

The true submarine and the submersible have basically different

lines.

The submersible (Fig. 7) is expected to be able to develop a fast

surface speed with the available propulsive power good sea keeping
qualities. Conversely, the true submarine (Fig. 8) is expected to be able to
develop high-submerged speed and to have long cruising ranges at any
speed steps.

Since the submersible is specifically affected by wave resistance,

maximum hull length is a favorable factor with respect to cruising
performance. Torpedo boat lines were used as the example for the shape
of the submersible. The midship section is made, as full as possible, and
the end are fine. Flaring frames in way of the forebody Improve sea
keeping qualities. The size of the ballast tanks (reserve displacement) has
a decisive effect on the sea keeping qualities. The ends of the
superstructure above the line of flotation can be designed in the form of a
"watertight forecastle" and "watertight stern" in order to improve seagoing
qualities.

Fig. 7 - Lines of Submersibles

Fig. 8 - Lines of a Submarine

These spaces have vents at the top and are free flooding below​. ​The
vents are opened prior to diving and unlike the buoyancy ​vents, of the
ballast tanks, they remain open when submerged. When the ship surfaces,
the spaces drain and then vents are again closed.
 The size and configuration of the displacement above the line of
flotation and properly balanced stability relation ships all have a decisive
effect on whether a cockpit in bridge fin remains dry in heavy sea state.
The design the bridge fin itself plays a subordinate role in this respect.

When an upper deck with a large number of venting slits erg larger
free-flooding, spaces below, then these slits will have a certain leveling
effect on breakers and wave Its rolling along the upper deck.

Since the vessel cruises on the surface at constant draft, design can
be in the form of a raised stern (horizontal fairing in the line of flotation)
to yield a greater hydro dynamically effective length. The propellers are
located below the stern because they require a certain degree immersion
(Fig. 9).

The lateral plane aft is reduced as much as possible in or to obtain a

smaller turning circle. An arrangement of large or dual steering rudders
results in small turning circles (equal to 3 to 3 1/2 ship lengths), which
are required for tactical surface action.

The lines adopted are derived from the optimum configurations

determined by surface towing tank tests as far as design permits (Fig. 7).
A - Raised stern with center rudder, planes aft of propeller;
submersible.

B - Raised stern with twin rudders, planes aft of propeller;

submersible.

C - Pointed stern with center rudder, planes aft of propeller, stabilizer

encloses the propeller shaft exit; configuration suited for
combination of submarine and submersible.

Fig. 9 - Twin-Screw Stern Configurations

The appendages are faired and reduced to a minimum. Because of

resistance, it is particularly desirable to be able to retract turn in, or fold
back the bow planes during surface cruising (see Fig. 80).

It is easier to develop a good surface configuration for a double-hull

than a single-hull vessel because the outer hull is more easily shaped. The
single-hull submarine is strongly dependent on the cylindrical and
truncated cone shapes of the pressure hull because a considerable section
of its shell is identical with the pressure hull. The intermediate type falls
between the double-hull and single hull boats with respect to its surface
shape. The shape of the submersible in submerged condition is by no
means bad since it is almost free of flow separation. However, the
superstructure and appendages required for surface cruising usually
generate so much drag that the overall submerged resistance becomes
large. This factor and the low propulsion power available for submerged
cruising result in slow submerged speeds.
 The submersible is usually built with twin screws mainly because
surface power can only be obtained by two propellers due to the restricted
propeller diameter. At the same time, two propellers provide better
maneuverability and redundance in the event one system fails.

In the case of the submarine the entire configuration must he

designed for submerged cruising. The shapes of fish and torpedoes are
examples for a good configuration. A submarine is not exposed to wave
drag when running deep submerged.

At a depth equal to 4.5 times the diameter of the boat, (measured

from the center of the pressure hull to the water surface), the wave drag
will not yet have disappeared completely in the higher speed ranges.

Consequently a vessel- of 5 m in diameter must dive 25 m

(measured from keel to the water surface) before can escape the adverse
effect of wave drag on its cruising performance in the higher speed
ranges. At the slower speeds, however, wave drag is insignificant, even at
periscope depth.

The bottom of the sea induces an additional resistance during

submerged cruise in its vicinity. The friction drag of water on the surface
of the submarine is the predominant Resistance factor; thus a minimum of
surface area is advantageous in order to minimize this drag. This is
accomplished at a given displacement by selecting a maximum hull
diameter and a minimum length. The fineness of the run towards aft must
be selected for minimum flow separation.
 The forebody and all foremost edges of the superstructure and
appendages can be rounded, but the stern and rear edges of the
superstructure and appendages should be sharp. The/lateral plane of the
stern is curtailed as much as possible in order to achieve small turning
circles in combination with an effective steering rudder (Fig.-l0).

The submerged turning circle becomes the smaller; the more it is

possible to shift the superstructure to forward. As a rule turning circles are
smaller during submerged cruising than during surface cruising and
smaller at slow than at high speeds.

A - Rudder cross forward of propeller; submarine.

B - Spade rudder in crossed configuration aft of the propeller;

submarine.

C - Rudder cross-aft of the propeller; submarine.

D - Rudder aft of the propeller, stern plane combined with

stabilizer fin below the propeller, suitable for true submarine
and submersible.

E - X -shaped rudder/plane arrangement forward of propel1er;

submarine.

Fig. 10 - Single-Screw Stern Configurations

 The lines of a true submarine are not very well suited for surface
cruising. The attainable surface speed is generally considerably below the
maximum submerged speed. Today the submarine is usually built with a
single screw because a single screw propulsion system offers the most
favourable propulsive efficiency (see Fig. 8).

When the submersible is cruising at periscope depth, i.e., near the

water surface, it will be more exposed to wave action because of its large
superstructure and flat deck than will be the submarine whose members
are smaller. Submersibles therefore require larger and more effective
diving planes than do submarines.

When the vessel is running at periscope depth, wave energy will

interfere with depth control. The magnitude of the interference will vary
with sea force. A seaway causes a lift, which will affect the boat most
when heading into the sea and least in following seas. Depth control in a
heavy sea is easiest when proceeding on a course with the sea a beam. A
submarine in the open ocean at a depth of 80 m can still roll as much as
8​0 ​ when hurricane force waves are acting on the surface.

The submarine requires hydrodynamic stability because of its high

maximum submerged speed, which may be obtained by horizontal stern
fins, by stern planes in neutral position, or by combine& action of
horizontal fins and stern planes.

If the aft rudder/plane arrangement is of "X” configuration (see Fig.

10), their horizontal projection is of stabilizing effect.

Some submarines are intended to operate as submersibles as well

as submarines. A compromise must be made to allow for the requirements
of both the surface, and the submerged cruising (Fig. 11). The length of
such a boat is governed by the wave formation during surface cruising and
is greater than that of a true submarine with the same displacement. The
forebody is sharp in way of the line of flotation and the faired stern is
elongated as much as possible.

The upper deck is kept as narrow and flush as possible because of

the submerged speed. The shape of the superstructure is designed for
minimum drag. The boat has a single screw propulsion system because
this provides optimum submerged propulsion conditions.

Fig. 11 - Lines of the German type 26 (1944)

2. SUBMERGED DRAG

The submerged drag of the hull is composed of friction and form

drag. The frictional drag on a given surface will be reduced to a minimum
if the lines are faired, the paint is in good condition, and there is no
fouling. Form drag of submarines can be very small when the lines are
we1 faired. However, the considerable drag created by the slits for the
main ballast tanks and free-flooding spaces must be added to these drag
components.

One slit has a drag four to five times the frictional drag of a plate of
the same size. Moreover, these slits can cause additional resistance when
longitudinal flow and vortices form within the free-flooding spaces. The
energy for these flow phenomena has to be produced by the propulsion
system. One way to reduce these internal flow phenomena is the use of
adequate transverse subdivision by partition bulkheads and web frames
within the free-flooding spaces.

Additional drag is caused by the superstructure and appendages

such as rudders and stabilizer fins.
 Bollards, cleats, and lamps are retractable to avoid additional drag.
Rail supports that cannot be removed are faired for low drag (see Fig. 12).

The sum of all drag components is the overall drag when the boat
operates in deep submerged condition.

The above drag components refer to the condition of the boat when
all extensible equipment (periscope, snorkel, antennas etc) are retracted.
These have considerable additional drag when extended. For instance,
when extended periscope on a submarine of 500 m​3 displacement of the
total form and good 1ines will cause an additional drag of 30 percent at 4
knots; the drag decreases to 8.5 percent at 10 knots.

The submerged drag increases approximately with the square of the

speed.

Fig. 12 - Upper deck and superstructure of a 1,OOO-ton

submarine, 1975

PROPULSION

A submersible will have different resistance to overcome surface and

submerged speed at the same propeller rpm and hence the loads on the
propeller will differ. Thus is impossible to design an optimum propeller for
a submersible for both cruising conditions, and a compromise is
necessary. The propeller diameter of a submersible is usual subject to
constraints. The propeller blade tips must n main some distance from the
surface because of the danger of aeration in heavy sea state. Moreover,
the tips must high enough above the keel baseline to permit the boat to
be grounded. The achievable propulsion efficiencies of submersible
cruising on the surface is of the same order of magnitude as for surface
ships with a comparable propeller load. Cavitation phenomena during
surface cruising must be taken into consideration. The propulsion
efficiency of a submersible is usually lower during submerged cruising.

More favorable conditions for a submersible could be achieved by

using variable pitch propellers because the pitch could be adapted to the
variable loads during surface and submerged cruising and result in
improvement in both cases.

In the case of a submerged submarine, the propeller load will be

constant at all speeds because of the squared dependency of drag on
speed. This means that the propeller will have the same efficiency at all
speeds during submerged cruising.

Diving pressure makes cavitation rather insignificant. It is often

possible to select the optimum diameter resulting from the rpm and load.
There will be a significant friction wake in the propeller plane of a
submarine because of the major drag component resulting from skin
friction. Much of the propulsion energy can be recovered if the propeller is
placed in the concentric wake. This energy recovery of a single-screw
submarine is one of the principal advantages of the single-screw over a
twin-screw drive.

During submerged cruise, a low-noise run at the slow speed range

(silent run) is of great consequence. The speed at which propellers begin
to radiate noises should be as high as possible. The requirements of
hydrodynamics and hydro acoustics should be adapted to each other. A
compromise would be if a three-blade propeller having most favorable
efficiency is deleted and a five-blade or a seven-blade propeller with
specific form and a somewhat reduced efficiency is adopted.

In summary, single-screw submarines have a very high propulsion

efficiency if they combine low rpm, low propeller load, unrestricted
propeller diameter and propulsion power recovery from the wake. This
efficiency will be greater than for any other propeller driven ship.

The propeller efficiency of a submarine cruising on the surface is

deemed satisfactory when it is that supplied by a propeller designed for
submerged cruising.

DEPTH CONTROL

The following principal requirements must be satisfied obtain a

maneuverable boat:

1. The submarine must be able to generate buoyancy as well as

negative lift forces with its planes. These force are required (a) to
compensate for weight difference in a vessel that is not completely
trimmed; (b) to take up the desired constant depth and to balance it
against external forces caused by wave action, fired torpedoes, etc.; and
(c) to effect depth changes.

2. The submarine must be able to generate moments about its

transverse axis by plane action. These moments are required to
compensate for free moments in a submarine that is not completely
trimmed, to permit trimming at desired constant depth, to balance out
any moments at attributable to waves, fired torpedoes, etc., and, finally,
to change trim angle.

3. A submarine proceeding at high-submerged speed must be

stabilized by horizontal fins at the stern to the degree where accurate and
dependable depth control by plane action is possible. This stabilizing
action is caused by weight stability in a submarine proceeding at slow
submerged speed so that the fins can be disregarded.
 One pair of planes fore and aft are required when running at
slow-speed rates (Fig. 13).

Fig. 13 - Plane positions

An upward tilted bow plane primarily causes a lift (the leading edge
is tilted upward). When a vessel is turning about one-third the distance
from the bow at the higher speed steps, a secondary effect occurs by the
tilted bow plane in the form of a trim angle aft so that the hull will
generate additional buoyancy.

​In case of submarines with the forward hydroplane arranged at

about 1/3​rd ship’s length reckoned from forward (i.e. somewhat more
towards aft), this additional trimming action is deleted. During tilting of
the bow plane, they are moving up and down similarly to a passenger lift
without any alterations of trim; therefore, their bow planes should be
somewhat larger.
 The stern plane has the opposite effect. When its trailing edge is
tilted upward, the downward-directed rudder force causes a stern-down
trim angle and the hull generates lift. The magnitude of this angle
depends primarily on the distance between the plane and the turning
center of the boat as well as on its counteracting weight stability, and
finally on the magnitude of the vessel's hydrodynamic stability being
created by the hull shape itself and by the aft stabilizing fins. The
difference between the greater buoyancy of the hull and the smaller
negative lift of the planes is available as effective buoyancy.

​ t slow-speed rates, the bow plane is used primarily to generate

A
positive or negative lift and the stern plane is employed to generate trim
or to maintain a given trim angle.

There is a so-called critical speed in the low-speed range at which

the stern plane alone cannot provide the boat with either positive or
negative buoyancy. At this speed, for instance, an upward-directed plane
results in a very small stern-heavy trim angle because of the existing
weight stability. The buoyancy of the boat in this trim position is as large
as the negative lift of the stern plane. Consequently, the effective force
will be zero, and the plane action will be ineffective to satisfy
requirements.

The stern plane is excellent for maintaining depth at high-speed

steps; the buoyancy and the negative lift will be large as small trim
angles. The influence of weight stability will be small compared to the
trimming moments generated by the forces of the plane, The stern plane
generally provides more sensitive depth control in the high-speed ranges
because of its indirect effect than does the bow plane which, by its force,
has a direct effect on depth.

When proceeding at high-submerged speeds, submarines require a

stern fin for dynamic stabilization. Because of its destabilizing effect, the
bow plane often is designed so that it must be turned in, folded back, or
retracted when some predetermined speed .has been reached (see Fig.
80). If another design is chosen and the plane remains extended and idle
in the mean position at high speed, the stern fin must be designed
proportionately larger. Configurations with turning-in, folding, or
retractable bow planes have a dual advantage in terms of drag reduction:
they eliminate bow plane drag and require a smaller stern fin.
 At the lower end of the lean bow40 of submersibles, bow planes of
non-retractable or non-folding type were arranged; which have been of
effective help during a quick diving maneuver (see table l). Similar
forward planes are also provided at the sail, i.e. above the deck, of many
nuclear-powered submarine ships (and of a number of electrically driven
submarines). The sail of these vessels is arranged much forward of
amidships so that such forward planes only act on the depth keeping
without generating any trim. During surface cruise, they are situated
above the line of flotation so that they are of no help for diving
maneuvers, but this is tolerated as these vessels per form such
manoeuvres seldom only, for tactical reasons. Outing cruise at periscope
depth, the action of the sea disturbs the effect of such planes, which are
arranged at comparatively high level.

The direct ion of hull drag, including superstructure and appendages,

the direction of propeller thrust, and the arrangement of the stabilizing
fins must be in harmony if the submarine is to proceed on a nearly even
keel and be free of lifts and moments at any speed.

In this connection, the stern plane shall swing about its mid-position
provided that the bow plane is either retracted or idle in mean position.

Fig. 14 - Cruise Free From Lift and Moments

 To summarize, depth control is attainable at low speed step by using

bow planes only, but if in addition some, trim angle is required, a stern

plane must also be used. The stern plane and the stabilization for depth

control at high speeds because effect of a bow plane at high speed. (See

Fig. 14).

If moved a large distance from their center position rudders will

make the boat stern-heavy and cause the vessel to ascend. This must be

compensated for by moving the stern planes downward.

Such an effect only occurs on submarines with the superstructure

arranged at about

mid-length and is explained as follows:

In the turning circle, the submarine is slantwise attacked by the flow

so that a negative pressure is created at the top and bottom sides. This
negative pressure cannot be formed in way of superstructure so that a
resultant force directed towards below arises which causes the submarine
to trim by the stern if the superstructure is situated at mid-length. If the
superstructure is arranged far forward the submarine will trim by the head
due to such a resultant force.
 Fig. 15 - Plane Positions during a Dive

The planes assist in the diving maneuver (see Fig. 15). After the
main ballast tank vents are opened, both sets of planes are moved into
the downward position. This action and the slower flooding of the after
main ballast tan cause the submarine to dive bow first. Leveling off take
place by moving both sets of planes upward. This is followed by a stern
heavy trim of about 5 deg for a short time. (The submarine is made to
"pitch" in order to remove the last air bubbles from the main ballast tanks
and the free-flooding parts of the superstructure.) The submarine then
proceeds in the horizontal attitude, and the main ballast tank vents are
closed. The submarine takes up desired depth then by flooding or
emptying the compensating tanks and by shifting trim water until at slow
speed the planes can keep it at the desired depth by operating with
Small movements about the mean position. During surfacing, the planes
are used to cause rising of the submarine. The planes tilted to the upward
position serve, after the submarine having broken the surface, as a
dynamic protection against unintentional momentary flooding of the deck
as long as blowing-out of main ballast tanks has not yet been completed.
After blowing-out procedure, they are again tilted into their mid-position
during surface cruise.

Electronic or mechanical depth control systems have been developed

for automatic control of a selected depth. These systems operate the
planes by using diving pressure and trim position as impulse transmitters.
 Resistance and propulsion tests for surface cruise are performed in a
towing tank under the same conditions as for surface ships. The
submerged model is towed in the tank by a vertical faired strut to
determine the drag of the hull and the form resistance of hull, of
superstructures and appendages.

The friction drag of the full-scale boat cannot be determined by

model tests. This drag is computed for the full scale hull and added to its
form resistances.

The wake field occurring at the model in submerged run is

measured. Afterwards, cavitation investigations at the deeply submerged
propeller may follow, which runs in a wake field regulated in compliance
with previous trials. Self-propelled experiments (model with moving
propeller) by which efficiency dates should be gained are now performed
for submerged cruise. The lift and moment coefficients of the model are
now determined for the model with dissimilar pitch (trim) conditions and
with varying stern plane angles (see Fig. 14). It is to be determined from
this, which are the fin angles and proper stern plane angle at which the
cruise free of lift and moments is possible. The fin angle is modified at the
model until the stern plane is in alignment with the fin during cruise
without lift and moments. These characteristics offer clues of the
behaviour of the submerged vessel at maximum speed. The buoyant
forces of the bow planes are measured during separate trials.

The above trials may be completed by model experiments with a

free-running, submersible, and self-propelled model, which may be
controlled by radio or acoustic means.
 These towing experiments are efficiently extended by the so-called
Planar Motion tests, which are performed with a fixed model. Such tests
make it possible to determine the hydrodynamic coefficients for the
equations of motion and to ascertain the dynamic quantities after solving
of the equations of motion. The term "planar motion" originated at the
David Taylor Model Bas in (nowadays "Naval Shipbuilding Research and
Development Center") in the USA after the method, which was developed
there and designated the "DTMB Planar Motion Mechanism System". These
investigations lead to predictions of the hydrodynamic stability and of all
dynamic quantities for the normal operating range and for emergency
situations (levelling off etc.). For simulation, the following manoeuvres
may be calculated:

For the vertical plane:

1. Meander manoeuvre to demonstrate dynamic stability

quantitatively.

2. Overshoot manoeuvre to demonstrate the effectiveness of the aft

hydroplanes.

3. Determination of critical speed in slow-speed, operation.

4. Emergency manoeuvres

For the horizontal plane:

5. Overshoot manoeuvre to demonstrate rudder effectiveness.

6. Spiral manoeuvre to demonstrate course stability.

7. Turning circles.
8. Stopping and acceleration effects.

Trial runs are conducted with the completed submarine. The surface
and submerged trial runs on the measured mile correspond to the drag
and propulsion experiments.

The forces Acting on the submarine and attributable to the planes

can be determined for different plane angles as follows. First, the
submarine is trimmed to an even keel at a certain speed with both planes
at zero angle. Then one plane is tilted by a specified angle. The
compensating tank is then flooded or emptied and trim water shifted until
the submarine is once again on an even keel with the tilted planes at the
same depth. The water admitted to or drained out of the compensating
tank corresponds to the force applied to the boat by the planes. The
quantity of trim water shifted will yield the trimming moment generated
by the planes.

The Admiralty Constant provides an approximate evaluation of the

submerged propulsion performance of different submarine types:

C = D​2/3 ​x v​3 ​ / Nw

Where

D is the submerged displacement of the total form in cubic meters,

v is the speed in knots, and
Nw is the delivered power at propeller in horsepower.
 This formula yields useful comparative data for submerged boats but
may be applied to surface ships only with great reservations and therefore
is rarely used today. This formula take into consideration the law of the
square of the drag applicable in the submerged cruising condition and,
consequently, the cubic dependence of power on speed. Moreover, the
formula allows for the fact that the propulsion efficiency remains constant
over the entire Speed range. Finally, it includes the proportional
dependence of drag on D2/3; in similar vessels, this area is proportional
to the hull Surface exposed to friction. Consequently, the coefficient C
includes the drag coefficient for the hull and the propulsion efficiency.
Submersibles with large superstructures, broad-beamed decks,

guns, etc. may have C values as low as &0 during Submerged cruising,

but modern Submarines can have C values of 280 and higher. As a result

of better overall form smaller appendages and higher propulsion

efficiency, modern submarines can make the same speed with one-fourth

to one-fifth of the Submerged engine power.

 CHAPTER - VII

HULL STRUCTURE

LOADING DUE TO DIVING PRESSURE

Diving depth is an important design criterion. The pressure hull is

the primary element of a submarine and must withstand diving pressure.
It is designed for a certain collapse depth, at which the failure must be
expected within a narrowly limited range of tolerance. The pressure
corresponding to this collapse depth is taken as a basis in the pressure
hull calculations as the calculation pressure. The other pressure-proof
members exposed to diving pressure, such as hatches, valves, torpedo
tubes, and pressure resistant lines in the outer hull, have a higher collapse
pressure.

A submarine must never approach the collapse depth. It must go no

deeper than the service diving depth, which in computation is coupled to,
the collapse depth by a safety factor.

This safety factor amounted to 2.5 in the former German Navy and
to 1.5 in the US Navy. Today, these navies and other ones, too, use safety
factors between these values.

When high safety factors such as 2.5 are used, a submarine can
exceed the service diving depth (which is the maximum admissible diving
exercise depth) by a greater amount in the emergency case than can a
submarine with a smaller safety factor.

Germany's World War II submarines were, by means of the methods

of calculation known at that time, designed for a collapse depth of 250 m;
this corresponded, at a safety factor of 2.5 to a service diving depth of
100 m. However, when under enemy attack, they frequently went to
between 150 m and 180 m without incurring damage. In compliance with
today’s knowledge and calculation methods, these vessels had a collapse
depth of about 280 m. This is an explanation of the fact that some vessels
occasionally submerged down to these depths, however, partly sustained
shell bucklings. It will never be known whether any vessels were lost by
diving to such unacceptably large depths.

The maximum diving depth and the test pressure range between the
service diving depth and the calculation pressure. During dynamic
approach of the service diving depth (Because of overshoot) or in case of
a depth control error​, ​it is allowed for a short period to arrive at the
maximum diving depth to the utmost. The test pressure is applied to the
vessel during its acceptance in a pressure dock without any crewmembers
onboard ship for proof of tightness and strength (see Fig. 27), or during a.
deep submerging test with crew as well (see item 5. of Chapter XVI).
These tests will be repeated at certain larger intervals.

SHOCK LOADS

In addition to the diving pressure, the submarine has to withstand

loads generated by nearby underwater detonations. An underwater
detonation generates an immediate pressure wave followed by a gas
bubble vibration. The pressure wave strikes first, and as its impact is
diminishing, there is a superimposed enforced vibration caused by the gas
bubble that arrives slightly later. Moreover, the superimposed vibrations
acting on the pressure hull can also cause suction effects.

The effect of an underwater detonation is greatest when it occurs

under the submarine. In the order of importance, decreasing effects are
from detonations at either side, from above, and finally from ahead or
behind. Direct under water hits will always destroy the submarine.
 Detonations at the water surface, e.g., detonating shells, have
practically no effect on submerged submarines.

3. OTHER LOADS

Like any other ship, a submarine on the surface is subject to

longitudinal and, transverse loads as well as to torsion caused by waves.
In addition, there are local loads caused by wave impacts and individual
loads, such as those originated by the engines. The thrust of the thrust
bearing must also be absorbed. Transverse loads develop in dry-dock.

4. STRENGTH OF THE PRESSURE HULL

As a rule, the middle section of pressure hulls are cylindrical and

end in conical sections fore and aft. These are sealed off by the end
bulkheads. The cross sections of such pressure hulls are circular.

The pressure hull is stressed by the diving pressure, and the effect
is opposite to that of a boiler under internal pressure. The pressure hull is
subjected to compressive stress rather than to the tensile stress of a
boiler.

The longitudinal stress at the boiler is one-half the magnitude of the

circumferential stress.

This circumferential stress is

$=PxR/s

Where

$ is the stress (N/mm2)

 (bar = 10-1
P is the pressure
N/mm2)
R is the radius (mm)
is the plate
s (mm) .
thickness

It is the function of the pressure hull shell to form a

pressure-resistant space and to absorb the forces resulting from the
external pressure.

The shell can absorb forces in the longitudinal direction without the
need for additional stiffeners. However, the transverse frames are
required to absorb circumferential forces because of buckling loads. The
frames are welded to the shell, which act as one unit. Frame stiffness (the
moment of inertia) is increased by the effective members of the shell, and
the load of the shell is reduced by the effective cross-sectional area of the
frame.
Fig. 16 - Yielding of Shell between Frames

Fig. 17 - Shell Buckling between Frames

 Fig. 18 - Complete Collapse of a Pressure Hull

A cylinder with transverse stiffeners exposed to external pressure

can be destroyed in anyone of three ways (Fig. 16-18).

The first type of failure is encountered when the shell loaded beyond
the yield point above the frames or in the middle between the frames.
Here the shell will yield over its entire circumference between the frames.
The prerequisite for this type of failure is closely spaced frames that can
withstand the load (symmetrical buckling).

In the second type of failure, the shell buckles in a checkerboard

pattern between frames. One buckle will be directed inward and the other
one outward. The water pressure suppresses the outward buckles as
deformation continues. The prerequisite for this type of failure is widely
spaced frames that can withstand the load (asymmetrical buckling).

