RIFT VALLEY

INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

CRAFT NOTES: EXTENSION EDUCATION: PREPARED BY:KIRUI

INTRODUCTION TO RURAL SOCIOLOGY

Definition:

Rural sociology is a branch of sociology that deals with the scientific study of rural people in group
relationship. Rural sociology studies people living in rural areas. Rural people consist of rural farm
people and rural non-farm people. The rural people are dependent on agriculture. The way rural
sociology is influenced by environment.

Importance of Rural Sociology.

a. Rural problems can be solved by the research findings from rural sociology.
b. Rural sociology can be used in developing programmes that can be used for improving rural life.
c. Rural sociology can be used in transfer of technology to farmers. Technology transfer requires
approaches that are based on knowledge and understanding of the farmers, social and cultural
environment. This can be done through rural sociology.
d. Rural sociology can assist change agents to understand rural society (relations, interactions, and
organisations).

Scope of rural sociology

Rural sociology studies the relationships and interactions of the rural people. It deals with norms,
social behaviour, culture, social organisation and rural social values.

Rural sociology aims at three areas;

 Rural sociology as accumulation of sociology knowledge that can be used to solve problems in the
rural society.
 Obtaining sociology knowledge by empirical research procedures.
 Keeping faith in methods used in the discipline.

Rural Sociology as a science

a. Rural sociology is considered as a science because of the methodology used in study, research or
acquiring knowledge.
b. Like other sciences like chemistry, physics, biology scientists come up with knowledge by:

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 Setting and testing the hypothesis. Hypothesis is a proposed statement that is stated and shows
particular relationship between two or more variable (concepts) e.g. income, age, education,
performance.
Criterion by which hypothesis is accepted or rejected is set (research design).
Data is collected – collect information using experimentation method or survey method.
Collected data is processed and analysed.
Data is interpreted.
Conclusion is drawn using research design i.e accept or reject hypothesis using set criterion.

Note that the procedure used in rural sociology is similar to the methodology used in study of other
sciences. Rural sociology is a science.

SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS

DEFINITION:

Social institution is an enduring cultural structure that meets a certain need of the society and
establishes control. Social institutions are enduring i.e last longer, resist change and are permanent.
Social institutions satisfy the needs of the society by performing certain specified function in the
society.

General Characteristics of Social Institutions

 They are universal

 They are related to activities performed in the societies.
 They resist change
 They provide the basis for values, norms and sanctions.
 They involve cultural traits.

Examples of social institutions are family, government/political, economic, education, religion, medical,
research.

FAMILY

Family refers to a group of related kins linked by marriage, blood or adoption and they live in the same
household.

Types of Family

1. Nuclear family

This is a family organisation in which membership consists of only married couple and their dependent
children. This kind of family is founded by marriage and children grow up and move away when they
are mature.

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 2. Extended family

This is a family organisation where several generations of blood relatives live together. This is up to
four generations i.e grandparents, parents, couple (man/wife) and children.

Functions of the family

a. Procreation

Family brings forth to new members (offspring/children) through birth. The family ensures there is
continuity of the society as children grow up to replace the old or dead ones.

b. Socialisation to new members

Children are taught about culture is transmitted from one generation to another.

c. Provision of Basic Needs to the members

The family provides members with basic needs like food, clothing, shelter, protection.

d. Provision of Emotional support to members

Family provides love, care, companionship to the members. This satisfies sense of belonging that is
important for both physical and psychological developments.

e. Provides guidance and acts as unit of social control

Family provides guidance on moral values, behaviour or sexual relations. Members of a given family
are advised to conform to norms and good values of the society. This is to avoid scandals and
becoming the disgrace to the society. The family acts as unit of social control by reinforcing sanctions
on members who violate norms by misbehaving.

f. Economic unit of the family

The family performs certain roles for the well-being of the family. The roles include farming, business,
to generate income for their families. The family acts as a home factory that is involved production,
business or other economic activities.

g. Transmission and ownership of property.

Young members receive ascribed status from the property owned by their families. Property and
leadership (monarchy) can be inherited among the family members. This depends on factors like
culture of the society eg boys can inherit land in some cultures.

Authority in families

 Patriarchal – the father has authority to make decisions in the family.

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 Matriarchal – the mother has authority to make decisions in the family.
 Equaliarchal– there is shared authority between the man and wife in a family.

Authority is also related to family residence

 Patrilocal– residence of the family located at fathers home.

 Matrilocal– residence of the family located at the mothers home.
 Neolocal – family residence located in a neutral place, neither fathers nor mothers home.

Descent of the family

 Patrineal– descent traced along father’s line.

 Matrineal– descent traced along mother’s line.
 Bilateral – descent traced on both the father’s and mother’s line.

Forms of Marriage

Marriage gives rise to a family. Forms of marriage include: monogamy, polygyny, polyandry,
monoandry depending on culture.

 Monogamy – marriage of one man to one wife.

 Polygamy – marriage to more than one partner at a given time e.g polygyny, polyandry. Polygyny is
where a man marries many wives (women) while polyandry is where a woman marries more than
one husbandeg brothers.
 Monoandry – a woman marries a man and takes her to her home.

Marriage restrictions

 Endogamy – requires a person to marry outside his clan or village. This is related to incest taboo
which prohibits closely related individuals from having sexual relations.
 Marriage paves way to family life. Dowry and registration are major step towards marriage. The
bride price and marriage registration make marriage legitimate. In Kenya there are three forms of
marriage recognised by law:
- Customary
- Civil
- Religious

Divorce

Divorce refers to legal termination of a legally recognised marriage.

Causes of divorce:- adultery, cruelty, imprisonment, desertion, separation, drunkardness, non-

support, insanity. Other predisposing conditions include – dissatisfaction, parent’s disapproval,
education and other achievements.

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EDUCATION

Definition: Education is a process of transmitting knowledge, skills, culture and attitudes from one
generation to another.

Sources of knowledge/Types

a. Formal education– chronogically graded and structured system of teaching at institution from pre-
primary, primary, secondary, college to university.
b. Informal education – life long process by which acquires and accumulates knowledge from daily
experiences and exposure to the environment. This type of education was found in traditional set
up and was reinforced by culture. The individuals are ever learning in every environment.
c. Non Formal Education – organised systematic teaching outside formal system for groups with
particular needs e.g agricultural extension, public health programmes, family life education, adult
education.

Differences between Formal and Informal Education

S/NO Formal Education Non Formal Education

1. Pupils progress up the ladder according Not organised according to the age
to the age sets
2. Based on curriculum – syllabus subjects Aims at certain needs and problem
taught solving depending on situation
3. Learning depends on the syllabus Learning depends on group needs
4. Lecture and other methods commonly Learner participation methods used
used e.g demonstration, group discussion
5. Motivation based on discipline and good Motivation based on good returns and
performance improving standards of living/self-
satisfaction
6. Attendance is obligatory Attendance depends on learners

Principles of Teaching and Learning

1. Principle of active attitude of the learner – learner learn better when they actively involved in
learning.
2. Principle of working aim – learners should have an aim to work for every lesson.
3. Principle of sequence – the lessons given should be like chain where they are linked to each other.
4. Principle of socialising – learners should be given an opportunity to work in groups.
5. Principle of individualising – individual students should be given an opportunity to work on their
own.

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6. Principle of immediate reinforcement – the learner should be given response after answering a
question.
7. Principle of learning by doing – learners should be given an opportunity to carry out a given skill.
8. Principle of repetition – remind students by repetition.

Primary functions of Education

 Teaching skills to members of the society – these include basic skills, abstract skills, production,
management skills.
 Socialisation – education transmits culture from one generation to another.
 Higher social status I the society.
 For latent function –they are unintentional and unrecognized outcomes that going to school,
interacting with peers and adults, and following the rules ingrained into you without anyone really
intending for it to happen. It keeps students on the job market.
 Development of personality of individuals – all the changes in the field of knowledge are the net
sum of research in the field of education. Society is subjected to change according to the change in
the field of knowledge.
 Preservation and transmission of culture – these functions of education emphasizes on
preservation and transmission of culture, value system and traditions of the society.
 Creation of knowledge

RELIGION

Religion is a system of beliefs and practices by people who recognize the existence of supernatural
being or force by a people. The supernatural beings or force are taken to be sacred. The sacred beings
or things include objects, animals, plants, mountains, lakes, people, or even ideas.

The behaviour of people towards the sacred beings is carried out in form of religious rites. Rites are
activities carried out in order to please the sacred beings. In this relation, people observe practices like
sacrifices, religious rites, baptism, holy communion, worship etc. these become to unified system of
beliefs, feelings and behaviour in relation to the sacred beings.

Functions of Religion

 Creates unity in the society – religion creates sense of purpose and stability in the society by
instilling common set values and norms among the members of the society.
 Provision of humanitarian and welfare services in the society – these include services like
education, health, orphanages and relief services during crises periods etc. the services provided
improve the standards of living of society members.
 Unit of social control – imparts religious values and ensure conformance to thee values through
use of sanctions among members. Guidance is provided to stray member and on social
relationships.

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 Formation of secondary groups – these include choir, Sunday school, youth groups. This improves
group relationships among members apart from keeping members busy.
 Religion encourages people to adhere to moral values, norms and standards.
 Religion provides the society members with the purpose for living.
 Religion helps the society members to adjust during times of stress.
 Religion provides answers to mysterious.

GOVERNMENT/POLITICAL INSTITUTIONS

Political institutions are a system values, norms and roles which define and locate authority in the
society and agencies through which the authority is established.

Functions of Governments

 Formalising the norms of the society – government formalise the norms of the society into laws
like constitutional laws, statutory laws or common laws.
 Administering sanctions to those who violate the laws – the government administers sanctions to
those who violate through courts of law eg impose fines, death penalty and imprisonment.
 Settling disputes within the society – government settles disputes arising from inheritance, divorce,
debt payment and bankruptcy.
 Providing basic services to members of the society – the government provides services like
education, road construction, health services.
 Protecting the members of the society and the property – the government protects members of
the society and their property. Internally this is done by police while externally countries are
protected by military from foreign invasion, diplomacy and international agreements.

ECONOMIC INSTITUTIONS

Economics refers to a system of norms, values and roles which is patterned by distribution of limited
and scarce resources in the society. Economics is responsible for production, distribution and
consumption of goods and services.

The primary function of economics is to bring about transformation of the environment to satisfy the
needs of individuals and the entire society. The transformation of environment is geared towards
production, transportation and distribution of goods and services and their ultimate consumption.
Economics also considers social status of individuals in the society.

Functions Economic Institutions

 Determines production, distribution and consumption of goods and services.

 Socialisation – on job training, interaction during marketing, advertisements.
 Influences social stratification – social status is determined by property ownership.
 Influences aspects of culture.

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N/B: Politico – Economic systems i.e the relationship between government and the economy includes
the following;-

 Capitalism – most property privately owned, free market economy, government has ultimate right
over property.
 Communism – allows ownership of everything by public, private ownership prohibited.
 Socialism – limited ownership of private resources, most resources owned by the public/state.
 Fascism – rigid state control of economy, all institutions serve the interest of the state.
IMPORTANCE OF SOCIAL INSTITUTION TO FARMING
 Knowledge transfer-Makes the community understand importance of modern farming
 Guides the farming community by making good agriculture policies
 Harmoniser the community thus making them integrated disciplined
 Makes the community understand family problems and how to solve them i.e family
planning
 Regulation and policies-that guide farming practices ,ensuring environmental sustainability
and safety standards
 Creates market linkages
 Contributes to innovation by developing new crop varieties
SOCIAL STRUCTURE
Meaning of social structrure
This refers to the distinctive, stable arrangements of institutions whereby human beings in a
society interact and live together.
Sources of social structure
i. Income discrepancy
ii. Level of education
iii. Individual role in society
iv. Systems of cultural values

Social stratification

This refers to categorization of its people into rankings of socio-economics tiers based on factors like
wealth, income,race,education and power

Types of social stratification

 social categories-collection of individuals who have at least one attribute in common but
otherwise do not necessarily interact.e.g women-have one thing in common, biological sex,
though they don’t interact. Categorization also include race and age
 Social class-a group of people within a society who possess the same socioeconomic status.
Social classes include Upper class, middle class and lower class.
 Social caste-refer to social group having two characteristics i.e membership confined by birth
and members are forbidden by social law to marry outside the group.
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 Effects of social stratification in a social system
 creates barriers amongst people
 creates family disruptions
 perpetuate[continuous] apathy [lack of interest] and a feelings of deprivation-denial
 creates leadership competition

Effects of social stratification in agriculture development

 lack of man power
 poor agricultural policies
 limited access to resources i.e water land and modern farming technology
 Unequal opportunities for education and training in modern farming techniques
 Marginalized farmers might struggle to access markets due to lack of resources, transports

LEADERSHIP IN RURAL AND URBAN SOCIETY

Leadership is a force that initiates action among people towards achieving society’s common goals.
Leadership is concerned with power/ authority/decision making/ influence. It can influence or impact
on the behaviour of people.

AUTHORITY

Authority refers to legitimate power one has as she/he occupies a given office. Power is the ability to
control/influence people/right to control (legitimacy) to control people/decision making.

SOURCES OF POWER

 Personal power; it is derived from support from followers who return expected reward from the
leader.
 Legitimate power; this is where one has a right to influence the followers in turn have an
obligation to accept influence as obligation.
 Coercive power; uses force to induce obedience among followers eg use of punishments.
 Reference power; a leader is extemporary and followers are motivated to admire the leader. The
followers identify with the leader.
 Expert power; the leader is respected due to knowledge, competence and experience he/she
posses

Qualities of a good leader

 Good communication skills.

 Quick thinker – knowledge, intelligent.
 Patient – good temperament/ not emotional.

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 Encouraging – positive.
 Impartial – fair/no favour/honesty.
 Mature – responsible.
 Collective decision – involve people in decision making.

TYPES OF LEADERSHIP/LEADERSHIP STYLES

1. Democratic. 2. Leissez faire. 3. Autocratic. 4. Supervisory. 5. Traditional. 6.

Monarchy. 7. Charismatic. 8. Anarchy. 9. Persuasive.

Note that: Democratic, Autoctratic and Leissez faire are styles of leadership.

DEMOCRATIC LEADERSHIP

It refers to a country with government principle in which all people are treated equally and are
involved in decision making. The democratic leader shares responsibility with staff members. Often
presenting a problem and asking staff to help arrive at a solution although the leader usually retains
control over the final decision based on this input. This leader consults with others for all major
decisions and delegates, allowing staff members control over their assigned duties.

Characteristics.

 This is a style of leadership that allows people to be involved in decision making.

