Ch 22

PPT
THE DIGESTIVE
SYSTEM
Anatomy and Physiology in Context
Chapter 22
Introduction
Chapter 22: The Digestive System
An overview of the main components of the
gastrointestinal tract
Digestive system
Functions

- Digest food
- Absorb nutrient
- Excrete waste

Alimentary canal

- One big long canal from oral cavity to

rectum
Patterns in the Digestive System
Chapter 22: The Digestive System
Alimentary canal
Aka Digestive tract = has four layers that change
depend on where you are

- inner : mucosa
- Surrounding mucosa : submucosa
- Muscularis externa : layer of muscle tissue
- Serosa : outer

Lumen = where food passes

The digestive tract generally consists of four layers

muscularis externa

mucosa

serosa

submucosa
 Features of the four layers of the digestive tract
LUMEN Not a layer, space SECRETIONS
3 sublayers: • Located within muscularis
• muscularis mucosae externa
• lamina propria MUCOSA SUBMUCOSA • Contains nerves,
• epithelial tissue = circulatory and lymphatics
lines lumen
- protective
• mostly muscle tissue • contiguous with
• contains myenteric MUSCULARIS SEROSA mesenteries
plexus (nerves) EXTERNA • contains blood vessels,
• also regulates secretion nerves, lymphatics
MOTILITY = CONNECTIONS
movement
 Regional specializations within the GI tract

Inner to
outer
 Motility is a major digestive process
PERISTALSIS = move bolus. Powerful.
Vomiting = reverse peristalsis SEGMENTATION= happens in small intestine
• coordinated • simultaneous
muscle muscle
contraction contractions
and relaxation • back and forth
• wavelike movements
movements • bolus gets mixed
• bolus moves with digestive
forward secretions

k
Digestion can be mechanical or chemical

DIGESTION: the process of breaking down food molecules

MECHANICAL CHEMICAL = important for
proper absorption
• begins in oral cavity • begins in oral cavity but peaks in
• does not break chemical bonds stomach and small intestine
• increases surface area for chemical • carried out by enzymes
digestion • breaks chemical bonds to generate
• Chewing or mastication small molecules from large
• molecules
•
Saliva = break down CHO (carbohydrates) w/
salivary amylase to simpler sugar
Secretion & absorption are the last of the major
digestive processes

• Movement of • Movement of
substance substance
SECRETION from cells into ABSORPTION from the
the lumen lumen to cells
• E.g. secretion • Highly
of HCl into selective
stomach to process by
start digestion specific region
Fibers can't be broken down or
absorbed. After digestion is absorption.
- Lil in stomach
- Lot in SI
- Lil in LI
Regional Specializations: the Oral
Cavity
Chapter 22: The Digestive System
 The digestive tract starts with the oral cavity = food
is igested FUNCTIONS OF THE ORAL
CAVITY: Components of Saliva
1. Mastication or chewing = WATER
mechanical digestion
ELECTROLYTES
2. Mixing with saliva MUCOUS
3. Initiation of the swallowing LEUKOCYTES
process
EPITHELIAL CELLS
GLYCOPROTEINS
Saliva = comes in 2 forms -
stimulated and unstimulated Salivary amylase = break down Carbohydrate ENZYMES = chemical
digestion start
MOISTENING Moistens epithelia and liquefies food
IgA = antibodies
5% of polysaccharide breakdown LYSOZYME = protective
CARBOHYDRATES
(salivary amylase)
Swallowing phases connects the oral cavity to the
stomach = bolus
PHARYNGEAL PHASE EPIGLOTTIS BENDS ESOPHAGEAL PHASE

• Food contacts sensors • Epiglottis cartilage covers the • Passageway for food, water from
• Info sent to medulla opening to the larynx pharynx to stomach
• Motor information travels back to • Upper esophageal sphincter • Food bolus moves by peristalsis
soft palate & pharynx relaxes (involuntary) • Upper esophagus:
• Soft palate elevation • Food moves safely into voluntarily-controlled
• Nasopharynx – oropharynx passage • Lower esophagus:
esophagus
closed involuntarily-controlled
• Close off trachea
• Tongue presses food against the
hard palate
• Formed bolus
Regional Specializations: the
Stomach
Chapter 22: The Digestive System
 The several unique functions of the stomach = bolus
STOMACH ANATOMY STOMACH FUNCTIONS
Short-term storage, especially for large or
protein-rich meals

