Fundamentals of Human Nutrition (NUTD231)

The B-Vitamins Course: Chapter 8

Book: Chapter 10
Thiamin (B1)
- Functions

- Requirements

- Deficiency Disease

- Food Sources
 Functions Inside the Human Body
& Recommendations

* This vitamin is a part of the coenzyme TPP (thiamin pyrophosphate), which assists in energy metabolism.

- The TPP coenzyme participates in the metabolism of nutrients to yield energy.

* Thiamin occupies a special site on the membranes of nerve cells. Consequently, nerve activity and muscle activity in response to
nerves depend heavily on thiamin.

- Recommendations:

Dietary recommendations are based primarily on thiamin’s role in enzyme activity. Generally, thiamin needs will be met if a person eats
enough food to meet energy needs (if that energy comes from nutritious foods).
 Deficiency & Toxicity
* Inadequate thiamin intakes have been reported among the nation’s malnourished and home-less people. Similarly, people who derive most
of their energy from empty-kcalorie foods and beverages risk thiamin deficiency.

Alcohol consumption put people at risk of thiamin deficiency, why?

- It contributes energy but provides few, if any, nutrients and often displaces food. In addition, alcohol impairs thiamin absorption and
enhances thiamin excretion in the urine, doubling the risk of deficiency.

* Thiamin deficiency can result in the disease beriberi, which was observed when the custom of polishing rice became widespread. Rice
provided 80% of the energy intake of the people of that area, and the germ and bran of the rice grain had been their principal source of thiamin.
When the germ and bran were removed in the preparation of white rice, beriberi became popular.

Beriberi is often described as “dry” or “wet.” Dry beriberi reflects damage to the nervous system and is characterized by muscle weakness
in the arms and legs. Wet beriberi reflects damage to the cardiovascular system and is characterized by dilated blood vessels, which
cause the heart to work harder and the kidneys to retain salt and water, resulting in edema.
 Deficiency & Toxicity, Cont.

* Severe thiamin deficiency in alcohol abusers is called the Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome.

Symptoms include:

- Disorientation

- Loss of short-term memory

- Jerky eye movements

- Staggering gait

* No reported toxicity symptoms!

 Thiamin Food Sources
* Note: Prolonged cooking can
destroy thiamin. Also, like other
water-soluble vitamins, thiamin
leaches into water when foods are
boiled or blanched.

Cooking methods that require little

or no water such as steaming and
microwave heating conserve
thiamin and other water-soluble
vitamins.
Riboflavin (B2)
- Functions

- Requirements

- Deficiency Disease

- Food Sources
 Functions Inside the Human Body
& Recommendations

* Riboflavin serves as a coenzyme in many reactions, most notably in energy metabolism. The coenzyme forms of riboflavin are FMN
(flavin mononucleotide) and FAD (flavin adenine dinucleotide); both can accept and then donate two hydrogens.

During energy metabolism, FAD picks up two hydrogens (with their electrons) from the TCA cycle and delivers them to the electron
transport chain.

* Riboflavin Recommendations:

Like thiamin’s RDA, riboflavin’s RDA is based primarily on its role in enzyme activity.
 Deficiency & Toxicity

* Riboflavin deficiency (Ariboflavinosis) most often accompanies other nutrient deficiencies. Lack of the vitamin causes inflammation
of the membranes of the mouth, skin, eyes, and GI tract.

- Excesses of riboflavin appear to cause no harm and no UL has been established.

 Riboflavin Food Sources
* The greatest contributions of riboflavin come from milk and milk products. Whole-grain or enriched bread and cereal products
are also valuable sources because of the quantities typically consumed.

When riboflavin sources are ranked by nutrient density (per-kcalorie), many dark green, leafy vegetables (such as broccoli, turnip
greens, asparagus, and spinach) appear high on the list. Vegans and others who don’t use milk must rely on servings of dark greens and
enriched grains for riboflavin. Nutritional yeast is another good source.

Note: Ultraviolet light and irradiation destroy riboflavin. For these reasons, milk is sold in dark plastic containers, instead of clear
glass bottles.

- Riboflavin is stable to heat, so cooking does not destroy it.

Niacin (B3)
- Functions

- Requirements

- Deficiency Disease

- Food Sources
 Functions Inside the Human Body
& Recommendations

* The name niacin describes two chemical structures: nicotinic acid and nicotinamide (also known as niacinamide). The body can
easily convert nicotinic acid to nicotinamide, which is the major form of niacin in the blood.

The two coenzyme forms of niacin, NAD (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide) and NADP (the phosphate form), participate in numerous
metabolic reactions.