 Democracy allows freedom of worship, speech, opinion, movement, association and expression.
 Democracy allows respect of human rights.
 Members of the society are allowed to elect their leaders/representatives eg voting.
 Decision making process may involve entire population or representatives.
 Emphasizes on principles of good governance eg transparency and accountability.
 Democracy looks at all members of the society as mature.
 No attention is paid to classes in the society as all people are treated equally.

Advantages

 Positive work environment: staff members often feel more appreciated and invested in the work
because they feel a measure of control. There is often less discord between staff and the leader,
resulting in less conflict. People tend to be more open in expressing feelings and concerns, so there
is less talking behind the back of the leader, and people are more invested in supporting decisions
they have had a part in making. Facilitates motivation among members of the society.
 Better decision-making: Involves members of the society in decision making – human oriented,
interests taken care of. Because decision-making is shared, both negative and positive aspects of a
decision are usually discussed, so problems that may be overlooked by one person making
decisions may be identified early.

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 Creative solutions: staff members who are actively engaged in decision-making may arrive at more
creative solutions to problems.
 Decreased turnover; staff members who feel valued are less likely to leave a position. Retaining
staff is an important cost effective factor as training new staff is costly.

Disadvantages

 It’s difficulty to involve all members of the society in decision making.

 The representatives may not take care of the society’s interests.
 Time consuming; It takes a longer time to reach consensus/agreement.
 People are lazy and take advantage of democracy.
 Inefficient; if meetings are held during working hours, this cuts into patient-contact time. If
meetings are held outside of working hours, participants must be paid for their time. Delayed
decision making may negatively impact outcomes.

Note; this type of leadership may delay decision-making, but staff and teams are often more
committed to the solutions because of their input. Because all staff members are allowed input in
decision-making, the reasons for the final decision must be clearly outlined or those whose ideas were
overlooked may feel disenfranchised. Democratic leaders are especially effective when the focus is on
training staff and developing leadership qualities in others.

LEISSEZ FAIRE

The Laissez-faire or ‘free rein’ leader exerts little direct control over the decision-making process but
allows staff members/ teams to make decisions independently with little interference.

This is a style of leadership that allows people to do what they want eg let people do what they want.

Characteristics.

 Freedom is given to people to do or chose what is good.

 The society looks leaderless.
 The role of the government is reduced to national defence, maintenance of law and order/security
and providing basic services in the society.
 There are no strict laws in the society.
 The role of leaders is reduced to merely symbolic.
 Committees are used to regulate the society.
 The type of leadership looks at members of the society as mature and perfect.
 It’s good for mature people who use their time well and produce satisfactory results for the
society.

Advantages
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 Mature people use their time and resources well to work on projects to produce results.
 Less oversight: staff members are free to explore and arrive at decisions without interference from
leaders. This can be a highly motivating situation for skilled and intelligent staff members.
 Creative solutions: given free rein, staff members may arise at very creative solutions to problems,
assuming they have adequate resources.

Disadvantages

 Unlimited freedom for immature members of the society is disastrous because they are lazy,
cannot use resources/time well, and engage in unproductive activities, and unnecessary.
 Ineffective decision-making: while allowing people the freedom to make their own decisions
sounds ideal, the result of functioning without a leader is often that nothing is achieved.
 Negative work environment: This form of leadership can result in bullying of some staff members
by others. Different groups may arrive at different solutions with little attempt to coordinate. Staff
members may feel forced to make decisions, essentially ‘’doing the leader’s job’’
 Less feedback: Members often receive little or no feedback from the leader, so they may feel
insecure or unappreciated.

Note: Leissez- faire leadership may be effective if staff members are highly skilled and motivated;
however, in many cases, laissez-faire leadership results from poor management skills.

AUTOCRATIC LEADERSHIP

Autocratic leader is a person who rules with unlimited power, does thing without considering wishes of
others. The autocratic leader makes as many decisions independently as possible and maintains
control of the decision – making processes. This leader also tends to retain responsibility and limit
delegation and consultation with others.

Dictator – person with absolute power, especially one who obtained such power with use of force or in
irregular manner. Such a person uses power in a cruel way.

Characteristics

 The leader gets people/members of the society to do things without questioning.

 Power is centralised in hands of few people in leadership positions.
 Members of the society are expected to obey orders of the leaders.
 Leaders use force, threats and punishment to instil obedience among members of the society.
 Leaders look at members of the society as immature, irresponsible, lazy and unintelligent.

Benevolent autocrat – type of autocratic leadership where leaders are very tactful polite and uses
rewards, propaganda and influence to win masses.

Advantages

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 It achieves higher production as people work harder.
 It uses incentives to motivate members of the society.
 Less stress; while the autocrat leader may have stress related to responsibility, the leader does not
have the stress of his or her fate being in the hands of others.
 Increased efficiency; the leader’s oversight, presence and expectations often result in people
working to capacity – at least while the leader is present.
 Rapid decision-making; the leader does not need to have meetings or make compromises to reach
a decision, so the leader can respond quickly to changes or needs.
 Faster problem-solving; the leader who is heavily invested in all aspects of work can often spot
problems quickly and come up with solutions.
 Less oversight; because this leader makes decisions independently without consultation of staff,
there is often less interaction and oversight into the manner in which the leader works or makes
decisions.

Disadvantages

 Capable of stirring conflict between leaders and the people eg civil disobedience/discontent.
 Can lower the morale of the people as they are not involved in decision making.
 Negative work environment; the autocratic leader is often viewed with resentment because staff
members feel they are not valued or appreciated. This can lead to lack of support and efforts to
undermine the leader. People simply don’t like to be ordered around – regardless of the skills or
abilities of the leader.
 Impaired staff development; staff members are not able to gain experience and skills they need in
order to advance or assume leadership responsibilities.
 Unbalanced workload; the leader’s workload may become unmanageable because of the person’s
inability or unwillingness to delegate. In the long run, this can result in increased stress, decreased
efficiency and burnout.
 Dependency; when the leader makes all decisions, the staff may become very dependent on the
leader, expecting more and more with less and less personal investment.
 Less feedback; staff members often feel intimidated and afraid to point out problems, especially
since they had no involvement in decisions about the process, so problems may go unreported and
unaddressed.

SUPERVISORY LEADERSHIP

This type of leadership is concerned with directing and over - seeing other members (workers) carry
out their operations.

Supervision involves control function of personally over-seeing performance by using a certain criteria.

Characteristics

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 Corrective measures/action is taken where necessary.
 Supervision forms an important an important function of management, which is important in
organisation.
 Supervision also provides a link between workers and management within an organisation.
 Supervision is done by supervisors, foremen and section heads.

Advantages

 Good supervision improves production and management in an organisation.

Disadvantages

 Lack of manpower with good supervisory skills – training, experience lacking.

 Improper supervision can cause organisation problems.

PARTICIPATORY LEADERSHIP

The participatory leader develops and presents a potential decision and then makes the final decision
based on input from members. The participatory leader makes a decision before input and then may
implement, abandon, or modify the decision. The team rather than the leader guides the final decision.

Advantages

 Employee motivation: staff members are motivated to participate because they can see that their
input influences decisions. Decisions are often accepted better by staff members, who feel their
expertise and ideas are valued.
 Better decision-making: discussion usually elicits both positive and negative aspects of a decision
that may be overlooked if authority is in the hands of only the leader or a small number of people.
 Promotion of teamwork: since this is essentially a team approach to problem-solving and decision-
making in which the leader becomes part of the decision team, this type of leadership promotes
teamwork and strengthens existing teams.

Disadvantages

 Time consuming: decisions often cannot be made quickly because of the need to reach consensus
or to affect a compromise. Multiple team meetings may be needed to evaluate a decision and
determine whether it is acceptable. If not, further discussion is needed to staff members.
 Lack of satisfaction: in order to reach a decision, compromises are often reached that may not be
completely satisfactory to the leader or to staff members.
 Decentralized control: A participatory leader must be comfortable providing guidance and
facilitating decisions rather than simply making them, and this requires considerable skill in

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 communication on the part of the leader, who may be in a position to see the ‘big picture’ better
than other staff members.

Note: participatory leadership is most effective in an environment that stresses the importance of
teamwork. This leadership style encourages active collaboration.

BUREAUCRATIC LEADERSHIP

Bureaucracy takes time to develop, so the bureaucratic leader is most often found in a large
established institution in which top down decision-making has become the norm. Leaders are chosen
because of their ability to follow organizational rules exactly, so they, in turn, expect others to do the
same.

Advantages

 Clear structure: The lines of authority are clearly delineated, and people know what is expected of
them within this structure.
 Increased safety: because staff members follow rules, there is less danger of injury, so safety is
often improved.
 Improved quality: when procedures are followed consistently, such as conducting time outs and
checklists prior to surgery, quality of care often improves. Human error is reduced.
 Management control: when staff members know that their evaluations, promotions, salaries and
job security are tied to their exact following of established rules, they are less likely to deviate, so
management can retain tight control.

Disadvantages

 Negative work environment: the bureaucratic leadership model would be ideal for a workforce of
robots, but people are not robots and often feel constrained by the need to constantly follow rules
and frequently feel the work is unrewarding.
 Lack of creativity: staff members are rewarded for following rules, not for questioning them or
trying to arrive at better solutions. People who are creative often simply go elsewhere to work or
learn quickly the ideas to them.
 Poor communication:the bureaucratic leader often refers to rules, regulations, and policies when
dealing with problems, suggesting people ‘’follow the process’’ rather than trying to resolve issues.
Problems for which the rules are not clear typically ‘’sent upward’’.
 Misconceptions regarding power: when position equals power, people oftenseek these positions
because they want power over others, and leaders may develop inflated ideas of their own
importance, expressed through arrogant behaviour and increased politics as people attempt to
carry favour.
 Inflated staff: bureaucratic leadership rarely results in a small efficient staff, as bureaucracy seems
to lend itself to bloated staffing and waste.

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Note: this type of leadership is most effective in dangerous work environments where adherence to
rules and protocol is essential for safety, but it is not conducive to problem-solving in the medical
environment in which change is almost constant.

TRADITIONAL LEADERSHIP

It’s found in most traditional African set ups. Tribes were ruled by chiefs with help of a council of
elders. In this organisation, the chief and council of elders made important decisions on behalf of the
society.

CHARISMATIC LEADERSHIP

This is the type of leadership whereby leaders have special qualities eg extra ordinary personality,
intelligent, public speaking; people admire such people due to such special qualities. The charismatic
leader is often described as a born leader, but in fact, some people simply cultivate the skills needed by
observing others and studying people. Charismatic leaders use their own personal charisma to
influence people, often amassing followers who support them, often without question. They are
usually persuasive speakers and use and understand the importance of body language as part of
communication.

Characteristics

 Influence others through power of personality

 Acts energetically, motivating others to move forward
 Inspires passion
 May seem to believe in self than team.

Advantages

 Respect and power; staff members look up to the leader and show respect for the person’s
authority and accept and support the leader’s decisions.
 Creative solutions; the charismatic leader is often visionary, and it’s this quality that attracts others.
The leader is able to see a creative solution – or at least a different solution – to problems and
communicate the solution to others. Staff members may feel part of creative solutions even though
they are merely supporting them.
 Change; charismatic leaders often emerge because they promote change in an environment in
which people feel frustration with the status quo. Staff members may feel empowered by being
part of a movement toward change and are willing to support the leader in making changes.

Disadvantages

A good charismatic leader can be extremely effective and bring about needed changes, but this type of
leadership also has disadvantages:

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 Staff division;
 Self-limiting leadership;
 Ineffective solutions; just because a leader is charismatic, it does not follow that a new or creative
solution to a problem is the BEST solution. When the decision-making process is guided and
controlled by one person, that person must be infallible, but that is rarely the case. Leaders can be
quite narcissistic, looking out for what is best for them rather than for the organization.

Note; A charismatic leader may be a motivating force, but because this type of a leader engages
followers, the leader may relate to one group rather than the organization as a whole, limiting overall
effectiveness.

ANARCHY

This is a type of leadership due to breakdown of rule of law.

Characteristics

 People take law into their hands without respect for the rule of law.
 As a result of this, there is mass violence, looting of property, arson, rape, murder etc.
 The aftermath of this includes; property loss or destruction, deaths, hunger etc.
 This can be caused by rivalry/completion between two rivalry groups.

MONARCHY

This is a type of leadership that is inherited along family lines. The royal family are considered to
special and leadership is reserved for them.

One must be heir to the throne in order to inherit leadership eg prince, princess, queen, king. E.g.
Buganda kingdom of Uganda, Royal family of Britain.

Advantages

 It brings about a solid government: monarchy’s singularity of power provides people with a
symbolic and focused area for group loyalty and identity. There will only be one individual who will
make the decisions, so they will be made quickly, and there will be fewer arguments with regards
to new policies going to be imposed.
 It can lead to leadership stability: A monarch has life tenure and is not subject to national
elections, unlike other heads of state under other heads of state under other political systems.
 It offers more savings for the government with the absence of elections: this form of government
reduces the huge amounts of expenditure of the country from the elections, as there is no need to
elect the next leader.
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 It allows for a non-partisan leadership: monarchs are born to rule without the obligation to
answer to anyone. On the other hand, politicians need to win the elections and reach out to the
people to try to win their votes, which is something that monarchs do not really experience.
 It encourages respect for the ruler: the masses will have greater respect for their monarch than an
elected president, as the latter can rule for only a certain term.
 It lessens cases of corrupt practices: nations that are being ruled by monarchs experience less
corruption. Also, these rulers know that they are not ruling for a term, so they most probably have
no lust for money. They do not intend to misuse their authority for corrupt practices.
 It does not share blames: A monarch would not share the blame or pass it to others once he
makes a bad decision in the same way that politicians do. However, it is just him while politicians
are hundreds.
 It looks into family as a state model: A monarch is considered as the country’s father and the
subject are his children. This form of government is an organic kind of human organization that
everyone can easily relate to.
 It encourages leadership suitability: A heir to the throne will be taught the proper ways to rule as
early as his/her childhood years, while traditional politicians only learn about these things when
they are already grown up.
 It is useful for civilized and undeveloped societies: in the beginning of time, man was barbarous
and uncivilized – he was not at all disciplined. During such a time monarchy was the only form of
government that made man disciplined and law abiding.

