Fundamentals of Information Technology Unit 7

Unit 7 BUS
Structure:
7.1 Introduction
Objectives
7.2 Bus
7.3 Types of Bus Interfaces
Industry Standard Architecture (ISA)
Peripheral Component Interconnect (PCI)
Accelerated Graphics Port (AGP)
Front Side Bus (FSB)
Universal Serial Bus (USB)
Dual Independent Bus (DIB)
7.4 Bus Troubleshooting
7.5 Summary
7.6 Terminal Questions
7.7 Answers

7.1 Introduction
In units 5 and 6, we have seen about many important basics of the
computer system like CPU and computer memory and so on, which are
required for a computer. But, when there are various important components
put together, the question that arises is how they should be linked and how
they should communicate with each other so that the information of the
memory location can be transferred. The solution for this question is to use
connection of wires which is called as Bus.
In this unit we will study the importance of the bus, types of bus interfaces
like Industry Standard Architecture, Peripheral Component Interconnect,
Accelerated Graphics Port, Front Side Bus, Universal Serial Bus, and Dual
Independent Bus, then we will study about bus troubleshooting.
Objectives:
After studying this unit you will be able to:
 define bus and explain functions of bus
 describe data bus, address bus and control bus
 list and explain types of bus interfaces
 describe the basic bus problems through troubleshooting
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7.2 Bus
Memory and I/O devices are connected to the CPU through a group of wires
called a bus. The purpose of bus is to reduce the number of pathways
needed for communication between the components, by carrying out all
communications over a single data channel. A computer bus can be divided
into two types- internal bus and external bus. The internal bus connects
components inside the motherboard like, CPU and system memory. This
internal bus is also called as system bus. The external bus connects the
different external devices, peripherals, expansion slots, I/O ports and drive
connections to the computer. This external bus is also called as expansion
bus. Figure 7.1 shows a bus connection.

Figure 7.1: Bus connection

There are three types of buses as follows:

Data Bus: This bus transfers data between the CPU and memory. The Data
bus is a bidirectional because the data can flow in either direction that is
from CPU to memory (or I/O device) or from memory (or I/O device) to the
CPU.
Address Bus: This bus carries the address of a memory location or an I/O
device that the CPU wants to access. The address bus is unidirectional.
Control Bus: This bus specifies control instructions from CPU to memory or
I/O devices. Examples of control signals are RD , WR and so on.
Buses can be serial and parallel. Serial buses are those which allow the
data to travel in single bit-serial form. Parallel buses are those that allow
data transfer in multiple wires in a parallel form. Based on the type of bus
used with the particular device, bus can be unidirectional and bidirectional.

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Unidirectional buses allow data transfer from one device to another in one
way path (that is in only one direction). For example control bus allows
transfer of information from CPU to I/O and Memory and not backward.
Bidirectional buses allow data to travel through them from one device to
another in both the directions.
Functions of Bus
Following are the functions of Bus:
 Data Sharing – All types of Buses found on a computer must be able to
transfer data between the computer peripherals connected to it.
 Addressing – A Bus has address lines, which allows data to be sent to
or from specific memory locations.
 Power – A Bus supplies power to various peripherals that are connected
to it.
 Timing – The Bus provides a system clock signal to synchronize the
Bus operations and peripherals attached to it.
Self-Assessment Questions
1. Memory and I/O devices are connected to the CPU through a group of
wires called __________.
2. Mention various types of buses.
3. ___________ Bus allows transfer of control instructions from CPU to
memory or I/O devices.
4. Parallel Buses are those which allow data to travel in single bit-serial
form. (True or False)
5. Serial Buses are those that allow data transfer in multiple wires in a
parallel form. (True or False)

7.3 Types of Bus Interfaces

In a computer system, interface is an information path between two
separate devices in a computer system. Various types of Bus interfaces are
seen below:
 Industry Standard Architecture (ISA)
 Peripheral Component Interconnect (PCI)
 Accelerated Graphic Port (AGP)
 Front Side Bus (FSB)
 Universal Serial Bus (USB)
 Dual Independent Bus (DIB)

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7.3.1 Industry Standard Architecture (ISA)