Mix and grind contents with HCl and

pepsin

Continue chemical digestion (especially for

proteins)

Move contents (chyme) = (paste-like mixture

-Food enters stomach thru upper esophageal mixed w/ HCl and enzymes, liquified) into
sphincter. small intestine for further processing
-Has 3 layers = longitudinal muscle, circular muscle,
and oblique muscle layer.
-Lined w/ rugae = epithelial cells. Mixing of food
 Gastric pits are openings for secretions into the
stomach.

First portion =
mucous cells

Ulcer = lack
of mucus,
pepsin and
HCl eat up
lining of
stomach
Each cell type in the gastric pit has a unique digestive
secretion
CHIEF CELLS PARIETAL CELLS
• Secrete pepsin • Secrete HCl into stomach lumen using active
• Precursor: Pre-proenzyme (zymogen)🡪 transport
pepsinogen 🡪 pepsin = by HCl • Secrete bicarbonate = leave stomach into blood and
• Contain hormone receptors that stimulate ph in stomach goes down and blood ph goes up =
pepsin release alkaline tide. Ph change in digestion on basolateral
side
• Maintains an acidic pH (0.8) in stomach
ENTEROCHROMAFFIN (ECL) CELLS
G CELLS
• Secrete histamine
• Binds H2 receptors on parietal cells to • Secrete gastrin in response to food in
stimulate their HCl secretion lumen & stomach distension
• Parent of parietal cells • Stimulate HCl release
• Also stimulate pepsin (chief cells) &
histamine (ECL cells) secretion
•
Gastric pits
HCl gets activated
Parietal cells use active transport to secrete HCl into
the stomach lumen
PROTON PUMP
Regional Specializations: the Stomach
• Parietal cells secrete H+ into the
stomach lumen via the
H+/K+-ATPase
• Cl- ions are transported into
lumen via conductance channels
• HCl is formed in the lumen
• Various nerve signals, hormones
and other chemicals control HCl
release
•
Regional Specializations: the Small Intestine
Chapter 22: The Digestive System
Features & functions of the small intestine
SMALL INTESTINE: responsible for 90% of digestion & a major site of absorption
SMALL
Regional INTESTINE ANATOMY
Specializations: the Small Intestine SMALL INTESTINE FUNCTIONS

Small Intestine Functions

duodenum Mix liver & pancreatic secretions with chyme

Continue digesting CHO, PRO, and initiate fat

digestion
jejunum Absorb nutrients

Move chyme towards large intestine

ileum
Produce regulatory hormones
- 90 % of digestion
- Main function = mix liver and pancreas
secretion w/ chyme which is leaving
Absorption = surface area
 Nutrient digestion and absorption occurs at brush
borders
Have goblet cells = secrete mucus

Regional Specializations: the Small Intestine Increase surface area

Villi and microvilli

Circular folds = Increases Increase surface area produce mucus
contact

• BRUSH BORDER: major site of nutrient digestion & absorption

• These modifications increase the small intestine surface area by 600-FOLD
Motility and secretions in the small intestine

MOTILITY • Both segmentation & peristalsis

• Slow chyme movement allows time for digestion
• At ileocecal sphincter, chyme moves into large intestine

• Contain mucous, electrolytes & water

SECRETION FROM SMALL • Disaccharidases, peptidases, nucleases = all 3 are enzymes they break
INTESTINE INTO LUMEN down nucleic acids left from food attached to microvilli
• CCK, GIP (inhibit gastric secretion, hcl n pepsin) and secretin (increase
bicarbonate from pancreas) released into bloodstream
SECRETION FROM • Pancreas supplies digestive enzymes and alkaline broth to neutralize
ACCESSORY ORGANS pH
• Liver and gallbladder (receive bile, store, and concentrate it) supply
INTO SMALL INTESTINE bile salts for lipid digestion
Regional Specializations: the Large Intestine
Chapter 22: The Digestive System
Features and functions of the large intestine = absorb water
THE LARGE INTESTINE: the last portion of the digestive system
LARGE
Regional INTESTINE ANATOMY
Specializations: the Large LARGE INTESTINE FUNCTIONS
Intestine
Absorption of water from remaining
chyme, converting it to feces
Secretion of protective mucous and
movement of remaining non-digested
food
Site of bacterial colonization for specific
nutrient digestion
Site of immune cell production
The large intestine has a segmented appearance