Disadvantages

 It might lead to a poor leadership:monarchy requires a single person ruling the entire country as
long as he or she lives. This means that the masses do not have the power to remove him or her
from leadership even if he is not functioning accordingly.
 It does not allow democratic legitimacy: A monarch is not elected or chosen by the people, unlike
politicians.
 It might lead to having a leader who might not be as serious as needed: A person who knows that
he or she will rule the country for the rest of his or her life might not take the responsibility to
serve for the betterment of the people seriously. He is aware that he or she does not answer to
anyone, which can lead to economic disruption.
 It lacks democratic accountability and liability: if a monarch has become an inefficient and bad
leader, he cannot be held liable by the people.
 It invests much power and fame to a single individual: A monarch is recognized as a supreme
legislator, judicator and executor. Though he is helped by personal advisors, he still has the final
say, and no other person is allowed to break this.
 It can lead to inequality of wealth: in a monarchy type of government, the leader, his ministers
and the ruling class would amass wealth, but the common people’s plight would remain miserable.
Neither the public would get higher positions nor enjoy any kind of special right.

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PERSUASIVE LEADERSHIP

It assumes that people accept instructions and directions when persuaded.

LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT

Delegation refers to assigning responsibilities to another officer to carry out on your behalf especially
when is away or busy doing other duties. It entails copying other leaders with good leadership qualities
and training individuals to be leaders.

STEPS IN LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT

1. Problem identification.
2. Collect data on the problem.
3. Analyse the problem.
4. Consider alternative solution.
5. Draw the conclusion.

EFFECTS OF GOOD LEADERSHIP IN AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT

 Improved production – good/effective policies.

 Prompt payment to farmers.
 Fair credit facilities.

FACTORS HAMPERING LEADERSHIP EFFICIENCY

 Lack of devotion among leaders.

 Position oriented leaders.
 Incompetence.
 Inability to accept criticism.

SOCIAL CHANGE

INTRODUCTION

Social change refers to an alteration in the social order of a society. Social change may include changes
in nature, social institutions, social behaviours or social relations. Social change may be driven by
cultural, religious, economic, scientific or technological forces.

Social change can also be defined as a considerable, lasting change in the way a society behaves and
the norms and values to which the society adheres.

Change can be planned or unplanned change. Planned change refers to deliberate effort by change
agents to bring about change in a system or organisation. It can be set with an objective of altering or
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correcting undesired situation. Unplanned change is as a result of dynamic natural forces in the
society. This is unintended change that can arise from cultural borrowing or diffusion of ideas.

Change can also be endogenous or exogenous change. Endogenous change originate and occurs from
the society without outside influence eg an idea, innovations or inventions that originate from within
the society. Exogenous change refers to a type of change that originates from outside the society.
Such changes spread by diffusion eg missionaries introduced new religion, education and agriculture.
Spontaneous change – happening from natural/impulse cause.

SOURCES OF CHANGE

1. Inventions – this involves new application of knowledge, or research findings eg new techniques,
new tools and equipment. Necessity is the mother of inventions. The new discovered inventions
replace the older way of doing things. Inventions create changes in labour requirements, products,
performance standards, management and efficiency production system.
2. Communication – improved communication systems lead to faster access to information eg
telephone, TV, internet, fax, newspaper. Communication exposes viewers to information, lifestyles,
new cultures and technologies. The communication widens their horizons of understanding,
incorporated into lifestyles. Individuals travel widely, interacting with members of other societies.
3. Education– education provides members with knowledge, skills and attitudes. Education is a
source of new ideas, skills and transforms members of the society into new products –
changed/processed products. Education institutions also allows for socialisation between various
groups.
4. Rural-urban migration/slums– problems in rural areas like unemployment and population growth
cause people to migrate to urban centres. This makes the urban population to
cosmopolitan/metropolitan population with different cultural backgrounds. The urban population
is mixed and interaction makes cultural exchanges possible. This also causes reduction in rural
population. The rural population tend to be conservative and more traditional.
5. Discontent – these arise from certain expectations and ambitions people have in their lives. When
such aspirations/expectations are not achieved, such people become disgruntled/ dissatisfied. The
people become prone to change.
6. Disasters/Calamities/Catastrophes– these include earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, floods,
epidemics, typhoons, famine, accidents, landslides and even bomb disasters. Some of the above,
sweep through the societies causing destruction and deaths. As a result of this phenomenon create
social disruptions and permanent effects in people’s lives; destroy livelihood, homes, families and
permanent injuries.
7. Social conflict–when people disagree, some have to find alternative ways that are different from
normal way of life. The former ways are dropped to pave way for new way of operating. Social
conflict creates division, fighting and competition.

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8. Revolution and Reform–Reform – people plan and work for changes in the work in the
government or organisation through established cultural and legal framework. People can work to
abolish older ways by bringing about changes democratically eg referendum in Kenya.
9. Nutritional imbalances
10. Income disparities
11. employment

Effects of social changes

i. Urbanization-rise and growth of cities as higher percentages of population comes to live the
city
ii. Industrialization/implementation of rural projects-transformation of human group from
agrarian society into indusrial society.involves reorganisation of an economy for the purpose of
manufacturing
iii. Formation of social institutions-changes in human interactions and relationships leads to
formation and transformation of social institution
iv. Population growth-both quality of composition of demography and the size and density of of
human population can be affected by social change as there can be a rise ,fall or decline
v. Abolition of slavery-
vi. Access to human rights

FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE CHANGE IN SOCIETY

Social change characterizes every society. However its direction, speed and nature are affected by
several factors.

1. Natural factors

Natural forces and factors play an important role in unifying or disintegrating the society. A storm,
earthquake, flood, drought, disease, famines always force changes in the social conditions and life of
the affected people. On one hand, these factors and forces act as a source of big loss for the victims;
on the other hand these initiate efforts aimed at rapid reconstruction and development. They can also
cause havoc in physical conditions of social life, these may also affect the social conditions in a positive
way.

2. Geographical factors

The cultural life of the people depends upon the physical environment. Progress also depends upon
the availability of natural resources, their exploitation and how are these factors being recouped and
preserved. Climate always affects the socio- economic activities of the people.

3. Biological factors

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Biological factors are those factors which determine the structure, selection and hereditary qualities of
generations. The human element is ever changing; each new generation is different from previous
generations.

4. Demographic factors

Demographic factors always influence the process and nature of social change. Population increase or
decrease always brings social problems. A constantly rising population gives birth to poverty,
unemployment, diseases and other related problems. When population is low, there are fewer skilled
hands available and the country cannot make full use of the natural resources. The social conditions
deteriorate the size of families shrink and it affects social relations.

5. Socio-economic Factors

The entire social structure of a country is determined by economic factors i.e the means of production
and distribution of material means of production and distribution. When there are changes in the
means of production i.e the material production forces of society, it is always changes the social
organization.

The birth of institutions of marriage and family took place under the influence of the means of
production of material means of livelihood. With the birth of family wealth and possessions became
important. When the society graduated to agricultural stage, the social organization grew more
complex. People settled down at a particular place for raising crops. Life became stable and located
and the villages came into being. Agriculture gave rise to allied industries. With the division of labour
the society got divided into several classes. In the era of Industrial revolution several inventions came
to be made and machine system of production came into existence. All this brought about drastic
changes in the social set-up.

5. Cultural Factors

Culture provides resistance to change particularly those coming from outside the society.

Our social life depends upon cultural elements such asnorms, values, beliefs, ideas, values, customs,
traditions, conventions and institutions tend to conserve culture and the existing conditions. When
there is a change in these, it influences the social life. Ethnocentrism provides resistance to culture as
changes coming from outside are regarded as inferior.

6. Science and Technological Factors

In contemporary times, science and technology happens to be the most important factor of social
change. New scientific inventions and technologies always greatly influence the social life.

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Mechanization brings changes in the economic structure and relations. This leads to a change in old
values, norms and ideas. Technology brings about changes in the physical environment and the
material culture of each society which in turn gives birth to social change.

8. Attitudes i.e religious beliefs

These are associated beliefs and behaviours towards some object. Attitudes are subject to change by
social influences as well as the individual motivation. Religion is the most resistant institution to
change due to fear and supremacy vested in the supernatural being eg people fear questioning or
challenging sacred beings.

9. Peer group effect

This is both a social group and a primary group of people who have similar interests, age, background
or social status. Members of this group are likely to influence the person’s beliefs and behaviours.

10. Education i.e Knowledge and skills

Illiteracy encourage negative attitude towards new changes as such people tend to be conservative
and traditional. The educated people on the other hand are exposed and flexible and are prone to
change.

Note: changes occur in agriculture. Agricultural development refers to shifts in traditional methods to
modern methods of production. Improvement is brought by extension agents who are extension
workers. These include new techniques of farming, new breeds of cattle, and varieties of crops.

Social and cultural barriers to agriculture change

There are features of the society and culture that may act as barriers to change in agriculture. It is
therefore important that the extension agents be aware of the existence of such barriers and takes
them into account in their work.

1. Respect for tradition

Many rural societies look upon new methods with indifference and sometimes with suspicion. Respect
for elders often results in the attitude that the old ways are best. Farmers not only fear the unknown
and untried but they also fear criticism for doing something different from other farmers. In such
situations, the motives of extension agents and others seeking to promote change can often be
misunderstood.

2. Belief in one’s own culture

3. This attitude results in reluctance to try something new. Members of all societies believe that their
way of life is best. ‘These new methods of farming may be all right for some people but they are no
good for u Responsibilities and social obligations

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Individuals within a society or a kinship group have responsibilities which they are expected to carry
out. As an individual’s income increases, so obligations to society or family increase. This may result,
for example, in a farmer being reluctant to carry out visible farm improvements such as fencing, buying
farm implements and other things.

4. Traditional ceremonies

Ceremonies such as weddings, funerals and religious festivals can take up so much time that the
farmer may be unable to work to the maximum efficiency. The farmer is, therefore, unlikely to adopt
new methods, which, while they might increase income, would mean that more time had to be
devoted to working on the farm and less to ceremonial and social obligations.

5. Pride and dignity

Farmers may be too proud to practice ways of farming that could result in other farmers looking down
on them. For example, they might be too proud to carry cattle manure to the fields. Many young
people leaving school look down on farming, even though some successful farmers earn more than
most government employees and school teachers.

6. Relative values

Extension agents often emphasize the improved yield or cash return that can be gained by adopting
new farm practices. However, farmers may value taste, appearance or some other factor more than
the level of output. They may also value their leisure time so highly that they are not prepared to work
longer hours on their farms.

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PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION

INTRODUCTION

Definition

Agricultural extension is an education process which has the main goal of communicating useful
information to farmers to increase food production so that they can improve their standard of living,
their families and their communities.

BASIC PRINCIPLES OF EXTENSION EDUCATION

1. Principle of farmer participation – farmers should be involved in all extension activities i.e
demonstrations, field days, agricultural shows, farmers meetings.

2. Principle of appropriate teaching method – Extension workers should select suitable methods on
the basis of the subject content, objectives, practical situation and the group.

3. Principle of voluntary involvement – Extension education allows voluntary involvement of farmers

in extension activities.

4. Principle of farmer centred programmes – The extension worker should follow the required
guidelines in serving and fulfilling the needs of the farmers who are the most important clients.

5. Principle of use of local leaders – Extension workers require the support of local leaders I carrying
out his/her duties.

6. Education process – passes useful information to farmers that enable them to increase food
production. This ensures farmers acquire knowledge, skills and attitudes that enable them increase
food production.

7. Economic necessity – farmers look at farming as Agri-business where they utilize resources to
produce and make profits.

8. Co-operation with other organisations – Extension services should work with other organisation to
provide agricultural related services.

9. Provision of technical and national economic needs – provides farmers with technical skills within
national policy framework.

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10. Better home making – emphasis is placed on good farm layout, planning homesteads in relation to
other farm structures.

11. Other principles include – cultural change, cultural difference, cooperation, grass root
organisation, leadership, trained personnel, whole family approach, cooperate with people,
accountable to two clients, two way link, work with different groups, recognise people’s needs and
evaluation.

Purpose of agriculture extension

1. Dissemination of Information: Extension services provide farmers with up-to-date information

on modern agricultural techniques, technologies, and best practices. This includes information on

crop varieties, soil management, pest control, irrigation methods, and more.

2. Technology Transfer: They facilitate the transfer of new and innovative agricultural

technologies from research institutions to farmers. This can include introducing new seeds,

farming equipment, or techniques to improve crop yields and quality.

3. Training and Education: Extension programs offer training and educational workshops to

farmers, helping them develop the necessary skills to implement new practices effectively. These

sessions can cover various topics, from sustainable farming practices to the use of new

agricultural machinery.

4. Problem-solving and Advisory Services: Agricultural extension workers provide on-the-ground

advice and solutions to farmers facing challenges such as crop diseases, pest infestations, soil

degradation, or climate-related issues. They offer recommendations and support to mitigate these

problems.

5. Market Information and Access: Extension services often assist farmers in understanding

market demands, pricing, and connecting them with market opportunities, helping them to

commercialize their produce effectively.

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 6. Community Development: They contribute to the overall development of rural communities by

improving food security, increasing income opportunities, and enhancing the overall quality of

life in rural areas.

7. Promotion of Sustainable Practices: Extension services emphasize sustainable and

environmentally friendly farming practices, encouraging the adoption of methods that conserve

natural resources and reduce negative environmental impacts.

8. Policy Advocacy: They often serve as a bridge between policymakers and farmers, relaying the

needs and challenges faced by the agricultural community, which can influence agricultural

policies.

 The main goals of extension are increasing food production, increasing farmer’s income, improving
farmer’s standards of living, solving farmer’s problems, advising farmers.

 The definition emphasizes on communication and education dimensions. Communication

dimension looks at extension as a process of passing useful information to farmers. Education itself
is a non- formal which assist farmers to acquire knowledge, skills and attitudes.

 Extension education provides new ideas, skills, advice and information to farmers in the field of
agriculture.

 Extension also provides assistance to farmers by analysing their interests and problems before
suggesting solutions and alternatives. It ensures farmers are aware of other opportunities in
farming.

Agricultural advisory services were used during colonial days to cater for the interests of the Africans in
farming. Agricultural extension was meant for white settlers. In post independent Kenya, there are
agricultural extension services.

ORGANISATION AND ADMINISTRATION OF EXTENSION SERVICE

Reasons why extension organisation is necessary

 There are many farmers who require extension services.

 There are few extension workers to serve many farmers.

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  There are many extension activities to be organised.

 There’s need for proper coordination of extension services with other organisation carrying out
agricultural related services.

Extension services are organised under the Ministry of Agriculture

a. The organisation follows bureaucratic kind of structure that was developed by Max Weber (1864 –
1920).

b. The structure is hierarchical i.e. organised at different levels – national, county, district, division,
location.

c. Bureaucracy aims at efficient service delivery.

d. Duties and responsibilities are defined and specified in code of regulations that guides work
performance.

e. There is clear cut duties and responsibilities for offers.

f. Subject matter specialists (sms) – crop production, farm management, soil and water conservation,
home economics, horticulture.

