- A cell is the fundamental, structural and functional unit of (i) All living organisms are composed of cells and

all living organisms. products of cells.

- Robert Hooke: Discovered cell. (ii) All cells arise from pre-existing cells.
- Anton Von Leeuwenhoek: First observed and described a
AN OVERVIEW OF CELL
live cell.
- The invention of the compound & electron microscopes - All cells contain
o Cytoplasm: A semi-fluid matrix where cellular
revealed all the structural details of the cell.
activities and chemical reactions occur. This keeps the
CELL THEORY cell in ‘living state’.
- Malthias Schleiden (1838) observed that all plants are o Ribosomes: Non-membrane bound organelles seen in
composed of different kinds of cells. cytoplasm, chloroplasts, mitochondria & on rough ER.
- Theodore Schwann (1839) found that cells have a thin - Cells differ in size, shape and activities.
outer layer (plasma membrane). He also found that plant o Smallest cells: Mycoplasmas (0.3 µm in length).
cells have cell wall. He proposed a hypothesis that animals o Largest isolated single cell: Egg of ostrich.
and plants are composed of cells and products of cells. o Longest cells: E.g. Nerve cell.
- Schleiden & Schwann formulated the cell theory. o Size of bacteria: 3 to 5 µm.
- Rudolf Virchow (1855) first explained that cells divide o Human RBCs are about 7.0 µm in diameter.
and new cells are formed from pre-existing cells (Omnis - Based on the functions, shape of cells may be disc-like,
cellula-e cellula). He modified the cell theory. polygonal, columnar, cuboid, thread like, or irregular.
- Cell theory states that: - Cells are 2 types: Prokaryotic cells & Eukaryotic cells.

PROKARYOTIC CELLS
o In distribution of chromosomes to daughter cells.
- They have no membrane bound nucleus and organelles. o In respiration and secretion processes.
- They include bacteria, blue-green algae, mycoplasma & o To increase the surface area of the plasma membrane
PPLO (Pleuro Pneumonia Like Organisms). and enzymatic content.
- They are generally smaller and multiply more rapidly than - Chromatophores are membranous infoldings in some
the eukaryotic cells. prokaryotes (e.g. cyanobacteria). They contain pigments.
- They vary in shape & size. E.g. Bacteria have 4 basic
3. Nucleoid
shapes: Bacillus, Coccus, Vibrio and Spirillum.
- It is formed of non-membranous (naked) circular genomic
Cell organelles in prokaryotic cells DNA (single chromosome/ Genetic material) & protein.
1. Cell Envelope - Many bacteria have small circular DNA (plasmid) outside
- It is a chemically complex protective covering. the genomic DNA. It gives some unique phenotypic
- It is made of 3 tightly bound layers. characters (e.g. resistance to antibiotics) to bacteria.
o Glycocalyx: Outer layer. Its composition and thickness 4. Flagella
vary in different bacteria. It may be a slime layer (loose - These are thin filamentous extensions from the cell wall of
sheath) or capsule (thick & tough). motile bacteria. Their number and arrangement are varied
o Cell wall: Middle layer. Seen in all prokaryotes. It gives in different bacteria.
shape to the cell and provides a structural support to - Bacterial flagellum has 3 parts – filament, hook and basal
prevent the bacterium from bursting or collapsing. body. The filament is the longest portion and extends from
o Plasma membrane: Inner layer. It is semi-permeable in the cell surface to the outside.
nature and interacts with the outside. This is structurally 5. Pili and Fimbriae
similar to that of the eukaryotes.
- These are surface structures that have no role in motility.
- Based on the types of the cell envelopes and response to - Pili (sing. Pilus) are elongated tubular structures made of a
Gram staining (developed by Gram), bacteria are 2 types:
special protein (pilin).
o Gram positive: They take up and retain the gram stain. - Fimbriae are small bristle like fibres sprouting out of the
o Gram negative: They do not retain the gram stain.
cell. In some bacteria, they help to attach the bacteria to
2. Mesosomes & Chromatophores rocks in streams and to the host tissues.
(Membranous structures) 6. Ribosomes
- Mesosome is formed by the infolding of plasma - They are associated with plasma membrane of prokaryotes.
membrane. It includes vesicles, tubules & lamellae.
- They are about 15 nm by 20 nm in size.
- Functions: Mesosomes help - They are made of two subunits - 50S and 30S units. They
o In cell wall formation.
together form 70S prokaryotic ribosomes.
o In DNA (chromosome) replication. (S= sedimentation coefficient; a measure of density & size).
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- Function: Ribosomes are the site of translation (protein freely in the cytoplasm of prokaryotic cells.
synthesis). Several ribosomes may attach to a single - E.g. phosphate granules, cyanophycean granules and
mRNA to form a chain called polyribosomes (polysome). glycogen granules, gas vacuoles etc.
Ribosomes translate the mRNA into proteins. - Gas vacuoles are found in blue green and purple and green
7. Inclusion Bodies photosynthetic bacteria.
- These are non-membranous, stored reserve material seen