• Chyme moves through the large intestine and is converted to feces

• Feces is eliminated by defecation
• More than 90% of chyme entering the cecum each day is reabsorbed
The defecation reflex involves relaxation of both the
internal and external anal sphincters

Regional Specializations: the Large

Intestine INVOLUNTARY CONTROL =
• Stool in rectum sensed by
nervous system
• Parasympathetic relaxation

VOLUNTARY CONTROL = no urge

• “Bearing down” expels feces
Accessory Organs = not part of alimentary
canal
Chapter 22: The Digestive System
Main features and functions of the liver and gall
bladder
LIVER/GALLBLADDER ANATOMY LIVER/GALL BLADDER FUNCTIONS
Detoxify a wide range of chemicals
brought into the body through food
digestion (liver)
Metabolize nutrients into other forms
for storage or use by other tissues
(liver)
Store bile until it is needed for fat
digestion (gall bladder)
HEPATOCYTES
Bile production, nutrient
metabolism, detox, and
synthesis of blood
Bile = digestion of lipids
components
The liver secretes and the gall bladder stores bile

a complex fluid containing water,

BILE IS electrolytes, organic molecules

BILE fat particles in the small intestine,

EMULSIFIES making them easier to absorb. Coat
lipids
in digestion of fat-soluble vitamins
BILE AIDS and neutralizes acidic chyme

through the biliary tract and the

BILE FLOWS sphincter of Oddi into the small intestine

BILE IS in the gall bladder, released upon

STORED stimulation by CCK by stomach and
small intestine
 Main features and functions of the pancreas

PANCREAS ANATOMY
Pancreas Functions

Produce a watery secretion rich

in HCO3-

Produce enzymes that aid in

chemical digestion in the small
Makes bicarbonate n buffer ph
intestine
 The pancreas secretes digestive enzymes and HCO3-
Digestive Enzymes
BICARBONATE SECRETION
Endopeptidases, including trypsin and
chymotrypsin
• Responsible for bulk of protein digestion
• Synthesized as zymogens: enterokinase
activates trypsin which activates
chymotrypsin
Exopeptidases, including carboxypeptidase
• Cleaves peptides into single amino acids
Lipases
• Works together with liver bile salts to digest
fats
Pancreatic amylase
• Hydrolyzes starch into maltose
Lipases = fats - need to be Others, including ribonuclease,
broken down a lil deoxyribonuclease, gelatinase and elastase
Hormonal control over digestive tract secretions

Buffer ph
Digestion of carbohydrates, proteins and lipids
CARBOHYDRATES PROTEINS LIPIDS
• Ingested carbohydrates • Digestion begins in the • Emulsification increases
include polysaccharides, stomach and continues the surface area for lipid
disaccharides, in the small intestine digestion
monosaccharides, • Also absorbed by • Lipases (primarily from
glycogen, starch secondary active pancreas) produce free
• Amylase breaks down transport dependent on fatty acids, diglycerides,
polysaccharides Na+ monoglycerides and
• Brush border enzymes • Only peptides smaller glycerol
digest disaccharides than 3 amino acids are • These components then
• Absorbed by secondary absorbed form micelles which
active transport combine with bile salts
dependent on Na+ • Then form chylomicrons
• Move through lymphatic
system into blood
Active transport = maximize
amount of CHO absorption
NOTES
Function of digestive system
● Ingestion
● Propulsion
● Digestion
●
Alimentary canal
Alimentary canal or gastrointestinal tract
● Oral cavity ● Transforming food into bolus - in mouth
● Pharynx and esophagus
● Esophagus ● Food in with saliva = bolus
● Stomach ● Liver not part of digestive system
● Duodenum - beginning of small intestine ● Chyme = food that enters stomach
● ● Chymes become feces in large intestines
Alimentary canal or gastrointestinal tract
● 4 layers - superficial to deep
○ Start from the outside - serosa - anchor
○ Muscularis externa - contract
○ Deep - submucosa - nerves, blood
vessels, glands
○ Mucosa - getting to lumen
●
Small intestine
● Duodenum
● Jejunum
● Ileum