Important features of extension organisation

1. The clientele (farmers) must participate in extension activities if the goals of extension have to be
achieved.

2. Extension should be linked to other bodies like research for important information.

3. Extension should provide good work environment for extension workers.

4. Extension services operate at different hierarchal levels.

ORGANO – STRUCTURE OF MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE

(SPACE FOR DRAWING)

Role of subject matter specialist (sms)

a. Training and providing technical expertise to extension workers.

b. Awareness/technology transfer to farmers/assisting farmers in adoption of innovation.

c. Maintaining contact with research or researching on current recommendations.

d. Helping researchers with true information about ground conditions.

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e. Cooperating with agricultural information specialist to prepare bulletins.

f. Participating in field extension activities as when possible working directly with researcher, VEWs
during on-farm research demonstration.

VEW/FEW (Village Extension Workers, Frontline Extension Workers) – Ground Extension

Workers/staff.

Functions include:

 Extension teaching/facilitation/organisation/leader.

 Creating awareness about new findings/ innovations among farmers.

 Assisting farmers to adopt new innovations.

 Assisting farmers to identify and solve their problems.

 Dissemination of new extension information.

 Cooperating with other extension staff in planning, conducting and evaluating extension
programme.

The ratio of extension; Farmers vary considerably around the world 1 : 1300 average for Training and
Visit is 1 : 800 but ranges between 1 : 280 to 1 : 1600 the ratio depends on farmers, farming system
and objectives of an organisation.

Numbers of extension workers depend on:

a. The size of the area to be covered by the extension worker.

b. The diversity of agriculture – different types of enterprises on farmers farms.

c. Complexity of farm enterprises.

d. The number of farmers in the location.

e. Educational level and experience of the farmers.

f. Communication for easy mobility.

g. The extension methods used by extension workers.

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 COMMUNICATION PROCESS

DEFINITION-Communication refers to the process of exchanging information,

thoughts, ideas, or feelings between individuals or groups. It involves the
transmission and reception of messages through various mediums and channels,
encompassing verbal, non-verbal, written, and visual forms.

Key elements of communication include:

1. Sender: The person or entity initiating the communication by encoding a message

to be conveyed.

2. Message: The information, idea, or content being communicated. It can be verbal,

written, non-verbal, or visual.

3. Channel: The medium or method used to transmit the message, such as face-to-

face conversation, written text, phone calls, emails, or body language.

4. Receiver: The individual or group to whom the message is directed. They decode

and interpret the message sent by the sender.

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 5. Feedback: The response or reaction received from the receiver, providing

confirmation or additional information about how the message was understood.

BARRIERS TO COMMUNICATION

Psychological Barriers: These barriers are related to the psychological state of the

individuals involved in the communication process. They include emotional barriers like

anger, stress, fear, or personal bias, which can prevent effective communication.

Physical Barriers: These include environmental factors that obstruct communication,

such as noise, poor lighting, distance, or physical obstructions, which can make it

difficult for the message to be accurately received.

Effective communication

occurs when the intended message is accurately sent, received, and understood by the

recipient in the way it was intended by the sender. Factors like clarity, context, active

listening, empathy, and the choice of appropriate channels contribute to successful

communication.

Psychological issues affecting learning

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 1. Learning Disabilities: Conditions like dyslexia, dyscalculia, ADHD, and others can hinder a

person's ability to process information, affecting reading, writing, comprehension, or focus in a

traditional learning environment.

2. Anxiety Disorders: High levels of anxiety can impair concentration and memory, making it

difficult to focus on learning tasks and retain information.

3. Depression: Feelings of sadness, hopelessness, or lack of motivation can significantly impact a

person's ability to concentrate, engage in learning activities, and retain new information.

4. Trauma and PTSD: Individuals who have experienced trauma may have difficulties

concentrating, learning, and retaining information due to heightened stress responses, intrusive

memories, and emotional distress.

5. Attention Difficulties: Conditions such as Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)

can affect attention span, making it challenging to focus and absorb information in learning

environments.

6. Executive Functioning Challenges: Difficulties in planning, organization, time management,

and cognitive flexibility can affect a person's ability to engage effectively in learning activities.

7. Low Self-Esteem and Self-Confidence: When a person lacks self-confidence or has low self-

esteem, it can inhibit their willingness to engage in learning activities, participate in discussions,

or try new things.

8. Social and Behavioral Issues: Behavioral problems or social challenges can lead to disruptions

in the learning environment, affecting both the individual and their peers' learning experiences.

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 9. Sensory Processing Issues: Conditions like Sensory Processing Disorder can cause difficulties

in processing sensory information, impacting attention, learning, and participation in educational

settings.

10. Cultural and Socioeconomic Factors: Socioeconomic status, cultural differences, and language

barriers can impact learning, as individuals may face obstacles related to resources, support

systems, and understanding instructional materials.

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DIFFUSION AND ADOPTION OF INNOVATIONS.

Diffusion- is the communication of innovation through certain channels over a period of time among
members of social system.

Innovation- is any new idea or object perceived as new by an individual. It can be technical or social
innovation.

Adoption – acceptance and actual use of an innovation.

Sources of innovation.

i. Research institutions.
ii. Teaching institutions.
iii. Companies
iv. Commercial firms.
v. Individuals.

Adoption process/stages of adoption process (innovation decision making process)

1. Awareness stage
2. Interest stage
3. Evaluation stage
4. Trial stage
5. Adoption stage.

1. Awareness stage.

Individuals learn of an existence of an innovation but lack knowledge on how to use it. Awareness
comes through:

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  Mass media
 Salesmen
 Exhibitions/shows
 Extension agents
 Friends
 Neighbors, etc
2. Interest stage.

Individuals obtain general information about the new idea. People become interested when they see
that an innovation meets a need.

3. Evaluation stage.

This is where potential adopters evaluate new ideas in terms of their own situation. They weigh the
new idea against available resources. The farmer will ask questions such as,

 What is the value of the new idea?

 How will it benefit me?
 How much will it cost in terms of money?
 How many people have tried?
4. Trial stage.

When questions in evaluation stage have been answered satisfactory, the farmers will try the idea.
Ideas are tried on small scale to see how it works compared to the old practice.

5. Adoption stage.

Once satisfied, the farmers accept the idea fully and incorporate in his farm.

Adapter categories.

In any social system where innovation is introduced, there are few people who will immediately accept
and put in use and some will take long to accept on it.

Farmers can be categorized into different categories with regard to adoption of various innovations.

1) Innovators (venturesome)
2) Early adopters (respectable)
3) Early majority (deliberate)
4) Late majority (skeptical)
5) Laggards (traditionale)

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The distribution of adaptors may be represented in above following curve.

Characteristics of innovators.

 They have large firms.

 They are willing to take risks.
 They are usually middle aged.
 Generally educated.
 Mentally alerted and actively seeking new ideas.
 They have formal and informal contact outside their locality.
 They subscribe to many farm magazines and specialized publications.
 Not friendly to neighbours.

Characteristics of early adopters.

1) They are quickest to use tried ideas in their own situations.

2) They also have large farms.
3) They have high income.
4) Participate more in government programmes.
5) Can be regarded as community adoption leaders.
6) They read papers and journals and relieve bulletins dealing with farm activities.

Characteristics of early majority.

1) They are slightly above average in age, education and family experienced.
2) They are not formal leaders in most cases.
3) They attend extension meetings and farm demonstrations.
4) They associate mainly with people of their own community.
5) They are friendly.

Characteristics of late majority.

1) Have less education.

2) Older in age.
3) They take and read news papers.
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 4) They take fewer leadership roles.
5) They do not participate in many community activities.

Characteristics of laggards.

1) They are the last to adapt to the innovation.

2) Have least education.
3) They are the oldest people.
4) Participate less in formal organizations.
5) Hardly read newspapers and magazines.
6) No opinion leadership.

Attributes of innovation and their influence in transfer of technology.

1. Relative advantage.

Is the degree to which an innovation is perceived as better, may be seen as time saving, cheaper and
has low risks.

2. Compatibility.

Is the degree to which an innovation is perceived to be consistent with existing value. It should be
compatible with socio-cultural values and beliefs, etc.

3. Complexibility

Is the degree to which an innovation is perceived to be difficult to be understood and be used. An

innovation should be easily understood for easy adoption.

4. Trialability

Is the degree to which an innovation is perceived to be experimental with an limited basis before
deciding to adopt it.

5. Observability

Is the degree to which the results of an innovation are seen and demonstrated to farmers.

6. predictability

Refers to the degree in which the results of a particular innovation can be predicted and problems
solved.

REVISION QUIZ
1. The following data was obtained in a research conducted to investigate farmer’s adoption rate of two banana
varieties A and B.

BANANA VARIETY A BANANA VARIETY B

TIME %NEW ADOPTERS %ADOPTERS % NEW ADOPTER % ADOPTERS
CUMMULATIVE. COMMULATIVE

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 1 3 3
2 3 3
3 6 5
4 9 12
5 15 18
6 30 28
7 20 24
8 9 2
9 3 1
10 1 0

Use the data to answer the following questions;-

(a) Complete the table. (10mks)

(b) Plot the diffusion curve of the two banana varieties. (8mks)
(c) Which of the two varieties had the highest adoption rate? (2mks). The one with highest number of
cumulative adopters

2. Table 1 shows hypothetical adoption of a technology over a period of time.

Table 1.

TIME IN MONTHS NO.OF ADOPTIONS RATE OF ADOPTION

1 1 1
2 4 2
3 9 3
4 16 4
5 30 6
6 36 6
7 42 6
8 40 5
9 36 4
10 30 3

Adoption rate=number of adoption÷ time

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 Complete the table by determining the rate of adoption. (10mks)
(i) Comment on the rate of adoption. (2mks)
The rate of adoption accelerate from the first mont upto the 5th month where it remain constant
upto 7th month.it decelerates from 8th month

(b) List the steps in the adoption process. (5mks)

(c) An innovation X was introduced in an area and data on t

The spread of diffusion of New adopters percentages was recorded in a table at different time period. Study the
table below and ;-

(i) Determine the percentage cumulative of the new adopters.

(ii) Comment on innovation X. (8mks)

INNOVATION X

TIME IN MONTHS % OF NEW ADOPTERS CUMMULATIVE % ADOPTERS

1 3
2 3
3 6
4 8
5 16
6 19
7 9
8 3
9 1
10 1

 EXTENSION TEACHING METHODS

INTRODUCTION

METHODOLOGY – specific technique as possible of presenting agricultural information to clients

Extension methods may be classified in three groups on the basis of the number of people they are
designed to reach there are

i. INDIVIDUAL METHODS
ii. GROUP METHODS
iii. MASS METHODS

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1.INDIVIDUAL METHODS

INTRODUCTION

Learning is an individual process although extension agent must use group and mass methods to reach
large numbers of people and to stimulate joint action in planning and carrying out projects of common
interests personal contacts serve many essential purposes.

These methods includes

a) Farm and home visits

b) Office visit (calls)
c) Telephone calls
d) Informal contacts
e) Personal letters

In all individual methods first establish a rapport (goes working relationship) with the famer he is likely
to accept new ideas if he is convinced that the extension officers is working for the farmers well being.

A }FARM AND HOME VISITS

They provide a means of personal communication between the farm family and the extension worker
in an environment where they can discuss matters of common interest in privacy and without the
distraction and interruptions commonly experienced in group extension methods farm and home visits
serves the following useful purposes

- To acquaint extension worker with the farmer and farm family

- To answer specific request for help
- To gain first hand knowledge of problem faced by the farmer or villager
- To explain a recommended practice
- To follow up and observe the results of recommended practices
- To plan an activity such as demonstration or a meeting
- To invite the farmers or villager to participate in a planned activity
- To discuss policies and programmes
- To recruit train and encourage a local volunteer leader.

be careful not to acquire a reputation as one who spend all time drinking tea.

ADVANTAGES OF FARM AND HOME VISITS

i. They provide a means of personal communications between the farm family and extension
worker in an environment where they can discuss matters of common interest in privacy and
without interruptions

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 ii. This is a good way of supplying information that is required for solving unique problems. i.e.
visits give extension workers the opportunity to get to know the farmer and his family quite
well extension worker is able to get 1st hand information about the farmers.
iii. Extension workers can increase the farmers trust in him by showing interests in the farmers as
a person his situation and his ideas
iv. It is possible to integrate information from the farmer with the information from the extension
worker.

DISADVANBTAGES OF HOME AND FARM VISIT

i. The visits are expensive in terms of time and travel expenses

ii. Only a small proportion of the target group is reached
iii. The visits are based on mutual trust and the farmer will only open up it be can fully trust the
extension worker.

FARM AND HOME VISIT

PREPARATION AND PRESENTATION TECHNIQUES

(Planning for farm and home visit)

Before the visit

- Determine the objectives of the visit

- Give the farmer an appointment to ensure he will be present
- Prepare all supplies and equipment needed
- Review records of any previous basis you may have made
- Update yourself on current issues
- Schedule visits to save travel time and travel cost
- Consider the best approach to the client (farmers)

DURING THE VISIT

- Be actual
- Make your greetings and be conscious of your role as a teacher
- Talk with the farmer and not at him
- Compliment him on his achievement
- Get the client to talk about their problems and discuss possible solutions and alternatives
- Demonstrate skills as necessary
- Follow local customs in accepting hospitality
- End the visit by arranging for the next visit
- Keep clients information confidential.
- Make a good record of visit as a background for future contacts

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 - Any handout should be given before you leave

AFTER THE VISIT

- Don’t gossip about the client

- Confidential family problems should be dealt with individually and left confidential
- Fulfill all your promises e.g. sending any necessary literature sending any equipment seeking a
specialized help for all unsolved problems
- Go back for a follow up

B } OFFICE VISITS

There are an expression of interests on the part of the visitors (farmer) in something he thinks the
extension office has to offer. They are less extension and time consuming for the extension office some
but not all of advantages of farm and home visits. The farmer (caller) is less at ease than when at home
and may be more sensitive to the officers attitude.

OFFICE VISIT

PREPARATION AND PRESENTATION TECHNIQUES

There are several ways in which extension worker can encourage visits namely:

i. The extension office should be placed in a convenient location (easily accessible)

ii. Extension worker should keep regular office hours so that the farmer can know when the
extension worker will be available
iii. The office should be kept neat, orderly and attractive
iv. The extension worker should maintain update notice board and have information materaials
readily available
v. Extension worker should make a special effort to put the visitor at ease especially if the
individual visitor appear to be shy in their unfamiliar environment
vi. Make a good record of visits as background of future contacts include his telephone and
address.
vii. Make a follow up by visiting the farmer to understand his situation.