Industry standard architecture (ISA) is an interface of a computer bus that
was introduced by IBM. This bus was originally an 8-bit bus that was later
expanded to a 16-bit bus in mid-80.
The original (8-bit) ISA bus had 62 signal lines. Of these, 20 lines were for
memory address, 8 for data, and remaining one each for control signals of
memory read and memory write. The control signals of interrupt and DMA
access were present. An interrupt is an event in hardware that triggers the
processor to jump from its current program counter to a specific point in a
code. Direct Memory Access (DMA) channels are system pathways used by
many devices to transfer information directly to and from memory. The 8-bit
ISA bus was running at a clock speed of 4.77 MHz. ISA supports data
transfer rate of 16 Mbps.
When PC/AT was introduced, the data bus was extended from 8-bits to
16-bits. The name AT stands for "Advanced Technology", and was chosen
because the AT offered various technologies that were new in personal
computers. In 16-bit ISA, 36 signal lines are added along with the 62-signal
lines. On ISA bus, 31 lines are provided for address lines, data lines,
interrupt lines and DMA access channels. The remaining lines deal with
differences between 8-bit and 16-bit transfers.
Later on, the successor to PC and PC/AT was Personal System/2 or (PS/2).
PS/2 was IBM’s third generation of Personal Computers released in 1987.
The architecture of the ISA was started once again, with the bus running at
8.33 MHz. This bus allows the computer to automatically detect and setup
computer ISA peripherals, such as sound card or modem. Thus, now the
user possesses the capability of connecting a device and not having to
configure it.
7.3.2 Peripheral Component Interconnect (PCI)
One of the latest developments in bus architecture is Peripheral Component
Interconnect (PCI) and is the latest standard for PC expansion cards. It is
type of local bus designed by Intel to integrate audio, video and graphics. It
was launched as the expansion bus for the Pentium processor in 1993. PCI
supports data transfer rate of 264 Mbps.

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PCI was used in developing Plug and Play (PnP) such as CD and Web Cam
and all PCI cards support PnP. This means that the user can plug a new
card into the computer and it will “self-identify” and “self-specify” and start
working without manual configuration using jumpers.
PCI configuration
PCI is a big change over ISA Bus architecture with the increase in its speed
from 8.33 MHz. to 33 MHz frequency. This increases the information
transfer from 5MB/Sec to 132MB/sec. Another important characteristic is
that it gives automatic configuration property to the switches and
peripherals. This feature also automatically adjusts the interrupts requests,
DMA assignments, the addresses of the requests and information used by
the PCI peripheral.
PCI Bus Layout
For any architecture there must be proper borders and boundaries. This is
given to the PCI architecture by their layout. Figure 7.2 shows a PCI bus
layout.

Figure 7.2: PCI Bus Layout

In the figure 7.2, it is observed that +5 volts connector is divided into two
segments. Two segments are A1 to A62, B1 to B62 and A63 to A94, B63 to
B94. 3.3 volts connector is added with a key at the 12th position of the Bus
just to avoid any insertion of the 5 volts board to 3.3 volts Bus. 12th position
is after A11, B11. 5 volts connector is added with a key at the 50th position
to avoid the wrong insertion of 3.3 volts board into the 5 volts slot.
In order to handle the interrupt requests that have been sent by interrupt
handler on the bus, PCI bus has its own internal interrupts. PCI uses a
technique which holds the signal dynamically and whenever there is a

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requirement it can be reassigned. This technique is called Interrupt ReQuest

(IRQ). IRQ can be shared by two or more PCI devices.
PCI Signals
In the PCI bus there are different types of signals that serve different
functions. Table 7.1 shows some functions of PCI signals.
Table 7.1: The functions of PCI signals
Signals Functions
Clock(CLK) This provides timing for the PCI control signals.
Reset This resets all PCI devices
Request (REQ) Initiates the Bus mastering
Grant (GNT) This approves the request of Bus mastering.
Initiator Ready (IRDY) This indicates that the Bus is ready to accept the
information.
Initiator Ready (IRDY) This indicates the initiator to terminate or halt the
current information transfer.
Lock (LOCK) Prevents the other initiator to modify the locked
addresses or selected expansion device.