● Primary site of chemical digestion

Motility
● Movement in digestive system ● Peristalsis
● propulsion ○ wave-like contraction pushes bolus forward
○ In esophagus
○ Pushes food thru digestive system
○ Very strong

● Segmentation
○ Mixing - contracting at diff point to allow
mixing
○ Small intestine - chyme mix with diff
enzymes
Swallowing connects the oral cavity to the stomach
● Swallowing is voluntary phase

● Bends to close up food from trachea.

Prevents bolus from entering trachea =
epiglottis

● Food - bolus - chyme

● Bolus leaves the esophagus and enters

the stomach to begin its transformation
into chyme
The several unique functions of the stomach
● Pyloric sphincter - relaxes to allow chyme
●
Gastric pit - gastric secretion - cells in gastric pit
● Chief cells Eating - gastric secretion - thinking of food
○ Pepsinogen - inactive that turns into
pepsin - break down protein into smaller -Gastric secretion of gastric pit
peptides
● Parietal cells 1. G-cells - gastrin (hormone) - bind to chief
○ Hydrochloric acid (HCl) cells, parietal cells, and ECL cells
● ECL cells (enterochromaffin) 2. Chief cells secrete pepsinogen after
○ Histamine binding to G-cells into lumen of stomach
● G-cells 3. HCL + pepsinogen = pepsin
○ Gastrin - hormone 4. Binding of histamine to parietal cells
● D-cells 5. Pumping H+ into lumen of stomach
○ Somatostatin (inhibitory - shut down (pumping against concentration gradient).
secretion from stomach)
Active transport pump
● Other epithelial cells
○ Mucus (stomach is acidic)
6. Cl- passively pumped
7.
Gastric pit - gastric secretion - cells in gastric pit
● More HCO3- = more alkaline - Pepsinogen = inactive form of pepsin.
● Alkaline tide = as bicarbonate leaves, Great for protein. Is activated by HCL
(hydrochloric acid)
enter bloodstream while Cl- enter
- Parietal cells = HCL
lumen - ECL = histamine
● Somatostatin = shut down all other cells - G-cells = gastrin - start the sequence
● Pepsinogen is activated by HCL - D-cells = somatostatin. Inhibitor. Stops all
(hydrochloric acid) secretion
- Other epithelial cells = mucus
●

- H+ move from parietal cells to lumen of

the stomach thru active transport.
Stomach already has high H+, acidic,
against concentration gradient
Gastric pit
- Gastrin binds to the chief cells, parietal - Cl- is passively moved in stomach to form
cells, and ECL cells hcl

- Histamine is secreted from ecl to - HCO3- move out in the bloodstream.

bloodstream and bind to parietal cells Makes bloodstream more alkaline, the
alkaline tide

- Parietal cell need histamine from ECL

and gastrin coming from G-cell that is - Alkaline tide = exchange of cl into lumen
when we get HCL with H+ and hco3- out in bloodstream
Layers
Layers from deep to superficial

- Mucosa
- Submucosa
- Muscularis externa
- Outer serosa, anchor

Where do we find secretions from liver,

pancreas and gallbladder

- duodenum
Small intestine
Chymes leaves stomach and enters - Plicae — villi (folds) — columnar epithelial
cells —-- microvilli — brush border
- Duodenum
- Brush border = more surface area
- Jejunum
- Ileum

Mucus

- Chymes move to cecum via ileocecal - Disaccharidases

valve - Pepitases
- Feces - Nucleases
- Come in contact with chyme

- Primary site where most digestion occur

Small intestine
Secretion to decrease the amount of chyme Distinction = stretch
pumped out of stomach (motility)