In the third type of failure, the entire pressure hull (that is the shell
and frames) buckle over the entire length. If transverse bulkheads or
heavy web frames are installed, the buckling process takes place between
them. The prerequisite for this type of failure is frames with an inadequate
load-bearing capacity (general. instability between transverse bulkheads
or web frames).

Optimum utilization of the material, that is, the lightest pressure

hull for a given collapse pressure, could be achieved if all three types of
failure started at the same pressure. However, Types 2 and 3 cannot be
calculated with the same accuracy as Type 1; moreover, an increase in
the collapse pressure for Types 2 and 3 will require much less additional
hull weight than the same objective under Type 1. The magnitude of the
collapse pressure, therefore, is staggered by a small amount in 1, 2, 3
order. A pressure hull constructed on this principle begins to fail with a
yielding of .the shell between frames. Bucklings will then form between
the frames, followed by complete collapse, generally between the
bulkheads.

In addition to the abovementioned modes of are other ones as

follows:

- general instability of shell, frames, and web frames between

bulkheads or end bulkheads with partially effective web frames:

- snap-through buckling of end bulkhead with stiffened or

non-stiffened shell:

- low-cycle fatigue cracks at stress concentrations.

Fig. 19 shows the typical modes of failure of the pressure hull.

 Fig. 19 - Typical Forms of Failure of Pressure Hulls

Since the forces that act on a pressure hull at maximum diving

depth are extremely large, it is not surprising that the problems
associated with longitudinal and transverse strength in waves, docking
strength, and absorption of individual loads (such as arrangement of the
main engines) play no part when the dimensions are being selected.
 A 5-m diameter pressure hull at a depth of 200 m will be exposed to
a load of I0,000 kN per meter of hull length.

The pressure hull meets the requirements only if, during the load,
the stresses do not exceed the admissible limits. The stress distribution in
a circular cylindrical shell transversely stiffened by equi-distant frames
and subject to uniform external hydrostatic pressure is calculated by the
solution of the differential equation of radial displacement. The simplified
differential equation (without the second order term) was established by
Von Sanden and Günther for the first time (see Bibliography). In the USA,
Salerno and Pulos introduced the complete equation; Krenzke and Short
produced a graphical solution for the stress calculation. The recent results
do not deviate by more than 6% from the former ones. The conical part of
the pressure hull as well as transitions between thicker and thinner plating
require specific calculations.

Major interferences in radially symmetrical stress distribution due to

welded-in stiffening flanges, local changes in material thickness, and
fittings welded on to the pressure hull are calculated by the
matrix-displacement method (method of finite elements).

Choice of material distribution should be such that stability is

guaranteed for stresses occurring at the calculation depth. In case of a
pressure hull of high material utilisation, the calculation of the buckling
pressure should be based on the assumption that buckling will be effected
in the partially plastic region. The tangential and secant moduli and
Poisson’s ratio in the partia1ly plastic region are determined by means of
the stress strain diagram of the material. As stresses in the plane of
frames and at mid-bay differ from each other, we have consequently to do
with differently reduced moduli of elasticity in the partially plastic region,
which should be entered into the calculation. Furthermore, allowance
should be made for the fact that construction of pressure hull cannot be
effected mathematically round but that building inaccuracies should be
reckoned with, the fixed maximum of which must not be exceeded by the
building shipyard. The unavoidable welding stresses should also be taken
into consideration.

Modern pressure hulls .are often provided with web frames arranged
at longitudinal distances, which nearly correspond to the pressure hull
diameter. If bulkheads are envisaged, the web frames may be deleted in
these places. The .web frames force the normal frames between them into
a mode of failure of a high lobe number, e.g. 4 or 5 lobes, whereas they
would buckle in 2 lobes without the presence of web frames. Due to the
arrangement of web frames it is possible to provide normal frames of
reduced weight and depth of web resulting in advantages in weight and
space.

From the viewpoint of the buckling of pressure hull frames, it makes

no difference whether internal or external frames are used. More
favourable space conditions inside the pressure hull result when the use of
external frames is possible when an outer hull is available (double-hull
vessel). External frames can withstand about 5 percent more load than
internal frames of the same size because external frames are drawn into
the plane of the frame due to the tilting of the profiles that is connected
with buckling whereas the internal frames deflect off this plane. There is
no difficulty in welding the external frames to the shell ​solidly enough to
eliminate the​ ​danger of​ p
​ remature separation.

Stress concentrations develop at the transition points between the

cylindrical and conical parts of the pressure hull. These can be reduced by
welding reinforcing rings the hull. Furthermore, rigid transverse bulkheads
at the junction points can cause greater stresses in the pressure hull shell.
 One way to counter this is to reduce the frame spacing next to the
transverse bulkheads. Usually, are manufactured from rolled or
T-sections, for Which plates are welded together. Sometimes, flat bulb
sections are also used.

All areas in the pressure hull that are weakened by openings such as
hatches, shaft exits, exhaust gas ducts, outboard valves, etc., are
carefully compensated for by reinforcements. Shell reinforcements are
designed in the form of reinforced plating or forgings welded to the shell.
Interrupted frames are replaced by additional, subsidiary frames.

The pressure hull is bounded at the forward and aft ends by end
bulkheads, which, in the past, were made of cast steel in a domed,
compound-curve form (see Fig. ​20) ​with supports for the torpedo tubes
cast to them, in general. Nowadays, flanged end bulkheads are used, the
supports are welded to them Plane end bulkheads with horizontal and
vertical stiffeners are used instead of the domed end bulk heads (Fig. 21).

Fig. 20 - Pressure Hull End Bulkhead of Cast Steel

Fig. 21 - Pressure Hull End Bulkhead of Flat Welded Design

 Hatch covers are made of cast steel or flanged sheeting. They open
outward and so are sealed by the water pressure (see Fig. 86).

The heavier construction of the pressure hull enables it to withstand

individual loads easier than could the hulls of other combatant ships.

A pressure hull built for great depths is more resistant to shock

loads than one built for shallow depths. Concentrations of, materials are a
disadvantage when exposed to shock loads; therefore care should be
taken to distribute the material as evenly as possible.

5. MATERIALS

In order to meet requirements of resistance to underwater explosion

shocks, steels of great elongation and not impact strength are preferred.

Up to the end of World War II, Germany used carbon steel (St 52)
with good welding characteristics, a yield point of 360 N/mm2, and a
strength of 520 N/mm2. Especially for Submarine construction, the USA
developed the high strength tempering steel HY 80 having a yield point of
at least SSO N/mm​2 ​and a strength of about 800 N/mm2. In spite of its
high yield point, it still has adequate elongation and also good
notch-impact toughness at low temperatures.

The new submarines of the German Federal Navy have

non-magnetic characteristics so that they are protected against magnetic
mines and magnetic detection. Therefore, the pressure hulls have been
built of non-magnetizable, high-strength steel with a high yield point. This
high strength, non-magnetizable, austenitic steel does have a high yield
point, but a smaller elastic modulus of about 1.85 x 105 N/mrn2 (for
comparison: normal steel has an elastic modulus of about 2.1 x 105
N/mm2) and a greater partially plastic region. The proportional limit, as
identified by the 0.01% elongation limit, is approximately 60% of the yield
point, whereas this value for HY 80 is 80%. This greater elasticity in the
non-magnetic steel, and the lower proportional limit have made it possible
to develop further the instability calculations in the partially plastic region
of the material. Comprehensive material tests together with instability
calculations and model pressure tests have also made clear the effect of
time-dependent strength behaviour (creep) on the pressure hull strength.
After passing the yield point the steel still has a large plastic reserve. The
breaking point is almost twice as high and the strain up to rupture is
almost 50%. These properties together with high notch impact strength
even at low temperatures give the steel good dynamic strength. Especially
at extreme conditions, a high plastic capacity is available to prevent the
occurrence of a break or crack in the material. Initial difficulties consisting
in crack due to stress corrosion incase of this steel have been
surmounted.

6. STRENGTH OF PRESSURE-PROOF CONNING TOWER

Some submarines have a pressure-resistant conning tower

amidships on top of the ​pressure hull, which accommodate an observation
post for the periscopes. The conning towel hatch is located in the top of
the conning tower. The control room hatch is located between the
pressure hull and the conning tower. As a rule the width of the conning
tower must be considerably less than its length because of the water drag
caused by the conning tower structure.

Because an elliptical conning tower (Fig. 22) deviates considerably

from a circular configuration, large bending moments will develop in its
vertical wall; thus very thick materials are required for the wall as well as
for the top and deck of conning tower. Former German submarines used
armor steel for these conning towers in order to provide some protection
against gunfire shells during surface actions. The wall thickness was much
greater than that of the pressure hull shell. At the same time this provided
the strength required to withstand the diving pressure.
 Fig.22 - Elliptical Conning Tower (German Boats, 1935-45)

Conning towers built of two cylindrical shells (Fig. 23) are lighter
than elliptical towers because the static' strength relationships are
simpler. These conning towers are suitable for small submarines.

Fig. 23 - Conning Tower of Two Cylindrical Shells

Conning towers designed as horizontal cylinders (Fig. 24) are used

for large submarines. They are built as independent pressure tank and are
connected to the pressure hull by trunks. Adequate connections must be
installed between conning tower and pressure hull to withstand shock
loads.
 Fig. 24 - Conning Tower Constructed as a Horizontal Cylinder

If the observation post for the periscopes is situated within the

pressure hull (this is practically. always the case today), then the pressure
proof conning tower is deleted and replaced by a pressure-proof access
trunk (see Fig. 25), which has outer stiffenings in many cases.

Fig. 25 - Access Trunk

7. STRENGTH OF OTHER STRUCTURAL MEMBERS

 The outer hull, which is not exposed to diving pressure, as well as
the structural members inside the pressure hull are designed for minimum
weight. The outer hull and the free-flooding superstructure must be able
to withstand wave impacts and additionally, the ballast tanks must
withstand the static internal pressure. The internal tanks must be able to
reliably withstand the predetermined operating pressure. Underwater
detonations will have less effects on ​the flooded outer hull and so affect its
construction to a smaller extent only. However, the internal members
must be able to withstand shock loads transferred to them by the
enclosing pressure hull, and they should be so dimensioned that they
collapse later than the pressure hull itself. Lightweight members may be
designed in several different ways: narrow-spaced stiffeners that resulting
thin plates; frequent support of pressure hull stiffeners that result in light
stiffeners; and use of high-strength steels, sea-water-resistant aluminum
alloys, and plastics.

8. PRESSURE HULLS FOR COMMERCIAL SUBMERSIBLES

Just as is the case for non-commercial vessels, the commercial

submersibles are loaded by the diving pressure, where as shock loads do
not arise. Many types of vessels are lowered into the water only for the
comparatively short diving periods, so that, sometimes, the corrosion
resistance requirements are smaller. Because of the small masses of the
small vessels, very expensive materials may possibly be used, so that
more independent choice of material is possible for such reasons.
High-strength steels are adequate for vessels of rather shallow diving
depths, whereas specifically lighter pressure hulls are necessary for
deeper diving depths. Potential materials in this connection are:
aluminum, titanium, G.R.P., and finally, special glass which is used for the
comparatively lightest pressure hulls.

If pressure hulls of metal are used, tested materials are applied as

for military submarines, too. Then material test bars are available of each
individual plate and profile, which may be tested by the acceptance
authorities in the prescribed manner, however, the materials of pressure
hulls out of G. R. P. or special glass are finally manufactured at the
building itself only. Testing of material by using test bars and,
consequently, proof of strength, elongation, yield point etc. in the usual
manner is not possible. This and the fact that strength calculations for
G.R.P. and glass are not as perfect as for metal yet is a reason for why
the introduction of such materials into pressure hull construction makes
slow progress only, in spite of their principally favourable properties.

The pressure hull displacement of deeply submerging vessels often

is not sufficient to carry the overall ship's weight, so that additional lift is
required. In some specific cases, this was generated by gasoline (see item
"Compensating Tanks" of Chapter V). A more favourable method is the
filling o
​ f parts of the outer hull with pressure-proof plastic foam
manufactured with a density of 0.5 to 0.7, with the inclusion of
pressure-proof glass balls in the most favourable case.

9. MODEL EXPERIMENTS

The pressure-proof building elements of practically all-modern

submarines are Subject to considerable weight limitations; therefore,
materials of high load-bearing capacity of​ ten are used, which are
dimensioned in compliance with most modern calculation m​ ethods. So one
easily is more on the safe side with regard to the judgment of the entire
building if the critical areas are checked by model experiments in ​the
pressure tank.
Fig. 26 - Pressure Tank at Kiel with Submersible hanging

above

If submarines of not too great size are concerned, ​their pressure

hull sections may be tested to the scale of 1: 1 (see Fig. ​26). The pressure
is gradually increased until collapse takes place; and stress and strain
measurements are performed in this connection. Any creep phenomena
(dependent on the time of load) also become obvious. Collapses according
to modes of fa-1lure 1 and 2 may be observed. It is not possible to
determine complete collapses according to mode 3 with a full-scaled
model, as the length of the pressure tank is too small. Such experiments
are performed with reduced-scale models. The full-scale models are
manufactured by bending and welding in the same way as it will be during
the construction of the actual vessel itself, later on, so that manufacturing
experiences may already be gained then (first of all, concerning building
tolerances); the smaller models which are less expensive are
manufactured by machine lathe work. Consequently, they do not have any
building tolerances at the beginning. For the individual series of
experiments these. Building tolerances are applied to the models in a
defined manner, so that their influences on the collapse pressure may
reliably be observed.

Of course, it is not possible to test the finished submarine at a

pressure in the vicinity of the calculation pressure, but it is subjected to a
test pressure, which ranges above the normal diving depth by a certain
amount. The material load at the test pressure still remains with in the
elastic limit.

Such trials are intended; above all, to prove the tightness of

penetrations, any conclusions with regard to the level of collapse depth
cannot be drawn. In general, these trials are performed during a
deep-submerging test at sea during which the submarine gradually
approaches the intended test diving depth. In Western Germany, it is
possible to perform these test in a pressure dock specifically built for this
purpose (see Fig. 27). In certain cases e.g. if a penetration in the
pressurized submarine turn out to be not sufficiently tight, the pressure in
the dock may quickly be released. Commercial submersibles of ​smaller
size also are tested at their test pressure in a pressure tank (Fig. 26
shows the vertical introduction of a submersible into a tanks).
 Fig. 27 - Pressure Dock at Kiel

In a specific case, the pressure dock was used in order to verify the
collapse depth of a submarine pressure hull removed from service (see
Fig. 28). For this purpose, the submarine was almost completely (except
for a defined remainder) filled with water so that the intended implosion
could not endanger the dock.

Fig. 28 - Pressure Hull of "U3" in Pressure Dock after Collapse

Experiment

For the Observation of shock resistance of pressure hulls 1/1 scaled

pressure hull models may be shock-loaded in the open sea by certain
explosive charges until c
​ ollapse take Place (see Fig. 2
​ 9). Many internals
for submarines are tested for their shock resistance on drop testing
machines. If very large elements are concerned, it is necessary to be
Content with the mathematical proof of shock resistance. If an
arrangement according to Fig. 29 is used, it also i​ s Possible to test the
foundations of equipment and the interaction of pressure hull,
foundations, and equipment, provided that a pressure hull of somewhat
more strength than that of the actual vessel is used. In this case, the
underwater explosion shock to be performed is rated to such an extent as
just would destroy the actual pressure hull, and the onboard elements are
loaded with the shock at which they should just be able to withstand. If
reduced-scale models are used for shock tests, it is comparatively difficult
to draw adequate conclusions for the design.

In some individual cases, submarines out of commission together

with all their internals were subjected to shock loads up to collapse, by
which knowledge for the design of subsequent series of submarines could
be gained. Any explosion shock tests being performed with submarines in
commission and with their crew on board, do generally not offer any
important knowledge because of the smaller admissible loads.

Fig. 29 - Submersible Shock Test Vehicle

 CHAPTER - VIII

ARMAMENT

Most submarines are used as weapon carriers. The emphasis here is

on undersea weapons when missile armament to be fired against surface
targets on land (e. g. "Polaris" "Poseidon" equipment of US ships), which
are not discuss here, is disregarded. Submarines are especially well suited
as carriers for weapons such as torpedoes that damage enemy ships
below the waterline. Guns to engage surface and air targets have always
been secondary weapons and are missing today. The place is now being
taken by missile armament to be fired at waterborne and air borne
targets.

1. TORPEDO ARMAMENT

The conventional armament is an anti-surface torpedo with a length

of about 7 m, a diameter of 53 cm, and a maximum weight of about 1.9
metric tons, which is based on a static negative buoyancy of up to 0.5
metric ton. (This means that the displacement of the torpedo is 0.5 metric
ton less than its weight).

There are torpedoes of smaller dimensions that are developed as

submarine chasers enabled for three-dimensional travel.

Torpedo Tubes

Torpedoes are carried in torpedo tubes and spare torpedoes are

usually carried as reloads.

The discussion will consider torpedo tubes whose aft part is enclosed
by the pressure hull. In some particular cases, torpedo tubes are
sometimes fixed and sometimes swivel-mounted on the free-flooding
upper deck outside of the pressure hull.

The torpedo tube is a pressure-resistant structure that has a muzzle

door forward and a breech door aft (Fig. 30 and 31). About two-thirds of
the tube is located outside the pressure hull and one-third inside. The part
outside the pressure hull is exposed to external pressure and is provided
with external frames to absorb the buckling loads. The part inside the boat
is loaded by the diving pressure from inside when the muzzle door is
open. The muzzle door opens outward against the water pressure. Profiled
rubber gaskets are used as seals. The door is actuated from inside the
submarine by spindles and linkages that are operated manually or
hydraulically. A faired lightweight shell door is located in the free-flooding
part of the hull because the muzzle doer is not adapted to the shape of
hull. This shell door is linked to the muzzle door. The fairing results in a
smooth shell in the area of the torpedo runway.

The breech door is manually operated; it opens into the interior of

the submarine, is provided with a catch-ring closing device and is sealed
by a profiled rubber gasket. The breech door band the muzzle door are
interloaded so that only one of the doors can be opened at any one time.

30 - Torpedo Tubes, outside view

 Fig. 31 - Torpedo" Tubes, inside view

With the incorporated, the torpedo is breach loaded and inserted dry
in the tube. Prior to firing, the tube is flooded from the torpedo tank inside
the submarine; the torpedo is surrounded with that water so that the
weight of the submarine remain unchanged. However, there will be a
change in trim unless the centre of gravity of the torpedo tank is located
below the centre of gravity of the enveloping water in the torpedo tube.
When pressure between tube and seawater has equalised, the muzzle
door is opened along with the shell door. The torpedo is now ready for
firing; the submarine is no longer affected by the negative buoyancy of
the torpedo because seawater replaces the torpedo in the tube. The lack
of negative buoyancy must be compensated for immediately because of
depth control; this is accomplished by flooding into the torpedo tank.
When the tube shall be reloaded after a firing, the muzzle door must be
closed and the tube drained into a torpedo-operating tank. The breech
door is then opened and a spare torpedo is inserted.
 Torpedo tubes have the necessary equipment for setting the torpedo
running depth, angle on the bow, etc. prior to a setting.

Instead of mechanical setting, most of today's torpedoes are

provided with electric remote setting. In such cases, they are connected
with the weapon control equipment of the submarine by a connection wire
until firing. The cable connection is interrupted at the moment of firing.
Modern torpedo tube design requires the torpedo to be fired at any depth
admissible to the torpedo without generating air bubbles that could betray
the submarine.

Furthermore, the use of wire-guided torpedoes to be fired at targets

from greater distances should be possible. They are directed by corrective
control signals sent over a wire if the target has changed to another
position than that calculated, during the torpedo travel period.

This principle provides for one guide wire to be uncoiled from the
torpedo tail end and from the torpedo tube simultaneously. It is secured
by this arrangement that the wire is not pulled through the water by the
movement of either the torpedo or the submarine in any direction.

Torpedo Impulse Launching Principle

The torpedo is impulse-launched at a speed of about 10 m/sec.

Outside the submarine; the torpedo is accelerated to its terminal velocity
by its own engine.

Up to the end of World War I, torpedoes were directly ejected by

compressed air, and an air swell rose to the surface and could betray the
location of the firing submarine.

A piston type torpedo tube (Fig. 32) in which the torpedo was
separated from the ejecting compressed air by a Piston was standard
equipment for German submarines in World II.
 After the torpedo is fired, the piston is pressed back external
seawater. The compressed air behind the piston vents into the submarine.
This design will not generate an air bubble. There are depth-firing
limitations (depth firing was not yet possible in World War II for other
reasons as well). The tubes must be manufactured with great accuracy to
guide the piston; they are heavy and relatively expensive.

Fig. 32 - Piston-Type Torpedo Tube

A pistonless air ejection system that d6es not generate air bubble
was developed abroad and installed in several types of submarines
including the German Type 21. The torpedo rests in guide rails in a tube of
greater diameter. The tube and its torpedo caliber are watertight only at
the muzzle. The ejection air is adjusted so that its pressure is slightly less
than the external water pressure at the moment the torpedo leaves the
caliber near the muzzle. At the same time, there is automatic opening of a
vent flap located at the aft end of the tube and leading into the inner boat.
As soon as the torpedo has left the tube, sea water fi1ls the tube and
pushes the ejection air into the interior of the submarine through the vent
flap. The flap closes again when the water needed to compensate for the
negative buoyancy of the torpedo has entered. This discharge method is
almost free of air swells, but firing depth limitations are imposed. The
tube is relatively light in weight and cheap to manufacture.

Some impulse launching tubes discharge torpedoes by means of

water that is pressurized, in special chambers by compressed air. These
tubes produce no air swells, and ejection is possible at any depth. This
system is heavier than the compressed air system.

Other types of tubes can eject torpedoes mechanically, e.g. by

hydraulic oil actuated telescopic pistons, or with cables. These tubes are
larger in diameter than their torpedo calibers and can fire at great depths
without causing air swells. However, it is not possible to simply use all of
the abovementioned arrangements for wire-guided torpedoes, too.

Torpedo Swim-Out Launching Principle

Swim-out type launching tubes are used besides impulse launching

tubes. Here the torpedo is accelerated in the tube and leaves the tube
under its own power. The torpedo is guided by rails installed in the wide
tube. Swim-out type launching tubes do not generate air swells: depth
firing is possible. They are light in weight and are cheap and simple to
manufacture. One disadvantage is the greater quantity of enveloping
water required by the larger tube diameter and thus the larger torpedo
tanks.
 For midget submarines of very simple design, the swim-out
launching tubes can be replaced by launching racks from which the
torpedoes are suspended alongside the boat. The launching method is the
same as that used for swim-out type launching tubes, namely, by starting
the torpedo engines. The disadvantages of this simple and cheap design
are that (1) submarine drag is increased quite considerably by the
exposed torpedo, (2) the torpedo cannot be serviced while underway, and
(3) it is exposed to diving pressure and the corrosive effect of sea water.

Torpedoes launched under their own power leave the submarine at a

slower speed than impulse-launched torpedoes.

Torpedo Tanks (WRT)

The size of the torpedo tank required for each torpedo firing system
depends on the number of torpedo tubes to be flooded, the number of
spare torpedoes carried, and the volume of the enveloping water required
for each torpedo tube.

The volume required for a torpedo tank is determined by

V=nxH+rxg

where

n is the number of torpedo tubes to be flooded simultaneously,

H is the enveloping water per tube,

r is the number of spare torpedoes, and

G is the weight of one spare torpedo.

 The torpedo tanks are arranged longitudinally way that the smallest

possible changes of trim caused by shifts of water and spare torpedo

transport, are resulting. These trimming moments must be compensated

for by the trim system of the submarine.

Water is shifted from the torpedo tank to the tubes and back by
means of low-pressure air. The building elements of the torpedo tank are
dimensioned to correspond to the applied pressure. The water pipes
between each tube and the torpedo tank are provided with stop valves or
flaps. These are interlocked with their associated muzzle doors so that the
torpedo tanks cannot be flooded from the tubes when the muzzle doors
are open. The torpedo tanks are connected to the submarine bilge and
ballast system; they have special flood lines to admit water to compensate
for the negative buoyancy during firing unless this is done through the
torpedo tubes.

Torpedo Loading System and Torpedo Storage

Torpedoes are generally loaded into the submarine through a

torpedo hatch that is located above the torpedo compartment and
penetrates the pressure hull at an angle (Fig. 33). The torpedo hatch
design resembles that of an access hatch (see Fig. 116).

1. TORPEDO IN UPPER DECK TROUGH

2. TORPEDO IN THE TORPEDO COMPARTMENT IN OBLIQUE POSITION
3. TORPEDO IN LOADING POSITION AT INNER TUBE END
4. CAPSTAN USED AS TORPEDO WINCH
5. STOPPER ON THE TORPEDO HATCH
6. STOPPER IN THE TORPEDO COMPARTMENT
7. TORPEDO TROUGH
8. HOISTING GEAR TO LOWER TORPEDOES

Fig. 33 - Torpedo Loading System

Following the principle of double pressure hull shutoffs, an internal

torpedo hatch is arranged additionally, as a rule. Inclined troughs with
wooden or plastic liners are installed on the upper deck and in the
torpedo-loading compartment before the torpedoes are loaded. The
torpedo is loaded from the pier onto the trough on the upper then lowered
away by a wire and winch or capstan arrangement. Once inside the
submarine, the torpedo is grasped by a
​ hoisting device and positioned
horizontally. It is then positioned to the rear of the tube by vertical and
transverse shifting and is finally moved into the toothed rack and pinion
devices or tackles.

Spare torpedoes are stored in troughs and are secured in a

shockproof manner in the compartment aft of the tubes. In large
submarines one set of spare torpedoes can be placed in a rapid reloading
position immediately aft ​of t​ he tubes.

The German Navy submersibles carried a part of spare torpedoes in

pressure-proof containers below the free-flooding upper deck (Two and
ten spare torpedoes in containers were carried on Type 7 vessels and
Type 9 vessels respectively). In surface cruise and at calm sea, it was
possible to reload these spare torpedoes into the vessels interior.

Small submarines may not have adequate space for a torpedo hatch
and a torpedo-loading compartment aft of the tubes. In such cases, the
torpedoes are loaded from the outside (Muzzle-loading principle). It must
be possible to trim the boat by the stern so that the muzzles are above
the waterline. Troughs are suspended forward of the tubes, and the
torpedoes are set in them/for loading (see Fig. 34).