7.3.3 Accelerated Graphics Port (AGP)

Accelerated Graphics Port (AGP) is designed to provide throughput
demands of 3D graphics. The development in the field of computer science
and engineering has resulted in huge improvements in the PC. The
visualization is improved in its quality like colour, resolutions and in other
special effects and this requires more storage place. This demands not only
for more memory but also requires huge bandwidth for data transfer. This is
fulfilled by Accelerated Graphics Port (AGP) which is very useful for
3D applications. AGP supports data transfer rate of 533 - 2048Mbps.
Structure of AGP
The AGP’s performance is directly proportional to the bandwidth, and the
AGP architecture increases the bandwidth available to the graphics
accelerator. An AGP architecture is developed which acts as an interface
between chipset and graphic controller. Figure 7.3 shows a block diagram
of AGP architecture.

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Figure 7.3: Block diagram of AGP architecture

AGP is directly connected to the system memory through a high speed bus
and it is used to accelerate the graphics performance. Texture data is
provided to the AGP set through the system memory. In between PCs
chipset and graphics controller, an AGP interface is placed in order to
increase the band width. Through AGP bus, graphics accelerator controller
and the AGP set is connected. The AGP helps to speed the flow of decoded
video from the graphic controller to the AGP set and vice-versa. Through
the core data controller another high speed bus is also connected to Level-2
cache.
With the help of AGP that offers the bandwidth which is twice the bandwidth
of PCI, 2 bytes can be passed on every AGP CLOCK for a bandwidth of
532 MB/s. AGP bus requires a 66MHz clock. This clock is developed from
the motherboard Front Side Bus (FSB) clock or the CPU clock. More
refinement or adjustment to the AGP handles the data and allow 4 Bytes to
be passed with the bandwidth of more than 1 GB/s on every AGP clock.
This means that the bandwidth is doubled when the AGP clock refines the
data byte.

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AGP vs PCI
AGP was not created to replace PCI, but to create a new dedicated bus
which is used to help the graphic cards functioning. Table 7.2 shows basic
differences between AGP and PCI.
Table 7.2: Difference between AGP and PCI
AGP PCI
Connected to only read/write memory. It Connected to the entire system
is not connected to I/O operations
No priority queues There is High/low priority queues
Data bytes will be peak at 533MB/s with Data bytes will be high at 133 MB/s
32 bits with 32 bits
Request is pipelined Non pipelined
Address/data is de-multiplexed Address/data is multiplexed

AGP Layout
AGP is used on Advanced Technology eXtended (ATX) and New Low
Profile Extended (NLX) style mother boards. AGP bus is a 132-pin
connector. NLX was a form factor proposed for low cost, low profile, mass-
marketed retail PCs. NLX specification defines the motherboard size, rise
card location, hole mounting locations and maximum component heights on
motherboard. It has three variations of AGP bus: 3.3 V, universal and 1.5V.
The signal layout of all three variations are very similar, but the key
locations are different. Therefore, 3.3V, 1.5V and universal AGP cards are
not interchangeable.
AGP Signals
In order to work in an advance performance mode the full bandwidth needs
to be utilized with the bus. Table 7.3 shows some of the AGP signals and its
functions.
Table 7.3: AGP Signal and its functions
Signal Function
PIPE # This request is asserted by the current master. It indicates that
the target has to queue up the full width request.
Read Buffer This signal indicates whether the master is ready to accept
Full (RBF#) previously requested low-priority read data.
Write Buffer Indicates whether the master is ready to accept data from core
Full (WBF#) logic.
CLOCK (CLK) Provides timing for the AGP signals.
FRAME# Indicates the output form the core logic.