- Important in energy-transfer reactions, especially the metabolism of glucose, fat, and alcohol. NAD is similar to the riboflavin
coenzymes in that it carries hydrogens (and their electrons) during metabolic reactions, including the pathway from the TCA cycle to the
electron transport chain. NAD also protects against neurological degeneration.
 Functions Inside the Human Body
& Recommendations, Cont.

* Niacin is unique among the B vitamins in that the body can make it from the amino acid tryptophan. This use of tryptophan
occurs only after protein synthesis needs have been met.

Approximately 60 milligrams of dietary tryptophan is needed to make 1 milligram of niacin. For this reason, recommended intakes are
stated in niacin equivalents (NE). A food containing 1 milligram of niacin and 60 milligrams of tryptophan provides the equivalent of 2
milligrams of niacin, or 2 niacin equivalents.
 Deficiency & Toxicity
* Niacin-deficiency disease, pellagra, produces the symptoms of diarrhea, dermatitis, dementia, and eventually death (often called
“the four Ds”).

People who rely mainly on corn and corn products are at high risk of deficiency, why?

- 70% of the niacin in corn is bound to complex carbohydrates and small peptides, making it unavailable for absorption.

- Corn is high in the amino acid leucine, which interferes with the tryptophan-to-niacin conversion, thus further contributing to the
development of pellagra.

Pellagra was originally believed to be caused by an infection. Medical researchers spent many years and much effort searching for
infectious microbes until they realized that the problem was not what was present in the food but what was absent from it.
 Deficiency & Toxicity, Cont.

* Naturally occurring niacin from foods causes no harm, but large doses from supplements or drugs produce a variety of adverse effects,
most notably “niacin flush.”

Niacin flush occurs when nicotinic acid is taken in doses only three to four times the RDA. It dilates the capillaries and causes a tingling
sensation that can be painful. The nicotinamide form does not produce this effect.

* Large doses of nicotinic acid have been used to lower LDL cholesterol, raise HDL cholesterol, and increase adiponectin levels.

Such therapy must be closely monitored. People with the following conditions may be particularly susceptible to the toxic effects of
niacin: liver disease, diabetes, peptic ulcers, gout, irregular heartbeats, inflammatory bowel disease, migraine headaches, and alcoholism.
 Niacin Food Sources

* Niacin can be supplied from the diet, but also be made in the body from the amino acid tryptophan.

- Dietary tryptophan could meet about half the daily niacin need for most people, but the average diet easily supplies enough
preformed niacin.

- Meat, poultry, legumes, and enriched and whole grains contribute about half the niacin people consume. Mushrooms, potatoes,
and tomatoes are among the richest vegetable sources, and they can provide abundant niacin when eaten in generous amounts.

* Note: Niacin is less vulnerable to losses during food preparation and storage than other water-soluble vitamins. Being fairly heat
resistant, niacin can withstand reasonable cooking times, but like other water-soluble vitamins, it will leach into cooking water.
Biotin (B7)
- Functions

- Requirements

- Deficiency Disease

- Food Sources
 Functions Inside the Human Body
& Recommendations

* It plays an important role in metabolism as a coenzyme that carries activated carbon dioxide. This role is critical in the TCA cycle:
biotin delivers a carbon to 3-carbon pyruvate, thus replenishing oxaloacetate, the 4-carbon compound needed to combine with acetyl
CoA to keep the TCA cycle turning. The biotin coenzyme also participates in gluconeogenesis, fatty acid synthesis, and the
breakdown of certain fatty acids and amino acids.

Biotin Recommendations:

- Biotin is needed in very small amounts. Because there is insufficient research on biotin requirements, an Adequate Intake (AI) has
been determined, instead of an RDA.
 Deficiency, Toxicity, & Food sources
* Biotin Deficiency and Toxicity:

Biotin deficiencies rarely occur. Researchers can induce a biotin deficiency in animals or human beings by feeding them raw egg
whites, which contain a protein (called avidin) that binds biotin and thus prevents its absorption. Biotin-deficiency symptoms include
skin rash, hair loss, and neurological impairment. More than 24 raw egg whites must be consumed daily for several months to
produce these effects; cooking eggs denatures the binding protein.

Note: No adverse effects from high biotin intakes have been reported. Biotin does not have a UL.

* Biotin Food Sources:

Biotin is widespread in foods (including egg yolks), so eating a variety of foods protects against deficiencies. Some biotin is also
synthesized by GI tract bacteria, but this amount may not contribute much to the biotin absorbed.
Pantothenic Acid (B5)
- Functions

- Requirements

- Deficiency Disease

- Food Sources
 Functions Inside the Human Body
& Recommendations

* Pantothenic acid:

Part of the chemical structure of coenzyme A, that is an important compound in several metabolic pathways, including the TCA cycle. As
such, it is involved in more than 100 different steps in the synthesis of lipids, neurotransmitters, steroid hormones, and hemoglobin.