Arrangement of Torpedo Armament

A distinction is made between bow, stern, side, and upper deck

torpedo tubes. Bow tubes are flanged or welded to the forward end
bulkhead as a unit. Their forward ends are supported by the torpedo tube
supporting bulkhead (Fig. 30 and 32). The space between this bulkhead
and the pressure hull is often used as a ballast tank. The bow unit can
consist of two to eight torpedo tubes.
 Fig. 34 - Torpedo Muzzle Loading (German Class 201)

A similar configuration is used at the stern. Here the tubes are

placed above the propellers, rudders, and hydroplanes. One to four tubes
can be accommodated in the stern. If storage areas are used for spare
torpedoes for the bow and stern tubes, they are located in way of the
inner tube ends. Side torpedo tube units had been planned for the
German World War II Type 26 submarine (this type was not completed
and was dismantled on the building berth after the war); (see Fig. 11).
This configuration provided for a common torpedo loading room for the
bow and side units (see Table 3). Upper deck torpedo tubes are no used
for modern submarines because of their very small free-flooding super
structures. They hove been used on submersibles in the form of fixed,
Single tubes at the stern and of Pivoting multiple mounts in the amidships
area. Torpedoes located in upper deck tubes cannot be serviced
underway.

2. MINE ARMAMENT

Submarines can be employed as offensive minelayers. They are not

so easily observed as a surface ship or mine-carrying aircraft while
approaching a mine laying area, while laying mines, and while departing
from the area.
 Torpedo-type submarines can load ground mines or anchored mines
in place of torpedoes; three bottom mines or two anchored mines can be
carried in one torpedo tube. Consequently, a submarine can load three
times as many ground mines or twice as many anchored mines as it can
torpedoes. One such mine load weighs more than a torpedo load.

To compensate for this weight difference, a smaller quantity of

water is carried. in the torpedo tank because it is not necessary to flood as
many tubes simultaneously during a minin operation as during a torpedo
attack. Mines are usually ejected by compressed air. Of course, swim-out
type launching tubes are less suitable for mines.

When submarines are built specifically as minelayers, mines are

accommodated in vertical trunks. Each trunk can hold several mines,
one on top of the other. The trunks are either installed at the side in the
outer hull where they are not pressure resistant or they pass through the
pressure hull in a pressure-proof manner. In either case, because the
mines in the trunks are exposed to the diving pressure and cannot be
serviced, a special mine design is needed. During the mine laying
operation, the mines are released from the trunk in sequence and sink as
a result of their negative buoyancy. Special mine compensation tanks are
required.

3. GUNNERY

As late until World War ​II, most submersibles carried guns on deck
for surface engagements. These ​guns ​were long--barreled with calibers up
to 12 cm. Several submarines with heavier gunnery have also been built.
The guns were either exposed on deck or their shields were part of the
envelope of the conning tower. They were supplied with ammunition from
inside the submarine through the conning tower hatch. Ready ammunition
was stored in pressure-resistant lockers near the guns. In addition, AA
guns up to 3.7 cm caliber were installed on the bridge. All guns were
exposed to seawater during submerged cruising. Special fire-control
systems for gunnery were generally nonexistent. Guns were no longer
installed after transition to the true submarine.

MISSILE ARMAMENT

Anti-surface missile armament may be carried in the torpedo tubes

as an alternative to the torpedo armament. Such an armament may take
an increasing rank in many navies in future. The missiles are ejected out
of the torpedo tubes together with their containers when the submarine
has been submerged to periscope depth or deeper. The container breaks
the water surface; the missile leaves the container and ignites its sol id
fuel power unit (see Fig. 35). The missile begins a programmed path
closely above the water surface, which is changed to homing path after
detection of the target by the special radar or infrared equipment within
the missile. The additional structural equipment necessary for such missile
armament mainly consists in the facilities for ejecting the containers out
of the tube unless​ t​ hese already are provided for the torpedoes anyhow.
 Fig. 35 - HARPOON Missile Breaking the Water Surface

Fig. 36 - SLAM SYSTEM

Diesel/electrically driven submarines are particularly endangered by

helicopters during snorkeling. As a helicopter defence system, the SLAM
(Submarine-Launched Air Missile) was developed in Great Britain (see Fig.
36). The submarine in semi-submerged condition hoists a mast with six
missiles stowed in a pressure proof container. The missiles can be started
individually and are tea individually and are guided towards the target by
means of a radio transmitting system when missile path is observed
through a television camera. The abovementioned hoisting mast is
supported in the bridge fin, and its hydraulic part is retracted into the
C.I.C.

WEAPON CONTROL SYSTEMS

Torpedo and missile armament require weapon control systems

which are combined in the
C. I. C. Torpedo fire control systems should include the following facilities:

- processing of target data from the sensors (such as periscope,

sonar, or radar),
- processing of own submarine data (such as heading and
speed)
- visual presentation of the tactical picture
- tracking of one or more targets
- calculation of the point of impact
- calculation of torpedo guidance data
- torpedo selection and data setting
- calculation of torpedo position after launch
- torpedo guidance if wire-guided torpedoes are carried

The facilities for non-wire-guided, homing torpedoes are simpler

than those for wire-guided torpedoes with the need to transmit data to it
safely along a thin wire many kilometers long and, possibly, to process
feedback signals from the torpedo. Missile armament requires similar fire
control systems. For mine laying, precise navigation equipment is
necessary.
 CHAPTER - IX 
 
METHODS FOR DETECTION, WARNING, AND DECEPTION

1. DETECTION SYSTEMS

These are defined as any systems used to detect and identify the
enemy. Some of the information acquired by these systems ​is ​fed directly
to the weapon control system for processing.

Periscopes

Submarines became fully suitable for service only with the

development of periscopes, which permitted shallow diving vessels to see
above the water.

Periscopes are used for many purposes, e.g.,

1. to observe shipping,
2. to observe aircraft,
3. to estimate distances for an attack,
4. to obtain target bearing and estimated range input for the
fire-control system,
5. for terrestrial navigation when submerged, and
6. Possibly for celestial navigation when submerged.

Periscopes must be retracted into the superstructure during deep

dives and when the submarine ​is ​running at high speed. When extended,
they should be free of vibration up to a highest possible speed step.
Periscopes must be sufficiently extendable to leave the hull submerged
deeply enough so that depth steering is not too much influenced by
seaways during operation at periscope depth.
 Periscopes consists of a cylindrical tube, 180 to 200 mm in

diameter, with a polished outside surface; a conical section that is shaped

like a bottle and carries the head is mounted on top of the tube (Fig. 37).

The distance (named optical length) between the top objective and the

eyepiece can be as much as 7 to 9 m on medium-size submarines. The

periscope tube is pressure-resistant. The field of view can be pivoted

about the optical axis, and several magnifications (usually 1.5 and 6) can

be selected.
 Fig. 37 - Attack Periscope

Objects seen through the periscope at a magnification 1.5 are of

about the same size as when seen with the naked eye.

Colored filters can be in inserted where required. A reticule

(cross-hairs) with vertical and horizontal gradation permits angles to be
estimated during observations.

Target distance can be estimated from the angle at which, the

length (or the mast height) of the target is seen in the periscope and from
the (estimated) length (or mast height). The periscope cannot be used for
direct distance finding. For exact determination of distance, the periscope
may be provided with additional laser equipment.

The reticule is also intended to mark the aim and shot at torpedo
firing.

The hoisting mechanism may consist of two hoisting cables and one
lowering cable that are operated by a common winch (Fig. 38). The winch
drive may be electric or hydraulic.
 • - A SOLID ARROW INDICATES TWO HOISTING CABLES
• - AN OPEN ARROW INDICATES ONE LOWERING CABLE

Fig. 38 - Periscope Hoisting Systems

Another way to activate the cables is by use of an inverted tackle

system (multiplier) with a hydraulic piston. A third possibility is direct
hoisting, by using parallel pistons hoisted and lowered hydraulically, thus
eliminating the cables.

A special gland is installed where the periscope passes through the

pressure hull (Pig. 39). The periscope is guided by two or three bearings
located above this gland.
 Fig. 39 - Pressure Hull Penetration for Periscope

In the case of the attack periscope (Application according to 1 and

possibly 2, 3,4, and 5 as well), it is important that the height of the
periscope head above the water be controlled and maintained at a level
determined by the observer (Fig. 40). This compensates for inaccuracies
in depth control. Otherwise the periscope could emerge too far at upward
deviation in depth and thus betray the boat. A downward deviation in
depth could submerge the head and interrupt the observation. In the case
of the simple periscope, the observer at the eyepiece follows the up-and
down motion of the periscope (called a "knee-bend periscope”). The limit
of the vertical 1ift for observations is thus about 1 m. The observer
rotates the periscope with two handles, unless there is a servo-drive. The
attack periscope is provided with especially thin upper part (bottle) so that
the submarine is in a position to approach the enemy as closely as
possible without being noticed.
 Fig. 40 - External View of an Attack Periscope Fig. 41 -
Standard Periscope

In the case of the elevator periscope, which is less customary today,

the observer rises and descends with the periscope.

A characteristic feature of the "standard periscope" (Fig. 41) is that

the eyepiece end is independent of the extended height of the periscope
(this is accomplished by a double-prism inversion at the bottom of the
trunk tube). The vertical lift available for observation is equal to total
periscope 1ift. Because of its considerable mass, the standard periscope
usually has a hydraulic rotating system.

Modern submarines offer more favorable depth control properties at

low speed steps than the former submersibles, and for tactical reasons
they need not approach the enemy as closely as earlier, so that a
"knee-bend type" periscope now is sufficient in many cases.

The search periscope (Applications according to 2, 5, and possibly 6)

has a more high-powered optics than does the attack periscope, and thus
it is especially useful at twilight and in the dark. The optical tilting angle
extends to the zenith. The bottle-shaped section and the head are
considerably thicker than comparable elements of the attack periscope.
Only simple periscopes ("knee-bend" periscope) are used. A special
sextant can be attached to the eyepiece- to enable measurements of
celestial heights while the submarine proceeds at periscope depth. A
submerged submarine can use this facility to determine its position by
celestial navigation.

Radar Systems

Submarines can use radar systems when surfaced and at periscope

depth. When using radar, the antenna must be above the water surface
because radar waves will not propagate in water. Ships, shore elevations,
and aircraft can be detected by this radar system within the 1irnits of
horizon.

There are navigation radar and attack radar systems. The navigation
radar comprises a separate hoisting mast and a pressure-proof rotating
antenna (see Fig. 42).

Hoisting and lowering is effected hydraulically by pistons or

mechanically by cables and winches. The rotating device of antenna can
be operated hydraulically or electrically. The retracted antenna is housed
within the free-flooding superstructure.

The antenna of the attack radar is arranged at the search periscope

below the head so that rotation and hoisting of the antenna is done by the
periscope. The distance of an enemy already detected max directly be
measured by the attack radar, and the data measured may be fed into the
weapon control system. The radar operating devices are mounted in the
C.I.C. Since the radar is an active source of radiation, there is danger that
the submarine will betray its position to the enemy before it can receive
the information it needs.

Fig. 42 - Radar Antenna (Hoisted Condition)

Active Sonar Systems

Underwater detection equipment can be used to acoustically detect

ships as well as submerged and surfaced submarines. Active sonar
operates on a principle similar to that of radar; its ranges are shorter and
greatly dependent on the "acoustical weather" of the water. This weather
is affected considerably by salinity, water temperature, depth, water
layers, waves, and many other factors. Sonar range ​is ​shorter in the Baltic
than in ​the Atlantic, shorter in the daytime than at night, the winter and
shorter in the summer than in the winter.

A rotating sonar transducer array is located outside the hull to emit

sound and to receive returning echoes over a maximum sweep angle (Fig.
43). Preferred locations are the upper deck, the bow area in way of keel,
or the forward end of bridge fin, because the sonar should be as far
removed as possible from noise sources of the boat itself (primarily the
propellers and secondarily the propulsion plant). The frequencies used are
between 1.0 kHz and 100 kHz, achieving the greatest target ranges at the
lower frequencies (however, with reduced bearing accuracy).

Fig. 43 - Transducer Array of a Sonar System

Fig. 44 - Supporting Structure for a Sonar Dome

The array must be pressure resistant and can have 1 by 1 m. The

rotational drive is from inside the pressure hull or from a pressure
resistant casing. The ray must be surrounded by a dome to eliminate the
reference caused by flow water noise. The hydrodynamic configuration of
this dome is selected with special gate. Its supporting structure may
consist of round bars in diagonal patterns that will not generate. The
fairing placed on top of this framework is made thin stainless sheet steel
permeable to sound waves. Fairings may also consist of special
non-porous plastic material. The sonar operating device is mounted in the
C.I.C. Results of sound measurement can b
​ e displayed on a Cathodic ray
tube (direction and distance). The north-related bearing angle can be
transmitted to the weapon control system.
 Sound radiation can betray a submarine before it is able to acquire
the information it needs. Therefore, active sonar is employed for short
intervals only. Its primary use is the acquisition of fire-control data just
before a torpedo is fired.

In case of commercial submersibles, the active, sonar is of great

importance for a variety of tasks to be performed near the seabed,
because the optical range under water is comparatively small even with
most favourable illumination by means of searchlights. The "side scan"
sonar provides panoramic presentation of the bottom surface ahead and
sideways. Ahead directed sonar devices are used, in addition, by which
near-by objects may be detected; and, finally, there are sonar devices,
which are able to pierce into the, sea-bed, so that knowledge of the
nature of the ground may be gained.

Passive Sonar

The underwater listening equipment is the most important detection

system in any submarine. Its range depends on the strength ​of t​ he noise
source to be detected and, as in the case ​of a
​ ctive sonar, on the
"acoustical weather".

Cluster-type listening devices combine many hydrophones in one

array. Submarines with a lean bow may be provided with hydrophone
arrays arranged on a balcony (see Fig. 45).
 Fig. 45 - Balcony Configuration of​ ​Receivers

A full-shaped bow may be equipped with a. horseshoe array offering

more favorable omni directional characteristics (see Fig. 46).

Fig. 46 Horseshoe Array

If hydrophones are arranged in a circular array, omni-directional

characteristics are most favorable; however, a dome should be fitted, e.g.
on the bow (see Fig. 47 and 48).
 Fig. 47 - Circular Array

Fig. 48 - Circular Array (Photograph)

Particularly for smaller submarines, the influence of this dome on

the depth control properties and on the overall resistance ​of ​the
submarine is a disadvantage. An advantage is that the hydrophones are
situated above the water during surface cruise so that maintenance
conditions are favourable. In case of double-hull submarines, the
hydrophones may be subdivided into lateral and bow arrays (see Fig. 49).
 Fig. 49 - Lateral Array

A high sensit1vity on the beam is achieved by the lateral arrays.

However, the deviation from even omni-directional characteristics desired
is considerable. The sensitivity and accuracy of the information obtained
on target bearing depends, among other factors, on the number and
sensitivity of the individual hydrophones and on the dimensions of the
array. The ceramic hydrophones are installed a short distance behind a
thin steel plate which is flush with the shell plating. This eliminates local
hydraulic noise in a manner similar to that used with the active sonar
dome. Systems have been built that include 100 hydrophones and even
more. The operating device is installed in the C.I.C. Signals received are
often evaluated on a cathodic ray tube display. The results may be fed
into the weapon control system. When underway, the submarine listens
continuously. The passive sonar is the specific detection device of a
submarine.

In addition to the hydrophone arrays, the active sonar array may

also be used for passive listening.

The listening range on the high seas can be very great. Ship
concentrations have been located at ranges of 50 mm. Unlike sonar,
listening with the hydrophone system does not permit easy direct distance
measurement.
 In order to obtain target distance, as well as bearing, by purely
passive means, a method was developed using the fire control computer,
by which distance can be calculated from a series of bearings, measured
under certain own and enemy operational conditions.

2. WARNING SYSTEMS

The objective of these systems is to detect the operation of enemy

detection systems early enough for the submarine to take
countermeasures.

Radar Warning System

A submarine can be detected by enemy radar while cruising on the

surface or even when running on snorkel. Warning radar is provided to
detect oncoming radar radiation as early as possible. The
pressure-resistant antenna of this device is installed on an extensible mast
or on top of the snorkel mast so that it can be extended above water line
when the submarine is running at periscope depth. The associated
operating device is usually installed in the C.I.C.

Sonar Intercept System

When a submarine is running submerged, its intercept sonar device

is to detect oncoming enemy sonar waves in good time. Intercept sonar
operates on a principle similar to that of hydrophone equipment. The
receivers are placed to pick up sonar pulses arriving from any direction.

A preferred place, therefore, is the top or bridge fin. Modern

hydrophone equipment includes sonar intercept capabilities so that a
separate sonar intercept device can be deleted.
 Fig. 50 - Ejection Gun for "Bold"

DECEPTION METHODS

These are defined as any measure taken by, or equipment installed

in, ​the submarine that will make it difficult for the enemy to detect the
submarine and to employ his weapons with precision. There was a
time when a submerged submarine was considered to be completely
concealed from the enemy unless the periscope betrayed its location.
Later, aircraft placed a limit on submerged submarine concealment.
Aircraft can detect submerged submarines at considerable depth in clear
water, when lighting conditions are favourable, and when the sighting
angle is steep. Concealment against this type of detection is accomplished
by painting the topside of the boat dark grey to black.

Today, submerged submarines can be hunted and detected by the

detecting equipment employed by ships and aircraft. Submerged detecting
equipment does not have the range attainable by the optical equipment -
or even by the radar equipment - used for surface detection.
Nevertheless, enemy active and passive sonar complicate concealment of
the submarine.

A low silhouette with the smallest possible directly reflecting area is

an essential means of protecting the boat against sonar detection. Higher
sonar reflection is caused by greater length rather than greater diameter.
Therefore, short and thick submarines are more favourable than thin and
long ones. In general, small submarines have the advantage. A low noise
level will protect against their being detected by acoustic means.

Diving to greatest depths can provide protection against detection

by active and passive sonar, and so deep-diving submarines have an

advantage.

A special rubber or plastic coating can be applied to the shell plating

to prevent the reflection of sonar waves. During World War II, Germany

developed a sheet rubber ​foi1("Alberich​") that was perforated at

predetermined intervals. The idea was to paste this foil onto the whole

submarine to absorb incident sonar waves. Its effectiveness varied with

temperature and diving depth. Because of the technological difficulties

associated with the development of a suitable adhesive at that time, only

a few submarines were equipped with the "Alberich" system.

A submerged submarine was able to take evasive action by ejecting

decoys into the water (German code word "Bold"), which remained

hovering and generated gas bubbles to deceive the enemy. Their sonar

reflections simulated a target for the enemy. As the bubbles in the water

were stationary, they did not show any dopp1er effect in enemy sonar,

which, of course, is occurring from a moving submarine, and they could

be identified as camouflage means due to this difference. The gas bubbles

also interfered with enemy listening gear. "Bold" was ejected from an

about 100 mm diameter gun, which had a muzzle door and a breech door

similar to those en a torpedo tube (see Fig. 50). "Bold" could be ejected

mechanically or by using either compressed air or pressurized water. In

addition, signal devices could be ejected from the gun to rise to the

surface.

The trail in the wake of a submerged submarine had an effect

similar to that generated by "Bold".

The wake of submerged submarines that continuously discharged

CO2 (e.g. submarines with the Walter propulsion s
​ ystem) provided
excellent concealment and deception.

Moreover, there are ejectable, self-propelled camouflage objects

transmitting own noises and thus imitating a moving submarine. They
may primarily be used to mislead approaching torpedoes searching by
acoustic means.
 CHAPTER - X

PROPULSION PLANTS

PROPULSION PLANTS THAT USE LEAD BATTERIES,

ELECTRIC DRIVE MOTORS, AND DIESEL ENGINES

Many of submarines in service today are fitted with what is

considered to be the conventional type of propulsion plant, namely, lead
acid storage batteries, electric-drive motors, and diesel engines that use
snorkels. The batteries supply the electric-drive motors when the
submarine is cruising submerged. When it ​is s
​ norkeling, (a condition with
limited diving readiness at periscope depth), the diesel engines via
generators, charge batteries while the boat is driven by its electric motors.
Diesel-electric propulsion ​is u
​ sed on the surface while the batteries are
used as buffer batteries or the batteries are charged by the diesels while
the boat proceeds at reduced speed.
 The submersibles whose surface performance was greater than their
submerged performance were equipped with propulsion systems which
used the elements indicated above but had diesel engines that could be
coupled directly to the propellers (Fig. 51). This was done ​for s
​ urface and
sometimes even for snorkel cruising. Each shaft system insisted of a
diesel engine, a diesel engine clutch (disengaged when submerged), a
main electric drive motor that alternates as a generator, a main clutch
{disengaged only when batteries are recharged), ​a thrust bearing, ​and a
propeller. There were two partial batteries (this was the standard
arrangement at the outbreak of World War II).

1, 2 STARBOARD AND PORT DIESEL ENGINES

3, 4 STARBOARD AND PORT DIESEL CLUTCHES

5, 6 STARBOARD AND PORT TWIN MOTOR GENERTORS

7, 8 STARBOARD AND PORT MAIN CLUTCHES

9, 10 STARBOARD AND PORT THRUST BEARINGS

11, 12 STARBOARD AND PORT PROPELLERS

13, 14 PARTIAL BATTERIES

 Fig. 51 - A Twin-Shaft Installation with direct Diesel
Propulsion

Several cruising methods were available:

1. Surfaced full-power running on both shafts. All clutches are

engaged, both diesel engines are operating, and the electric-drive motors
are running without load.

2. Surfaced cruising at slow speed on one diesel engine (port, .for

example). The port clutches are engaged, and the port diesel is running.
The port electric motor operates as a generator, feeding the starboard
electric motor while the battery is connected as a buffer battery. The
starboard main clutch is engaged, the starboard diesel clutch is
disengaged, and the starboard diesel engine is shut down. The port
propeller revolutions are higher than those at starboard.

3. Surface cruising while batteries are charged from both electric

motors. For the same configuration as described under Item I, above,
both electric motors are excited as generators (this is not possible at full
rpm because the diesel engines must use their excess power to drive the
generators).

4. Surfaced cruising on one diesel engine (port, for example) coupled

to the propeller, and charging with the other diesel engine. The port shaft
is engaged as described under Item 1. The starboard main clutch is
disengaged, and the starboard diesel clutch. is engaged. The starboard
diesel drives the starboard electric motor operating as a generator to
charge the battery.

5. Surface charging when in port. Connections for both sides are

as described under Item 4 for the starboard side. Both diesels are
running, and both electric motors operate as generators to charge the
batteries.
6. The standard connection for snorkel cruising is that described under
Item 4 which provides for maximum battery charging capacity. Items 1 or
2 can also be used for snorkel cruising.

7. Submerged cruising on electric-drive motors. Both main clutches are

engaged, diesel engine clutches are disengaged, the battery-fed electric
motors operate as drive motors on the propellers, and the diesel engines
are shut down.

Fig. 52 shows the propulsion plant for a single-shaft submarine in

which the diesel engine can be coupled to the propeller. A main electric
motor with reduction gear is used for submerged full-power propulsion. A
special motor with cone belt reduction is used for low-noise, low-speed
submerged cruising. This low-noise motor is also used for propulsion
curing snorkel cruising when it is desired to charge the batteries at
maximum power and rpm by using the diesel engine and the main
electrical motor, which is excited as a generator. There are also two
partial storage batteries. (This arrangement was used for the small
German Type 23, 1944.)
 1. 1. DIESEL ENGINE
2. 2. DIESEL CLUTCH
3. 3. MOTOR-GENERATOR
4. 4. GEARED TRANSMISSION
5. 5. LOW-NOISE DRIVE MOTOR
6. 6. CONE BELT TRANSMISSION
7. 7. MAIN CLUTCH
8. 8. LOW-NOISE CLUTCH
9. 9. THRUST BEARING
10. 10. PROPELLER
11, 12 PARTIAL BATTERIES

Fig. 52 - A Single Shaft System with Direct Diesel Drive and

Separate Low-Noise Electric -Drive

The twin-shaft system shown in Fig. 53 is a similar configuration

except that the diesel engines and electric motors have separate reduction
gears because of their different maximum rpm. Additional clutches are
therefore required.

The two P. and S. batteries are each separated into three partial
batteries (this arrangement was used in the large German Type 21,
1944).
 1, 2 STARBOARD AND PORT DIESEL ENGINES

3, 4 STARBOARD AND PORTDIESEL CLUTCHES

5, 6 STARBOARD AND PORT TRANSMISSIONS

7, 8 STARBOARD AND PORT MAIN CLUTCHES

9, 10 STARBOARD AND PORT DUAL MOTORS AND GENERATORS

11, 12 STARBOARD AND PORT LOW-NOISE DRIVE / MOTO RS

13, 14 STARBOARD AND PORT CONE BELT GEAR

15, 16 STARBOARD AND PORT LOW-NOISE CLUTCHES

17, 18 STARBOARD AND PORT THRUST BE'ARINGS

19, 20 STARBOARD AND PORT PROPELLERS

21, 23, 25 HALF BATTERY, CONSISTING OF THREE PARTIAL BATTERIES

22, 24, 26 HALF BATTERY, CONSISTING OF THREE PARTIAL BATTERIES

Fi Fig. 53 - A Twin-Shaft System with Direct Diesel Drive, Main

Electric Drives with Separate Reduction Gears, and Separate
Low-Noise Propulsion System
 The arrangement of separate propulsion motors and generators
shown in Fig. 54 is well-suited for submarines. The generators are coupled
to the diesel engines and cannot be switched off. Cruising is always by
diesel electric drive as long as the diesels are running. This system is very
flexible in that the subdivision of the diesel engine power into loading and
propulsion power allows wide variation. Twin-shaft systems can be
designed similarly. In addition, the drive motors can be subdivided into
main drives and low-noise motors.

1, 2 STARBOARD AND PORT DIESEL ENGINES

3, 4 STARBOARD AND PORT GENERATOR

1. 5 DUAL DRIVE MOTOR

1. 6 THRUST BEARING

1. 7 PROPELLER

8 , 9, 10 PARTIAL BATTERIES

Fig. 54 - A Single-Shaft System with Direct Electric Drive

and Separate Diesel Generators

Vessels having a high-submerged speed need an extensive speed

variation range for their propulsion machinery. It is required, whenever
possible, to vary the submerged speed between 2 knots, i.e. lowest speed
at periscope depth, and maximum speed which might exceed 20 knots,
without blocked zones. For the fulfillment of these requirements, a
twin-machinery system in connection with three or four partial batteries
would be a favourable arrangement.

Lead Battery

The lead battery is used to store the electric energy required for the
drive motors and for the board network use when needed in the
submerged condition. Lead batteries were formerly built on the grid-plate
principle, but to day, they mostly are of a tubular design (see Fig. 55).