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7.3.4 Front Side Bus (FSB)

Front Side Bus (FSB) is a communication interface that serves as the main
link between the CPU and the system memory and other components on
the motherboard. The front side bus consists of two channels, one for
transferring data and another for indicating the memory address where the
data is to be retrieved from or stored. The front side bus transfers data
between the processor and the other components of a computer such as
memory and hard disks.
Bit-size is the important feature of the FSB. 32-bit FSB performs 100% more
than that of 16-bit FSB. The FSB has a clock cycle frequency indicating how
fast the data can be transferred. For example a processor having a FSB
width of 32-bits and running at 533MHz can transfer a set of 32-bits of data.
The communication between various components is done by FSB through
the Chipset. The chipset consists of two processors namely Northbridge and
Southbridge. Both the bridges act as controllers and policemen between the
CPU and various components of the system which are responsible for data
transfer among them. Northbridge has its own heat sink since it works
continuously and easily gets heated up fast. Northbridge is also called as
Memory Controller Hub (MCH) or Integrated Memory Controller Hub
(IMCH). The Southbridge is the chip that controls all the computers I/O
functions such as USB, audio and many more.
7.3.5 Universal Serial Bus (USB)
Universal Serial Bus (USB) developed by Intel, is a connectivity tool that
establishes communication between personal computers and devices such
as mouse, pen drive, external hard disk, and so on. Almost every computer
or laptop is equipped with one or more USB ports. USB connector is a
narrow socket around 1 cm wide and 0.5 cm high.
All USB devices come with a USB connector that is plugged into the USB
port on the computer. USB has plug and play feature. As you plug in a USB
device, it is detected by the computer automatically.
A pen/flash drive is a removable storage device that is frequently used now
a days to transfer audio, video, and files from one computer to another. The
driver is software that allows your computer to communicate with devices
such as pen drive, web cam, hard disk and many more. This device is less

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expensive and very reliable and durable source of storage media. The flash
drive is used for the same purpose like CD-ROM and floppy disks.
The most common and popular USB device is a pen drive. Pen drive is a
removable storage device that is frequently used nowadays to transfer
audio, video and data files from one computer to another. A pen drive
consists of a small printed circuit board, which is fitted inside a plastic, metal
or rubber casing to protect it.
Pen drive is a high storage (ranging from 1GB to 128GB) capacity device
and is physically small enough to keep in a pocket. In addition, it is faster
and requires very less power to operate. Figure 7.4 shows a universal serial
bus

Figure 7.4: Universal Serial Bus (USB)

7.3.6 Dual Independent Bus (DIB)

Dual means two. Dual independent bus (DIB) enables the processor to
access data from either of its buses (front side bus or back side bus)
simultaneously or in parallel, rather than single sequential manner as in a
single bus system.
The processor reads and writes data to and from Level 2 cache using a bus
called backside bus. The processor reads and writes data to and from the
CPU to main memory called the frontside bus. The DIB architecture allows
the processor to use both (front side bus and back side bus) buses
simultaneously. DIB architecture improves three times the bandwidth
performance of a single bus architecture and also supports the speed up to
100MHZ. Figure 7.5 shows a DIB architecture.

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Figure 7.5: Dual Independent Bus architecture

Self-Assessment Questions
6. ISA stands for __________________.
7. When PC/AT was introduced, the data bus was extended from
__________ bits to __________ bits.
8. _______________ Port is applicable for 3D applications.
9. Mention any three PCI signals.
10. AGP is used on __________ and _______ machines.
11. _____________ is a communication interface between the CPU and
the system memory and other components on the motherboard.
12. The chipset consists of two processors namely ___________ and
____________.
13. USB stands for _______________.
14. All USB devices come with a USB connector that is plugged into the
FSB port on the computer. (True or False?)
15. Mention any two USB devices.
16. DIB uses____________ and _________ buses simultaneously.
17. DIB allows single sequential method for processing. (True/ False?)

7.4 Bus Troubleshooting

Troubleshooting is a form of problem solving, often applied to repair failed
products. Generally bus troubleshooting is not done since it is more of a
passive connector of components like capacitors, resistors, which contains
circuitry. It can be replaced easily. You might need to troubleshoot for some
of the major signals that are connected to the motherboard. This happens at