ADVANTAGES OF OFFICE VISIT

i. Less expensive and time consuming on the part of extension worker. Other advantages are
same as those of farm and home visits (refers to notes farm and home visits)

DISADVANTAGES

I. The farmers is less at ease than when at home and very sensitive to extension officers attitude
II. The volume of office calls is related to the farmers awareness about the extension service
III. Sometimes the extension office is located far away from farmers
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 IV. Farmers may have a negative attitude towards the person in charge of extension office.

C }TELEPHONE CALLS

They serve a purpose similar to offices calls. They may be initiated by either the farmer or the
extension worker. They are useful in solidity and giving specific information such as treatment of
known diseases, control of infestations of pest’s variety of tomato to plant or to request a bulletin or
circular.

A quick method of passing information

a) Less time consuming and less tedious

DISADVANTAGES

a) Very costly
b) Sometimes not available in some rural areas
c) The method is limited since it lacks details e.g. it may be dangerous to give some
recommendations over telephone e.g. drug use.

PREPARATIONS AND PRESENTATIONS

a) office should have a telephone line that is working at all times

b) The telephone should be manned by the employee throughout the working tie i.e. from 8.00
am to 5.00 p.m.
c) appropriate extension lines should be connected to subject specialists offices
d) Farmers should be updated on any change of telephone lines.

D} PERSONAL LETTERS

Letters are very useful in answering request for information as a follow up after visits and office calls
and in contenting local volunteer leaders. A request from a farmer for information indicates genuine
interests and should be answered promptly and courteously. Use letter is limited because of inefficient
postal services or where rural residents are illiterate. Letters should also give information that is simple
understandable and complete without being wordy or including unnecessary information.

E} INFORMAL CONTACTS

Every experienced extension workers has had people stop him on the street or in the village to ask a
question. Market days, picnics, holiday’s celebrations and religious days bring people together. Where
people gather they talk about current problems in farming an extension officer will remind the villager
of the problems about which he would like technical advices.

GENERAL ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF INDIVIDUAL EXTENSION METHODS

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Advantages

a) Extension agent comes into contact with the farmers communication is direct and easier.
a) The farmer receiver’sindividual’s attention undivided. He expresses his problems which are
than adequately tackled.
b) Message is will communicated and easier to convince
c) It saves time for the farmers because the farmers are still on the shamba working.
d) Questions and answers are well handled during the sessions
e) Extension agent works hands in hands with the farmers and this makes it easier for the farmers
to learn
f) There is instant feedback between the two
g) The farmer gains confidence in extension agent and can relay confidential information
h) Demonstrations are effectively conducted
i) Extension agent gains first hand information on the farm. This assists him on helping on the
farm. This assist him on helping the farmers and an selecting contact farmers
j) Extension agent can help the farmer to clarify his feelings and to choose between conflicting
ideas.
k) It is possible to integrate information from the farmer e.g. goals and means with agricultural
information of extension agent and therefore offers possible solutions

DISADVANTAGES

a) It consumes a lot of time fro extension agent to move from one farmers to another
b) Message may be delayed thereby reaching to some farmers after so long (outdated)
c) Farmers does not get to know the experience of other farmers therefore does not seek help
from them
d) Tiresome on the part of extension agent
e) Narrow coverage if the area is very large
f) Expensive due to extensive travelling
g) In some cases the farmer may lack confidence in extension agent and hence refuses to
cooperate this frustrate passing of information
h) Language barriers of extension agent may conflicts that of the society

2.GROUP EXTENSION METHODS

INTRODUCTION

Group methods are especially effective in moving people from the interest stages to trial stage of
learning. When reaction of group is favorable the majority of members may proceed to the adoption
stage. Group extension methods effectively arranged and conducted take full advantages of the
external and internal forces of group dynamics. People react to the extension work and to the ideas
expressed by other members of the group. Properly stimulated and directed these forces can lead to

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changes in practice by large number of people. The method is aimed at a particular reference group
and involving face to face contact between extension agent and farmers. This method may be carried
out in any the following ways.

- Demonstrations – results demonstrations method demonstrations

- Lecture
- Panel discussions
- Symposium
- Seminars
- Workshop
- Conference
- Tours and farm walk
- Field days/farmers days/experiment stations
- Shows and exhibitions/fairs
- Farmers training centres
- Rural youth, home makes club group projects
- Meetings
- Experimentations
- Role play
- Public speaking

CONTACT FARMERS

Is a farmer who represent approximately 10% of the area covered by an extension workers farmers
should have the following characteristics

a) Representation of the whole group average person in education age wealth etc.
b) Full time farmers
c) Social and cooperative to all
d) Centrally located farm that is accessible
e) Hard working farmers.

a.}DEMOSTRATIONS

INTRODUCTIONS

Demonstrations are done if the learning process requires skill development. It incorporates step by
step procedures of doing something. The participants should get on opportunity to try various steps
that you have demonstrated.

WHY ARE DEMOSTRATIONS GIVEN OUT

- To teach farmers how to perform certain skills

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 - To increase farmers knowledge
- To introduce new innovation
- To encourage adoption
- To give farmers a change to practice simple skills
- Extension agent has a chance to learn from farmers

Demonstrations appeal to all senses e.g.

a) Sense of hearing abour 10% of what people learn is attributed to sense of hearing hence the
demonstrator should talk clearly and in a language that all learners understand
b) Sense of sight about 35% of what we learn is attributed to both senses of hearing ad sight it is
important that all materials that you have carried are seen by the farmers and also all steps
c) Senses of touch we learn by doing and we do what we learn the use of hands together with
sense of hearing and sight increases our learning to 75% one or two farmers should be aksed to
repeat the practice
d) Taste an smell – these two senses are sometimes useful in learing their use is however limited
because sometimes it is dangerous to use these senses

- METHOD DEMONSTRATIONS – procedures

- RESULT DEMONSTRATIONS – the outcomes

METHOD DEMONSTRATIONS

Aims at teaching farmers how to use certain techniques on their own. For this reason care should be
taken to obtain maximum participation by the group in all stages e.g. how to prune, spray, castrate etc.

FORMAT

- Gather information from the latest bulletin and any other official data
- Make a detailed plan – outline the operations to be demonstrated in logical steps i.e
- Plan what to tell them
- List demonstration materials and equipment needed
- Know how to obtain equipment and materials
- Arrange for literature needed for distributions to the audience at the time of demonstrations
- Write down the plan

Select demonstrations in consultation with cntact farmers and visit them to check their suitability

- Release the demonstrations until it can be operated in a skillful and sure way a select points to
emphasize

Carry out the actual demonstration

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 - Start by welcoming the audience and introduce the demonstrations
- Introduce the title of demonstrations
- Explain the purpose of demonstration and relationship to the local problem
- Show each operation slowly step by step
- Use simple words in explanations
- Make sure that the audience can see properly
- Emphasize key points and say why they are important
- Encourage questions at each step
- Let audience practice the skill demonstrated
- Summarizes main steps of demonstrations
- Distribute explanatory literature
- Thank demonstrators the contact farmers and the audience

RESULT DEMONSTRATIONS

INTRODUCTION

Aims at convincing farmers the reasons for carrying out a certain agricultural recommended practices
e.g. the outcomes of pruning use of fertilizers, weeding etc

 Agree on the procedure with demonstration and participating teams

4) Start demonstration

 Publicize the demonstration to attract interest

 Introduce the demonstrator
 Explain the purpose of demonstration and its importance to the audience
 Explain what the demonstration will do and what result you expect.
 Ensure the farmers understands what the demonstrations is doing
 Answer questions from the farmers and distribute extension literature

Summarize the steps taken and information undertaken. Ask the contact farmer to arrange a meeting
of farmers to vie the factual evidence on the result demonstr

ADVANTAGES OF DEMONSTRATIONS

a. Wide coverage one gives detailed

b. Information i.e. how, why and when
c. The farmers utilizes most of his senses in learning process
d. It encourages questions and discussions
e. Farmers can share experiences

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 f. The method shows how easy it is for the demonstration
g. It is a two way process
h. It is easy to correct mistakes
i. If properly utilized, it improves the relationship between extension officers and the farmers
j. Increases extension officers expertise confidence and skills
k. Demonstration provides data on input and out put which makes comparison easier.

DISADVANTAGES OF DEMONSTRATION

a. its time consuming

b. there may be language barriers between the extension officers and the farmers
c. farmers have different learning abilities
d. some farmers may develop negative attitude towards the demonstrations contact farmers or
extension agent
e. if the contact farmers are not properly selected the demonstration may not work
f. it is expensive to carry
g. a good demonstration requires considerable skills, planning and preparations
h. not all ideas can be demonstrated
i. Difficult to demonstrate for a very large group.

PREPARATIONS AND PRESENTATION TECHNIQUES

Major points to consider

 Before
 During
 After

Before the demonstration

Think about the following factors and make the necessary adjustments

 Time a hour day and month, ask yourself are there any other activities that day?
 Site arrange to have your demonstration at convenient and good site
 Materials collect all materials needed for demonstrations all in advance
 Search for all necessary information to be able to answer all questions

During the materials day

 Be at the site about 30 minutes earlier to make sure that all the materials are ready and
audience will be comfortable and related
 Ensure all people are able to see what you are demonstrating
 Speak clearly and loudly

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  Tell the audience the importance of each step
 Encourage the audience to ask questions
 Be courteous to the questionnaires and answer the questions so that the whole of the audience
can hear, repeat all the difficult steps.
 Watch out some people learn faster than others and use the faster learner to teach the slower
ones
 Summaries at the end
 Advertise your next meeting and distribute any written hand out.

AFTER DEMONSTRATION

Plan your follow up because of the following reasons

- To evaluate your effectiveness

- To identify practicing farmers who may be possible teaching leaders
- To determine your next lesson depth

NB lack of adoption maybe due to

- Too difficult subjects

- Too costly practices
- Untimely demonstrations
- Lesson may not be needed

LECTURE

Is oral presentation aimed at giving authoritative information of the extension offices or invited guest

The lecture could be

- Formal – strictly one way

- Informal – two ways where audience participate. For a lecture to be effective the lecturer
should be loud enough and use simple language visual aids should be well utilized.

ADVANTAGES

- can serve as an introduction to other methods

- suitable for a large audience
- a lot of information is passed within a short period
- very good for presenting ideas

DISADVANTAGES

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 - skills can not be taught using this method
- there is little audience participation
- language may not be relevant/simple for the farmer
- most farmers may not remember everything
- it is difficult to concentrate for a long period

Selection of a lecture venue

THE VENUE SHOULD HAVE THE FOLLOWING CHARACTERISTICS

- control place
- conducive environment
- availability of facilitates

TIMING

Consider appropriate day and time when all farmers are free avoid public holidays consider
appropriate month.

PANEL DISCUSSIONS (GROUP DISCUSSION)

Is a technique of comparatively pooling ideas knowledge opinions etc together in order to learn and
solve a problem the group should be made up of panels of 6 – 7 people who are either farmers or
experts in a given agricultural fields. The discussions may be in form of questions prepared before
hand and given to the people in the panel. Each group should have a leader to speak in an orderly
manner. The leader should discourage those who want to dominate discussions. Each group should
also have a secretary who should jot down points discussed. By the end of the discussion period the
secretary will present the points discussed by their group.

FACTORS TO CONSIDER

- constitute panels of 6 – 7 people

- identify a topic of real significance to the group
- is the problem discussed suited to the group in age gender, educational level experiences and
training
- is the problem adoptive to reflective thinking
- Is there sufficient time to effectively handle the issue or the problem?

SYMPOSIUM

These refers to a series of short lectures on a related topic and are given by experts e.g. different
people giving lectures on e.g. fodder crops zero grazing dairy cattle management etc.

SEMINARS

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This is where farmers are taught in a group for one or more days on a given topic which is related to
their needs. Farmers are given time to discuss to discuss with each other whereby they get to the
problems faced by their colleagues and they may come up with possible solutions use of seminars is
accompanied by lecturer and demonstrations, seminars are held on farmers training centres. In
seminars the we have experts (extension officers) teaching lay people (farmer)

WORKSHOP

Similar to seminars only that its more practical than a seminar. A workshop consist of people with
common background coming together to discuss matters of common interests e.g. dairy farmers tea
farmers, small scale horticultural producers. The main goal of a workshop approach is to learn or gain
information through experience and sharing. It consist of people with common interest and
background these group can be as large as 30 people. Each participant should take up on activity than
get involved in a group discussion. They can be given a certificate of participation.

CONFERENCE

Is an approach where people with different backgrounds but common goal comes together in a
common forum to discuss a given matter of national importance e.g. Bomas conference on Kenyan
constitution making. There is a free discussion from all members e.g. politicians’ doctors’ clergy
farmers’ teachers etc.

TOURS AND FIELD TRIP

Is a group teaching method where farmers are taken from their farms to another place for the purpose
of learning? The learning experiences support what the farmers knows and also exposes the farmers to
what they don’t know. Field trips are useful in enabling learners to observe first hand approach or
events in the field. There must be something specific to learn in the tour and objective Must be clearly
defined. A tour must have a team leader, tour guide who should be properly briefed on the objective.
Each participant should jot down some pastment information of what they have seen divide the bigger
group into smaller units that are easier to handle.

ADVANTAGES OF TOURS

- it gives great exposure of farmers to other areas of opportunities

- gives a chance for them to compare themselves to others
- it gives immediate feedback
- very practical utilizing all senses thus easy to remember
- interest\ting and exciting

DISADVANTAGES

- it is very costly due to travelling or even accommodation expenses

- difficult to select farmers farmers to go and ones to leave out
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 - poor communication network e.g. roads maybe impassable in rural areas
- There is protocol to follow till tour takes off.
- Tour are made only to the convenience of the host firm
- Organizational leaders use tours/field trips just to spend money (justify expenditure)

PREPARATIONS AND PRESENTATIONS

Procedure for tour arrangement

 Identify the place to visit and write to them asking for permission and for then to confirm the
date and time.
 Prepare what to see and facilities required
 Let participants prepare for tour i.e. requirements needed such as notebooks pens, dustcoat
etc.
 Prepare for transport meals/refreshments and accommodations if necessary
 During the tour give time for participants to ask questions
 Summaries the tour by concluding on what has been seen
 Write a report on the tour.

FIELD DAYS/FARMERS DAYS/EXPERIMENTS STATIONS

Field days are normally conducted for demonstrations purposes either to start or to inspect a
demonstration in progress. They can either be held at a research station or on a farmers farm. They
could also be held at farmers training centres.