EUKARYOTIC CELLS
- They have well organized membrane bound nucleus and o Peripheral proteins: Lie on the surface of membrane.
organelles. - Fluid mosaic model of cell membrane: Proposed by
- Presence of membranes gives clear compartmentalization Singer & Nicolson (1972). According to this, the quasi-
of cytoplasm. fluid nature of lipid enables lateral movement of proteins
- Their genetic material is organized into chromosomes. within the overall bilayer. This ability to move within the
- They have complex locomotory & cytoskeletal structures. membrane is measured as its fluidity.
Plant cell and Animal cell

Functions:
o Transport of the molecules. The membrane is selectively
permeable to some molecules present on either side of it.
o Due to the fluid nature, the plasma membrane can help in
cell growth, formation of intercellular junctions, secretion,
endocytosis, cell division etc.
Types of Transport
1. Passive transport: It is the movement of molecules across
the membrane along the concentration gradient (i.e., from
higher concentration to the lower) without the expenditure
of energy. It is 2 types:
a. Simple diffusion: It is the movement of neutral solutes
across the membrane.
b. Osmosis: It is the movement of water by diffusion
across the membrane.
Polar molecules cannot pass through the non-polar lipid
bilayer. So they require membrane carrier protein for
Cell organelles in eukaryotic cells transport.
1. Cell Membrane 2. Active transport: It is the movement of molecules across
the membrane against the concentration gradient (i.e. from
- Chemical studies on human RBCs show that cell membrane
lower to the higher concentration) with the expenditure of
is composed of a lipid bilayer, protein & carbohydrate.
energy (ATP is utilized). E.g. Na+/K+ pump.
- Lipids (mainly phosphoglycerides) have outer polar head
and the inner hydrophobic tails. So the non-polar tail of 2. Cell Wall
saturated hydrocarbons is protected from the aqueous - It is a non-living rigid structure found outer to the plasma
environment. membrane of fungi and plants.
- Ratio of protein and lipid varies in different cells. E.g. In - Cell wall of Algae is made of cellulose, galactans, mannans
human RBC, membrane has 52% protein and 40% lipids. and minerals like CaCO3 . In other plants, it consists of
- Based on the ease of extraction, membrane proteins are 2 cellulose, hemicellulose, pectins and proteins.
types: - Cell wall of a young plant cell (primary wall) is capable
o Integral proteins: Partially or totally buried in membrane. of growth. It gradually diminishes as the cell matures and
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 the secondary wall is formed on the inner side (towards Materials to be packaged as vesicles from the ER fuse with
membrane). the cis face and move towards the trans face. This is why
- The middle lamella is a layer containing calcium pectate Golgi apparatus remains in close association with the
which glues the neighbouring cells together. Cell wall and endoplasmic reticulum.
middle lamellae may be traversed by plasmodesmata. It o Proteins synthesized by ribosomes on the ER are modified
connects the cytoplasm of neighbouring cells. in the cisternae of Golgi apparatus before they are released
Functions: from its trans face.
a. It gives shape to the cell. o Formation of glycoproteins and glycolipids.
b. It protects the cell from mechanical damage & infection. Lysosomes
c. It helps in cell-to-cell interaction. - These are membrane bound vesicular structures formed by
d. It acts as barrier to undesirable macromolecules. the process of packaging in the Golgi apparatus.
3. Endomembrane System - Lysosomal vesicles contain almost all types of hydrolytic
- It is a group of membranous organelles having coordinated enzymes (hydrolases– lipases, proteases, carbohydrases).
functions. They are active at acidic pH. They digest carbohydrates,
- They include endoplasmic reticulum (ER), Golgi complex, proteins, lipids and nucleic acids.
lysosomes and vacuoles. Vacuoles
Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) - These are the membrane-bound space found in the
- These are a network of cytoplasm. It contains water, sap, excretory product and
tiny tubular structures other materials not useful for the cell.
scattered in the - Vacuole is bound by a single membrane called tonoplast.
cytoplasm. - In plant cells, the vacuoles can occupy up to 90% of the
- ER divides the volume of the cell.
intracellular space into 2 - In plants, the tonoplast facilitates the transport of ions and
compartments: luminal other materials against concentration gradients into the
(inside ER) & extra vacuole. Hence their concentration is higher in the vacuole
luminal (cytoplasm). than in the cytoplasm.
- Endoplasmic reticulum - In Amoeba, the contractile vacuole helps for excretion.
is 2 types: - In many cells (e.g. protists), food vacuoles are formed by
a. Rough endoplasmic engulfing the food particles.
reticulum (RER): 4. Mitochondria
Bear ribosomes on - Mitochondria are clearly visible only when stained.
their surface. RER is - Number, shape and size of mitochondria per cell are
frequently observed variable depending on the physiological activity.
in the cells actively - It is sausage-shaped or cylindrical having a diameter of
involved in protein synthesis and secretion. They 0.2-1.0 m (average 0.5 m) and length 1.0-4.1 m.
extend to the outer membrane of the nucleus.
b. Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER): Ribosomes
are absent. SER is the major site for synthesis of lipid.
In animal cells lipid-like steroidal hormones are
synthesized in SER.
Golgi apparatus
- Densely stained reticular
structures near the nucleus.
- First observed by Camillo
- A mitochondrion is a double membrane-bound structure
Golgi (1898).
with the outer membrane and the inner membrane. It
- They consist of flat, disc-
divides lumen into 2 aqueous compartments, i.e., the outer
shaped sacs (cisternae) of
compartment and the inner compartment (matrix).
0.5 1.0 m diameter. These
- Inner membrane forms a number of infoldings (cristae)
are stacked parallelly.
towards the matrix. They increase the surface area.
- Cisternae are concentrically
- The two membranes have their own specific enzymes
arranged with convex cis
associated with the mitochondrial function.
(forming) face and concave trans (maturing) face. Cis &
- Matrix possesses a circular DNA, a few RNA molecules,
trans faces are totally different, but interconnected.
ribosomes (70S) and components for protein synthesis.
Function of Golgi apparatus:
- The mitochondria divide by fission.
o Secretes materials to intra-cellular targets or outside the cell.
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- Function: Mitochondria are the sites of aerobic - It provides mechanical support, motility, maintenance of
respiration. They produce energy in the form of ATP. So the shape of the cell etc.
they are called ‘power houses’ of the cell. 8. Cilia and Flagella
5. Plastids - They are hair-like outgrowths of the cell membrane.
- Plastids are found in all plant cells and in euglenoides. - Cilia: Small structures which work like oars. Causes the
- Large sized. Easily observable under the microscope. movement of the cell or surrounding fluid.
- They contain some pigments. - Flagella: Longer. Responsible for cell movement. Flagella
- Based on the type of pigments, plastids are 3 types: of prokaryotes and eukaryotes are structurally different.
a. Chloroplasts: Contain chlorophyll and carotenoid
pigments. They trap light energy for photosynthesis.
b. Chromoplasts: Contain fat soluble carotenoid
pigments like carotene, xanthophylls etc. This gives a
yellow, orange or red colour.
c. Leucoplasts: These are colourless plastids of varied
shapes and sizes with stored nutrients. They include:
▪ Amyloplasts: Store starch. E.g. potato.
▪ Elaioplasts: Store oils and fats.
▪ Aleuroplasts: Store proteins. - Cilium and flagellum are covered with plasma membrane.
Chloroplasts: Their core (axoneme) has many microtubules running
- These are double membrane bound organelles mainly parallel to the long axis.
found in the mesophyll cells of the leaves. - The axoneme has 9 pairs of doublets of radially arranged
- These are lens- peripheral microtubules and a pair of central microtubules.
shaped, oval, This is called 9+2 array.
spherical, - The central tubules are connected by bridges and are
discoid or enclosed by a central sheath. It is connected to one of the
ribbon-like tubules of each peripheral doublet by a radial spoke. Thus,
organelles. there are 9 radial spokes. The peripheral doublets are also
- Length: 5-10 m. Width: 2-4 m. interconnected by linkers.
- Their number varies from 1 (e.g. Chlamydomonas) to 20- - Cilium and flagellum emerge from centriole-like structure
40 per cell in the mesophyll. called the basal bodies.
- Inner membrane of chloroplast is less permeable. 9. Centrosome and Centrioles
- The space limited by the inner membrane of the chloroplast - Centrosome is an organelle usually containing two non-
is called stroma. It contains many organized flattened membrane bound cylindrical structures called centrioles.
membranous sacs called thylakoids. - They are surrounded by pericentriolar materials.
- Membrane of thylakoids encloses a space called lumen. - The centrioles lie perpendicular to each other. They are
- Chlorophyll pigments are present in the thylakoids. made up of 9 evenly spaced peripheral fibrils of tubulin.
- Thylakoids are arranged in stacks called grana or the Each of the peripheral fibril is a triplet. The adjacent
intergranal thylakoids. triplets are also linked.
- There are flat membranous tubules called the stroma - The central part of the centriole is also proteinaceous and
lamellae connecting the thylakoids of the different grana. called the hub, which is connected with tubules of the
- The stroma contains small, double-stranded circular DNA peripheral triplets by radial spokes made of protein.
molecules, ribosomes and enzymes for the synthesis of - The centrioles form the basal body of cilia or flagella, and
carbohydrates and proteins. spindle fibres that give rise to spindle apparatus during cell
- The ribosomes of the chloroplasts are smaller (70S) than division in animal cells.
the cytoplasmic ribosomes (80S). 10. Nucleus
6. Ribosomes - Nucleus was first
- These are the non-membranous granular structures described by
composed of ribonucleic acid (RNA) and proteins. Robert Brown
- It is first observed by George Palade (1953). (1831).
- Eukaryotic ribosome has 2 subunits- 60S (large subunit) - The material of
and 40S (small subunit). They together form 80S. the nucleus
7. Cytoskeleton stained by the
basic dyes was
- It is a network of filamentous proteinaceous structures
present in the cytoplasm. given the name chromatin by Flemming.