* Pantothenic Acid Recommendations:

An Adequate Intake (AI) for pantothenic acid has been set.

 Deficiency, Toxicity, & Food sources
* Pantothenic acid deficiency is rare. Its symptoms involve a general failure of all the body’s systems and include fatigue, GI
distress, and neurological disturbances.

Note: No toxic effects have been reported, and no UL has been established.

* Pantothenic Acid Food Sources:

Pantothenic acid is widespread in foods, and typical diets seem to provide adequate intakes. Beef, poultry, whole grains, potatoes,
tomatoes, and broccoli are particularly good sources.

- Losses of pantothenic acid during food production can be substantial because it is readily destroyed by the freezing, canning, and
refining processes.
Pyridoxal, Pyridoxine,
Pyridoxamine (B6)
- Functions

- Requirements

- Deficiency Disease

- Food Sources
 Functions Inside the Human Body
& Recommendations

* All three types can be converted to the coenzyme PLP (pyridoxal phosphate), which is active in amino acid metabolism. PLP
participates in the synthesis of heme (the nonprotein portion of hemoglobin), nucleic acids (such as DNA and RNA), and lecithin (a
phospholipid).

The first major report of vitamin B toxicity appeared in the early 1980s. Until that time, most researchers and dietitians believed that, like
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the other water-soluble vitamins, vitamin B could not reach toxic concentrations in the body. The report described neurological
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damage in people who had been taking more than 2 grams of vitamin B daily (20 times the current UL of 100 milligrams per day) for
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two months or more.

Some people have taken vitamin B supplements in an attempt to cure carpal tunnel syndrome even though such treatment appears to be
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ineffective. Self- prescribing is ill advised because large doses of vitamin B may cause irreversible nerve degeneration.
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Folate (B9)
- Functions

- Requirements

- Deficiency Disease

- Food Sources
 Functions Inside the Human Body
& Recommendations

* Its primary coenzyme form, THF (tetrahydrofolate), serves as part of an enzyme complex that transfers 1-carbon compounds that arise
during metabolism. This action converts vitamin B to one of its coenzyme forms, synthesizes the DNA required for all rapidly
growing cells, and regenerates the amino acid methionine from homocysteine.

* Naturally occurring folate from foods is given full credit. Synthetic folate from fortified foods and supplements is given extra
credit because, on average, it is 1.7 times more available than naturally occurring food folate. Thus a person consuming 100
micrograms of folate from foods and 100 micrograms from a supplement receives 270 dietary folate equivalents (DFE).

- The need for folate rises considerably during pregnancy and whenever cells are multiplying, so the recommendations for pregnant
women are considerably higher than for other adults.
 Deficiency, Toxicity, & Food sources
* Folate deficiency impairs cell division and protein synthesis. In a folate deficiency, the replacement of red blood cells and GI tract cells
falters. Not surprisingly, then, two of the first symptoms of a folate deficiency are anemia and GI tract deterioration.

- The anemia of folate deficiency is characterized by large, immature red blood cells. Without folate, DNA damage destroys many of the red
blood cells as they attempt to divide and mature. The result is fewer, but larger, red blood cells that cannot carry oxygen or travel through the
capillaries as efficiently as normal red blood cells.

* Primary folate deficiencies may develop from inadequate intake and have been reported in infants who were fed goat’s milk, which is
notoriously low in folate. Secondary folate deficiencies may result from impaired absorption or an unusual metabolic need for the vitamin.

- Folate Toxicity: Naturally occurring folate from foods alone appears to cause no harm. Excess folate from fortified foods or supplements,
however, can reach levels that are high enough to obscure a vitamin B12 deficiency and delay diagnosis of neurological damage.
Cobalamin (B12)
- Functions

- Requirements

- Deficiency Disease

- Food Sources
 Functions Inside the Human Body
& Recommendations

* The regeneration of the amino acid methionine and the synthesis of DNA and RNA
depend on both folate and vitamin B12.

- Also, vitamin B12 maintains the sheath that surrounds and protects nerve fibers and
promotes their normal growth. Bone cell activity and metabolism also depend on vitamin
B12.

* The RDA for adults is only 2.4 micrograms of vitamin B a day.

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Deficiency Disease:

- Marginal vitamin B deficiency impairs cognition. Advanced neurological symptoms

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include a creeping paralysis that begins at the extremities and works inward and up the spine.

- The vitamin B deficiency leads to pernicious anemia if it is caused by the lack of

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intrinsic factor or due to atrophic gastritis.