PLANNING AND PRESENTATION

In organizing for a field day there is normally a task involved which includes the following

I. Determine the audience people who have to attend

II. Consider the timing i.e. when the materials in questions are in the field
III. Rehearse with the host farmers
IV. Ensure the right sequence of items and ensure you start from stage one
V. Have your field days when all facilities are available. Ensure you publicize your field day.
VI. At the end of the field day gather the farmers analyze what they have seen summarize to them
all what they have seen
VII. Distributes any literature materials etc.

SHOWS EXHIBITIONS AND FAIRS

DEFINITIONS

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 - Shows – public display
- Exhibitions – collection of things shown publicity
- Fairs – large scale exhibitions of commercial and industrial goods e.g. a world fair, international
trade fair.

In Kenya agricultural shows are organized by the agricultural society of Kenya (ASK) at district levels or
at national level e.g. Nairobi. In shows various farmers companies and organizations display their
products and others have a chance of viewing and learning from them.

FUNCTIONS OF A S K

I. Holding competitive agricultural shows/trade fairs exhibitions of livestock crop and farm
produce
II. Encouraging and importation of pure breeds and improvements of indigenous livestock
III. Encouraging and assisting in official milk recording scheme
IV. Organizing the running of young farmers clubs
V. Organizing the national ploughing contest.
VI. Publishing the Kenya stud book
VII. Publishing the monthly journal the Kenya farmers
VIII. Awarding bursaries for local and overseas studies/tours for its members.

FARMERS TRAINING CENTRES

They have been used effectively in a number of developing countries to train farmers and their wives
in concepts and practices of media agriculture and home making

Centers in Kenya and Uganda consisted of dormitory for from 20 to 100 people dinning and laundry
facilities and a farm varying from 50 to 400 acres complete with equipment and livestock. Courses are
attended by both men and women and coasted from two days to four weeks depending upon the
subject involved the primary objectives of the centre is to show those who attends how farming can be
carried out at a profit to in farmers a desire to convert their own farms into profitable enterprises and
to teach them some of the skills involved.

Intensive short courses are held in such areas as coffee production tea production clean milk
production and the use of home produced foods in the diet. Their farms are professionally managed to
represent a model farm that can be emulated by farmers.

EXPERIMENTATIONS

Is a useful method as a follow up after demonstration it requires a lot of equipments and resources
follow it up with a discussion.

MEETINGS

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INTRODUCTIONS

Meetings are one of the oldest and not important methods of extension teaching. Properly arranged
and conducted they rank high in ration of practice adopted in relation to cost as compared with other
methods. The success of meeting as a teaching device depends largely upon how they are viewed by
audience i.e. is it their meeting or extension workers meeting. Effective meetings are oriented to the
current thinking and recognized needs of the people.

TYPES OF MEETINGS IN EXTENSION WORK

Organizational meetings

Includes board of directors meetings youth clubs, home makers club. Executive committee etc.
organizational usually meets periodically and follow an agenda their purpose is to take action and get
business done but they leadership and training in social action process.

PLANNING MEETINGS

Requires preparations of a large amount of situational materials much of this must be done by
professional extension workers. Few rural leaders are interested in attending a planning meeting
merely for the sake of planning. Their interest can be aroused in specific problems and objectives for
this and other reasons extension workers need to make a special effort to assure attendance of right
people. A formal invitation or request to attend a planning meeting is not usually sufficient personal
contacts by an extension worker or another leader with discussion of problem and needs to be
considered is much more effective in building interest and in assuming attendance by representative
leaders.

TRAINING MEETINGS

Err an essential elements in developing and using rural leaders in extension. They are limited to
selected individuals who have accepted responsibilities as leaders and need help in doing the job. The
programme contact is usually narrow in scope and specific with direct applications to the job.
Extension workers should take care not to try to cram too much information and advice into a single
training meeting but allow time for discussions and practice. Each meeting may well be one of a series
for the same people conducted over a period of time.

SPECIAL INTEREST MEETING

They are arranged to serve the educational needs of groups with common interest such as gardening
fishing dairy, home management sewing etc. they may be held singly or in series over a period of time.
Since attendance is voluntary every one who attends is and the subject matter leader can move along
faster than he could in a mixed group. Questions and discussions are more spontaneous and lively.

COMMUNITY MEETINGS

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These are for al the people in the community men. Women young people all with varied interests of
the community some people came out of curiosity or for entertainments others have more serious
interests.

OTHERS MEETINGS

- Statutory meetings e.g. AGM, Extra ordinary AGM

- Executive meeting
- Management meeting

ADVANTAGES OF MEETINGS

- A large number of people are taught at the same time

- Adoption is high in comparison to relative cost

DISADVANTAGES

- The diversity of interest between the audiences make great unfavorable teaching situation.
- In a group the rate of learning is not the same
- In a group the rate of learning is not the same
- The work involved in planning and carrying out meetings may be too taking for the extension
workers
- Often people may meet because of entertainmen

- To introduce and discuss new ideas and practices

- To obtain opinion of community
- To gain support on local problems and extension programmes

Kind of the meetings

Decide whether the meetings will be inform of a lecture, group discussions, seminars, workshop etc.
will the meetings be formal or informal.

Invitation and publicity

Plan the meetings with the representative of the people for whom it is held. Invitations should be
made by letters followed by telephone for confirmation; adequate notice is usually 14 days.

All invitations to be accompanied by a copy of agenda it should also include

 Venue
 Time, date day
 Nature of meetings

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  Any other details
 Minutes of previous meeting
 Annexure

Publicity of meeting should also build of the interest of people by indicating

 The need for the meeting

 Who to appear in the programme
 Qualification of the speakers
 Name of committee members responsible for programme and arrangements.

Time and venue

Choose time that is convenient to your clients i.e. morning/afternoons avoid weekends and public
holidays is the venue should also be comfortable

ARRANGEMENTS

Consider parking space for vehicles erect sign post to direct people

- Make appropriate sitting arrangement

- Decide on the speakers and programmes
- Are there refreshments/meals
- Provide for public address system
- Provide for visual aids
- Hand outs to distribute
- Sanitation facilities

THE ROLE OF THE LEADER IN A MEETING

Normally the chairman

- Read all documents related to agenda

- Prepare supporting documents where necessary
- Attend meeting on time
- Make substantial contribution to the discussions
- Take notes of decisions made and actions required
- Carry out tasks assigned and give feedback

In order to ensure the success of the meeting the leader of the meeting should observe the following

- Speak clearly so that all in a meeting can hear

- Set clear objectives for the meeting and reinforce them to the participants in the introductions
- Follow the agenda without any disgression

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 - Try not to dominate the discussions but steer it.
- Listen carefully to the points being discussed and note down the points summarise them and
agree with participants
- Ensure you are always courteous and thank participants for their contribution carefully manage
time that you allow participants to discuss the items of the agenda.
- When the items of the agenda have been fully discussed you should conclude the meeting
- At the end of the meeting set the date for the next meeting
- A time record of the proceedings of the meetings should be kept for discussions in the next
meeting.

FACTORS TO CONSIDER IN PLANNING MEETINGS

a. Size of audience – large audience can receive information but participation is reduced and have
difficulty in making decisions
b. Character of audience – some audience are incapable of participation through lack of
experience may be broken down into small committee or discussions groups for decisions or to
increase participation
c. Facilities available – if rooms are available large audience may be broken down into small
committee or discussions groups for decisions or to increase participation
d. Make audience as comfortable as possible – e.g. seating arrangements, heating/cooling of
rooms lighting and ventilations
e. Time – do not fill the programmes too full active people can seldom sit still for more than an
hour at a time and few meetings should last longer than one and one half hours. Provide for an
intermissions in longer meetings
f. Do not allow unrelated announcements and unscheduled speakers to prolong the programme
and distract the audience.

PUBLIC SPEAKING

Speaking is the most frequently used tool of the extension work the following are suggestions

1) Have something to say of interest to the audience direct your talk to those interest and not
your own. Find out in advance what kind of audience you are to speak to and what tyhey want
to know.
2) Have a series of specific points to follow tell the audience in advance what you want to go away
with from your meetings be sure that what you have to tell them will benefit them.
3) Do not apologies for your shortcomings and limitations. They will find out soon themselves
4) Talk to the audience not at them look them in the eye not out the window or at the ceiling
5) Be confident that you can do a good job. This necessitates proper and careful preparations do
not worry about being nervous as it is usual with speakers

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 6) Speak naturally in a land clear voice but don’t shout do not use a lot of unnatural gestures.
They will probably look foolish and pointless to the audience. Be yourself observe the fares of
the people in your audience to indicate interests approval or disapproval
7) Illustrate your talk with as many personal examples as possible but do not be a gossip and do
not over do yourself as example
8) Never memorize a speech preferably use small cards in your hand and refers to them to refresh
your memory use flip charts or slides to show you as well as your audience what you are talking
about.
9) Rehearse or go over the talk to yourself.
10) Try to relax the group at first. These can bed one with an interesting related story. Remember
nothing is less humorous than a supposed funny story poorly told it will generally fall flat
11) Do not talk down to an audience at least they are smart enough to want to hear us speak
12) Dress appropriately for the occasion
13) Never play down a member of the audience try to be courteous when someone asks a question
you have just finished answering. Try not to get angry or provoked or if you do try not to show
it.
14) If you prefer to have questions at the end rather than during the talk let the audiences know
about it. They will not interrupt you and can be thinking of questions they will want to ask at
the end.
15) In asking the audience the questions ask it first to the whole group then to a specific person
this causes everyone to listen and start thinking about it.
16) Step questions before they run out as get wondering it there is time for just one last questions
this allows close of the business
17) Try to be as brief as possible without actually leaving valuable points
18) Be careful with the summary at the end of talk. Try to hit only the major topics discussed and
not a complete review.
19) Hand out any printed material at the end of your talk. If you do need to give out materials stop
your talk and concentrate on getting a copy to everyone then have them go through a specific
point then ask them to put the papers away and proceed.
20) Avoid distracting mannerism. Do not fidgets do not fumble with keys or coins do not keep
tossing a piece of chalk up and down in your hand
21) Be enthusiastic this will also generate enthusiasm in your audience
22) Take every opportunity to speak practice makes perfection.

QUALITIES OF A GOOD SPEAKER

- Fluency and cheerful

- Forthright
- Confident and composed
- Clarity

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 - Factual accurate
- Creative/innovative
- Voice modulation
- Maintains eye contact
- Relevant
- Identify with crowd
- Empathy
- Sincerity
- Good appearance
- Posture
- ]vocal qualities – pitch volume pause ascents etc
- Alertness –responsive.

ADVANTAGES OF GOOD EXTENSION METHOD

1) Saves time for extension agent as a number of farmers are brought in one control place
2) Message reaches many farmers at once and thus no delay of message to some farmers
3) Farmers share experiences and therefore learn from one mother
4) Not tiresome to the extension agent compared to individuals approach
5) Saves money as no extensive traveling
6) Group dynamics is used to influence members to adopt
7) Groups gain better bargaining power in credits production and sales as there is more trust in a
group.

MASS EXTESNION TEACHING METHODS

INTRODUCTION

Mass media is an extension teaching method used to communicate with people not seen do generally
not personally know. It is a means of transmitting messages that enables a source of one or a few
individuals to reach an audience of many one does not have to be physically present.

WHEN IS MASS METHOD USED?

When one want to reach a big target group. When the target group has the gadgets useful in mass
communication. People with some level of education (useless in illiterate people)

- Can be used internally i.e. use of tele-conference

- Useful in reaching a large audience rapidly with indirect feedback
- Creating knowledge and spreading information
- In changing weekly held attitudes
- In reaching early adaptors

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The method is mainly used when extension worker want to create awareness of new ideas practices
and innovations. Also to alert the public to certain disaster’s disease outbreak. This method transmit
only limited information necessary to awareness interest and people are motivated to seek more
information from extension workers friends etc. therefore mass methods have little direct influence
when it comes to making a find decision about innovation. They bring about changes in people
knowledge but rarely bring about changes in behavior their greatest advantages is that they are the
least expensive method of carrying a message to a large number of people within a short period of
time.

FACTORS TO CONSIDER IN MASS MEDIA

- Should attract attention

- Design messages for specific audience
- Involve your target group i.e. farmers
- Establish a favorable identity with the target group.

ATTRACTING ATTENTION

Many players are trying to reach the same farmers thus its important to reduce the present
competition. It should be attractive timely and appropriate.

Mass extension teaching methods may include the following methods

a. Exhibits shows posters billboards

b. Print mass media – newspapers, magazines. Folders leaflets, pamphletsetc.
c. Electronic mass media – radio. Television video. Film etc.
d. Computer presentation- power point
e. When the idea to create awareness of new idea practices or innovation

ADVANTAGES

- Message reaches many people quickly

- Suitable for controlling emergencies e.g. disease outbreak
- Mass media reaches those unable to attend meetings
- Reinforce other teaching methods
- TV video, film are visuals thus interesting
- There are different radio and TV stations e.g. vernacular, Kiswahili, English etc.
- Least expensive for communicating to large no over short period of time.

DISADVANTAGES

- active involvements of audience in the teaching method is impossible

- direct and immediate feedback from the audience to the teacher is not possible.
- Specific local needs cannot be given adequate attention and there is often
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 - Cultural gap between the speaker and the audience
- Skills cannot be effectively taught using mass media
- Skills cannot be effectively taught using mass media
- Some farmers may not have the gadgets useful in mass communications
- It is very in effective for illiterate farmers
- Rural areas where farmers work and live lacks power source
- No face to face contact and if the programme bores the farmers the may tune off
- The programs may not be appropriate for everybody
- News editors may destroy the teaching value of item making it unreal.

STATE FIVE QUALITIES OF A GOOD CHART FOR EXTENSION TEACHING

Answer

- Title chart should catch attention of farmers

- Incorporate visual aids
- Use logical sequence of information
- Be as simple as possible in explain concept
- Use plain bold letters and avoid fancy writing
- Combine colours wise while avoiding too many colours (many colours brings confusion)
- Develop a slogan that expresses message simply and keenly
- Should target a specific audience.

MASS TEACHING METHODS

This will include shows a posters and billboards

The main objectives of using exhibit are

- To create awareness
- Influence attitude
- Increase knowledge
- Stimulate action

FOR EXHIBITS TO BE SUCCESSFUL CONSIDER THE FOLLOWIGN FACTORS

- Know your audience

- Title of exhibit must catch attention
- Visual aids should be incorporated
- Sequence and timelines
- Be simple in explaining the objectives

The title should give message within co seconds the title can be

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 - Personal e.g. improve milk output. Improve your farm profits
- Questions e.g. do you care about your animal health. Do you want to convert garbage to
money do you want to make more profits
- Unique e.g. – cutting trees destroy the future of your children, foot and mouth disease kills.
- Action oriented – how to care for your calves, how to develop a good posture

ADVANTAGES OF EXHIBITS

- They are visuals and therefore even the illiterate can get the message
- From the exhibits clients can get instant feedback e.g. agricultural shows
- They give quick information about the items in question
- Good in creating awareness influencing attitude & increasing knowledge
- Attractive and eye catching.