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- Normally, a cell has only one nucleus. Some cells have - Based on position of centromere, chromosomes are 4 types:
more than one. Some mature cells lack nucleus. E.g. o Metacentric chromosome: Middle centromere forming
mammalian RBC and sieve tube cells of vascular plants. two equal arms of the chromosome.
- The interphase nucleus contains o Sub-metacentric chromosome: Centromere is nearer to
o Nuclear envelope: Double layered membrane with a one end forming one shorter arm and one longer arm.
space between (10 - 50 nm) called perinuclear space. It o Acrocentric chromosome: Centromere is close to its
is a barrier between the materials present in nucleus & end forming one very short and one very long arm.
cytoplasm. Outer membrane usually remains continuous o Telocentric chromosome: Terminal centromere.
with ER and also bears ribosomes on it.
Nuclear envelope has minute pores formed by the fusion
of its two membranes. These are the passages for the
movement of RNA and protein between nucleus and
cytoplasm.
o Nuclear matrix (nucleoplasm)
o Chromatin: A network of nucleoprotein fibres. It
contains DNA and basic proteins (histones), non-histone
proteins and RNA. During cell division, chromatins
condense to form chromosomes. - Some chromosomes have non-staining secondary
o Nucleolus: One or more non-membranous spherical constrictions at a constant location. It is called satellite.
bodies. It is continuous with the nucleoplasm. It is a site
11. Microbodies
for ribosomal RNA synthesis.
- These are membrane bound minute vesicles that contain
Chromosomes: various enzymes.
- A human cell has 2 m long thread of DNA - Present in both plant and animal cells.
distributed among its 46 (23 pairs) Differences between Plant and animal cells
chromosomes.
Plant cell Animal cell
- Every chromosome has a primary
1. Cell wall present Absent
constriction (centromere). On the sides 2. Plastids are present Absent
of centromere, disc shaped structures 3. A large central vacuole Many small vacuoles
called kinetochores are present. 4. Centrioles are absent Present

COMPARISON BETWEEN PROKARYOTIC AND EUKARYOTIC CELLS

Prokaryotic cells Eukaryotic cells
1. Generally smaller Larger
2. Genetic material is in the form of nucleoid Genetic material is in the form of nucleus
3. Nuclear membrane absent Present
4. Membrane bound organelles absent Present
5. Circular DNA Linear DNA
6. Ribosomes 70 S type 80 S type (70 S in plastids and mitochondria)

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 MODEL QUESTIONS
1. Match the columns A,B, & C
A B C
Mitochondria Sedimentation coefficient Spindle fibers
Golgi bodies Hydrolytic enzyme Power house
Lysosomes Axoneme Cisternae
Ribosomes Centrioles Acidic PH
Cilia Glycoproteins George Palade
Centrosome Cristae 9+ 2
2. Bacterial cell envelope is having a complex structure. name the layers of the envelope
3. Types of Chromosomes based on the position of centromere are given. Name the Chromosomes.

4. In cells glycoprotein & glycolipids are secreted by a cell organelle.

a. Name the cell organelle
b. Neatly draw its diagram
5. Plastids are found in all plant cells
a. List the three plastids found in plants.
b. Name the colorless plastids and specify its role.
6. Identify the characters of prokaryotic cells from the following statements
a. Endoplasmic reticulum present b. Ribosome present
c. Golgi bodies absent d. Incipient nucleus
e. Yeast is an example f. Mostly anaerobes
7. Golgi apparatus remains in close association with the endoplasmic reticulum. Give the reason.
8. Copy the following diagram and label the parts.