Fig. 55 - Structure of a Tubular Cell Type Battery

Voltage conditions are approximately the same for all lead cells
whereas the capacity (stated in ampere-hours) and the electrical energy
(stated in kilowatt-hours) depend on the size and, to a lesser extent, on
the internal structure of the cell in question (see Fig. 56). Lead cells have
their greatest capacity when the discharge rate is slow. Their useful
capacity will be reduced when the discharge rate is fast, e.g., 0.5 to 1.5
hourly current. If a discharge starts with high current intensity, then a
further capacity is available later for lower intensity discharge. The total
kilowatt hours consumed will be approximately the same, in any case. The
voltage available during discharge depends on the amount of the
discharge current and hence on discharge time (see Fig. 59). The acid
density decreases during the discharge.
 Fig. 56 - Capacity Characteristics of a Lead-Acid Cell
Battery

For the capacity at high-current discharge corresponding to a

short-time discharge, the amount of internal resistance in the battery cell
is an essential factor. In order to reduce this resistance, a new
development has recently been introduced, i.e. the so-called "double
decker" plate structure in the cell which provides for parallel extraction of
power on top of the cells as well as at their mid height in a special
lead-coated bus-bar made of copper (see Fig. 57). Similar results are
obtained from another new development providing for copper strips laid
into the negative grid plates (see Fig. 58). The long-time discharge
characteristics of these two novel types of cells do not essentially differ
from each other, nor from those of the tubular cell type either.
Fig. 57 - “DOBLE DECKER” CELL

Fig. 58 - COPPER STRIP CELL

 Fig. 59 - Voltage Curves of a Lead Battery For Different
Discharge Times

The voltage used to charge a. cell is higher than the discharge

voltage (see Fig. 60). Charging takes place in two steps: (1) the battery is
charged at constant current and increasing voltage until a reading of 2.4 V
is obtained; and (2) the battery is charged at decreasing current and
constant voltage until a minimum current has been reaches. The ampere
hours recharged are approximately equal to the ampere-hours discharged
before. The kilowatt-hour efficiency (i.e., the ratio of discharge to charge
in kilowatt hours) of one cell ranges from 78 percent in the case of rapid
discharge to 86 percent for slow discharge. The acid density increases
during charging.

Fig. 60 - Charging Characteristics of a Lead Battery

During the complete charging that is required from time to time,

almost all the lead sulfate is converted into lead and lead oxide. This
prevents lead plate sulfation that is the conversion of the lead sulfate into
lead crystals that are almost insoluble. The latter are very difficult to
regenerate and this causes premature battery aging. The complete
charging can be accomplished in two ways: (I) the battery can be charged
at a constant rate (3 to 5 percent of the 5-hr discharge current flow after
the second charging step) and until a cell voltage of 2.75 V has been
obtained or (2) the second charging step can be extended by 25 to 35 hr
at. 2.4 V and very low current.

Special acid circulation systems are used to distribute the acid

density and the temperature evenly within the cells.

Individual cells are combined into partial batteries of higher voltage

by connecting their terminals with bus bars. The necessary number of
cells is determined by the total voltage required.

The partial batteries may be connected in series and in parallel. The

highest voltage occurring on the ship results in case of series connection.
A figure of 1,000 V generally is not exceeded.

Unless the dimensions of the individual cells are very large, two to
four cells are combined in one box in order to obtain larger units for the
battery arrangement. These boxes are made of glass-reinforced polyester
(hard rubber had been used earlier) or pressed wood. Soft rubber bags
are inserted in the boxes to prevent the acid from reaching the box walls.
The individual boxes can weigh up to 1.0 metric ton.

The boxes of a partial battery are wedged in place in the battery

room by long wooden wedges in the athwart ship and longitudinal
directions. They are so attached to the bulkheads that they will safely
remain as a unit even at maximum trim and heel angles (see Fig. 61 and
62).

The battery rooms are sealed off from the remaining compartments
of the submarine; they are accessible through single battery room hatches
or in rare cases and on small submarines only, through a great many
accesses with covers distributed over the battery room deck head.

The boxes are passed into the battery rooms through the battery
room hatches or through the smaller openings during mounting. They are
loaded into the interior of the submarine through pressure-resistant
battery hatches located at the upper side of the pressure hull. These
hatches are opened only for loading or unloading the battery boxes.

A battery service trolley that can be moved fore and aft is installed,
if a sufficient height is available, above the boxes in the battery room for
maintenance of battery.

Instead of a trolley, foreign navies mount, on top of the boxes,

plastic floor plates on which service cars can travel. Servicing is from the
compartment located above the battery room when the battery room deck
head has small single covers.
 The closed battery rooms are ventilated by exhaust blowers. The
blower capacity must provide for dilution of the maximum amount of the
explosive oxyhydrogen gas evolved from the battery by a factor of at least
20 in order to a void any danger of explosion. In the case of a central
exhaust air system, the supply air enters through ducts at one end of the
battery room from the compartment above and is drawn from the other
end by the exhaust air system.

Earlier practice in Germany was to remove the gas from each box
through separate lines (individual exhaust air system). This was supposed
to provide for better cooling. The water losses caused by this system are
greater than those from a central exhaust air system.

The "mechanical" exhaust ventilation only is in operation in case of

charging or heavy discharge of battery. However, if the battery is slowly
discharged or in no-load condition, a connection is established which
guarantees natural exhaust ventilation out of the battery room into the
other ship's spaces (blowers out of action). In case of slow discharge,
batteries produce small quantities of H2, which, in the course of extended
periods of time, result in dangerous concentrations in the closed
submarine. Therefore, the necessary number of H2 eliminators are
distributed over the vessel, which combine H2 with O2 into H2O even in
case -of small H2 concentrations.

It is operationally important to know the capacity remaining in a

partly discharged battery. This residual capacity can be calculated
determining as carefully as possible the total ampere-hours consumed
since the last full charge. These ampere-hours are then deducted from the
capacity that corresponds to the mean discharge current. One dependable
way to determine residual capacity is to measure the acid density, the
temperature, and the no-load voltage at selected cells of the battery. The
residual capacity can then be read from graphs.
 Measurement of current consumed may also be effected by
ampere-hour meters.

Some of the heat loss of a battery is transferred to the surrounding

water, and some is removed by the battery ventilation system. Batteries
built for very short discharge periods (0.5-hr rate) require special cooling
systems, e.g., the circulation of fresh water through the terminals.

Besides lead-acid batteries, there are nickel-cadmium batteries and

silver-zinc batteries in which greater energy may be stored. However,
their application in military submarines is excluded because their recharge
can be effected very slowly only.
The US American submarine "Albacore" was equipped with silver
zinc batteries enabling her to develop the greatest possible submerged
performance for short periods. The two US American rescue submersibles
of type D.S.R.V. (see item 2 of Chapter XIV) and some other US American
research submersibles have been provided with silver-zinc batteries of
more recent design as well.

Such batteries may be arranged for specific commercial

submersibles, if maximum specific power is to be attained by small
vessels- and the batteries are exchangeable. In such cases, the
submersibles are fitted with new charged replacement batteries on board
of their supply vessels after their missions.

Electric Machinery

The electric machinery is used for propulsion and for the generation
of electrical power for the battery and for ship's service use (see Fig. 63
and 64). Today, separate propulsion motors and generators are generally
provided.
 Fig- 63 - Submarine Electric Motor, Open

Fig. 64 - Submarine Electric Motor with Ventilators Attached

Before, the electric machinery were designed to alternate for

propulsion and battery charging. The objective is to obtain high efficiency

with minimum weight. The following additional requirements are imposed

on the electric machinery: good adjustability, resistance to tropical

conditions, water-tightness up to mid-shaft, low shock resistance, and

safe operation at great heel angles. Good adjustability ​is n

​ ecessary

Voltage Supply from the battery is variable.

A tandem system is always required when one propulsion motor

must provide all speed steps from minimum to maximum; A tandem

system consists of two electric motors mounted on one shaft and in one

casing, with one commutator located forward and the other aft. These

motors can be connected in series or in parallel. At least two and

sometimes three or four partial batteries are arranged, and these can also

be connected in ​series ​or in parallel. The following s

​ peed steps are

therefore Possible​ w
​ ith two partial batteries:

Slowest Speed​: Motors in series and batteries in parallel, resulting

in minimum voltage across the armatures.

Mean Speed​: Motors in parallel and batteries in parallel, resulting in

mean Voltage across the armatures. Or motors in series and batter​i​es in
series, resulting in mean voltage a cross the armatures (greater than
mean Speed when the boat has three partial batteries)

Max. Speed: Motors in parallel and batteries in series, resulting

in maximum voltage across the armatures.

 Intermediate speeds are obtained by weakening the field.

The main electric motor can be designed as a simple motor when

there is a specific creeping approach motor ​for ​the lowest speeds. In such
a case, the main electric motor can be provided with a reduction gear.
Revolutions of the main drive motors can be increased to 1500 rpm. Any
higher rpm generally wi1 not yield additional saving in the motors must be
built as turbo-type and, in addition, commutator problems wi1l arise.

If three or four partial batteries are provided, because a particularly

great speed range should be covered, then the upper mean speed step
results from series connected batteries and series-connected motors,
whereas the lower mean speed step results from batteries and motors
both connected in parallel. Connection of the highest and lowest speed
steps is the same .as that described ​for ​two partial batteries.

In order to arrive at good efficiency even at low speed steps (that is

important because of the long-time cruising ranges of vessels), the
following connect ions were introduced on the German Class 201:
Excitation of the two propulsion motors was effected via a particular
converter. This converter could also be used to feed the two armatures
within a very low speed range (Ward-Leonard control). In such a case,
excitation was effected by an additional generator. Moreover, an armature
series resistance for a fixed low speed was also installed. The circuit
breakers were servo-actuated by compressed air.
 One peculiarity of submarine motors is that armature yokes must
pivot when access to the machine is not possible from below. The heat
evolved is removed by seawater coolers that are resistant to diving
pressure. The air-cooling system is closed (Fig. 64) or open. Larger
motors have separate ventilation systems. However, water-cooled motors
also exist.

Friction bearings are given preference to ball bearings to achieve

low-noise operation.

Recent designs also include brushless synchronous motors attached

static rectifiers,
Instead of d.c. generators.

Low-noise motors often have a belt drive with a reduction gear and
are coupled to the shaft by clutches. Cone belts are used to reduce noise.

At one time, switchboards had exposed blade-type switches. Today,

automatic circuit breakers are used. Every switchboard includes the
following elements (see. Fig. 65):

Battery main switch designed as an automatic overload circuit

breaker; battery parallel-series switch; motor parallel-series switch; main
motor switch to shift from ahead to astern, or vice versa (or else a field
changeover switch); field rheostats for intermediate speeds steps; and
starting contactor switches.
Fig. 65 - Main Switchboard Fig. 66 -
Control Console

More recent systems provide ​for r​ emote control of these switches

including programme control. In such a case, the speed is set by moving a
hand wheel at the control console ​(see ​Fig. 66).

Diesel Engines

High-speed diesel engines (l,000 to 1,500 rpm) are used for reasons
of, weight and space. The engines are mounted on resi1ient supports (in
most cases of single type and sometimes of double type) in order to
reduce transmission of structure borne noises to the foundations and to
provide some protect ion against shock effect s. Other noise-damping
measures include insulation against airborne noise radiation on the inner
wall of the engine-room, use of noise absorbing sections to dampen
Cooling water sounds, and absorption of exhaust gas noises by silencers
directly attached to diesel engines, which may be used as exhaust gas
coolers at the same time (see Fig. 67).
 It is essential that all engines intended primarily for snorkel
operation have a minimum of excess air. This permits a minimal
cross-sectional area ​for t​ he snorkel system at the air intake and gas
exhaust ends. Four-stroke engines are there fore better suited for snorkel
operation than two-stroke engines. The engines must be insensitive to
back pressure on the exhaust gas side - a particularly important measure
if the exhaust gases are discharged deeply below the waterline.

In order to make engines suitable for h ​ igher exhaust gas

backpressures, the camshaft should be adapted to other opening and
closing periods of valves. Mechanically supercharged engines are al so
suitable for snorkel operation with backpressure; however, the greater
quantity of excess air of such engines should be tolerated.

1. 1. DIESEL GEKERATOR SET

2. 2. DOUBLE RESILIENT SUPPORT
3. 3. SUCTION FILTER
4. 4. EXHAUST GAS COOLER / SILENCER
5. 5. EXHAUST GAS LINE
6. 6. INNER/OUTER EXHAUST GAS FLAP
7. 7. HEAD VALVE
8. WATER CONTACT
9. AIR MAST
10. INNER/OUTER AIR FLAP
11. CONTROL BOARD
12. WATER COLLECTING TANK
1. 13. MACHINERY SPACE
2. 14. SHELL PLATING
3. 15. BULKHEAD
 Fig. 67 - Installation of a Diesel Generator Set in a
Submarine

The seawater cooling system must be able to withstand the

maximum pressure encountered at snorkel depth.

Air Intake and Exhaust Gas Systems for the Diesel Engines on
Submersibles (see Fig. 68 and 69)

During surface cruise, diesel engines take their combustion air from
the engine room. This air enters the engine room through a
pressure-resistant air intake line installed as high as possible within the
free-flooding super structure. Double valves having rubber seats closed by
water pressure are used to seal these lines during submerged cruising.

The exhaust gas is passed overboard through water-cooled

pipelines, which are sealed by special pressure-resistant shut-off devices
during submerged cruising. Exhaust gas flaps or exhaust gas valves can
be used for this purpose.
 Because of the soot deposits that form, valve or flap seats must be

ground in. Valve disks pivot in the center (Fig. 70) and can be rotated

slowly by means of worm drives. To regrind the valve or flap ​seat, the flap

or valve is ​closed ​until the disk rests ​loosely o

​ n its seat. In the German

World War II submarines, the engine had to be stopped every 4 to 6 hours

during cruise to regrind the exhaust gas flaps and thus ensure their

tightness after closing in the event of a crash dive.

Some exhaust gas flaps have rubber seats, the gaskets of which are

surrounded by cooling water in open condition preventing them from

being burnt out, whereas, at the same time, the seats are sprayed with

cooling water preventing them from being sooted.

(Fig. 71) - Diesel Fuel and Pressurized Water System

1. 1. DIESEL AIR INTAKE HEAD VALVE

2. 2. DIESEL AIR INTAKE MAST

3. 3. DIESEL AIR INTAKE FOOT VALVE

4. 4. DRAIN CONNECTION
 5. 5. DIESEL AIR INTAKE HEAD VALVE DRIVE

6. 6. DIESEL AIR INTAKE FOOT VALVE DRIVE

7. 7. DIESEL AIR TRUNK
8. 8. COMPARTMENT AIR INTAKE, STARBOARD

ONLY

1. 9. DIESEL AIR LINE

10. SNORKEL AIR LINE

Fig. 68 - Diesel Engine Air Intake System

1. DIESEL ENGINE EXHAUST GAS

2. INBOARD EXHAUST GAS FLAP
3. OUTBOARD EXHAUST GAS FLAP
4. SILENCER
5 EXHAUST GAS OUTLET FOR SURFACE CRUISING
6 SNORKEL EXHAUST GAS VALVE
7 SNORKEL EXHAUST GAS LINE
 Fig. 69 - Diesel Engine Exhaust Gas System

Fig. 70 - Inboard Exhaust Gas Flap

The fuel system ​in submarines differs from that in other ships in

that the fuel is carried on top of seawater in the tanks. The fuel feed lines

start on top of the tanks and serve simultaneously as refueling lines. They
lead to a manifold inside the submarine. As in the case of surface ships,

the diesel engines are fed by fuel alternately two gravity fuel tanks, one of

which is in use while other serves as a settling tank to separate any which

may have been carried along.

The fuel is delivered by water pressure. The pressurized water lines

connect to the lowest points in the tanks. They branch off from the cooling
water outlet on the diesel engines. The cooling water outlet is raised
inside the free-flooding superstructure in order to have adequate pressure
head when surface cruising. During refueling, the water flows from the
fuel tanks through the lines to the outside. Special indicating lines are
stalled to provide timely tank level warning during, tank refueling. They
terminate in the fuel tank just a: the pressurized water lines to prevent
any fuel entering the pressurized waterline during the refueling operation.

There may be provided a connection, by which the fuel tanks are

connected in series during normal service that the diesel engines always
are supplied from one the same fuel tank. If a water separator is arranged
this fuel tank, the abovementioned fuel gravity tanks may be deleted.

Sounding devices are generally no longer used for the fuel tanks,
and consumption is indicated by dial gauges built into the fuel lines.

Completely vented fuel tanks constitute one requisites for readiness

to dive. Tanks are always vented into the submarines through special lines
with stop valves. The vent lines are connected to the top of t fuel tanks: if
the tanks are long, vent lines are required fore and aft. Vent valves are
sometimes installed in the fuel feed lines to eliminate the need for special
vent lines.
Fig. 71 - Fuel and Pressurized Water System
 The pressure in the fuel tanks located outside the pressure hull is
always equalized through the pressure in the water line. Therefore these
tanks are not exposed to diving pressures. The pressurized water for
tanks inside the pressure hull is activated only during surface cruising or
snorkeling. These tanks must withstand the pressure required to feed fuel
when snorkeling.

Snorkel Systems

The purpose of the snorkel system is to ensure an adequate supply

of air and to dispose of the exhaust gas from ​the diesel engines when the
boat is cruising at periscope depth. This means that the battery can be
recharged during slow-speed cruising without the need to surface.
Moreover, extended cruising is possible with the snorkel.

In the past, many submarine designers studied this problem. For

example, in 1894, Simon Lake, an American, built the ARGOKAUT, which
was equipped with an air intake mast for operating a gasoline engine.

A Japanese submarine was lost in 1911, while operating a snorkel

system.
 Prior to 1940, Dutch submarines were fitted with a snorkel system
as proposed by J.J. Wieners, but the mast could be extended only a short
distance. Submarines with this system came to England during WWII, and
others were captured by Germany. Both navies removed the system
because there seemed to be no need ​for ​snorkel at the time.

1. SNORKEL AIR INTAKE MAST

2. SNORKEL EXHAUST GAS MAST
3. AIR INLET
4. FLOAT-ACTUATED SNORKEL HEAD VALVE
5. EXHAUST GAS OUTLET
6. WATERLINE WHEN SNORKELING
7. RADAR WARNING DEVICE
8. DRIVE FOR LIFTING MECHANISM
9. PRESSURE-RESISTANT ENVELOPE PIPE FOR THE SNORKEL AIR
INTAKE MAST
10. PRESSURE-RESISTANX FIXED-BASE PIPE FOR THE SNORKEL
EXHAUST
GAS MAST
11. AIR EXIT (GENERALLY TO MAIN AIR INDUCTION LINE)
12. EXHAUST GAS INLET FROM EXHAUST GAS LINE
 Fig. 72 - Snorkel System (Design Used in German Type 21, 1944)

1. AIR INLET
2. VALVE DISK WITH RUBBER SEAT
3. FIXED PISTON WITH LABYRINTH SEAL
4. CYLINDER CAPACITY OF THE COMPRESSED AIR PISTON TO OPEN
THE VALVE
5. CLOSING SPRING
6. COMPRESSED AIR SUPPLY

Fig. 73 - Arrangement for Actuating Snorkel Head Valve

by Compressed Air
 The German design, which was later adopted everywhere, is
particularly distinguished from earlier designs by the fact that the
submarine interior is used as an air buffer (see Fig. 72) and so snorkel
operation is possible in seaways. This configuration provides for an air
supply into the interior of the submarine from the snorkel air intake mast
while the diesel engines are sucking air from the interior of the submarine
as in standard surface cruising. As a result, when errors in depth control
are made or when the boat is in a seaway, the snorkel head valve may
close for 1 or 2 min without the need to stop the diesel engines. This
causes the air pressure in the submarine to drop but it will gradually rise
again when the head valve is opened.

Snorkels can be designed as folding or telescoping masts; a head

valve is installed at the highest point of the air intake mast, which closes
just before it is flooded. The head valve need not be completely
pressure-resistant. At one time it was actuated by a float (see Fig. 72),
but now it is usually electrically controlled and actuated by compressed air
(see Fig. 73 and 74). The pressure-resistant seal at the air inlet to the
boat is formed by two main shut off devices which are arranged in
tandem; at least one must be designed as a quick-shutting flap. The air
intake masts are flooded when folded or retracted.

Fig. 74 - Connections of Electrically Controlled and Compressed

Air Actuated Snorkel Head Valve
Removal of exhaust gas is easier. A Special exhaust gas mast may be
extended in addition to the air intake mast, or a submerged outlet may be
provided at the top of the bridge fin, so far as the back pressure in
sensitivity of the engines permit.
The first German experimental plant was installed on a Type 2
submarine (250 tons) in 1943 (see Table 1). The night / aerial periscope
was replaced by an air intake mast with a float-actuated, double-seat
head valve and a quick shutting flap at the bottom. This mast was
extended and retracted by the periscope hoist. The exhaust gases were
eliminated by a telescope tube, which was coupled to the air intake mast
without any additional shutoff device. When it was found that this system
operated satisfactorily, a program was immediately initiated to equip
existing Types 7 and 9 submersibles with snorkels. Collapsing snorkels
that folded forward into the upper deck were - installed because of space
1imitations. The new Types 21 and 23 were equipped with extending
snorkels.

Up to that time, all head valves had been actuated by floats. They
were not completely free from trouble because of such factors as
dependence on the boat course in relation to wave directions and the lack
of deicing facilities.

Some Type 2 submarines were fitted with extending snorkels in the

winter of 1944-45. These had electrically controlled and compressed air
actuated head valves, which were, trouble free and quick acting.

During snorkel cruising, the submarine is semi submerged and

diving readiness is limited. In this condition, the submarine is exposed to
greater danger in operation than it is in surface or submerged cruising.
The following types of disturbance are possible:
1. Inrush of water attributable to failure of the snorkel head valve when
an error in downward depth control made or when wave crests flow over
the head valve.

2. Excess negative pressure in the boat attributable to extended

undercutting (crew in danger).

3. Excess exhaust gas backpressure as a result of under cutting too

deep. (The diesel engines can choke and inrush of water can occur
through the exhaust gas lines exhaust gas can escape backward from the
air i​ ntake trunks of the diesel engines, and the resulting gas that tips the
boat will endanger the crew).

Any one of these three disturbances will require shut down of the
diesel engines with
simultaneous cut-off of battery charging, closing of the quick-acting flaps
of the snorkel and of the exhaust gas flaps or valves. Some snorkel
systems do this automatically by means of a safety circuit that receives
impulses from the trouble sources. When this safety circuit is energized,
the automatic quick-acting flaps are closed; the diesel supply control
levers are adjusted to zero, and the charging circuits are disconnected.

Snorkel cruising imposes special physical requirements on the crew

because of the sudden, large, pressure fluctuations (up to 200 mbar). The
"snorkel fitness" of every man must therefore be determined by medical
examination.

Modern snorkel systems may be arranged in such a way that

submarines are enabled to use the system even at heavy seas, so that a
surfacing for the purpose of battery recharging is ​never necessary (see
Fig. 75).
 Fig, 75 - Submarine when Snorkeling

Cruising Range Calculations

Surface cruising ranges at different speeds for submarines with

diesel-electric propulsion systems (see Fig. 54) can be found by using this
formula

where

S is the cruising range in nautical miles,

V is the fuel stock, which can be lifted in kg,
V is the surface speed in knots under trial run conditions,
/kW is the power delivered at propeller in kW on surface at the
corresponding speed in question,
"n mech is the mechanical efficiency between propeller and propulsion
motor (stuffing box, thrust bearing, and transmission),

nM is​ ​the electric efficiency ​of t​ he electric drive motor,

n Gen is the electric efficiency ​of t​ he generator,

Ne is the mean electric power requirement for ship service use in

kilowatts, and

be is the fuel consumption by diesel engines in kilogram per kW

per hour.

Adequate deduct ions from the ca1culated cruising ranges must be

made according to sea area, seasons ​of y
​ ear, and marine growth on the
hull.

The formula for the cruising range of boats with direct diesel drive
and electric generating plant for the board network by a coupled generator
(see Fig. 51 through 53) is

Seagoing submersibles can have surface cruising ranges of 10,000

nm and more at a speed of​ ​10 knots.

The formula for submerged cruising with electric propulsion at

different speeds, based on 80 percent battery discharge, is

Where

S is the submerged cruising range in nautical miles,

E is the electric energy in kilowatt hours contained in the battery
during the discharge period that applies to the speed in
question (see Fig. 56),
V is ​the submerged speed in knots under trial run conditions,

/ ​kW is the submerged power delivered at propeller in kW at the

speed in question,

n mech is the mechanical efficiency of the shaft line (gland, thrust

bearing, and possibly transmission) ,
nM is the electric efficiency of the propulsion motor, and

Ne is the consumption in kilowatts for ship service use.

Submersibles have relatively short cruising ranges in the submerged

condition. The German Type 7 (see Table 1) had a range of 65 nm at 4
knots. These ranges are considerably longer in the case of submarines;
the Type 21 submarine (see Table 2) obtained 320 nm at 4 knots.

Cruising ranges for combinations of snorkel and fully submerged

cruising are composed of the distances covered when snorkeling and
charging and the distances covered when fully submerged and cruising
with electric propulsion. Detailed calculations are made to determine these
ranges when speeds are varied independently for snorkel cruising and
fully submerged cruising. Battery efficiencies and the difference in drag for
the two above cruising conditions must be taken into consideration.
 Slower mean speeds are obtained during combined snorke1 and
deep submerged cruising than during economical standard cruise on
surface.

These slower average speeds attained are the reason for the fact
that submarines get along with a fuel supply per ton displacement being
considerably smaller than that of submersibles. Due to their mode of
cruise, submarines consume a quantity of fuel being specifically smaller
than that of submersibles during the period of one mission.

2. PROPULSION DEVICES BASED ON OTHER PRINCI PLES

One disadvantage of all propulsion systems based on

battery-supplied electric motors is that high-speed steps for submerged
cruising can be used only for relatively short periods of time. Even slow
submerged speeds require battery recharging within a few days at the
latest, necessitating the use of the snorkel or surface cruising for sever al
hours. Sustained, fully submerged cruising throughout a mission is
impossible.

The snorkel period necessary depends on the output of generators

installed and on the previous battery discharge during deeply submerged
cruise.