DISADVANTAGE

- They are expensive to produce and organize

- They are seasonal e.g. shows
- Not everybody has a chance of going to the show
- They are time consuming.

POSTERS

Extension agents can use posters to create awareness with his clients of a particular item they want to
learn the extension agent draws certain products and explain briefly how a product is used and
produced. A poster is normally in a sheet of paper or cardboard with illustrations ad few words. It is
supposed to arrest the attention of passerby challenge them about a certain fact and stimulate them
to take some actions.

FACTORS FOR AN EFECTIVE POSTER

- have an objective
- develop a slogan that expenses message simply and keenly
- make simple striking illustrations of what you want people to get
- use plain bold lettering and avoid fancy lettering
- combine your colours wisely. Too many colours add confusion.
- Posters are displayed on walls, trees bulletin boards.
- The more the posters the more the impact.

PRINT MEDIA

NEWSPAPERS AND MAGAZINE

Examples daily nation, Kenya times the standard the eye. The leaders digest.

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The magazines – Kenya farmers’ parents drum.

PRINCIPLES OF WRITING A NEWS STORY

- Ensure you have enough material to write for at least three months
- Ensure you have facts of what you are writing i.e. true stories and not rumors.
- You should be well versed with the area or discipline you are dealing with
- Article should be well planed and interesting
- Use simple language
- Use short paragraphs
- Make sure your articles are always accurate brief and clear
- Organize with the editor so as to get a common.
- Simple and clear illustrations

The leading paragraph one should gather enough information on what the story is all about. The other
paragraph should answer the addition whys and it is this paragraph that the extension agent should
give is teaching.

FIVE OPPOSITION MPs ARRESTED

Five opposition members of partiant were arrested yesterday for involvement in the called off strike.

WALL NEWSPAPERS

Are similar in size to and appearance to posters they are different in that walls newspapers usually
attempts to communicate more than one fact or idea they also have more illustrations and written
materials.

Because they are basically pictorial drawing and or photographs are their trade mark. The text is as
brief and vivid as possible. They are used to communicate news of extension services as well as results
of research recommendations of new practices news of political and social interests etc.

Typical extension wall newspapers might therefore contain pictures and text of

- Announcing a progress repeat of a current fertilizers campaign

- Using of vaccine to prevent fowl cholera in poultry flocks
- Reporting the results of experiment with new grain varieties.

Wall building at busy intersections is excellent places to post the papers they may also be posted on
village bulletin boards in reading center sat schools inside public building etc

FOLDERS LEAFLETS AND PAMPLETS

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Simples’ folders leaflets and pamphlets can be used in many ways in extension program. They may also
be used singly for example to explain the advantages of testing soil. They may also be used in series of
broader subjects like swine rising with separate leaflets on feeding housing and breeding. They may
also be used for reminders of when to plant crops or what chemicals to use to control different insects.

Folders leaflets and pamphlets may be used in coordination with other visuals in long range
campaigns. Because of their low cost they can be given away at meetings and shows/fairs and also
offered on radio programs. They are useful to supplements larger publications when new information
is available and when reprinting the whole publication is not practical.

They also take less time get their message across their smaller size maker it necessary for author to
eliminate non-essential from his message. Folders generally have more appeal when a choose colours
that are legible as well as appropriate e.g. dark, green ink for postures dark brown for soils the cover
should be attractive colorful and impelling the audience should feel an urge to open and look inside.

FACT SHEET

They are roiled down treatments of subject matter. They usually cover a single topic and often are
limited to a single page. Most fact sheets are illustrated with drawings or photographs or both
illustrations are used to show details steps in a process or to otherwise make the information clear and
more understandable. They are mainly used to provide current subjects matter to field workers much
agricultural bulletins and other lengthy publications. Those take considerable time to process and
distribute. O9n the other hand essential facts can be put down and combined with drawings and
photographs to make an effective (CAPSULE) summary which can be produced quickly and in
expensively in fact sheet form. This puts currents information into the hands of local extension workers
enabling them to give better service to farm families.

RADIO

Is one of the fastest most powerful and in many countries the only way of communicating with the
masses of rural people. It reached people of all cultural levels who understand the language of
transmission. Research has shown that people behave what they hear. Plan in advance the interview
before going on air. Start the programme by introducing your guest by name where he comes from
and the purpose of for being on the programme. Advantages of radio programme is that they can be
done almost anywhere through the use of a tape recorder doing them in the home or on the farm
gives them authenticity. Radio is useful in reporting sport news such as announcements of meetings
warnings about insects/disease outbreaks etc.

Extension workers may simply stations with spot news to be taped and reported at intervals during the
day longer programes should be either presented in persons or taped for use on scheduled
programmes. Advertise your programe in advance by telling the subjects of the next programme and

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whom you will interview. E.g. Mugambo wa Murimi” inooro from 7.30 – 8.00 am Monday to Fridays
(2009).

TELEVISION

Television helps the extension workers to demonstrate as well as talk e.g. demonstration how to make
a dress/prepare a recipe it can be used to present useful method demonstrations as well as shows
whole series of result demonstrations through pictures thus emphasizing differences over time. All
types of visuals aids such as charts, graphs. Live objects chalk board ca be used to increase teaching
effectiveness.

Television programs require meticular preparation every piece of equipments must be in place and
dialogue must be well thought out. Organization must be in a sequence of related words and pictures
that makes up the story.

In spite of the relatively high cost of receiving sets, television occupies an increasing important role in
developing countries.

ELECTRONIC MAPS MEDIA

PROJECTED VISUALS/MOTION PICTURE/SLIDES

Motion pictures slides and film strips and other forms have such appeal and are among the most
effective of the visual teaching aids the aim disadvantages/limitations are similar.

- Special equipments are required both to produce and show the visuals
- Equipments tend to be relatively expensive
- Power source is required to operate the projectors
- Transportation maintenance and storage of equipments and materials require special
considerations.

FILMS

Have the potential to create powerful emotions and urges selected and used properly they can
intensify the interest of audience in subject taught. Films are excellent also for showing the steps
necessary in doing a task or for showing continuous actions.

ADVANTAGES

- They can reproduce events long since past

- Can record demonstration that can be given over and over again to many different people in
many different places
- They can slow or accelerate motion for better analysis of action
- They can magnify action on a screen that normally would be too small to be seen easily or
clearly by an individuals or group.
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 - They can condense or stretch time
- They are good in motivating audience
- Effective in appealing to the emotions
- For clear, concise, portrayal of action
- It portrays reality

LANTERN SLIDES

Slides do not show movement of picture

Is one of the most popular and versatile visuals in extension education.

REASONS FOR POPULARITY

- They can be made by individuals workers at low cost

- They can be made either in natural colours or in black and white
- Both the slides and projection equipments are relatively light and can be easily transported.
- Slides sequence can be changed in length to ft local needs

LIMITATIONS (DISADVANTAGES

- They do not show action

- They normally require (LIVE) narrations unless synchronized with a tape recorder
- They require close cooperative with a projectionist throughout the presentation if speaker
desires to be in front of his audience.
- Requires source of power to operate.

SELECTION AND USE OF APROPRIATE MATERIALS AND EQUIPEMENTS FOR EFFECTIVE

COMMUNICATION

Teaching aid – is any material and equipments used by an extension agent to make teaching and
learning effective

They include

- Clients graphs, photographs tables drawings, pictures (illustrations)

- Tape recorders
- Overhead projectors
- Movies – film projectors
- Posters, billboards, chalkboard, white boards.
- Radio, television, video
- Real objects, specimen etc.

IMPORTANCE OF TEACHING AID

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 - They save time
- They reduce cost of teaching
- Learners will see actual things and it makes easier to understand
- More senses are used and makes it easier to understand
- They help to avoid boredom

SELECTION OF TEACHING AIDS

- Levels of literacy
- Purpose of lesson
- Time available
- Availability of tools and equipments
- Number of audience

PR0GRAMME PLANNING AND EVALUATION

INTRODUCTION

 Meaning of programme planning

 Characteristics of a good extension programme
 Suitability for use
 Containing factual information
 Specify objectives
 Containing evaluation indicates
 Steps in programme planning
 Collect facts
 Analyse situation
 Identify problems
 Decide on objectives
 Develop a plan of work
 Execute the plan (implementation)
 Evaluate the programme
 Reconsiderations

STEPS IN PROGRAMME IMPLEMENTATION

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  Define tasks
 Schedule project activities
 Procurement of facilities and equipment
 Establish a monitoring system
 Carry out the scheduled activities
 Completion and

sustainability

PROGRAMMEEVALUATION

Importance of programme evaluation

 Procedures in programme evaluation
 Determine what is to be evaluated
 Decide the method to be used
 Collect date
 Analyse data
Make conclusions and recommendation

 Importance of programme evaluation

 Procedures in programme evaluation
 Determine what is to be evaluated
 Decide the method to be used
 Collect date
 Analyse data
 Make conclusions and

recommendation

 TECHNICAL REPORT WRITING

 importance of technical report

 communication
 record purpose
 TYPES OF REPORTS
 progressive
 annual
 monthly
 specific report
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  principle of report writing
 identification of the message
 identification of the target group/audience
 clarify of the report
 data presentation
 outline
 language
 style
 conclusion summary and recommendation
 Writing a model of a technical report

(practice).

PROGRAMME PLANNING

INTRODUCTION

In extension there are many decisions that have to be undertaken in order to ensure effective
extension work e.g.

 Goals aimed at
 Target groups
 Content of extension message
 Extension methods to be used
 Organization of activities undertaken

Decisions that are taken must be in line with each other i.e. effective extension work requires
systematic planning

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Therefore planning an extension programme involves decision making about the work of an
extension programme development is a set of dynamic cycles which includes: planning,
implementation and evaluation stages and activities

EXTENSION PROGRAMME

PLANNING DEFINITIONS

A programme – is a statement that must includes

 Situation/conclusion as it is
 Problem facing the people
 Solutions proposal
 Possible actions

Planning – A continuous process that involves making decisions on what to do, how to do, and
when to do. Planning involves the sequences of activity to be carried out to accomplish a
purpose as goal.

Programme planning – can therefore be defined as a statements of purposes and

objectives of an extension services as well as the activities to be carried out in order to
achieve the objectives

Programme planning – is a continuous series of activities or operations lading to he

development of a definite plan of action to accomplish a particulars objective

GOAL

 object of ones effort

 target
 pursue
 reach
 attai

n PURPOSE

 Things one intend to do, get be

 Intention e.g. purpose of

meeting OUTPUT

 Quantity of goods etc produced (by a

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machines/worker) IMPORTANCE OF PLANNNG AND

EXTENSION PROGRAMME

1) An extension programme presents in a written form of statement for public use. It

provides a clear and concise/accurate statement for the information of all who are
concerned/ interested with the extension work.

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 2) Planning an extension programmes helps avoid waste of the money because everyone
knows who is to do what at what time and resources that are required. It requires the
risks of failures that are caused by mistakes and misunderstanding and thereby
improves the efficiency of extension organization. Helps put aside petty issues that
tend to distract from more basic matters.
3) It assists in training of the local leaders by teaching them to analyses local problems
and ideal with them methodically/systematically. It enables them to carry on in the
absence of extension workers and helps them to develop their hidden abilities.
General planning improves their capabilities motivations, performance and autonomy
and commitments.
4) It helps to ensure continuity after changes of staff have taken place.
5) It justifies the expenditure of public money. A successful extension programme is its
own justification because the results can readily be measured provided the objectives
were clearly and correctly stated at the beginning
6) It provides a means of judging the value of all new proposals for projects and
allocating them their correct degree of priority in relation to the projects in the
ongoing programmes
7) It contributes in effectiveness of helping people learn as they participate in planning
process. this ensures credibility
8) Planning provides sufficient flexibility to adjust rapidly to changing

circumstances. CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD EXTENTION PROGRAMME.

PRINCIPLES GOVERNING PROGRAMME PLANNING

Factors considered in extension programme for an area

Rational decisions are achieved after certain basic principles are followed considered.

1. All extension programmes must be based upon careful analysis of factual information
relevant facts in an area can be collected and used for making decisions. Such information
includes.

 Land tenure of area

 Population density and distribution
 Communication channels available
 Soil characteristics

2.SUITABILITY FOR USE – extension on programmes should be based on identified

problem and recognized needs priority must be given to urgent problem and those that
interests people.

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3.Extension programmes must be flexible. Catering for both long term and short term
cases. They should also cater for emergences e.g. Earthquakes, landslides diseases
outbreak etc.

Extension programmer should be one that can be adjusted easily and quickly.

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4.Extension programmes must be educative and involving all people. i.e. they should aim at
solving individual and community problems e.g. A comprehensive programme and
community problems socio economic groups i.e. farmers women for clubs etc.

5.Extension programmes should be carried out by trained personal to ensure effective

supervision i.e. trained in both technical and communication skills as well as in extension
methods.

6.Extension programmes must be based on existing technologies and existing social status of
the people. I.e. appropriate technologies helps the farmers to produce effectively make use of
available resources efficiently without wastes and react quickly to changes in the market. The
technologies must have the following characteristics.

 Simple
 Flexible
 Cost effective
 Efficient
 Durable
 Available

7. Extension programmes should have Evaluative indicators to assess the success or

failure of a programme.

8. The objectives of the programme should be clearly

outlined i.e. S=specific

M=measurabl

eA

=achievable

R= realistic

T = time bound

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REASONS WHY FARMERS SHOULD PARTICIPATE IN PROGRAMME PLANNING

1. Farmers possess information which is council for planning successful extension

programmes e.g. they have information on goals experiences on technologies social
structures etc. farmers have first hand information.
2. Farmers will be more motivated to cooperate in the extension programme if
they share responsibility for it.
3. They have a democratic a right. In a democratic society it is generally accepted that
the people involved in a development programme have the right to participate in
decision making about the goals they hope to achieve,
4. Many agricultural development problems can no longer be solved through individual
decision making but they require the participation of the target group e.g.
sustainable farming

PROGRAMME PLANNING

PROCESS STEPS IN

PROGRAMME PLANNING

There are eight steps in a programme planning process namely.

i. Collection of facts/gathering information/date collection

ii. Analyses the data/facts/situation
iii. Identification of the problem
iv. Formulation of the objectives
v. Develop a plan of work
vi. Project implementation/execute the plan
vii. Evaluation of the programme
viii. Follow up/reconsiderations.