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the Power On Self Test (POST) board. Normally you could do this process
in the POST boards by using LED lights. A Light-Emitting Diode (LED) is a
semiconductor light source. In many devices these are used as indicator
lamps and are more frequently used for lighting. To indicate the status of
control signals, clock time and power supply, LED light is used in post
board. If any particular LED is not glowing then it indicates that there is
some error in connection in the motherboard.
You can note the following points to rectify the Bus errors.
 On the PCI bus check the voltage level by using the multimeter.
Irrespective whether the bus is standard or not, you should be able to
find voltage as -12Vdc and +5Vdc. You will find +3.3Vdc supply for a
low-voltage bus. Trouble shoot or replace if any of these supply levels is
absent or low.
 The timing signals for the external device and slots is provided by Clock
signal. Clock signals can be adjusted between 0 Hz and 33 MHz. The
circuit board will not work, if the signal is absent. You need to check the
clock generating circuitry and rectify it.
 Bus slot versions should be taken care. For example a PCI interface of
version 2.4 may not work with its full functionality when it is connected to
a PCI interface of version 2.3 or lower versions. They are compatible
with the only slots to which they are designed for.
 As the bus connectors are mechanical devices, they are more likely to
be worn out. If the connections are wrong, some of the functionality of
the motherboard may fail or it may also cause severe damage to the
motherboard. If the mother board develops metallic oxides, it will not
work properly. So, remove metallic oxides and also remove the dust
from the slots.
Self-Assessment Questions
18. Bus troubleshooting can be done at ____________.
19. _________ light is used to find that there is some error connection, in
the motherboard.

7.5 Summary
 Memory and I/O devices are connected to the CPU through a group of
cables called a bus. A system bus consists of data bus, address bus and
control bus.

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 Functions of bus are data sharing, addressing, power and timing.

 In a computer system, interface is a information path between two
separate devices in a computer system.
 Different types of bus interfaces are Industry Standard Architecture
(ISA), Peripheral Component Interconnect (PCI), Accelerated Graphics
Port (AGP), Front Side Bus, Universal Serial Bus, and Dual Independent
Bus
 Industry standard architecture (ISA) is a bus interface, which was
introduced by IBM. This bus was originally an 8-bit bus that was later
expanded to a 16-bit bus in mid-80’s.
 One of the latest developments in bus architecture is PCI Accelerated
Graphics Port is designed to provide throughput demands of 3D
graphics.
 FSB is a communication interface between the CPU to the system
memory and other components on the motherboard.
 USB is a connectivity that establishes communication between personal
computer and devices such as mouse, pen drive, external hard disk, etc.
 Bus troubleshooting with is done at Power On Self-Test boards and
rectified using LED lights.

7.6 Terminal Questions

1. Explain the working of Bus connection.
2. Write a short note on ISA.
3. List the different PCI signals along with their functions.
4. Explain the differences between AGP and PCI.
5. Write short note on:
a) FSB
b) USB
c) DIB

7.7 Answers
Self Assessment Questions
1. Bus
2. Address Bus, data Bus, and control Bus
3. control
4. False

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5. False
6. Industry Standard Architecture
7. 8 to16
8. Accelerated graphics
9. CLK, STOP and LOCK
10. ATX and NLX
11. Front side bus
12. Northbridge and Southbridge
13. Universal Serial Bus
14. False
15. Pen drive and Hard disk
16. Frontside and backside
17. False
18. POST board
19. LED
Terminal Questions
1. System bus consists of three types of buses such as address Bus, data
Bus and control Bus. (Refer to Section 7.2)
2. Industry standard architecture (ISA) is a component of a computer bus
that was introduced by IBM. (Refer to Section 7.3)
3. There are various signals such as Clock (CLK), Reset, Request (REQ),
Grant (GNT), Initiator Ready (IRDY), Initiator Ready (IRDY), Lock
(LOCK). (Refer Section 7.3)
4. In AGP there are no priority queues and in PCI there are high or low
priority queues. Table 7.2 shows a differences between AGP and
PCI. (Refer to Section 7.3)
5. a) FSB stands for Front Sided Bus and it used to connect the CPU to
the system memory and other components on the mother board.
(Refer to Section 7.4)
b) USB refers to the types of cables and connectors used to connect
many types of external devices (such as mouse, pen drive, external
hard disk, etc.) to computers. (Refer to Section 7.5)
c) Dual (two) independent buses enables the processor to access data
from either of its buses simultaneously or in parallel, rather than
single sequential manner as in a single bus system. (Refer to
Section 7.6)
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