Consequently, it has been a long-time desire to find submarine

propulsion systems that are independent of atmospheric air.
The Walter principle

H. Walter developed his technique between 1936 and 1945 (see Fig.
76). About 80 percent concentrated liquid hydrogen peroxide (H202) is
used as the oxidant. Decomposition in a decomposer generates water
vapor and free oxygen (2 H202 -- 2 H2O + °2). The latter ​is u
​ sed in a
combustion chamber to burn a hydrocarbon (fuel) ​to produce carbon
dioxide ​(CO2) a
​ nd water vapor (H2O). This mixture is used as the medium
to drive a propulsion turbine.

1. 1. H2O2 FEED PUMP

2. 2. DECOMPOSER
3. 3. COMBUSTION CHAMBER
4. 4. FUEL FEED LINE
5. 5. INJECTION WATER
6. 6. TURBINE
7. 7. TRANSMISSION
8. 8. CLUTCH
9. 9. ELECTRIC MOTOR/ GENERATOR
10. 10. PROPELLER
11. 11. CONDENSER
12. 12. CONDENSATE PUMP
13. 13. FEEDING PUMP
14. 14. COOLER CIRCULATION WATER
15. 15. CIRCULATING WATER
16. 16. CO2 COOLER
17. 17. CO2 COMPRESSOR
 Fig.​ ​76 - The Walter Submarine Propulsion System

The liquid hydrogen peroxide is stored in plastic bags in the

free-flooding outer hull. As the liquid hydrogen peroxide (specific gravity

of about 1.33) is consumed, the bags collapse and the volume is replaced

by seawater.

Fuel is required for this process as well. A Synthetic light oil is

employed. It is stored in the outer hull tanks on top of water as usual on
submarines. The submarine gets considerably lighter as the liquid H202 is
consumed. Consumption of the light fuel makes the submarine heavier.
The weight reduction, however, is much greater and must be
compensated for in the compensating tanks, which are therefore much
larger in the Walter submarines. The peroxide is pumped into the
decomposer where it is decomposed by a catalyzer into water vapor and
O2. The temperature of this mixture is about 4500 C. The pressure as a
sliding pressure corresponds to the turbine inlet pressure. This mixture of
steam and oxygen then enters the series-connected combustion chamber,
and light fuel and water are injected at the same time. Continuous
combustion generates a mixture of water vapor and CO2, which flows
through a dust fi1ter into the turbine. An injection condenser is used to
condense the water vapor. Part of the condensate is delivered overboard,
but the remainder is cooled in a recooler device and injected into the
combustion chamber. The CO2 is delivered to outboard where it dissolves
in seawater after rising a short distance. The considerable electric power
required for the pumps, etc., is satisfied by using a coupled generator.
Since the exhaust CO2 must overcome the diving pressure, the turbine
also operates against the diving pressure, resulting in a high consumption
of peroxide and light fuel.

The installation of a special compressor for the CO2 exhaust

increases the pressure head difference between inlet and outlet pressure
in the turbine, makes the system much less dependent on diving pressure,
and lowers the consumption rates.

In addition to this direct procedure, an indirect method was

developed which includes a closed-loop steam circuit with a condenser for
the turbine. The steam ​is ​generated in a heat exchanger heated by the
steam and CO2 mixture leaving the combustion chamber. The steam of
the mixture is condensed in the heat exchanger and the condensate is
delivered overboard together with the CO2 - The indirect technique has a.
much lower consumption rate. However, this system is somewhat heavier
and requires more space.

The first Walter system, a so-called "cold" system, was built for test

purposes only and developed even before the employment of the direct

procedure. It was installed in test boat V-80, and 80-ton experimental

submarine, in 1939 (see Fig. 77). The peroxide was only decomposed, so

that the turbine operated on a mixture of steam and oxygen. The free

oxygen escaped to outboard and left a bubble path. The specific peroxide

consumption was high. The submarine was able to develop 2000 shaft

horsepower, giving it a submerged speed of 28 knots.

Fig. 77 - The Experimental Walter Boat during Cruising (1939)

The Walter principle permits the provision of a very high specific

power at low weight and space requirements. In the case of the direct

procedure, without compressor, the peroxide consumption is about 2.35

kg/kWhr. The rate drops to about 1.85 kg/kWhr if an additional

compressor is installed. The indirect technique can provide a figure of 1.32

kg/kWhr. At the time, these consumption rates made it impossible to

carry sufficient peroxide to cruise on the Walter system exclusively for an

entire mission. In addition, therefore, a diesel-electric system with snorkel

was installed for standard cruising.

1. 1. DIESEL ENGINE

2. 2. HYDRAULIC CLUTCH

3. 3. MOTOR AND GENERATOR

4. 4. TURBINE TRANSMISSION

5. 5. CLUTCH

6. 6. TURBINE

7. 7. TURBINE CLUTCH
 8. SHAFT TRANSMISSION
9. MAIN CLUTCH

10. THRUST BEARING

11. PROPELLER

12. LOW-NOISE PROPULSION MOTOR

13. V-BELT TRANSMISSION

14. LOW-NOISE MOTOR CLUTCH

Fig. 78 - Propulsion System used in the German Type 26

The plant (Fig. 78) had been planned for the German Type 26. This

submarine was to carry 97 tons (metric) of H2O2 and 65 tons (metric) of

fuel. The Walter system was to

operate by the direct procedure with compressor. The following cruising

ranges had been planned:

- Submerged cruising range 144 nm at 24 knots (maximum speed on

the Walter System).

- Submerged cruising range 100 nm at 4 knots on electric drive

(low-noise motor) (the maximum submerged speed on electric drive was
10 knots).

- Surface cruising range 7500 nm at 10 knots on direct diesel drive.

 The system was investigated on a test stand, but it never was
installed on the Type 26 because of the end of the war.

Closed-Cycle Principle

Here the diesel engines operate during submerged cruising on pure

oxygen carried aboard in liquid or gaseous form (see Fig. 79). The diesel
engines operate on atmospheric air during surface and snorkel cruising,
but can be shifted to "closed-cycle operation" for submerged cruising.
Then the nitrogen component in the atmospheric air is replaced by the
CO2 in the exhaust gas, and atmospheric oxygen is replaced by oxygen
from the on-board supply. M electric drive system and battery are also
required for underwater low-noise propulsion.

The advantage of these closed-cycle systems over the Walter

system is that surface and snorkel cruising do not reduce the on-board
oxygen supply. However, the problems involved in oxygen storage and
weight compensation for consumed oxygen are relatively difficult to solve.

Closed-cycle systems have operated successfully on the test stand,

but no information is available on any installation aboard a submarine.

1. OXYGEN TANK
2. PRESSURE-REDUCING VALVE
3. OXYGEN METERING CONTROLLER
4. MIXING NOZZLE
5. AIR INLET FOR SURFACE CRUISING
6. DIESEL ENGINE
7. TRANSMISSION
8. CLUTCH
9. ELECTRIC DRIVE MOTOR
10. PROPELLER
11. EXHAUST GAS COCK
12. GAS COOLER
13. BYPASS FOR TEMPERATURE CONTROL
14. COOLER
15. PRESURE CONTROLLER FOR CIRCULATION PRESSURE
16 EXHAUST GAS COMPRESSOR
17. SEPARATOR
18. FUEL
19. EXHAUST GAS OUTLET FOR SURFACE CRUISING
20. EXHAUST GAS OUTLET FOR CLOSED-CYCLE OPERATION
21. EXHAUST GAS LINE FOR CLOSED-CYCLE OPERATION

Fig. 79 – Closed Cycle System for Submarines

Nuclear Propulsion Plant

Nuclear systems for submarines consist of steam turbine plants in

which the reactor assumes the function of the boiler. Maximum sustained
performance and unlimited submerged cruising ranges are possible. The
dead weight of these systems is still nigh because of the radiation
shielding required. Consequently, all submarines built to date have a
displacement of several' thousand tons, so they can be employed only on
the high seas. Nuclear propulsion systems are ideal for submarines except
for weight and cost considerations.

Fuel Cells

Up to date, the power generation independent of atmospheric air by

fuel cells was realized in some non-military submersibles. In this
connection, H2 and O2 are carried in separate pressure-proof bottles for
the supply to the cells. Al though such systems are more efficient when
compared with true battery propulsion systems, they nevertheless are not
sufficient for military submarines in this form, because the considerably
greater submerged cruising ranges to be required for such vessels are not
obtained. In case of military submarines, supply of H2 and O2 to the fuel
cells should be effected by other means.

Stirling Engine

These (externally heated) power engines could be used for the

energy supply on submarines if an adequate heating being independent of
atmospheric air were developed. Their good thermal efficiency and their
low noise would certainly be an advantage.
 CHAPTER - XI

SHIP HANDLING EQUIPMENT

CONTROL SURFACES

Except for folding or retractable planes, the standard design of

hydroplanes and rudders do not differ appreciably from the rudders of
other ships. The profile shaped rudder and plane bodies are flooded to
prevent damage by diving pressure.

Manually operated pianos have weights along the leading edge to

achieve a balance of its natural weight about the axis of rotation.

A great variety of designs have been developed in order to remove

the bow planes from the flow around the submarine during surface
cruising and high-speed submerged cruising.

1. Hydroplanes having blades to be rigged in or folded onto the shell

plating when not in use. And to be turned around their axis when not in
use so that positive and negative lift forces are generated.

These planes can be folded upward onto the shell plating; the blades
may be swiveled to aft into slots in the outer hull; furthermore, a
hydroplane support may be pivoted about the vertical axis so that one
blade turns to forward and the other one towards aft into the
superstructure (see Fig. 80).
 Fig. 80 - Hydroplane Blades of Folding and Turning-in type

2. Hydroplanes having fixed blade angles to above or below, which

have to be rigged out of the shell by shifting or pivoting them more or less
for generation of positive or negative lift. Consequently, these
hydroplanes in their neutral position (i.e. generating neither positive nor
negative lift) are completely removed from the flow around the submarine
thus reducing the resistance (see Fig. 81).

For example, in case of the turning-out mussel-shaped bow planes

shown in Fig. 81, as provided on all German postwar submarines, the port
plane generates the down angle and the starboard one generates an
up-angle: one plane is rigged out only at a time: the small heels arising
are negligible, just because of the fact that the bow planes are used up to
ship's mean speed only.

Fig. 10 shows various steering rudder/stern plane designs. The "X"

configuration (see Fig. 10) is a combination of steering rudder and stern
planes realised on Swedish submarines. If the rudderstocks are moved in
opposite direction, a hydroplane action results, and the steering rudder
action results from their movement in the same direction. Combined tilting
of steering rudder and stern plane is possible with this configuration. The
sum of rudder and plane surfaces of the “X” type is smaller than that of
the cross-type, resulting in smaller overall resistance; more over the, the
“X” type offers increased operational safety, but the forces available at
simultaneous extreme rudder and plane angles are smaller than those of
the cross-type.
Fig. 81 - Hydroplanes having fixed blade angles, to be Rigged
out by shifting or Turning

The electric or hydraulic drives of the control surfaces are usually

located inside the pressure hull. Power is transmitted to the rudder and
planes by linkages and shafts. The train power drive is backed up by some
other type of power drive (e.g., it is possible to switch another circuit in
the case of electric drives) and by manual operation in an emergency.

Steering room and depth control is effected in the control room.

On the German vessels shown on Tables I to 4, the depth control

consoles were located on starboard side (see Fig. 82) and the depth
helmsmen were seated side by side and facing starboard. On foreign
submarines of that time, these consoles were arranged in a
mirror-inverted manner on portside.

The German V-SO Walter-propulsion boat (1939, see Fig. 83) was
the first submarine to be fitted with a combination control for the rudder
and stern plane. In this configuration the helmsmen faced forward. One
man could operate the rudder by turning a control column and the aft
planes by pushing and pulling it. As bow planes were not provided for this
experimental boat, control could be effected by two helmsmen - one of
them for depth control and the second one seating by him for steering
control. Two control consoles placed side by side (facing forward) are
provided if bow and stern planes are arranged as usual on many today's
submarines. If one console is, attended only, the hydroplanes are coupled,
e. g. to the effect that the stern plane makes only 1/3 of the swing of the
bow plane. Then, one man can operate both these planes by pushing and
pulling and the steering rudder by turning. If required, they may be
uncoupled. Then, one helmsman operates stern planes and steering
control, whereas the other one cares for bow planes (see Fig. 85).

Fig. 82 - Depth Control Stations in the Control Room (German

Type 21, 1944)

Fig. 83 - Combination Rudder and Plane Controls (Walter

Experimental V-80,
1939)
 Fig. 84 - Steering and Depth Control Station

Fig. 85 - Combined Controls Console

Many submarines have automatic depth control systems to relive

the crew during snorkel cruising and sustained submerged cruising.
Mechanical-hydraulic systems and electronic-hydraulic systems are
known. Automatic rudder steering systems also employed to relieve the
crew on long cruises.
 If the submarine runs with the automatic depth and steering control
being switched in, the control console is attended to by one person only,
who carries out supervising functions.

On small, commercial submersibles, hydroplanes are ineffective for

depth c​ ontrol because of the small speed. Depth control often is to be
performed in hovering condition, ​so that the propeller thrust should be
used for this purpose.

Either vertical, reversible pusher screws are used for depth keeping,
or the propulsive screws are arranged at mid-length of the vessel P. and
S. in such a way that are tiltable about the horizontal (see Fig. 86), so
that the vessel may hover and turn on the spot.

Fig. 86 - Propulsive Screw being Tiltable Around the Horizontal

(German Type​,​ TOURS​ ​submersible)

1. 2. BALLAST TANK EQUIPMENT

Vents are designed in the form of flaps or valves (see Fig. 87).

They open outward or better still inward, and seal against a rubber

seat. They are activated either by levers and linkages are by shafts

and worm gears. When they open outward, they must be

self-locking so that they cannot be not be lifted by pressure in the

ballast tank. In smaller submarines, the drives are operated

manually by axiometers or linkages. In large submarines, they are

operated by compressed air or hydraulically and require an

additional manual drive for emergencies. Some submarines have

emergency closing flaps below the main vents on some ballast

tanks. These can be used to maneuver when the regular vents fail,

but they are open during normal operation.

 Fig. 87 - Ballast Tank Equipment

Instead of the simple flooding ports used today, earlier practice

provided flood flaps activated from inside the pressure hull by spindles
and levers. These opened outward and had rubber gaskets as seals.

The compressed air lines for ​H.P. blowing the ballast tanks have a
non-return valve located in the side of the submarine to prevent water
from entering the blow line during submerged cruising. Moreover, it
prevents accidental venting (and thus flooding) of the ballast tank through
the H. P. blow line during surface cruising in the event of erroneous
operation of the compressed air system. L.P. blow lines that are used to
fully blow ballast tanks with diesel exhaust gas or with a special
low-pressure blower require greater cross sections than do high-pressure
blow lines. In most cases, low-pressure blow lines extend to the bottom
into the residual water in the ballast tanks. This arrangement prevents
ballast tanks blown by H.P. from being flooded backwards through these
low pressure blow lines
in the event that the pressure accidentally drops below the back pressure
during ballast L.P. blowing operations.

The advantages of equipment using diesel engines to fully ​blow

ballast tanks include their greater simplicity, lower weight, and smaller
space requirement, when compared with special blowers. Another
advantage is the preservative effect of the diesel exhaust gas on the inner
surface of ballast tanks. The prerequisite for d
​ iesel engine L.P.blowing
systems is that the diesel engines be insensitive to back pressure and that
they start easily.

Ballast tank equipment of commercial submersibles is similar to that

of military submarines Comparison. As it is possible to flood more slowly
than on military submarines, the cross-sections of flood and vent holes
may be smaller in comparison. In most cases, the ballast tanks are fully
blown by compressed air.

The ballast tanks of a particular type of vessel are emptied by

means of the low-pressure ballast pump in order to save compressed air.
Flood holes are closed and vents are opened for this purpose.

PRESSURE HULL CLOSURES

The most important closures are hatches; these are categorized as

access and torpedo hatches. Access hatches have horizontal seats
whereas those of torpedo hatches are inclined so that torpedoes can be
loaded.

Hatch covers (Fig. 88) are made of cast steel or press molded from
rolled steel with circular rubber gaskets and are stronger than the
pressure hull to allow for an adequate safety margin. The heavy hatch
cover is externally spring balanced for easiest possible handling. A hatch
cover is held in the closed position by a snap latch, which can be activated
from inside or outside.

Fig. 88 - HATCH COVER

 This snap latch can be held in the "open" position from the inside by
a blocking device, which can be operated in an emergency should the
crew need to use the hatch to
escape from a flooded submarine. When released, the hatch cover can be
opened with the help of the inside air bubble.

During submerged cruising, the hatch cover is secured by a central

latch that can be operated from inside or outside. Three catches spaced
l20 degree apart hold the hatch cover closed so tightly that it cannot be
raised by underwater explosion shocks.

When the hatch cover is open and in the vertical position, a small
pendulum trap blocks the central latch and prevents it from being
accidentally turned in the "closed" direction. Without this feature, the
catches would hit the hatch coaming when the cover bangs and prevent
its immediate closure.

The bridge fin hatch is fitted with a small cock. When the submarine
is trim tested, this cock is used to determine the moment at which the
hatch cover is flooded; the depth gages are then calibrated. Hatches are
usually paired; for example, the bridge fin hatch is paired with the control
room hatch, which is located below.

An exception was made by the former German Navy, and some

contemporary foreign navies, which were satisfied with single deck and
torpedo hatches.

The following principles apply to all other pressure hull closures such
as valves, flaps, and so forth. All closures are in a double arrangement.
The outer-closures are placed as closely as possible to the pressure hull
shell and the inner closures as closely as possible behind the outer
closures. The outer closures must close under external pressure; If
necessary locking features for the “closed” position prevent a closure from
opening under blast. All such closure are designed for greater strength
than the pressure hull.

In the German Navy, the hand wheels or cranks for outboard

closures can be distinguished by touch as they have spherical knobs and
so a particular control can be identified in the dark (see Fig. 89).

If outer closures are operated by remote control, adequate stand by

hand drives are to be provided.

Fig. 89 - Hand wheels and Cranks for Outboard Closures

4. EQUIPMENT FOR DRAINING AND FLOODING

One prerequisite for the diving readiness of any submarine is that

the bilges are drained except for the residual water and that the proper
weight of the boat is maintained by the filling in the compensating tanks.
Thus, the drain and flood systems have special significance for safe
submerged cruising.

The main drain extends in a straight line through the length of the
whole submarine (see Fig. 90) It is divided by stop valves into a forward
and an aft line. The suction baskets must be easily accessible and located
so that the bilges can be drained sufficiently even when the submarine is
very heavy at the bow or stern.

Fig. 90 - The Drain and Flood System

The drain lines are filled with water at all times to ensure that the
drain pumps can operate immediately if required. Vents are located at the
ends of the drain pipe to permit filling with water. The water in the drain
line constitutes part of the weight of the boat and is therefore included in
the weight calculation.

Two drain pumps are used for large submarines and one pump for
small ones. The pumps may be fitted on resilient mounts for noise
abatement purposes. Electrically driven piston pumps are most suitable as
they take safe suction. In case of pumps having two cylinders, connection
of cylinders may be such that series-connection at maximum
counter-pressure (which should be higher than the test diving. depth of
the submarine) and parallel connection at up to mean pressure is used,
'thus utilizing the driving power of the motor favourably (see Fig. 91).

Fig. 91 - Reciprocating Drain Pump

These pumps are mounted amidships in the control room or in a

separate auxiliary machinery space.

Long submarines require additional drain pumps at the ends of the

pressure hull because the pumps installed amidships cannot take suction
during heavy trim of a long submarine. Any aux. cooling water pumps
available in the engine room can often be connected to the main line, then
serving as aux. low-pressure drain pumps during surface and snorkel
cruises. A hand drain pump is usually part of the installation.

It can be used to pump water from the bilges into a pressure-proof

compensating tank during submerged cruising when drain pumps have
failed (e.g., in the event of a power failure). Bilge water is blown out of
this tank by compressed air.

The flooding and pumping system for the compensating tanks ​is
connected to the bilge drain system. Its operation is described in Chapter
V. Control is from the drain and flood manifold located amidships in the
control room or in the auxiliary engine room. The compensating tanks can
be flooded from outside through this manifold or the water in them can be
discharged overboard by compressed air. In addition, the drain pumps can
bring water from outside or from the bilge line into the compensating
tanks. Finally, the compensating tanks can be drained by the drain pumps.

When a hydrostatic gage is installed, its valves (see Chapter V) are

also connected to the flood and drain manifold. This gage is used to
control the rate at which one compensating tank is flooded and another
(which, is pressurized and connected for discharge) is emptied.

The small commercial submersibles usually have a simple drain

system with an electrically or hydraulically driven pump. For compensating
equipment in commercial submersibles see Chapter V.

5. EQUIPMENT FOR TRIMMING

This equipment provides the trim of the boat required for

submerged cruising. Fig. 92 shows a trim installation based solely on the
use of compressed air for trimming; its operation is described in Chapter
V. The advantages of this installation are reliability and absence of noise.
Operation with compressed air has the disadvantage internal air pressure
will rise considerably during sustained submerged cruising.

Fig. 92 - Trim Equipment

Some systems use a positive-displacement pump in the trim line.

The advantage is that no compressed air is consumed. Furthermore, the
equipment is more easily to be arranged for remote operation. The
disadvantage in long submarines, i.e. ​that a pump does not simply deliver
because of the great suction head, when the trim angles are great, may
be in counteracted by keeping the entire trimming system under air
pressure.

German submarines used the reciprocating drain pump as a trim

pump through a changeover valve. This arrangement was abandoned in
1943 because the pump was too noisy.

For trimming equipment of commercial submersibles see Chapter V.

6. COMPRESSED AIR SYSTEM

This system is very important to a submarine because air under high

pressure contains a large amount of energy that can be, used to obtain
maximum output in minimum time. Functions handled by compressed air
vary greatly.

The compressed air carried aboard a submarine is a most important

means of saving lives when additional buoyancy is quickly required in an
emergency during submerged cruising. (H.P. Blowing of ballast tanks).
Compressed air is also used to initiate the normal surfacing maneuver by
H.P. blowing the ballast tanks. Furthermore, compressed air is used for
emptying the compensating tanks for trimming; possibly for completely
emptying the main ballast tanks on the surface; for starting the diesel
engines; for grinding the exhaust gas flaps; for blowing bottom valves
that have become clogged with sand for operating engine clutches,
switches, and quick-acting flaps for operating the snorkel head valve; for
actuating the whistle, and possibly for operating the anchor winch, for
machine tools, etc.

The torpedo armament requires compressed air for flooding and

draining torpedo tubes. Many types of tubes require compressed air for
torpedo impulse launching; and for several torpedo types, compressed air
is used for launching preparation.

The compressed air, whose storage pressure can be 200 kg/cm2

and higher, is generated aboard the submarine. The most widely used
compressors are four-stage, water-cooled, piston compressors with
electric drive (Fig. 93 and Fig. 94). They obtain their suction from the
compartment in which they are installed. The compressor can also be
driven by the main propulsion motor in some small, simple submarines. A
water separator is series-connected to the compressor to prevent the
water in the humid sucked air from reaching the compressed air system.

Fig. 93 - Four-Stage High-Pressure Air Compressor with Electric

Drive
 The compressors are started primarily during snorkel and surface
cruising to replenish the compressed air supply. They are used during
submerged cruising to eliminate i.e., the excess pressure which possibly
develops in the submarine, from time to time.

Fig. 94 - H.P. Air Compressor

German submersibles used four-stage free-piston compressors

(Junkers compressors) in addition to electric-drive piston compressors.
They operated on the two-stroke diesel method, generating compressed
air directly by diesel fuel combustion. Their pumping capacity was
considerably greater than that of electrically driven compressors of the
same weight. However, these compressors cannot be used during snorkel
cruising because they cannot overcome exhaust gas backpressure and so
are not feasible for use in submarines. However, their use in big
commercial submersibles may be considered.

Compressed air is stored in steel flasks located inside or outside the

pressure hull. External storage has the advantage of better space
utilization. In such a case, two or three cylinders are combined into one
group served by a common stop valve. One flask can have a volume of as
much as 0.5 m3. The total compressed air determined by the size and
type of the submarine and by its diving depth. Submersibles that must
dive and surface frequently require a greater supply of compressed air
than submarines that remain basically submerged. The weight of the
stored compressed air as a part of ship weight is included in the weight
calculation. The c6mpressed air flasks are connected in groups to the
high-pressure air manifold to which the compressor is also connected (Fig.
95). Several

Other manifolds at different pressure Levels are supplied from this station.
The following manifolds may be available:

1. The torpedo high-pressure manifolds. This is located near the

torpedo tubes.

2. The ballast blow manifold. This manifold should be located in a

preferred easily accessible part of the control room to facilitate
dependable monitoring of the ballast blowing procedure. The initial blow
pressure is manually controlled through the main ballast blow valve but is
limited by a safety valve and is about twice as large as the maximum
diving pressure. The blow lines lead from the blow manifold through
valves to the individual ballast tanks.

Because the main blow valve/can freeze and become temporarily

inoperative as a result of a combination of steady blowing and cold, wet
compressed air, a "spare blow" valve is provided parallel to it.

3. The discharge manifold. This is connected to the pressure discharge

fittings on the compensating tanks. The pressure is adjusted manually by
using the main valve of the discharge manifold.

Fig. 95 - Compressed Air System

4. The low-pressure manifold. This carries a constant pressure, which
is controlled by a pressure-reducing valve (10 ​to 12 kg/cm​2 (gauge)). All
other consumers are supplied from here. If the reducing valve should fail,
the pressure can be regulated manually by a control valve located parallel
to the reducing valve.

All pressure manifolds are provided with a safety valve adjusted to

the maximum pressure admissible in the specific system.

7. HYDRAULIC OIL SYSTEM

Hydraulic oil is especially suited to effect movements when the

absence of noise is important and when either large forces or
moments become necessary. Hydraulic oil is therefore frequently used in
submarines for rudder and plane driving motors in the hoists of raising
equipment, especially periscopes and for activating torpedo tube muzzle
doors.

The advantage of a central hydraulic plant with an accumulator (Fig.