- CCK = decrease stomach motility

- Secretin
- GIP (gastrin inhibitory peptide)
- Gastric (stomach)

- Stomach brings chyme into small intestine

The small intestine and accessory organs
Duodenum Secretin
Cholecystokinin (CCK) secreted by small intestine - Increase bile and HCO3 secretion
- Increase bile secretion
- Increase pancreatic enzyme secretion
pancreatic juice)
- Decrease gastric motility (prevent more
chyme entering the small intestine)

- Gastric motility = contraction from stomach

- HCO3 = comes from the pancreas, more

alkaline
Stomach
- Chyme would be more acidic after leaving
stomach

- Mucus is secreted to line duodenum to

protect the mucosal layer of duodenum
Mechanical vs chemical digestion. Both in oral cavity
● Chemical ● Mechanical
○ Mix with saliva ○ Mastication - chewing
○ Salivary amylase ○
■ Enzymes that breaks down
carbohydrates
Stomach 2
What is secreted in oral cavity to break down
carbohydrates

- Salivary amylase

Amylase = enzyme that breaks down

carbohydrates

-bile is important to the break down of lipid

Large intestine
- absorption of water = primary - Skeletal muscle = external anal sphincter,
- Too much = constipation
- Too less = diarrhea
- If absorbed too much water = constipation
- From ileum to cecum = chyme turns into
feces

- Segments are called haustra

- Smooth muscle = internal anal sphincter

Review
Gastrin

- Response to food
- G-cells
- Stimulates ECL cells to release histamine

Brush border

- The small intestine

Pancreas

- CCK not found in pancreas. CCK affects

gallbladder, pancreas, stomach. Release
by chyme entering duodenum, increasing
bile secretion. Stops stomach contraction
TOPHAT
Place the following digestive tract structures in the order they Match each of the following digestive tract structures with its
would be encountered by an ingested food molecule. general function.

- Pharynx - Oral cavity = Contains salivary glands

- Esophagus - Duodenum = Major site of digestion
- Stomach - Colon = Major site of water absorption
- Duodenum - Esophagus = Connects pharynx to stomach
- Jejunum - Stomach = Begins enzymatic digestion of proteins
- Ileum - Pharynx = Connects mouth to esophagus
- Cecum - Rectum = Terminal end large intestine
- Ascending colon
- Transverse colon
- Descending colon
Match the following accessory organs with their general function. Place the tissue layers of the digestive tract in the order you
would encounter them moving from the lumen toward the
- Liver = Produces bile abdominal cavity.
- Pancreas = Digestive enzyme production
- Salivary gland = Begins digestion in the mouth - Mucosal epithelium
- Gallbladder = Bile storage - Lamina propria
- Common bile duct = Carries bile into small intestine - Muscularis mucosa
- Submucosa
- Circular layer of smooth muscle
The innermost layer within the digestive tract is the ________.
- Myenteric plexus
- Mucosa - Longitudinal layer of smooth muscle
- Serosa
What is the result of damage to the myenteric plexus within the
wall of the GI tract?| What type of contraction pushes food through the digestive
tract?
- Changes in gastric motility
- Peristalsis
Acid formation in the stomach is a result of ________. Match each cell type with the molecule it releases.

- Secretion - G cell = Gastrin

During which phase of swallowing does food enter the stomach - Parietal cell = Hydrochloric acid
- Enterochomaffin (ECL) cell = Histamine
- Esophageal phase
- D cell = Somatostain
Which of the following are produced in the gastric pit? - Vagal neuron = Acetylcholine

- Mucus
Which of the following might be a consequence of bariatric
surgery, where a “band” is placed around the stomach in order to
reduce its volume?

- Digestion would be decreased and fewer nutrients would

be absorbed.
Which of the following is most rapidly cleared from the stomach
after eating?

- Carbohydrates

Rank the following structures in order from smallest to largest.

- Microvilli
- Villi
- Plicae

Villi formation is due to contraction of cells in the mucosal layer

of the digestive tract.

- True