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PROGRAMME PLANNING PROCESS

DATA COLLECTION/FACTS/INFORMATION GATHERING

Facts are foundation stones upon which extension programmes should be developed it is the
responsibility of extension workers to assemble and interprets factual information for the use
in the programme planning process

Examples of facts gathered are:

 Ecological data e.g. rainfall topography soils, communication

 Agricultural resources in community
 Current farming factors and processes
 Economic factor affecting agriculture in the area i.e. credits markets etc
 Information on local culture
 People abilities and individual resources and other development programmes that are
active in the area.

Facts can be collected through the following methods

 Objectives
 Interviews
 Formal/informal surveys
 Farm experiences

etc SOURCES OF FACTS

ARE:

 Records/reports in government offices

 Local newspapers/magazines
 Personal visits to farmers
 Reports of meeting etc.

IMPORTANCE OF DATA

COLLECTION

The data collected will tell facts on average farm sizes crop yields, labour situation,
competition, marketing problems available resources sources of water climatic conditions soil
type etc.

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THIS HELPS IN:

 Identification of project to be started

 Needs assessment
 Shows how and why project should be carried
 It shows local and foreign resources required for rectifying situation

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ANALYSE DATA/SITUATION ANALYSIS.

Facts collected have to be analyzed in such a way that they will be useful. This analysis of
interpretation means a translation of there facts into a familiar language or term i.e.
explanation of the meaning of the facts as they apply to the local community

E.g. local community attitudes about existing

programmes IDENTIFICATION OF THE

PROBLEM/NEEDS

When facts are properly interpreted they help the extension agents and local leaders in
showing the situation as it is.

They identify the problems and needs of the community and indicate possible solutions to the

problems They also point out weaknesses indicate shortages and direct attention to

undesirables trends.

Establishments the most important needs through discussions and interactions with the
people study the current situation and those that can be done by analyzing the facts
collected.

See what the situation should be and this can be known by looking at technical knowledge
and skills from when innovation was introduced.

WHAT IS A NEED?

At a need may be defined as a state that exists when there is a gap between the present
situation and the hoped or required state.

IMPORTANCE OF IDENTIFYING CORRECT NEEDS

i. Your credibility either as an extension agent or organization is at stake if you do not

identify proper needs for the people. You help them identify priotise and meet their
needs.
ii. There exists biases on both sides
iii. Potential conflicts and resistance can be avoided if people are involved in needs identification
iv. By involving people in needs identification has positive effects on motivation and

commitments. CATEGORIES OF NEEDS

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 i. Expressed felt needs
ii. Unexpressed felt needs
iii. Unfelt needs
iv. Ascribed needs

EXPRESSED FELT

NEEDS

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There are those needs which are felt by the community and also recognized by outsiders. They
are easily recognized because they have symptoms e.g crime rate poverty, disease. Literacy. They
are high priority needs/obvious needs.

UNEXPRESSED FELT NEEDS

These are needs felt by community but are not recognized by the outsiders as extension agent.
They are needs the target group finds difficult to show to others.

It is very important to find out why the target group don’t want to express the needs.

FACTORS AFFECTING EXTENT TO WHICH PEOPLE WILL BE WILLING TO EXPRESS THEIR

NEEDS.

i. Fear of being judged as being seen as going against the community norms
ii. If people perceive that they lack the skills/knowledge about the project/needs
iii. If people are questioning the credibility of the agent or organization
iv. If there was some previous negative feedback/expense with other programmes last year
v. If the way to meet the needs may appear to be too involving in terms of finances and
expenses.
vi. Language barrier
vii. Diversity of people

HOW CAN EXTENSION WORKERS HELP GROUP TO EXPRESS THEIR NEEDS

How to assist people to open up and articulate their needs

i. Establish a climate of trust by working in an open and non judgmental manner

ii. By learning about the community and their norms
iii. Try to learn about the community perception of their skills and abilities
iv. Establish a factoring in community that there is a chance of

success. UNFELT NEEDS

These are the needs recognized by the extension workers but they are not felt by the members of
the community because it may either be too technical or have long term effects e.g.

 Nutrients deficiency in the soil the agent knows about it but the farmer is not aware
 O zone layer depletion
 Environmental pollution etc.

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Try to convince them and give experimental evidence towards the

problem. ASCRIBED NEEDS

Needs seen and felt by the agent but they are non-existence. He may be feeling them due to his
background. Needs are imposed to the community though they are not present e.g. use of
biogas where there is no weeds.

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 Any programme based on this will definitely fail. The needs may also be derived from
marlovs hierarchy of needs

QUESTIONS TO ASK TO BE ABLE TO EFFECTIVELYIDENTIFY THE NEEDS

i. how important is it that the community be involved in the 1st stage of need
identification
ii. what budget is available to carry out the programme or need identification
the budget will be a reflection of the analysis
is the method appropr

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 TECHNICAL REPORT WRITING
Technical- is a skilful or professional on art or subject

Report – is a documentation or narration or written account of an event or happening which

is clearly and logically presented either orally, verbally or written.

Writing- the conversion of speeches or word or ideas into signs and symbols

Reading- is decoding the signs and to forms

Technical report- is a skilful documentation or narration or written account of an event or

happening clearly and logically presented.

Is a written communication of data that deals with factual information? Technical facts are
facts that must be supported by evidence. Technical reporting deals with providing accurate
account and what has been learned by experience, observation or investigation.

CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD REPORT

 Should provide solution to specific and limited problems
 Should be completely objective giving true and not bias information (No
personalisation putting I and You)
 The report should be verifiable. (justifiable)
 Should be written formal and impersonal language
 Should have concrete words for exact meaning not using statements such as about
50. No approximation
 Should have news and information. (have content)
 Report should be timely.

Importance of technical writing and reporting

1. Report acts as a link between researchers and uses for research information or
findings
2. Reports helps in management operation and for administration purposes
3. Reports act as a storage of information
4. Reports are used to communicate findings e.g. theories, discoveries, new
technologies or new products in the market
5. Report communicate success, failure and problems of a project.
6. For decision making.
7. For guideline and direction
8. For financing and budgeting.

Types of technical reports

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Broadly there are two types of reports
 1) Informal technical report
2) Formal technical report
1. Informal Technical Report
These are reports that circulate within or among company’s departments directing its daily
operations, e.g. Memorandum address a small number of people, it’s a sub written note and
contains date, name and subject. e.g.

From: managing director

Ref:

Date: 10th may 2023

To:

Subject: I noted with great concerned………………….

Signature:

name:

title:

2. Formal Technical Reports

This is a complicated report comprising many facts. It’s used in a company decision making
process because it provides information required before decision are made.

They must therefore communicate with many people whose technical knowledge varies
widely. E.g. Directors, Managers and technical stuff.

Types of formal reports

1. Proposals report
This can be research proposals reporting scientific findings. Project proposals- reporting
initiation of a project.

2. Research reports.
This reports about findings.

3. Project reports
This reports success or failure of a given projects. It includes conclusions and
recommendation.

4. Progress reports.
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This is written at certain intervals in the course of research or findings.
 5. Periodic reports
This are monthly or annually reports of a company. They include.

a) Daily reports
This is a report given, written daily as the reports is needed within 24hrs. it’s useful where
people work in shift. E.g. Doctors in hospital, Factories, security officers and research
stations.

b) Progressive reports
Is a reports or written progressively as an event is taking place? This is common in a
research centre. This gives an account of an event on either hourly or daily basis.

c) Weekly reports
This as a report given or written at the end of the week. It should real review of the week’s
events.

d) Forth Night reports (Monthly Reports)

This is written every end of the month. It’s one of the most important reports is the Civil
Service.

e) Quarterly reports
Written after three months. (not necessary unless requested by the office.)

f) Annual reports
This is written after one year and consist of all what has been happening throughout the
year.

FORMAT OF THE FORMAL REPORT

Formal report contains all or nearly of all of the following.

1. Preliminary section
I. Cover page
II. Title page
III. Letter of transmittal or preface
IV. Abstract or executive summary
V. Table of content
VI. List of illustration and figures
N/B in this section paging are done with lowercase Roman numerals.
KIRUI MR 2. Body of the report
I. Introduction
 II. Materials and methods
III. Results
IV. Discussions
V. Conclusions
VI. Recommendations
N/B in paging this section start with Arabic numerals e.g. 1,2,3
3. Supplementary section
I. Appendices
II. Bibliography
III. Reference paging.

1. Preliminary section
1. Cover page
Made of heavy but flexible paper, with information about the report. This information
includes; Title which is prominently displayed. It also contains name of author.

2. Title page
It duplicates information found on the cover with additional information such as name and
title of the person to which it is addressed, or an institution name of the person who
supplied the report date of submission.

3. Letter of transmittal or preface

The purpose of letter of transmittal or preface is to directs the report to the reader or uses
of the report. The letter of transmittal addresses known single person or single group.

Preface- address or direct general audience whom may not know what they want. This
section explains

 Why the report is being transmitted

 The purpose and scope of the report
 Acknowledgement of any assistance in carrying out the project
 Clos e with statements expressing hope that the report is satisfactory.

4. Table of content
This contain list of topic of the report with their page number-corresponding. It serves as an
accurate and complete guide to the content of the report.

5. List of illustration
This constitute of both tables and figures. It contains numbers, title and page reference of
each table of figures

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6. MR
The abstract
It is a short description of a piece writing. Abstract allow the reader to survey the content of
the report. It also enables the reader to determine relevance of the report to their interest.
It summarises report purpose and problems. It also contains major facts on which
conclusion should be based on recommendations also contained in the abstract e.g. the
researcher opens the field for other researches to venture in the field.

2. Body of the report

1. Introduction
Introduction prepares the reader to understand the body of the report and keep them from
expecting something that the report doesn’t contain.

The report therefor should contain;

I. Subject
II. Purpose of the report
III. The scope-how wide the report, at what extend was the report collected
IV. Plan of development-how was the research carried out
N/B: good introduction should follow the following rules:
1. It should review pertinent literature to orient the reader
2. State the method of investigation
3. The report should be clear and address nature and scope of the problem under
investigation
4. State the principle results and conclusion of the investigation.
5. Conclusion and result
N/B: The much of introduction should be written in present tense because it will be
referring primarily to the problem and the establish knowledge relating it at the start
of the work.
The introduction is usually written after the report is completed

2. Materials and methods

In this section, describe the experimental design and provide enough details that a
competent person can repeat the experiment.

The material should include;

 Technical specification
 Qualities, source and method of preparation

3. Results
This isMR
KIRUI the shortest section of the report. The presentation of the result should include:
  Overall description of the experiment
 Data
The result should be presented in the past tense because one is reporting the result
If statistics are to be used, they should be meaningful statistics
Avoid repeating of what already appears
4. Discussion
This is the longest section of the report. It shows the relationship among the observed
findings (facts)

The following are found in discussion section

 Principle relationship and generalization of the report

 Point out any lack of correlation and define unsettle point.
 Show how the results and interpretation agree with previous published findings
 Discuss theoretical implication of facts findings and any practical application.
 State fair conclusion- based on the research

5. The conclusion
Conclusion are influences drawn from the factual evidence of the report.

They are the final link in the chain of reasoning

Conclusion should be consistent with the kind of results promised in the introduction.

6. Recommendation
This is a statement involving action to be taken or not to be taken.

3. Supplementary section.
1. Reference/ Bibliography
It I the list of all reference books used, listed in alphabetical order which are relevant to the
report.

In writing a bibliography it starts in the following

-surname, initials, years of publication, title (underlined), publishers, authors.

If more people were writing the same report, can write like Rotich et al- meaning written by
Rotich and other writers.

2. Glossary
Helps to identify where terminologies have been used and meaning.
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 Illustration

These are charts, drawings, pictures, table and photographs that are used to elaborate the
writing of the report. The illustration should be few because they are expensive and time
consuming. They should be used in appropriate page where they are applicable. Should be
drawn clearly and accurately. Illustration should be attractive.

Principle of technical writing

1. Always have in the mind a specific reader

2. Always assume that this reader is intelligent but uninformed
3. Always decide what is the exact purpose of the report
4. Use symbols and familiar language
5. Your report should be written according to the principle that ‘’first tell your reader
what you are going to tell them, then tell them what you have told them’’ the
report should be logical
6. Make your report attractive to look at

Audience analysis (readers)

Importance of audience analysis
1. Help writers target the major group of the readers because different readers
have different backgrounds, different level knowledge about the report
2. It enables the writer discover what their readers know about the subject of the
report
3. It focuses on what the readers need to know
4. It helps writers to determine what their readers would do with the information
given

Type of audience
1. Laymen
Any audience outside their field of specialisation. Constitute a lay audience e.g. a
professor in history and wants to read a scientific report
It is the most difficult group to write for since they are not expert in the field, they
will read for interest and they concerned with what things do than how they work.
When writing for laymen provide sufficient background material in the subject and if
possible use familiar things as a point of reference e.g. define special words and
terms expand them in a way most useful to them
2. Executives
*They resemble layman in many ways hence use illustration and simple language
when writing to them
*They are mainly concern with practical matters esp how technological development
affect the development of the companies eg directors , GM Ministries etc
*The executive act on what they read to people and figuring largely to their decision
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 *The executives also want to know whether the alternatives selected recommend
action to be taken.

3. Experts

The experts will know their field very and hardly require background information.
They are interested in the facts where they draw influences. They are concerned in why
and how things work.

In writing for experts; math equations, science terms and chemical formulars are
acceptable.

Complicated formulae and equation needed to solve the equation but not essential
for understanding should be placed on the appendix.

Tables and figures are also useful to them.

4 Technicians [new stuff]

These are the heart of any operation and they are concerned about the
practical operation of a particular theory through the theory itself.
Provide background information and definition where necessary because they
may not be able to follow maths and theoretical work.
5 The combined audience
This is also another difficult audience to write
It is composed of cross section of all the audience categories.
In writing for such audience consider each category will use the report e.g. the
executive may use it to make decision with the help of experts while the expert
and the technician may use the information to implement decision reached.
It is therefore recommended that you compartmentalise your report i.e. you
divide your report into different segments designed to do different jobs.
N/B.
 Abstract are read by executive
 Introduction are read by experts, executive and technician
 Materials and method by experts and technician
 Results are read by experts and technician
 Discussion by experts
 Conclusion by experts, executive and technician
 Recommendation by executive, experts and technician

DATA COLLECTION

How to collect data

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 Know the purpose of the information or report
  List areas where the report is to cover [content]Identify the area you intent to study.
 Have all the equipment /materials ready
 List the field visit plus observation
 Prepare questionnaire if necessary.
 Draft or prepare notes promptly.

iate?

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