96) from which all the hydraulic oil consumers are supplied (as compared
with individual systems) is that the capacity of the hydraulic oil pump can
be smaller than the combined power input rates of all connected
consumers (All consumers are never operated. simultaneously and
continuously.). Another advantage is that the rudder and planes, e. g. the
most important consumers, when supplied from the accumulator, can still
be operated when the hydraulic pump electric drives fail temporarily, e.g.
under shock.
 Fig. 96 - Central Hydraulic Plant

8. ELECTRICAL SHIP NETWORK

The ship service electrical network supplies the consumers of

electric power. The relatively small number of major consumers, such as
drain pumps, cooling pumps, compressors, ventilators and d.c./ a.c.
converters, are supplied from the non-regulated board network. Certain
consumers, such as the cooling pumps of the propulsion plant and the
d.c./a.c. converters must be able to produce their full output at minimum
battery voltage. All other consumers have a set minimum voltage as their
nominal rating; it is usually slightly higher than the minimum battery
voltage. The drive motors as well as the auxiliaries driven by them must
be able to run on maximum battery voltage.

Each consumers can selectively be connected to any partial battery.

This provides for uniform partial battery ​dis​charge and makes spare
connections available.

In addition, there is a regulated board network for those

direct-current consumers that require a constant voltage supply, e.g.,
compartment lighting, navigating lamps, and the intercom system. This
network is frequently divided into two groups which (as above) can be
connected to any partial battery.

Convertors produce the three-phase a.c. and alternating current

required for the detection, communication, and fire-control systems.
 Rotary converters have the advantage of large simplicity. The recent
static converters are distinguished by their smaller generation of noises
and better efficiency, which have favourable consequences on the overall
cruising range of a submarine at low speed step.

9. ANCHOR EQUIPMENT

Submarines are usually provided with only one anchor and one
anchor chain cable. It should be possible during submerged cruise, too, to
come to anchor. The capstan, clutch, brake, and chain locker are located
in the outer hull. The capstan drive is usually operated from inside the
boat. Compressed air, hydraulic oil, or electric motors are used.

A Hall anchor with shortened shaft is usually used on submersibles:

due to the lean bow, the hawsehole is a
​ rranged in the ship's side (see Fig.
97).

The hawse hole on submarines is often provided in the keel due to

the full bow and because of arrangement of weapons and sonar array (see
Fig. 9
​ 8): in this connection it is tolerated that the correct position ​of the
anchor in the hawse is not easily distinguishable and that, during weighing
of anchor, the direct ion of chain cable is not known. Consequently, the
capstan drive should be able to draw the submarine in the direction of
chain cable, in such a case. Hawse arrangement in the keel requires
anchors, the flukes of which restore to vertical position by their gravity or
are righted by a mechanical device when the anchor comes home.
Furthermore, the anchor should turn into correct position to hawse by a
spiral guide during its hoist into the hawsehole.
 Fig. 98 - Anchor Equipment of a Submarine

10. EQUIPMENT FOR TOWING, MOORING, AND LIFTING

 A front towing hook is installed in the bow below deck level for
towing purposes. The towline is roved through a forward hawser port to
the towing hook in the free-flooding superstructure. A slip line leading
from the towing hook to the bridge fin will permit the towing connection to
be detached at any time.

If t​ here is no towing hook, the towline is passed via the forward

bollards to the midship superstructure and secured there. The forward
bollards alone are not strong enough to take the pull of the towline.

Submarines usually sail without guardrails in place. Crewmembers

who have to work on the fore body must be kept safe in some other way.
One method is to install into the deck a U-shaped rail in which a shoe can
slide fore and aft. A crewmember can then safely move about on the deck
wearing a. safety belt that is connected to the shoe by a short line.

Bollards and cleats for mooring lines are distributed fore and aft as
aboard surface ships of comparable dimensions. Because of the narrow
deck, they are usually installed midships and the same bollards and cleats
are used alternately for port or starboard mooring. Insofar as possible,
retractable bollards and cleats are installed so that they will
not cause drag during submerged cruising (see Fig. 99).

Many of former military submarines were provided with lifting

hooks, where lifting cables were to in case of damage in order to initiate
lifting of the entire vessel together with the crew shut up therein, by a
salvage ship. As there is no chance of successfully performing such a
salvage operation within sufficiently short periods, such lifting hooks are
no longer provided.
 Fig. 99 - Bollards and Cleats

Non-military submersibles which cooperate with a mother ship and

which should be hoisted to the deck of same after each mission, are fitted
with lifting eyes. The lifting gear of the mother ship can be engaged into
these eyes within the shortest period. For this purpose, the mother ship
sets out wet divers in thermal suits, who climb onto the submersible and
perform engaging work. Such manoeuvres are carried out at states of sea
up to scale No.6.

CHAPTER - XII

NAVIGATION AND COMMUNICATION INSTALLATIONS

Submarines require navigation aids for their cruise ​in the horizontal
plane- just as all other ships. Moreover, submerged operations should be
controlled as a movement in the third dimension. 'Telecommunication
systems for the traffic with the naval base and with other vessels as well
as several indicator and alarm systems for ship’s service are necessary.

NAVIGATION AIDS

The determination of the submerged position is facilitated by

heading and own speed information obtained by compass and speed
measuring systems. Both these vectors are the basis for dead-reckoning
navigation. The accuracy of the position thus obtained is largely reduced
as time goes on, 50 that a "support" either by celestial navigation with
the- aid of the search periscope or by an external radio aid to navigation
such as loran, decca, omega, or satellite navigation, is required. Here the
actual pos it ion is determined in longitudes and latitudes. In coastal
waters, radar and echo-sounding equipment may also be used in-addition
to the bearings taken through the periscope.

Compass Installations

It was not until the invention of the gyrocompass that submarines

were able to steer precisely. For taking bearings, the master compass is
connected with several -repeaters, e.g. those at the steering control
console or on the bridge.

Heading is also transmitted to the various detection devices and to

the weapon control system.

Submarine construction provided the incentive for the development of the

gyrocompass in Germany. H. Anschutz, a member of a polar expedition,
planned on using a research submarine to reach the North Pole under the
ice cap. In order to have a compass for this expedition he started work on
his gyrocompass in 1902. Because of the sea area in which it was to be
used, the first course compass had no directional chara9teristics. Actually,
the expedition never materialized because the submarine propulsion plant
was inadequate. Later on, Anschutz developed the meridian gyrocompass
(which cannot be used near the North Pole).

Large submarines often have aboard a second, less sophisticated,

spare gyrocompass system without repeaters. Until World War II,
projection-type magnetic compasses were used as backup.

Magnetic compasses function under water because the earth’s

magnetic field is present under as well as above water.

These compasses were installed above the pressure hull in a

nonmagnetic zone with a spheric radius of about I m. I​ mage transmission
into the pressure hull was accomplished by lenses and prisms, and the
image was projected onto a ground-glass plate. Submarine magnetic
compasses cannot be adjusted accurately because of the interference
caused by the heavy currents in the electrical networks and by the long
pressure hull.

The projection-type compasses used aboard merchant ships were

developed from the type used on submarines. Here the indication of the
bearing compass is projected into the wheelhouse below to the helmsman.

American nuclear submarine ships use inertial navigation systems

being sufficient even when navigating, in the vicinity of the pole.

Speed Measuring Systems

The hydrodynamic log in the bow is suitable for submarines because

it has no parts that protrude beyond the shell and requires no openings in
the pressure hull other than those for two permanently installed tubes.
The system inputs are (1) the total pressure (dynamic head plus depth
pressure) from the static tube in the bow and (2) the depth pressure
(static head) from the port and starboard measuring tubes. The depth
pressure is canceled out and the speed is indicated via the dynamic head,
which is proportional to the square of the speed. The distance covered is
then determined from this readout by integration.

The extendable bottom log is based on the same principle but

cannot be used in, submarines because of its moving parts.

Where accurate measurement of the distance covered is more

important than a direct measurement of the ship speed, it is preferable to
use, equipment that will measure the dis tance covered directly by
counting the revolutions of an impeller. The speed is then determined
from these measurements by differentiation. One advantage of this
system is that the depth pressure is not superimposed on the reading, as
it is in the case of the hydrodynamic log. The impeller has to be extended
on a shaft far enough, from the shell to be outside the boundary layer in
undisturbed water. This requires a relatively elaborate installation in the
outer hull.

During the past years, the electro-magnetic log has become more
important. This log measures the speed relatively to the ambient water by
means of an electronic sensor, which either is formed as a short fin or is
flush with the shell plating. In this connection, the deflection of electronic
charge carriers in the magnetic field is measured at right angles to the
direction of motion.

A high accuracy in the speed measurement over ground is of

particular importance for the determination of the absolute pos it ion. In
this connect ion, the sonar Doppler log is used, the acoustic transducers of
which are arranged at the bottom of the ship in ship's longitudinal and
transverse direct ion. Ultrasonic pulses are emitted, and their echoes
reflected from the sea bottom are received back. The difference between
transmitting and receiving frequencies - i.e. Doppler frequency – is a
measure for the ship's speed.

Sounding Device

An echo-sounding device is used for depth finding; its pair of

transducers is pressure-resistant in accordance with diving pressure.
When depth is to be measured directly during submerged cruising, two
pairs of transducers are installed, one for upward and the other for
downward sounding. The reading of the upper transducer pair only
provides the depth from the surface and that from the lower transducer
pair only the distance between the keel and the sea bottom. The sum of
both readings yields the depth of the water.
 This system can have an additional device for continuous recording
of the readings. These recordings provide good check-up during-
exercises.

Radio Direction Finder (RDF)

The radio direction finder (RDF) can be used to fix position when the
submarine is running in the surfaced condition. Moreover, RDF is used to
obtain bearings on radio signals of enemy or friendly forces. When
rotating loop antennas are used, they must be hoistable and
pressure-resistant. Goniometer RDF sets have a nonrotating antenna
which possibly can be installed permanently inside the superstructure, but
in that case, the superstructure must have nonconducting material within
a certain distance of the installation.

Ferrite antennae may be used for direction finding on the surface

and for V.L.F. reception in submerged condition. I f the transmitter
capacity is high enough; the magnetic component of very long
electromagnetic waves (about 30,000 m corresponding to 10 kHz)
penetrates through the water and can be received on the submerged
submarine. Messages from the naval base can be transmitted to the
submarines on these frequencies. As the transmission losses in seawater
are high, the reception depth is limited to about 20 m.

Sextants

Sextants may be used during surface cruise for the classical celestial
navigation; when at periscope depth, celestial navigation may be
performed by means of sextants at the search periscope (see Chapter IX).
Chronometers or other highly accurate time-measuring instruments
should be provided for the celestial navigation.
Radio Navigation

Radio aids- to navigation, such as decca and loran, may be used in

coastal waters. Omega and satellite reception are aids giving worldwide
coverage and may be used if adequate receivers and antennae are
provided. Satellite reception is possible in the U.H.F / V.H.F. ranges,
whereas omega can be received in V.L.F. range.

2. INDICATOR SYSTEMS FOR SUBMERGED CRUISING

The diving depth is measured by pressure gauges which may be of

Bourdon tube type. One instrument, as sensitive as possible and provided
with a large dial, is used to indicate the periscope depth and another gage
is used for a measuring range which extends from the surface to beyond
the maximum diving depth. An intermediate depth gage is also used
sometime. Large, long vessels have additional depth gages in the end
compartments of the pressure hull.

Because Bourdon gages of standard construction {Fig.100) indicate

the pressure differential between internal and external pressure, the
reading must be corrected by adjustment for atmospheric pressure. These
gages can cause false conclusions in cases of damage. For example, they
will not indicate the true depth when a submarine has sunk to the bottom
and the internal pressure has been equalized with external water
pressure. On the other hand, gages installed in airtight casings will
indicate true external pressure.

Fig. 100 - Bourdon Gage Depth Indicator

The so-called Papenberg depth gage is used by the German Navy for
precision reading at periscope depth (Fig. 101). The measurement is
based on the compression of an air cushion, and so the reading in the
cylindrical glass tube is not linear. The residual buoyancy of the boat
associated with its floating position is plotted on this instrument in
addition to the depth scale (starting with the surfaced flotation line and
decreasing to zero when the top of the superstructure has been reached).
Moreover, the contour of the cross section of the boat is plotted in
association with the depth (distorted). The water level of the instrument is
illuminated horizontally, and minute tendencies for attitude changes can
be identified from the curvature of the meniscus before the water level in
the tube rises or falls.

Fig. 101 - Papenberg Depth Gage

Trim is indicated by spirit levels with longer than usual legs (Fig.
102). The rear leg, which is not used for reading purposes, has a much
larger cross sect ion than the front leg; thus the readings on the front leg
will become proportionally greater.

Fig. 102 - Trim Indicator

In the German Navy, the glass tube of the trim indicator is installed
alongside the Papenberg pressure gage tube in such a manner that the
zero mark on the trim indicator is at the same level as the ​periscope d
​ epth
indication on the Papenberg gage (Fig. 103). This made it possible for the
man ​in ​charge of depth control to check depth and trim of the boat at a
glance when at periscope depth, where maximum accuracy of these
observations is important.

During a trim test, a pendulum is installed in the center of the

submarine and is permitted to swing above a graduated plate to
determine the "square" position of the boat and to adjust the trim
indicator. Measurement of the external seawater density is effected by
admitting seawater into a container and measuring its density with an
areometer:

Fig. 103 - Papenberg Depth Gage and Trim Indicator

Snorkel submarines have special barometers to measure the air

pressure in the submarine over a range of about + or -​ ​250 mb.

It must be possible to determine the liquid level in any tank quickly

and at any time by means of special sounding instruments. When tanks
(e. g. compensating tanks) cannot be vented for sounding, glass gages
are used to determine the level. If these cannot be installed because of
lack of space, mechanical, float-controlled level indicators are used. Other
tanks are fitted with sounding tubes and rods. The above items can be
replaced by electronic measuring devices to the advantage that the
indicators for all tanks can be combined on one panel in the control room.

The level in tanks in which the fuel oil floats on top of water cannot
be determined accurately with simple devices (see Chapter X).

TELECOMMUNICATION SYSTEMS

So far as hardware as concerned, the telecommunication systems do

not differ greatly from those installed in other comparable ships. However,
the antennas require special construction. For H.F., transmitting/receiving,
all submarines require a rod antenna, the base of which is hoisted above
water line during cruise at periscope depth (see Fig. 104).

For other frequency ranges, Dipole antennae may also be hoisted at

periscope depth.

In this way, reception and transmission is possible on the usual

frequencies. In completely submerged condition, V.L.F. reception is
possible by using the radio direction finder antenna.

Transmitting and receiving units have different modes of operation

and are connected with the antennae via an antenna matrix. Modern
systems have slide-in modules and are arranged in an electromagnetically
shielded, enclosed space (see Fig. 105).

Fig. 104 - Rod Antenna

Fig. 105 - Telecommunication System

4. UNDERWATER TELEPHONY

Underwater telephony can be used for communication of submerged

submarines with other ones or with other vessels. These systems operate
with acoustic transducers for transmitting and receiving, which may be
arranged in way of bridge fin. Layout of these transducers resembles that
used with echo sounding devices. These systems are used primarily during
exercises to provide communication between the accompanying safety
vessel and the submerged submarine. They have no tactical significance
because the wireless connection can be monitored by third parties.

ALARM SYSTEMS WITHIN THE BOAT

 The general alarm facilities trigger bell or horn signals in every
compartment ​e.g
​ . to announce a crash dive. Flashing light signals are also
provided in compartments with high noise levels (engine rooms). The
helmsman usually activates the alarm facilities.

Glow lights on a panel in the control room indicate the closed status
of all major closures such as snorkel air intake head valves, external
exhaust gas valves or flaps, etc. The submarine must not dive when
anyone of these major closures is open.

In submarines with vents that are activated hydraulically or by

compressed air, the closure status of the ballast tank vents is indicated in
the control room so that these systems can be supervised for proper
functioning.

For the transmission of orders and information within the

submarine, a two-way voice communication system of simplex or duplex
type subdivided into several user circuits may be provided. The system is
of particular importance during the time of engagement.
 CHAPTER - XIII

CREW HABITABILITY

In general, the total number of crew is determined so that

submarine standard cruise may be performed with a three watch system
where the commanding officer and some other crewmembers remain off
watch. For combat readiness, all off-watch persons are summoned. The
decisive figure for the total number of crew to be embarked is either the
manning for "standard cruise" or the manning "on combat stations". The
higher the degree of automation of all submarine installations is, the
smaller the total number of crew may be.

Small non-military submersibles supported by a supply ship, operate

with one watch only thus limiting the period for one single mission to
about five hours.

1. ACCOMMODATIONS

Crew accommodations depend greatly on the size of the submarine, its

employment, and its operational area. If possible, there should be one
bunk (positioned in the longitudinal direction) and one locker for each,
man together with an adequate number of tables and seats (see Fig. 106).
The captain, officers, senior petty officers, petty officers, and nonrated
men are given separate accommodations when space permits. The captain
and the officers should be accommodated at close to the control room as
possible. Large submarines usually have separated spaces for messes,
washrooms, and showers. Space can be so limited in the smaller:
submarines that the number of bunks will accommodate only two-thirds of
the crew, and some bunks must be shared by the different watches.
 Fig. 106 - Accommodations

The overall arrangement should be such that each man is provided

with some private area how small it may be. The crew of submarines
operating in sustained submerged condition undergo, amongst other
difficulties, lack of motion and too small a physical training, and the
monotony of duty and the lack of natural times of day and night result in
increased mental stresses. These ill effects may be counteracted by
day/night lighting adjusted on a natural rhythm in the living spaces,
provision of facilities of play and entertainment, as well as of special
sporting facilities.

2. PROVISIONS

Perishable food will not last long in submarines. The composition of

provisions should be adapted to the (reduced) food calorie requirements.
In order to meet "the lack of appetite often prevailing, it should be
possible to serve varified and tasty meals.

Most of the provisions on the former submersibles were in the form

of canned food, bread baked in foil, dehydrated potatoes, dried peas,
beans, rice, etc. The small refrigerator was used to store fresh meat which
was consumed early in a mission.

Submarines operating. in sustained submerged condition are

provided with a deep freeze chamber, a cold storage chamber/ and a
canned provisions space etc. A daily provisions refrigerator is also
arranged near the galley.
 Ready meals to be carried in deep-frozen condition would generally
require too much space, so that they have not yet been included up to
now.

The overall design should allow for changes in weight and trim
arising by food consumption.

3. FRESH WATER

The amount of fresh Water supply directly influences the size of the
compensating tanks. About 3 1 of fresh water per man and day are to be
reckoned with for the preparation of beverages and meals and for
dish-washing. Consequently, in order to have smaller-size fresh water
tanks, it is advisable for large submarines intended for long missions to
have sea water evaporation plants so that part of fresh water required can
be produced by own means.

The former German submersibles were provided with electrically

heated fresh water generators. Because of tl1e efficiency with which
electric power could be generated, diesel fuel consumption to make fresh
water was approximately one-ninth the volume of the fresh water distilled.

The changes in trim being possible during fresh water consumption

should be allowed for by adequate arrangement of tanks.

4. WASH WATER

Special wash water tanks are provided only in large submarines. In

smaller submarines, part of the wash water is taken from the fresh water
tanks which should be adequately larger in size in such a case. In the
main, wash water may be carried as torpedo tank filling that, however,
will be contaminated by the water compensating negative buoyancy of
torpedo and WRT. 10 to 25 ltr of wash water per man and day are
reckoned with.

Special salt-water soap is provided to enable seawater to be used

for washing.

5. GALLEY FACILITIES

Special significances given to high-quality galley facilities in

submarines during long missions, thus a wide variety of well-prepared
meals is an important factor in maintaining crew combat readiness.

All cooking equipment is electrical, including facilities for frying and

baking. Cooking is usually effected during snorkel cruising not only
because power is generated directly durit1g this time but also because the
resulting steam and odors are directly exhausted by the diesel engines. All
pots must be designed as pressure cookers (Papin principle), otherwise
the fluctuating low pressure (which is always present during snorkel
cruising) would prevent the proper cooking of food, such as dried peas
and beans, and the pots would boil over more frequently.

The galley is vented via the exhaust air system of the submarine.
The exhaust points are arranged above the cooking plates and are
provided with particular grease filters. As comparatively very small
quantities are concerned, garbage on submarines is generally ejected
outboard through a lock (by using compressed air or pressure water).
Empty cans must be pressed flat to prevent their floating to the surface. A
can compression device is used for this purpose (it is noiseless so that it
can be used during low-noise cruising).
 But measures for taking sol id garbage back to the naval base may
also be-envisaged. For this purpose, such garbage is collected in
hermetically sealed plastic bags. Liquid wastes are pumped to overboard.

6. SANITARY FACILITIES

The waste collected from the heads accumulates in a pressure-resistant

tank, which can be emptied by compressed air to overboard (Fig. 107 +
108). The capacity of this sanitary tank is sufficient for about 24 hr. It is
strong enough to be emptied at any depth.

Fig. 107 - Diagram of Sanitary Installation

Fig. 108 - Garbage Lock

Night snorkel cruising is very well suited to this ejection operation

because the air bubbles are invisible, the compressed air consumption is
lower because of the shallow diving depth, and the ejection noise cannot
be heard because it is obliterated by the engine noise generated during
snorkel cruising.

The pump-type head formerly used when submerged was similar in

design to that used aboard yachts. The disadvantage that any pumping

operation will restrict the diving readiness of the submarine is greater

than the advantage of smaller space and weight offered by such an

arrangement.

7. VENTILATION SYSTEM, HEATING, AIR-CONDITIONING

 The ventilation system is used to ventilate the submarine during
surface and snorkel cruising and to circulate the air during submerged
cruise. An air supply and an air exhaust line are installed as straight lines
through the submarine (Fig. 109 and 110). The blowers are single- or
dual-stage fans with electric drive designed for low-noise operation. Air is
taken in and exhausted through air supply and exhaust masts with
pressure-resistant head and foot valves.

The valve heads open against water pressure and have rubber
gaskets; the head valves are located at the highest point in the
superstructure. The masts are fitted with water separators. When
arranging supply air and exhaust air rosettes in living arid service spaces,
it should be seen to the supply ventilation being as draught-free as
possible.

Submersibles usually have larger blower capacity than submarines

because ventilation in submersibles must take place as rapidly as possible
after, surfacing. The marine ventilates while cruising on snorkel. The
required for an air exchange depends on The amount of intake air
required for the diesel engines.

Each blower in a submersible exchanges the air about 20 times/hr.

Most German submarines also vent the battery with the exhaust
fan. Foreign ships have often a special battery exhaust fan for this
purpose.

When the exhaust fan is used to vent the battery, the exhaust
airline must be acid-resistant (have a lead liner, for example), and the
blower must be explosion-proof.
 During surface cruise, battery exhaust gases are guided through the
exhaust air mast into the atmosphere; during snorkeling, they are led to
the vicinity of air intake trunks of diesel engines (see Chapter X).

Air is circulated during purification system (see No.8 of this Chapter)

can be connected to the system. In addition, the air exhaust system is
used to check for tightness prior to diving (negative pressure test).

Prior to a test dive, the exhaust blower is used to subject the boat
being ready to dive to negative pressure. The air exhaust mast is sealed
off and then the exhaust blower is shut down. The negative pressure level
is observed for a period of about 2 min. If the level remains approximately
constant, it is concluded that all major pressure hull shutoffs are closed
and that air is not entering the submarine from the compressed air
system.

An electric heater in the supply airline is generally used for heating

of vessels in harbour and underway, so that heated air is delivered out of
the supply air rosettes. During sustained submerged cruising, the waste
heat of propulsion and auxiliary machinery and of electronic devices may
be utilized for ship heating via the ventilation system. Additional heating
may be supplied by portable electric heaters.

Particular air-conditioning systems providing cooling and, if

necessary, humidification of compartment air, are required by submarines
operating in warm waters because of their large amounts of waste heat
from the electronic devices. The heat exchangers of these systems are fed
with seawater which leads the heat to overboard.

8. AIR PURIFICATION SYSTEM

During continuous submerged cruising, the air in the submarine

must be purified by chemically removing the carbon dioxide (CO2)
produced by exhalation and replacing the oxygen (O2) consumed.
 The amount of CO2 in the air exhaled should not exceed 1.0
percent. A concentration of 4 percent will have a severely adverse effect
on crew efficiency and can be endured for a short time only; 5 percent will
be toxic.

The oxygen content, 20 percent in fresh breathing air, should not

fall below about 17 percent. Such factors as crew activities and the
available air space per man in the ship's interior determine when the air
purification system must be started after decisive concentrations have
been reached.

The following are the approximate air space / man relationships in

German World War II submarines (see the Appendix for descriptions of
the various types):

Type 2d: 7.5 m3

Type 7c: 10.5 m3
Type 9: 11.5 m3
Type 21: 17.0 m3
Type 23: 8.5 m3

One man aboard a submarine will generate about 25 liters of

CO2/hr. His O2 consumption averages about 30 liters/hr.

A man requires about 0.5 liter of air per inhalation. Respiratory

frequencies are 22 inhalations/min while standing, 19 while sitting, 13
while lying, and 10 while sleeping. The mean oxygen consumption of 30
liters/hr cited above corresponds to 15 inhalations/min. During extended
submerged cruising, therefore, the men on duty should sit down and all
men off watch should rest, whenever possible.
Carbon Dioxide Absorbent System

Chemical absorption by using sodium hydroxide is:

2 NaOH + ​CO2 =
​ Na2cO3 + H2O

and by potassium hydroxide is:

2 KOH + ​CO2 =
​ K2CO3 + H2O

Sodium hydroxide is contained in cartridges, potassium hydroxide in

storage cans. The cartridges intended for consumption are inserted in rack
s. The potassium hydroxide is poured from the cans into a container.
During air circulation in submerged condition, air intake by the fan is
effected over the rack or through the container so that the ​CO2 ​is
absorbed.

Heat will evolve as a result of ​CO2 ​absorption. Recooling is an

indication that the process has term1nated. The used-up material can be
disposed of through the garbage disposal lock.

The supplies carried for air purification are consumables and, as

such, are included in the weight calculation. In case of submarines on
continuous submerged operation, their weight is about the same as that of
the provisions.

Furthermore, there are systems eliminating the 9atbon dioxide by a

refrigeration cycle. However, these require increased -electrical capacity
so that they are suitable for nuclear-powered submarines only.

Oxygen Replenishment System

 The oxygen supply is carried in gaseous form in oxygen flasks or as
a chemical compound in cartridges. The pressure flasks (content about 50
liters each at a pressure of 150 to 200 kg/cm​2 ​are connected to a piping
system. Oxygen is added through a simple dosing device into the supply
ventilation line that distributes the oxygen throughout the submarine. For
oxygen consumption, the cartridges are installed in the control room in a
simple apparatus and discharge the gas free into the compartment by
evolving heat in the process.

Oxygen carriage in flasks offers advantages because it can be dosed

more precisely than oxygen in cartridges, and addition can be stopped at
any time. If an oxygen cartridge has been started, it must be discharged
completely so that the danger of over-enrichment with oxygen cannot be
excluded. Spontaneous combustion, e.g., of fabric, is possible when the
oxygen level is too high.

On the other hand, oxygen cartridges require less storage space,

and, within certain limits, the total number of cartridges carried can be
adapted to the specific tactical requirements of a submarine.

CHAPTER - XIV

SAFETY AND RESCUE FACILITIES

A submarine is envisaged for three operating conditions, i.e. surface

cruise and submerged cruise, as well as snorkel cruise which is a
semi-submerged condition. During
all three operating conditions, the principle of Archimedes is fulfilled,
whereas submerging and surfacing manoeuvres represent a dynamic
procedure. If comparison with a surface vessel is made, these
circumstances increase the number of possible kinds of danger, but this
does not mean that the danger in whole must be larger as well. A
submarine constructed well, who operates at moderate depth and at
medium speed has, for instance, practically not to reckon with collisions,
and influences by bad weather do not exist at all. Endangering by fire is
smaller than on many a surface vessel. Such a submarine may be
considered to be as safe as a surface vessel, or even to be safer.

Discrimination should be made between the prevention of accidents

at impending dangers on one hand (safety precautions) and salvage and
rescue after an accident on the other hand.

1. PREVENTION OF ACCIDENTS BY PRECAUTIONS

As long as a submarine cruises on the surface, she is, a participant

in traffic like other vessels. She is fitted out with first-class navigation
equipment, and the watch on the bridge is assumed to be attentive.
However, contrary to other participants in traffic, the submarine is
handicapped by her small silhouette and the associated small radar
reflexion.

Concerning exhibition of lanterns at night, it is often not possible to

comply with all regulations (e.g. often the second masthead light cannot
be carried in spite of its being required due to her length of more than
45.75 m. As a rule, permissions for an exemption from the requirement
are given).

A submarine cruising on the surface may be subjected to a water

inrush like any other vessel. Such a damage is not dangerous as long as,
only the main ballast tanks become leaky and are flooded as, in all
probability, the submarine will maintain her floating capacity. If, however,
the pressure hull is damaged, this will lead, in most cases, to the loss of
the submarine not provided with watertight transverse subdivision of the
pressure hull. The condition of such kind of ships is approximately the
same as that of fully loaded full-scantling cargo vessels with the exception
that that shell plating of a submarine is dissimilarly stronger. A sufficient
watertight transverse subdivision of the pressure hull corresponding to the
subdivision of a one-compartment ship is possible as from a certain
submarine length only (about 80 ml), as due to the internal fittings of the
pressure hull a certain absolute minimum distance between the transverse
bulkheads Should be maintained. If longer submarines are transversely
subdivided so as to be considered as "one-compartment ships", it should
be taken into account that at least one main ballast tank adjacent to the
leaky pressure hull compartment will also be damaged. In case of
submarines cruising on the surface and having become leaky, the
transverse stability does not become critical.

The pumping-out capacity of a submarine on the water surface is

almost never sufficient for pumping out the water entering through a
leakage in case of a collision.

The following approximate quantities of water will enter through a leak

of 1 cm​2​ in area:

at a depth of 2 m: 1.5 m3/hr

at a depth of 20 m: 5.0 m3/hr

at a depth of 100 m: 10.0 m3/hr

at a depth of 200 m: 14. 5 m 3 /h r

The sea-going qualities of a submarine being well designed and

constructed and skillfully handled are unlimited on the water surface. She
is as seaworthy as a rescue cruiser. Breaking seas do not endanger the
submarine which may almost completely be closed. Her range of, stability
is unlimited. Any longitudinal strength problems do not exist because of
the heavy pressure null.
 It should be mentioned that the danger of a submarine becoming
leaky due to grounding is very small during surface cruise because the
pressure hull, in general, is very strong and is often protected by a keel
structure below.

During submerged cruise, the submarine operates in the so called

ready-to-dive condition, which includes the necessity of all required
shutting arrangements being closed and sealed. In Germany, there is
completely introduced now the system of double shutoffs. If she is
correctly handled, any water inrushes into the pressure hull during
submerged cruise are not to be, reckoned with. It may be possible that,
through small leakages, water slowly enters which, however, can be
eliminated by the pumping-out system.

Also in case of failure of the propulsion plant and, consequently, of

the hydrodynamic hydroplane forces, it would be easy to cause surfacing
of the submarine, e.g. by freeing of compensating tanks and blowing of
main ballast tanks by compressed air.

If the submarine operates near the maximum admissible diving

depth, she is endangered by water inrush at small speed and by depth
control errors (hydroplane failure, wrongly tilted hydroplanes) at high
speed. Vice versa, depth control errors at low speed and limited inrushes
of water at high speed are comparatively harmless near the maximum
admissible diving depth. However, high speeds near the water surface are
risky due to the danger of breakthrough to above and to the associated
danger of collision with surface ships. Consequently, there is a safety
performance envelope for the submarine (see Fig. Ill), who should only
operate within the parameters shown on this diagram. The dangers
resulting from inrush of water during a cruise at maximum diving depth
may be overcome by blowing of main ballast tanks with compressed air
and by draining of compensating tanks; furthermore, the speed can be
increased so that forces of hydroplanes tilted to above are also increased.

Fig. 111 - Safety Performance Envelope

The danger resulting from hydroplane failures (particularl​y ​stern

plane failures) at max. submerged depth and high speed may be
countered by three different safety measures, as follows:

- emergency H.P. blowing of forward main ballast tanks,

- tilting of steering rudder to hardover (effective only if the

submarine, in this way, trims by the stern due to design features
(see Chapter VI), and

- reversal of propeller to astern motion.

Fig. 112 shows a simulated emergency manoeuvre. Blowing of main

ballast tanks by compressed air in great depths is not too effective,
because the procedure is too slow. Reversal of machinery ​is ​of limited
effect as well. Simultaneous application of all three precautions would turn
out most favourably.

On the other hand, blowing of ballast tanks by compressed air may

be an effective protection against exceeding of admissible diving depth if
small slow submersibles for civil purposes are concerned. It is possible to
provide equipment by which blowing is automatically effected if a certain
depth is reached.

A - EMERGENCY H.P. BLOWING

B - STEERING RUDDER'HARDOVER
C - REVERSAL OF PROPELLER
D - NO COUNTERMEASORES

Fig. 112 - Simulated Emergency Manoeuvres

On the German submersibles of the TOURS series, this equipment is

connected with a "dead man' s" release automatically blowing the ballast
tanks unless the crew is actuating a safety' key switch every 15 minutes.
This is a protectional measure for the submersible in case her crew is no
longer able to handle the submersible who automatically surfaces then. It
is obvious that such an outfit does not come into question for military
vehicles.

Such vessels often use droppable safety ballast. At the moment of

dropping, the effective weight of ballast is immediately available as a
buoyant force.

The measure of droppable ballast has meanwhile been deleted for

military submarines, because the arrangement of a sufficiently large
quantity of ballast is rendered difficult for design reasons. Stability
conditions are rendered worse by dropping the ballast.

In the Federal Republic of Germany, a device has been developed,

by means of which the total volume of the forward main ballast tanks can
be blown at maximum diving depth within such a short period as just
being permitted by the strength of tanks. The development comprises gas
generators based on hydrazine (N2 H4) Hydrazine is forced through a
catalyzer by means of nitrogen as a power gas, and is spontaneously
decomposed into hydrogen (H2), nitrogen (N2), and ammonia (NH3) The
plant ​is s​ ubdivided into several elements, all of which are used
simultaneously at maximum diving depth, whereas an adequately reduced
number is necessary at smaller depth. After blowing-out of forward main
ballast tanks, the submarine heavily trimming by the stern develops high
speed and breaks the water surface, after a short period of time (see- Fig.
113 and Fig. 1l3a). This equipment may be useful both during dangers ​in
great water depths due to hydroplane failure and in case of water
inrushes. In case of limited water inrushes in submerged condition, the
submerged accident may possibly be changed into a surface accident by
quick surfacing, so that the crew may have a chance to leave the
submarine on the surface, in time.

If the damaged submarine fails to surface, she will sink to the

bottom of the sea.

Fig. 113 - Emergency Blowing out Equipment

Fig. 114 - Quick surface test of German Class 206 Submarine by

means of the Emergency Blowing-out Equipment

2. SALVAGE AND RESCUE

On the assumption that the depth of water at the place of accident

is not larger than the collapse depth of the pressure hull, rescue now shall
be initiated.
 In the past, considerations have been made concerning salvage of
the entire submarine together with the crew isolated therein. For such a
purpose, the Imperial German Navy formerly possessed a catamaran-type
salvage vessel named "Vulkan" (see fig. 114).

Fig. 114 - Salvage Ship “Vulkan"

It is obvious that the success of such salvage operations depends on

the coincidence of several lucky circumstances. The salvage vessel must
be ready for operation and must not be too far away from the place of
accident. It must be possible to locate very quickly the position of the
damaged submarine by using e.g. signal beacons, ejectable radio
beacons, and telephone beacons. The submarine must be fitted with
suitable hoisting hooks. Weather conditions must allow anchorage above
the sunken submarine. In case ​of ​single accidents in very shallow waters,
lift ​of ​military submarines together with parts of their crew were
successful. But in general, the possibility ​of ​a success in the salvage ​of
entire submarines together with their crews is no longer reckoned with, so
that the hoisting eyes formerly envisaged in this connection and the
emergency blowing devices for ballast tanks have now been deleted.

In case of the civil submersibles which are very much smaller and,
consequently, less in weight, the salvage ​of t​ he entire vehicle together
with her crew plays a much larger part. A number ​of s
​ alvages have turned
out successfully, other ones proved unsuccessful. In such cases, aid was
rendered to the damaged submersible by other submersibles or by
manipulators, remote-controlled from the surface to the effect that
hoisting ropes could be fixed. Part of t​ he submersibles having gone bad
have been hooked up on the ground without any damage to themselves.
 Civil submersibles always operate together with mother ships
contact to whom may be continuously maintained. Of course, they
facilitate the rescue operation and shorten the timely proceedings. As,
however, the crew isolated in the vehicle avail ​of l​ ife support means for a
limited peric.5 only (between 36 and 72 hours), such a salvage, as a rule,
is a dangerous competition with the time.

Fig. 115 - Rescue Equipment for TOURS Submersibles

A simple but promising salvage equipment has been introduced and

tested on a submersible ​of ​the TOURS series (see Fig. 115). The
submersible is equipped with two beacons made of ​pressure proof foam
plastic material, which can be launched from the interior of the
submersible by a slipping gear independently of each other. The beacons
are connected to each other by a thin, but strong line led through a
V-shaped tube fixed to the bridge fin of the submersible. The two ends of
the lines are coiled on reels in the lower parts of the two beacons in such
a way that the reel on beacon No.1 holds 20 m of line more than that on
beacon No.2. The total length of rope is b
​ y about 100 m larger than twice
the depth of water at the place of diving. In case of damage, the crew
releases, at first, the beacon No.1 having the longer line. About 10
minutes later, after this beacon having drifted in the current, beacon No.2
is released. By using a rubber boat, the mother ship arranges for an about
8 mm thick wire rope to be fixed at the rope end of beacon No.1; the wire
rope, is reeved in by means of the line of beacon No.2 so that it runs
through the V-shaped tube on the damaged submersible. Then the two
ends of the wire rope are coiled up o
​ n a winch of the mother ship, after
which one may try to break loose the submersible from the ground and to
heave it up to the surface. In case of need, another lifting rope being still
thicker may be reeved in during another working cycle. The outfit
described above can be used successfully down to depths of 500 m. It is
of particular advantage as recovery may be commenced with immediately
after the accident and as it is not necessary straight away for other
submersibles to approach down to the damaged submersible.

In case of military submarines, all endeavours of rescue can only be

concentrated on the rescue of the crew. If a submarine operating on the
surface is suffering an accident resulting in her sinking, the crew must
leave the submarine as quickly as possible and enter into rubber boats,
which - on the German submarines - are very similar to the inflatable life
rafts known for surface vessels. They can be launched and inflated
automatically, so that the escaping crew finds the life raft in a condition
ready to be entered. The inflatable life rafts are tented and provided with
drinking water and provisions facilitating survival until the time of help
from other vessels.

As a rule, the pressure hull of a submarine without pressure-proof

transverse subdivision will be flooded in case of water inrush so that the
crew is subjected to diving pressure and must leave the submarine as
quickly as possible. They assemble around the hatch destined for escape.

Before the hatch is opened, the "air trap" arranged below the hatch
is lowered (see Fig. 116), so that a sufficiently large air bubble remains
within the submarine after hatch having been opened. Already during the
compression phase, i.e. the time in which the submarine is being flooded
through the leak, the air in the submarine must not be inhaled by the
crew. They should the breathe out of an emergency breathing system
which, essentially, consists of a straight line leading through the entire
vessel and having numerous individual connections. As a rule, compressed
air being specially purified is fed.

This so-called BIB system (Built-In-Breathing System) has been

developed and tested in Great Britain.
 Fig. 116 - Hatch with Air Trap

The system replaces the submerged escape apparatuses

(aqualungs) formerly in use.

The submerged escape apparatus is a counter-pressure breathing

appliance that uses an alkali cartridge to remove the CO2 from the
exhaled air; fresh air enriched with oxygen is added. On the surface, it is
used as a life jacket (see Fig. 117).

After having left the submarine, the men rise to the surface, borne
by the lift of Life jackets. During ascent, they cannot inhale air due to
rapid pressure drop, so that any necessity of breathing air supply does not
exist.

Fig. 117 - Aqualung

The automatically inflatable life rafts provided for the German

submarines are packed in containers being pressure proof at the diving
depth out of which the crew still is able to escape successfully. These
containers together with the life rafts packed therein avail of a lifting
force. They are carried in pressure-proof cylinders, the covers of which
can be opened by remote actuation. After these covers having been
opened, the containers rise to the surface where they automatically
liberate the life rafts, which automatically inflate. A connection between
the submarine lying on the ground and the inflated liferaft is maintained
by a line, so that its going adrift is not possible. The escaping crew is thus
provided with the chance of reaching the inflated liferaft (see Fig. 118).

Fig. 118 - Free Escape

Larger submarines provided with a pressure-proof subdivision still

offer additional possibilities for the application of systems for the rescue of
the crew isolated in the undamaged escape compartment where they still
are subjected to atmospheric pressure. In this connect ion, special
mention of the U. K. system of "free ascent" is made, where one person of
the crew after the other is locked out of the narrow rescue tower. Owing
to the fact that the pressure can be doubled every 4 secs; it is possible to
subject the person in question to a very high pressure within the shortest
period. The ascent beginning immediately afterwards is effected by the lift
supplied by an inflated rubber hood covering the entire head except the
face. This procedure is successfully tested down to depths of 180 m.

A former system for the salvage of persons isolated in an escape

compartment is the use of pressure-proof rescue bells. The rescue bell
(see Fig. 119) is launched from a salvage ship above the sunken
submarine, after which a diver fastens a rope on the sunken submarine in
the middle of the hatch envisaged for the salvage. The free end of rope is
put on the winch of the rescue bell. By actuation of the winch driven by
compressed air, the rescue bell manned with 2 to 3 salvage persons hauls
down to the hatch of the sunken submarine. The hatch is provided with an
outer flange matching the bell. After connection of bell and drainage of
space between bell and submarine, the bottom cover of the bell and,
subsequently, the hatch of the submarine are opened up. The bell
accommodates about 10 persons out of the submarine, and the submarine
hatch and the
bottom cover of the bell are closed. The bell is disconnected from the
submarine and rises to the surface. The persons having escaped leave the
bell through the upper cover. This procedure may be repeated as often as
it is required by the number of persons isolated in the damaged
submarine. The advantage of this method consists in the fact that the
crew is not subjected to the diving pressure during salvage, which is
possible out of depths to be reached by professional divers.

Fig. 119 - Diving Bell for Submarine Crew Rescue

In 1939, successful salvage of 33 surviving persons of the U.S.

American submarine “SQUALUS” out of a depth of 73 m was possible by
using such a rescue bell.

In a case of a more recent design, the first rope connection between

the sunken submarine and the rescue bell is established in that the
submarine releases a beacon uncoiling a rope via a reel fitted to the
middle of her hatch, so that supporting aid by a diver becomes
unnecessary.
 The U.S.A. developed a mobile rescue system {a sort of rescue bell
with own drive}, the D.S.R.V. (deep. submergence rescue vessel) which is
a submarine being able to approach down to the sunken submarine and to
be attached to her hatch. The D.S.R.V. can accommodate 24 persons and
may thus be able, under certain conditions, to recover the entire crew of a
larger submarine in the course of several dives (see Fig. 120).

Fig. 120 - D.S.R.V. (US-Navy)

It is possible to transport the D.S.R.V. by an airplane to the region

of the place of accident and, further on, by sea to the direct vicinity of the
damaged submarine.

A similar development has been begun in Sweden, where the

geographical conditions allow the overland transportation to the coastal
areas nearest to the place of accident. From there, the rescue submarine
(see Fig. 121) is transported by sea to the vicinity of the damaged
submarine. The chances of a successful/mission are more favourable in
case of the Swedish version, particularly a
​ s the Swedish rescue submarine
will much more often be used for rescue operations out of depths of water
shallower than the collapse depth of the damaged submarines in question.

Fig. 121 - Swedish Rescue Submersible (U.R.F.)

Both the abovementioned kinds of rescue may be used on the

assumption that the crew of the damaged submarine waits for a rescue
from outside which depends on contingencies such as mentioned before in
connection with the use of lifting vessels. Survival, however, depends also
on the permanent tightness of the pressure-proof transverse subdivision.
Of course, the tightness of such a bulkhead with its numerous
pressure-proof penetrating glands for cables and pipelines can be allowed
for in design; however, it is not possible to subject the bulkhead, after
completion of all internal fittings, to a test for pressure-tightness. Thus, a
certain uncertainty remains for the building, as no one can guarantee for
the prolonged tightness.

Fig. 122 - Rescue Sphere

A new rescue means being under, development in the Federal

Republic of Germany avoids the shortcomings and uncertainties being
connected with the salvage of a submarine crew by a rescue bell or"
rescue submarine. The appliance is an underwater rescue vessel, carried
on board the submarine, the so-called rescue sphere, dimensions of which
are such that the total number of crew can be accommodated and brought
to the surface after release from the, submarine (see Fig. 122). Behaviour
of the sphere on the water surface is similar to that of a lifeboat. The crew
can survive until the time of and by other vehicles. In the submarine, the
rescue sphere is arranged in a spherical indentation of the pressure-hull
above the pressure-proof separating bulkhead. Each one access to the
sphere is provided from the compartment forward of the separating
bulkhead and from the compartment aft of same. These accesses are
realised by each one hatch in the pressure hull and in the rescue sphere.
Around these hatches, there is fitted the special packing assembly for the
pressure-proof sealing between rescue sphere and pressure hull. The
rescue sphere is connected to the submarine by a"' mounting
arrangement with slipping gear. During submerged operation, the sphere
is pressed on additionally by means of the diving pressure. The hatches
must be closed for surfacing operation of the rescue sphere. Then the
slipping gear is released and the two compartments between the access
hatches are flooded until pressure equalisation is reached, thus resulting
in neutralization of the contact pressure. In case of damage to pressure
hull, the crew takes flight to the compartment still intact in order to enter
the sphere from there.

With regard to strength, the system is designed so that it still

remains operative at collapse pressure of the submarine. In the condition
fully loaded by the crew, the sphere still avails of a reserve buoyancy of
about 300 kg, by which surfacing is ensured. The displacement necessary
in this connection is generated by the volume of the sphere and by
pressure-proof plastic foam material arranged outside. On the water
surface, two watertight tanks are still emptied so that afterwards -
together with the reserve buoyancy - sufficient floatability is given.

The sphere having a diameter of 2.1 m offers accommodation

(however, close together) for a total number of crew of 24 persons on two
rows of seats arranged one above the other. For the relatively short period
between access to the rescue sphere and opening of the upper hatch on
the water surface, CO2 absorption and O2 addition is provided. Drinking
water and some provisions are available. A distress radio set and a radar
reflector facilitate finding of the sphere on the water surface. If the crew is
subjected to the diving pressure already in the submarine, the rescue
sphere may be used as a decompression chamber to a limited extent.

Summary

On military submarines, all measures increasing the safety are given

the preference over life-saving means. A higher degree of safety is for the
benefit of the submarine in all operating conditions and in all sea areas.
However, there is no chance of a rescue in case of submerged accidents in
sea regions having water depths larger than the collapse depth of the
submarine. Nevertheless, stress should be laid upon further development
of rescue appliances.

All salvage means of any kind whatever are most important for
nonmilitary submersibles which are operating in comparatively deep diving
depths, but always over the ground that is ​not deeper than the admissible
diving depth.

CHAPTER - XV

DESIGN

1. SPECIFICATIONS OF REQUIREMENTS

Buyer's specifications must be available before design work can

begin on a new type of submarine. Specifications should include
requirements, desirable features, and factual information.

The type to be designed must meet the requirements specified, e.

g., for a certain type of armament and its associated weapon control
system, maximum surface and submerged speeds, surface and
submerged cruising ranges at certain speeds, maximum submersion,
submerged endurance, and other characteristics. Also included are such
limitations set on dimensions, and characteristics as draft limitations
(based on port conditions) or the requirement not to exceed a certain
standard displacement (possibly with a view to international
commitments). A limitation of the number of crew may also be one of
buyer's requirements. Moreover, the buyer can set a maximum cost and
stipulate certain construction deadlines.

Whenever possible, excessively detailed requirements should be

avoided. If the requirements imposed in some individual areas are too
specific and detailed, they frequently result in but one possible design -
solution. Although this facilitates the designer’s, task, it will prevent him
from contributing to the problem, e.g., by proposing a quite different and
as yet unknown approach.

If the buyer sets a maximum depth, for example, and at the same
time specifies the type of steel for the pressure hull, he has clearly
determined an essential part of the hull's weight and possibly, the
required safety factor used for collapse depth (because of technological
reasons, each type of steel has a different factor). On the other hand, if
the designer is permitted to select the material, he can exploit new
developments in the materials area and possibly use any resultant weight
reduction to satisfy other desirable features in the design.

Similar considerations apply to propulsion systems. These should be

stipulated only when the buyer must select a certain make of engine for
reasons of maintenance and spare parts management. In all other cases,
it is better not to name the kind of propulsion system in the specifications.

Desirable characteristics should make up the greatest part of the

specifications. The designer must attempt to incorporate them, whenever
possible, within the scope of a harmonious, overall design.

The specifications may stipulate, for example, that speed and

cruising ranges beyond those set forth in mandatory characteristics are
desirable. Moreover, the desirable characteristics can refer to such general
submarine features as low detection factor (absence of noise, low
favorable silhouette during surface and submerged cruising), and engine
durability and endurance during submerged cruising.

The specifications should convey to the naval architect a picture of

the contemplated classification of the submarine type within the overall
Fleet building program. The designer must also be informed of experience
acquired in the operation and maintenance of earlier in-service types.

All of this information is tree-starting point for the designer, who

must find the optimum compromise for a submarine representing a
"weapon system".

2. PREPARATION OF A TYPE DESIGN

Type characteristics must be established first. In most cases, the

specifications will determine whether a true submarine, a submersible, or
an intermediate type will be feasible for the required mission. The external
configuration must be selected accordingly (see Fig. 7, 8, and 11).

The first task is to determine whether the design should incorporate

a single hull, a double hull, or a combination of the two. . The governing
factor in ​this choice is the ratio of the combined volume of fuel and ballast
tanks to the submerged displacement. If this ratio is small, a single hull
will be best solution. Whenever possible, the entire fuel is accommodated
in the lowermost part of pressure hull, where it increases static stability.
The pressure hull volume becomes larger so that amongst other items
more favourable space conditions, particularly above the main axis, are
the result. The additional weight arising from the fuel being
(unnecessarily) stored within a pressure-proof space is tolerated in this
connection. If the abovementioned ratio is large, a double hull will be the
solution. A combination of the best features of the two types may be
advisable in case of an average ratio.

In the case of the double-hull configuration (Item a on Fig.123), the

pressure hull is completely enclosed by a second envelope, the outer hull.
The space between the pressure hull and the outer hull includes the
ballast tanks, the fuel tanks, and the free-flooding spaces.

Fig. 123 - Hull Cross Sections

On single-hull boats (Item b, Fig. 123), which are no longer built in

their pure form; small outer envelopes are installed over the ends of the
conical parts of the pressure hull.

In the case of a combination of double- and single-hull boats (Item

c, Fig. 123), saddle tanks are installed athwartships and can contribute
greatly to surface stability. These saddle tanks can serve as ballast tanks,
fuel tanks, and, if pressure-resistant, even ​as ​compensating tanks and
negative tanks.

When the Walter propulsion system was used on German vessels,

fuel was stowed in the outer hull, below the pressure hull (Item d, Fig.
123).

If a boat has large batteries, it may be necessary to locate them on

two levels, one above the other. In such case, the pressure hull cross
section resembles an upright figure eight. Item e of Fig. 123 is for a large
double hull submarine with such a cross section to accommodate the size
of the battery (German Type 21, 1944). Item f is for a small, single hull
type of this kind (German Type 23, 1944). .

When a great deal of deck space is required for the batteries and
propulsion machinery, another solution is that shown in Item g of Fig. 123
(Dutch boat of the DOLFIJN class, 1959). Here the pressure hull is
subdivided into three parallel cylinders in close proximity. The two-ldler
cylinders contain the propulsion system and the upper one the ship
control, navigation, and detection systems, armament, and crew
accommodations. These cylinders are enclosed by the lightweight outer
hull.

The pressure hull can have a cross-section in the form of a lazy

figure eight when draft limitations are imposed on very large submarines
or where space considerations require such solution (Item h of Fig. 123 is
for a Japanese Type, 1944).

Any pressure hull with less than completely circular cross sections
requires heavy supporting decks and/or bulkheads in way of the
intersections.

Many factors, such as space utilization, submerged and surface

stability, and strength, have an effect on the pressure hull cross section to
be selected. The desirable configuration is a pressure hull with circular
cross sections.

The length and longitudinal subdivision of the pressure hull are

determined by length requirements and by rational arrangement of
armament, propulsion system, ship control, communication, and detection
systems as well as by various other shipboard installations.
 An early decision must be made as to whether a pressure resistant
conning tower will be required or whether a simple access trunk will
suffice. This decision depends primarily on the required hoisting length of
the periscopes. When the pressure hull has a large diameter, there may
be adequate height for the periscope eyepiece within the pressure hull.
When it is impossible to provide adequate height within the pressure hull,
a conning tower must be placed on top of the pressure hull. In such case,
the periscope can be extended to the point where the eyepiece is at an
adequate standing or seated- height within the conning tower. In addition,
the rudder control console and parts of the weapon control system can be
accommodated in this conning tower.

A pressure-resistant conning tower will reduce surface static stability

and will increase submerged stability. This will have an adverse effect on
small, single-hull submarines the more so as they already have less
stability during surface cruising than during submerged cruising.

A pressure-resistant access trunk with the access hatch topside and

the control room hatch at the bottom, replaces the conning tower when
the latter is not required.

The configuration of the free-flooding and free-venting

superstructure surrounding the conning tower or the access trunk may
very greatly (Fig. 124). It depends primarily on whether a submarine or a
submersible is being designed. The design of the superstructure for the
submersible depends on the locations selected for the cockpit, the hoisting
equipment, and possibly also on weapon armament on upper deck. The
hoisting equipment only is decisive for superstructure configuration in the
case of the submarine.

The specifications will generally show whether a single screw or a

twin-screw propulsion system is required. Individual studies must be
made to determine the size and type of the propulsion plant.
Corresponding studies are made for the other installations such as the
compressed air system, the drain system, the ventilation system, etc. The
energy requirement must be determined as precisely as possible at this
stage of the design because this factor is essential for determining the
cruising range of the boat, particularly at slower speeds.

A parallel effort is required in the study of the naval architectural

aspects of the steel structure of the pressure and outer hulls.

Fig. 124 - Super Structures of Submarines & submersibles

All of these preliminary studies are made to estimate weight to be

installed and space requirements. The weight information permits to check
flotation in surface condition and submerged hovering. The centers of
gravity of weights to be installed must be known quite precisely in order
to estimate static stability. Locations of these elements in the boat must
be specified in this connection.

The next step is to develop an overall sketch that includes such

important elements as armament, communication and detections
equipment, propulsion plant, operating controls, service alleyways,
maintenance and repair facilities, crew accommodations, and many other
details.

The arrangement of all the different sensors requires a particular

study (see Fig. 125).

A PASSIVE SENSOR F PERISCOPE

 B SONAR INTERCEPT G WARNING RADAR

C ACTIVE SONAR H RADAR

D UNDERWATER TELEPHONE J HF ANTENNA

E ECHO SOUNDER

Fig. 125 - Submarine Sensors

In particular, preferred locations in undisturbed flow of water are

necessary for the hydro acoustic sensors, which should avail of large
sweep angles and should be situated as far as possible from the ships own
noise sources. Location of surface sensors is confined to the bridge fin and
must be adapted to the snorkel equipment. Within the submarine,
particular attention should be attached to the association of display units
with each other as well as with periscopes and navigation equipment.
Working place analyses should be performed, allowing for human
engineering and ergonomic aspects for the crew - relative to the various
operating conditions of the submarine (deeply submerged standard cruise,
snorkel cruise, surface cruise, and attack cruise). The demands on the
crew concerning number and training, result from these working place
analyses which, in turn, are essentially influenced by the degree of
automation of, the entire -ships equipment. Schemes for the distribution
of crew during the various operating conditions are made, which finally
show the total number of crew required. The size of a submarine is
influenced by the number of crew to a high degree, because the pressure
hull must proportionately bear the weight of each man, of his personal
gear, of accommodation necessary for him, of his provisions and water
supplies, and air purification requirements. The pressure-proof volume
thus resulting requires a certain percentage of propulsive power delivered
by machinery and auxiliaries for surface and submerged conditions
together with proper fuel.

Iteration calculations have shown that - in case of diesel-electrically

driven submarines - reduction of crew by one single person results in a
diminution of the submarines by about 5 tons when all operating
performances and other characteristics are maintained.

This is followed by a preliminary compilation weights. The

determination of pressure-resistant displacement is a parallel effort based
on the selected pressure hull configuration. The comparison between
weight and submerged displacement will yield the ballast required for
stability. Now the approximate stability calculations can be computed for
the surface and submerged cruising.

Then the submarine is drawn in its entirety. This yields the total
form displacement, and, in turn, provides the first approach for checking
the required machinery ratings for surface and submerged cruising.

The complex interrelationships that exist among the great variety of

different effects usually require a number of preliminary designs before a
feasible type design can be developed.
 Attempts can also be made to determine the principal dimensions of
a submarine directly by using a design equation. This procedure equates
weight to submerged displacement. Weights are used as direct inputs
when they are of constant magnitude, e.g., in the case of the armament,
or they are expressed in terms of the diameter of the pressure hull and
coefficients when they are influenced by the size of the submarine.
Accordingly, the submerged displacement is expressed in terms of the
diameter of the pressure hull and other coefficients. The equation is
solved to yield the diameter of the pressure hull. Finally, all the necessary
principal dimensions are obtained from the pressure hull diameter and the
selected coefficients. The solution is dependent on random factors
because of the many coefficients that must be assumed. This procedure
usually yields unsatisfactory results in the case of submarine construction.

The results of the development of type designs are usually

presented in the form of a brief description that includes main data and of
a sketch of the specific type. The following items are included in the main
data:

1. The principal dimensions such as overall length maximum beam,

height from keel to deck, height from keel to upper edge of bridge fin,
periscope depth, draft, pressure hull length, and pressure hull diameter.

2. Displacement data such as surface displacement, submerged

displacement, and standard tonnage.

3. The diving depth.

4. Operating performance data such as surface speed, submerged

speed, surface and submerged cruising ranges at different speeds, and
time required to charge batteries.
5. Information on armament, detection systems, size of proposed
crew, and endurance in days.

As a rule, a given specification of requirements will yield, several

different type designs all of which are feasible. The buyer must then
decide which of the designs submitted best meets his specifications and
should therefore be approved for the next stage.

3. PREPARATION OF CONSTRUCTION DOCUMENTS

Construction documents are prepared from the type design selected

and must be completed before the order for the construction can be
placed. These documents include calculations, drawings, and descriptions
which are all sufficiently detailed to adequately define the constructional
features and the scope of supply, in simultaneous reference to the general
building instructions of the Navy in question. This construction information
can then be use/d by the buyer to solicit competitive bids from shipyards
suitable for comparison.

The lines drawing (see Fig. 7, 8, and 11) are approximately the
same as for other types of ships.

Because the pressure hull plating is relatively thick, it may be

advisable to draw the pressure hull lines for the outside of the pressure
hull instead of for the molded line (that is, the inside of the plating)
otherwise used in shipbuilding.
 The graphical presentation of the results of the calculations (the
curve sheet) is, in principle, prepared in the same way as for other ships
(Fig. 126).

In addition, the ballast tank volume is plotted against the

pressure-proof displacement curve to yield, among other information, the
surface and the submerged displacement. The residual buoyancy during
diving can be measured in pressure-proof displacement above the line of
floatation.

Fig. 126 - Curve Sheet

The exact location of the line of flotation and position on the surface
cannot be determined curve sheet (see Chapter V). The sectional area
curves for submerged displacement are used to obtain this information.
The location of the line of flotation determined by iteration from the
sectional area curves with sufficient accuracy for the given magnitude of
surface displacement. Initially, several (three to four) lines of flotation are
assumed, and their associated displacements and centers of buoyancy are
determined with the aid of the sectional area curves. The fairing of these
lines will then yield the actual line of flotation} whose displacement
corresponds to the weight of the submarine and whose center of buoyancy
is located in the same plane as is the center of gravity.

The longitudinal sectional area curve (called a "flounder") is

important in determining the submerged longitudinal center of buoyancy
 (Fig. 127). The latter must be located vertically above the longitudinal
center of gravity during submerged cruising. The "flounder" will also
establish whether or not the intended ballast tank volume is available and
whether it is properly distributed. Moreover, it can be used to verify the
size and location of the fuel tanks, compensating tanks, trim tanks, etc.
The area belowthe lines marked on Fig. 127 presents the surface
displacement. Those marked' \.'\'\ and //// indicate the submerged
displacement (including ballast tank capacities), and the area below the
outer envelop line shows the submerged displacement of the total form.

Vertical volume curves are plotted for all tanks; strength

calculations for the pressure hull and for the other members are made at
the same time.

Fig. 127 - Longitudinal Presentation of Sectional Areas (Capacities)

(See Fig. 1 for Designations of tanks, etc.)

The dimensions of the structural members are then determined. The

steel scantling plan and the midship section (Fig. 128) are framed. These

give i​ mportant material thicknesses and material distribution, Strength

tests on models may be required to substantiate the results of the

calculations or to prove the strength of those parts which are not

amenable to precise calculation.

 Fig. 128 - Midship Section

After the lines have been determined, towing and other tests are

carried put in a model basin (see Chapter VI).

Detailed planning for the propulsion plant starts when the required
submerged and surfaced engine ratings have been established along with
the associated propeller rpm.

Technical data (such as output, efficiency, and possibly fuel

consumption) as well as more precise weight and space requirements for
the individual components1are coordinated with the manufacturers of
diesel engines, electrical machinery, switchboards, batteries, etc.
Calculations are made for vibration, engine shock mounts, noise reduction
and absorption, and cruising ranges (see Chapter X). Accurate propulsion
plant installation plans are then drawn to a larger scale, allowing for ​the
architectural aspects. Similar installation drawings are prepared ​for t​ he
auxiliaries, the ship service facilities, the armament, the detection devices,
and all other parts. Detailed calculations have to be made and dimension
specifications written for the electric ships network, the drain system, the
compressed air, the hydraulic oil circulation, the ventilation systems, and
all other independent plants.

Wooden mockups of the most important compartments (scale of 1

to 1) are frequently built. These are important aids for a
​ rriving at
well-planned designs and for providing accurate drawings, because of the
cramped spaces aboard ship. Ergonomic aspects may be studied with
these mockups. Lighting conditions may realistically be shown.

The demands on lighting in way of periscopes on submarines call for

compromises. At night, the periscope observer needs red ambient light,
whereas a number of display units require white light or light to be
dimmed to grey. In the living spaces, a natural day/night lighting rhythm
should be maintained at continuous submerged cruise.

The chances to a more perfect utilization of space are improved by

the manufacture of design models to a reduced scale (generally 1/5
scaled) (see Fig. 129). Within the pressure hull, these models show all
outer contours of steel structure, as well as machinery and appliances. All
pipelines and cables (provided they are of certain minimum size) are
installed into these models in compliance with diagrammatic plans. This
procedure may be called to be three-dimensional design, and its
advantages are obvious: Utilization of space becomes more favourable:
the danger of using a certain space twice (as it may occur in case of
graphic presentation of design) is avoided. The design model may be used
for studies concerning favourable laying of piping and cables, mounting
and maintenance, as well as general accessibility problems. Finally, such a
model may serve as demonstration material so that decision to be taken
by buyer I s representatives is visual training material for the crew.

Fig. 129 - 1/5 Scaled Model

Weight and volume calculations complete the construction

documents. Here the individual weights and vertical and longitudinal
centers of gravity of all structural elements are included. The weights for
the component groups, e.g., hull, propulsion plant, etc., together with
their associated centers of gravity are calculated in accordance with
conventional practice (systems differ from one navy to another). This is
followed by an accurate calculation of the center of gravity for the
submarine as a whole; it is made initially without including the stability
ballast. The pressure-resistant submerged displacement is similarly
determined with respect to size and to vertical and longitudinal centers of
gravity (see Chapter V). The difference between ship's weight and
pressure-resistant submerged displacement is compensated for by
stability ballast. The ballast is arranged longitudinally so that the overall
center of gravity of, the boat and ballast is located vertically below the
longitudinal center of buoyancy in submerged condition. The overall
design will be acceptable only when this calculation proves that the ballast
center of gravity will be located approximately midships.

Where the ballast, center of gravity located near one end of the hull,
even a small excess of weight at the other end of the boat would be
enough to shi ft the ballast center of gravity too much. It might then be
no longer possible to stow the ballast within the boat, and it would
obviously not be feasible to build such a submarine.

The stability ballast is stowed as low in the submarine as possible.

The difference between the height of the center of buoyancy and, the
height of the center of gravity G for the submarine, including ballast, is
called the submerged stability (allowing for free surfaces in the
submarine) (see Fig. 6).

The curve sheet includes the height of metacentre above the keel, as in
the case of other types of ships. The difference between this measure and
the height of the center of gravity for the submarine plus ballast is called
the metacentric height during surface cruising (allowing for free surfaces).
A small amount of necessary stability ballast is an indication of a favorable
overall design.

In addition to the stability ballast already mentioned, trim ballast is

stowed forward and aft in the pressure hull. It can be used to correct
minor weight differences in service that were not envisaged at the time of
design. Trim ballast is also a part of the weight calculation.

Some of the detailed drawings required for ship construction are

frequently not available at the time the weight and volume calculations
are completed for the construction documentation. Moreover, in most
instances, not all the weight information will have been supplied by the
subcontractors and so not all the weight data can be considered final at
this point. Therefore, the first weight and volume calculations that are
submitted include estimated weights. For this reason, a design allowance
is introduced for individual weight groups. It is assumed that the centers
of gravity for the different design allowances are located in the center of
gravity of the construction group in question. The overall design allowance
required depends on the status of the design effort. When the design is
completed, the allowance can be absorbed if all weights have been
calculated from detailed drawings or have been provided by the
subcontractors.

The shipyard must be provided with a ​building allowance. ​As in the

case of the design allowance, this is ​distributed among the major groups
and will cover any excess weight which may develop during the building
period. The pressure hull, for example, has to be heavier than calculated
on the basis of nominal plate thickness because only plates with excess
tolerance are allowed to be used. Moreover, the subcontractors must be
allowed a certain admissible excess weight, e.g., because of the
tolerances of the castings. This building allowance may be absorbed when
the submarine is delivered. If the boat is even heavier, the contract
specifications may no longer be met.

A certain ​maintenance allowance ​is provided to cover service

contingencies, which may have to be negotiated separately by the buyer.
The maintenance allowance is intended to compensate for excess weights
that may be caused by additional equipment during the service life of the
submarine. This maintenance allowance must be available in the form of
ballast when the submarine commissioned. The trim ballast mentioned
above can be part of this allowance if this was agreed to in the contract.
The maintenance allowance is part of the weight calculation.

The results of this effort are documented in the form of the detailed
description (building instructions). This is supplemented by such drawings
as the overall plan (general arrangement plan) and all the other drawings
and calculations that may be necessary to present all aspects of the
submarine.
 CHAPTER - XVI

CONSTRUCTION AND COMMISSIONING

Various special features distinguish the construct ion of submarines

from that of other combatant ships. Special care should be applied to the
manufacture of the pressure hull as it is loaded by the diving pressure
(and by explosion shocks as well). The pressure hull should be constructed
as light as possible by favourable utilization of the high-strength steels
used for. its manufacture. The depth at which collapse is to be expected
(collapse depth) should be proved by calculations and by tests with test
hull sections. The admissible diving depth and the test diving depth then
are derived from the collapse depth by applying the safety factor.

The special care begins with the purchase of material for which
extensive acceptance conditions are stipulated. As a principle, individual
acceptance of pressure hull material is agreed upon, i.e. each individual
steel plate is subjected to an extensive technological testing by
destructive and non-destructive methods. Test analyses, ultrasonic or
X-ray tests, and surface flaw checking are required. The mechanical
properties such as breaking strength, elasticity, hardness, and notch
impact strength are determined with test specimens. Stress-strain
diagrams are prepared. Plate thickness measurements are performed over
the entire plate surface. Any shortage in tolerances is not admissible.

VERIFICATIONS DURING CONSTRUCTION

The extensive controlling effort must be continued during

construction. The location of each individual plate in the pressure hull shall
be proved by careful documentation. All butt welds of the pressure hull
are completely X-ray tested, and the results are laid down in records to be
collected so that easy proof is possible. T welds and corner welds are
checked for the absence of cracks. The pressure hull being loaded by
external water pressure is liable to stability risks, so that determination of
building inaccuracies by careful control measurements is necessary. The
admissible deviations are allowed for in the strength calculation and are
made evident there. Measurements of deviation from ideal circularity
(out-of-roundness), of deviation of frames from accurately vertical
arrangement, and of frame distance are taken amongst other items.

The welding sequences must carefully be preplanned in order that

the confined building tolerances be adhered to. Special jigs and preformed
construction scaffolds must be designed and built.

Unlike other ships, a submarine must be almost completely finished

on the slipways and/or in the workshop. The submarine must be closed
before launching. As any larger hatches do usually not exist, the internal
structure and outfit must be almost completely finished. For stability
reasons, the batteries must be installed, low-level tanks and fuel tanks
must be filled with water, and the ballast must be stowed.

Weight control on submarines must be exercised with much greater

care than in the construction of other ship types to ensure that the weight
specified in the weight and volume calculation will remain within
admissible limits upon

2. CONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUES

A variety of construction techniques can be used during the

building- period.. The most economical building procedure in the case of
building an individual submarine may be to assemble the hull from
individual elements on the ways. In this case the pressure hull plating will
extend in the longitudinal direction {Fig. 130}. The lower shell of the
pressure hull is placed in a preformed scaffold and the circular frames are
installed. Each frame is kept circular by iron ties. Next the upper shell is
covered with plating. Only machinery that will not pass through the
assembly hatch is installed before the pressure hull is closed.

Fig. 130 - Assembly of a Pressure Hull on the Slipways

Installation of the machinery, pipelines, electrical system,

armament, and other internal components begins when the steel structure
of the hull is completed.

This technique was adopted when riveting was the rule. From the
standpoint of welding technology, it has the basic disadvantage that many
seams cannot be welded in a favorable position. The use of automatic
welding machines is limited because the pressure hull cannot be rotated
about its longitudinal axis.

The pressure hull can also be built of individual rings fabricated in a

shop (Fig. 131).

Fig. 131 - Assembly of a Pressure Hull by Rings

Here the pressure hull plating is installed transversely. The rings are
rotated into the most favorable position for welding by using a special jig,
thus permitting the extensive employment of automated welding
machines. Pressure hull rings are moved to the slipways and welded
together there.

The remainder of the assembly operations takes place as described

above.

Due to space conditions on submarines, the fully sectionalized

construction is of advantage. This particularly applies to the construction
of series, when the individual sections are almost completely fitted out
(see Fig. 132).

Fig. 132 - Section Building in Pre-Assembly shed

The sectionalized construction offers highly improved accessibility

for building and assembly of internal members. The middle sections
remain open at both sides until completion, which facilitates ventilation of
narrow spaces and is of great advantage for the installation of machinery,
appliances, and pipings. A fully sectionalized construction facilitates a
shorter total building period, as the greater accessibility allows more
assembly personnel to be employed simultaneously than in a pressure hull
that is already sealed. Because of the more favourable working conditions,
the total number of assembly hours accruing are also reduced. During the
whole fitting-out period, the end sections are freely accessible from one
side. If all advantages of sectionalized construction are to be utilized, the
sectionalized subdivision must be stipulated and taken into consideration
already during the design phase. For example, the different tanks should
be arranged so that they may be completed and pressure-tested within
the individual sections, and if this is done before the installation of
machinery, any repairs having become necessary after the pressure-test
are possible without difficulty. After completion of steel work, each
individual section is preserved and equipped completely. The steel work
includes all foundations and supports for machinery and appliances as well
as clamps for pipes, valves and fittings, and cables. The components of
equipment installed in the section are completely mounted, and their
piping and cabling is laid. Only the frame spaces in way of section joints
must be kept free of internals so that they are accessible for application of
unobjectionable welding during assembly of sections.

3. SHIPYARD TRIALS

Launching is followed by individual trials of all systems, e.g., the

high-voltage test of the electrical equipment during which insulation
quality is verified, dock trials of the propulsion plant, and so forth. The
submarine is given its final coat of paint, inside and out.
 All valves and closures that must be in the "closed" position for
diving are marked accordingly (with red paint). Diving tables are installed
in the individual compartments to indicate the closure status of all fittings
in the compartment that must be established before diving.

The first diving test is in the form of a trim test with the boat at
rest. It is preceded by a test of the ballast H. P. and L. P. blow systems as
well as by a negative pressure test performed by means of an exhaust
blower (see Chapter XIII). Safety requires that the first diving test be
performed under a pierside crane whose hook is attached to the
submarine by heavy cables. The crane hook is slackened but ready for
hoisting during the dive. The first diving test can also be made in a
flooded drydock. During the submerged trim test, the boat is trimmed
horizontally by trimming water. Liquid levels in the compensating tanks,
trim tanks and in all other tanks are measured with the submarine in
"square" position. Seawater density is measured. The condition of the
equipment and the distribution of the crew are determined and recorded
in tabular form. The location of the surface line of flotation of the
submarine in ready-to-dive condition is determined and compared with
the calculated line after the boat has surfaced and the ballast tanks have
been completely emptied. The weight condition of the boat during the trim
test is converted to the status of the fully equipped boat corresponding to
the weight and volume calculation. The following are examples of the
deviations that can result:

1. The submarine is lighter or heavier than designed.

2. The submerged displacement is less or greater than designed.

3. The weight calculations contain errors.

 4. The volume calculations contain errors.

Such deviations are compensated for by modifications to the ballast.

A trim control test is made after the ballast has been re-arranged. This is
followed by heeling tests in the submerged and surfaced conditions (see
Chapter V) and by surface sea trials.

4. SEA TRIALS

The performance of a new type of submarine with relatively small

ballast tank volume must be evaluated with great care when the
submarine is cruising ahead and astern in order to draw conclusions as to
whether there is any possibility of a dangerous "undercutting” at higher
surface speeds.

Submarines become more and more bow heavy with increasing

surface speed. This effect is reduced by using a small "up" angle at the aft
or forward planes. Special trials are required to determine the optimum
hydroplane angle for surface cruising.

Measured mile runs on the surface are conducted to verify the

results of towing tank tests, the performance of the propulsion plant, and
the surface cruising ranges available. This is followed by turning circle
trials, anchor tests, and other surface cruising tests.

The submarine is commissioned at this point in many cases.

Submerged trials are run with the assistance of the crew. The following
individual trials are required: Depth control and turning circle trials,
snorkel trials, measured mile runs in submerged condition, buoyancy and
trim measurements at different plane angles, buoyancy measurements at
different trim angles of the boat (all as a function of submerged speed),
verification of submerged cruising ranges, Listening tests, crash dive test,
firing trials, and-tests of detection and communication equipment.

The submerged runs on the measured mile must be performed. in

deep waters and at sufficient diving depth so that any bottom and surface
influences do not become effective. There are various methods for the
measurement of speed during deeply submerged cruise, as follows:

1. Two electric cables are laid in parallel to each other at a defined

distance on the sea bottom. The traverse of the submarine running on a
course vertical to the cables produces electric pulses so that the time
necessary for passing the distance can be measured. The current
influences can only be allowed for if the distance is passed in both the
directions.

2. One (or also two) surface vessel (s) lying at anchor

measure(s), by keeping the dead-reckoning, the submerged speed (and
the course of the submarine) in such a way that the submarine is
continuously tracked by the sonar of the surface vessel(s). The
measurement must be repeated on the back course as well, in order to
make due allowance for the current influences.

3. The submerged submarine switches in a searchlight directed to

above and marking on the surface the submarine's position at twilight or
at night. A fellow-travelling surface vessel determines the speed.

4. For the sea trials, the submarine is equipped with a calibrated log
which, for example, can be arranged above bridge in a flow of water
undisturbed by the boat, thus facilitating absolute speed measurement
independently of the current.

5. The submarine tows along a buoy at a rope. By the measurement of

the speed of the buoy from ashore, the submarine is own log is calibrated.
The calibration runs must be repeated on the back-course so that
allowance for current influences is possible. Afterwards, submerged
measuring runs are performed without rope and buoy, and the speed is
indicated by the log now calibrated.

The method indicated in 4 above is most inexpensive.

5. DEEP SUBMERGE TRIALS

Finally, each submarine is subjected to a diving test down the test

diving depth (see Chapter VII). A submarine running at maximum depth
for the first time can be endangered by an inrush of water which possibly
results in a simultaneous failure of the propulsion plant. Furthermore,
failures of hydroplanes or of their indicating devices may end in an excess
of the admissible depth. Therefore, some principles should be observed for
deep
diving trials with the crew aboard ship, as follows:

1. The water depth at the place of diving should be no more than by 50

m deeper than the diving depth intended.

2. First, the submarine dives down to a depth being by about 100 m

less than the depth to be intended later on. At this reduced depth, she is
trimmed on an even keel at small speed and thoroughly checked for
tightness.

3. Now the submarine - increasing the speed up to medium speed

begins to tilt the bow and stern planes to below; at the same time, the
arising negative buoyancy and trim by the head are compensated for by
draining of compensating tanks and by shifting of trimming water to aft
respectively. These measures are coordinated so that the submarine is
kept at the same depth until; finally, the bow plane is tilted hardover
below and the stern plane almost below.

4. The submarine increases her speed by a small amount so that she

slowly sinks down until the test diving depth has been taken up. Then the
speed is reduced again. This manoeuvre can be supported by small
movements of stern plane. After the checkings and measurements agreed
upon have been performed, the submarine surfaces.

It is obvious that the method described above offers maximum

safety against inrushes of water, as the submarine runs with widely or
entirely drained compensating tanks and with the trimming water having
been shifted to aft. As she operates at medium speed, the planes provide
large buoyant forces if - in the emergency - they are tilted from hard
below to hard above. These buoyant forces continue to be available for a
certain time after machinery failure due to an inrush of water. Due to the
hydroplanes already tilted to below, the only consequence of eventual
failures of hydroplanes or of their indications is that the submarine is
induced to rise.

If a pressure dock is available (similar to that of the Federal

Republic of Germany as referred to in Fig. 27), the deep diving test may
be substituted for by pressure dock tests performed at analogous
pressure.

If non-military submersibles are concerned, which are of small

weight, such vehicles being unmanned and provided with negative
buoyancy can be lowered down from the water surface by a crane for the
purpose of a deep diving test In this connection, the bilges should
adequately be fitted with detecting elements having readings on the crane
vessel, so that any leakage water which may enter, can be detected in
good time before the internal outfit of the vessel is damaged.

The final acceptance takes place when trials and tests have proven
that the shipyard has met its contractual obligations.