Lecture Notes

CHAPTER 2

TRANSPORT FACILITIES

INTRODUCTION

FIXED FACILITIES/INFRASTRUCTURE

Fixed facilities consist of the fixed installations necessary for transport. This includes streets,
highways, footpaths, bike lanes and public transport lines, roads, railways, airways,
waterways, canals and pipelines, and terminals such as airports, railway stations, bus stations,
warehouses, trucking terminals, refueling depots (including fueling docks and fuel stations),
and seaports.
Terminals may be used both for interchange of passengers and cargo and for maintenance.

FLOW ENTITIES/VEHICLES

Flow entities traveling on these networks may include automobiles, bicycles, buses,
trains, trucks, people, helicopters, and aircraft.

CONTROL SYSTEMS/OPERATIONS

Control systems deals with the way the vehicles are operated, and the procedures set for
this purpose including financing, legalities and policies.

In the transport industry, control systems and ownership of fixed facilities can be either public
or
private, depending on the country and mode.

CLASSIFICATION OF TRANSPORTATION SYSTEMS & TECHNOLOGIES

A) A transportation system can be classified in several ways; The type of technology they
employ
Function and type of service (Passenger or Freight)
Who owns it or is responsible for their implementation and operation?

B) A transportation system can further be classified according to the medium on which the
flow elements are supported. (Modes)

The Four Major Sub-Systems are:

1. Land transport
Highway
Rail
2. Air transportation
Domestic
International

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3. Water transportation
Inland
Coastal
Ocean
4. Pipelines
Oil
Gas
Other, etc

C) Transportation systems can also be classified as either for hire or not for hire. These
categories are known respectively as public and private. These terms refer to their
availability and not to their ownership,

2.1 TRANSPORTATION MODES /TECHNOLOGIES

The transportation modes and technologies are each suited to carry out specific tasks. They each
have different fixed costs and variable costs. The total cost of a transportation system or sub-
system or mode or technology is thus divided into fixed and variable costs. Fixed costs are those
costs that do not relate to the production or utilization (level) of equipment or facility or
machinery. Buses, trains, aircrafts, infrastructure construction, etc cost a fixed amount of money
no matter what the degree or level of utilization is. Whether idle or used 100%, this cost of
purchase or construction remains the same. Variable costs, however, are those costs that vary
proportionately with or tend to be proportional to the degree of utilization or production. The
more an equipment or machinery or facility is utilized, the more costs will be incurred; examples
include costs of labor, repairs, fuel for buses or trains or aircrafts.

The absolute magnitude of the fixed cost and the magnitude of the variable cost relative to fixed
cost determine the existence of the economies of scale. When economies of scale are present,
production increases lower the cost per unit and increase the profit per unit. Economies of scale
exist when, first, the fixed cost is high (such that the more it is spread over more units, the lower
the cost per unit becomes), and secondly, when the variable cost is small compared with the fixed
cost (such that with increases in units produced, the rate of increase in variable cost is lower in
comparison to the rate at which the high fixed cost is being spread to low levels over the more
units being produced).

Situations for variable and fixed costs are shown in the following diagrams:

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The Transportation modes/technologies to be discussed herewith are:

· Road Transport / Motor Carriers
· Railroads
· Pipelines
· Water transport
· Air carriers
· Intercity & Travel Industry
2.1. THE ROAD TRANPORTATIO TECHNOLOGY Road transport (Technical Aspects)
The most important aspects of the road are; the width, Surface conditions,
Slopes and curves all which affect the flow of traffic.

Surface conditions:
These can be described through the two parameters, the frequency an extent of distressed sections
(like pot holes, depressions and stripped sections and the friction offered by the road surface.
Severely distressed sections cause considerable hindrance to smooth flow of traffic due to
frequent slowing down of vehicles and changing of path to avoid potholes.

The road surface should provide sufficient friction to enable vehicles to move and stop
effectively. Very smooth roads are usually safety hazards. The coefficient of rolling friction
offered by dry paved surfaces should be around 0.5.

It reduces to 0.3 if the surface is wet. The other friction coefficient is the coefficient of side
friction; this is the measure of resistance offered by the road surface to movements orthogonal to
direction of motion. It can be as high as 0.6 when the surface is dry.

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Road Slopes:
The slope of the road and the length of the slope are important aspects of road design. It affects
the operation costs of the vehicles; steep slopes also affect the design speed for vehicles. The
maximum grades for an engineered road is supposed to be 10%. This figure may be exceeded by
2%. Roads with high design speeds require low gradients. To avoid standing water in side ditches
a minimum grade of 0.5% is recommended. (Road design manual Part 1).
Curves:
Horizontal curves in roads create centrifugal forces on vehicles moving on them. The centrifugal
force is usually countered by super elevation. A minimum Curve radius of 60m is recommended
with a corresponding design speed of 40 Km/h and a super elevation of 6 -7%. (Avoid short
curves between two straights)

Characteristics of Motor Carries / Road Transport

Motor carries constitute the most ubiquitous mode of transport. Most countries have an extensive
road network. They have the advantage of being able to provide door to door service to both the
shipper and the receiver of the consignee.

It has an additional advantage of having a high level of integration with all other modes of
transport, they link all transportation carries, i.e. docks, ports, airports and railroad yards.

The other advantage of road transport is the spatial flexibility it has. Buses using road transport
that are on combustion engines are usually only restricted by topography. Buses and other public
transport modes usually take advantage of the existing infrastructure as far as the roadway is
concerned, this reduces the cost for the service providers.

Investment need only be made for bus stops, separate bus lanes at intersections, maintenance
facilities. The roads way it is already installed and there are no fees for using the urban road
network. The frequency of service is only determined by the number of available vehicles and not
by the road infrastructure.

It has limitations in weight and in volume of commodities to be transported. The rates charged are
also less competitive compared to railroads for heavy goods.

Thus industry is characterised by low fixed cost (management, overhead, vehicle fleet), and high
variable costs (Drivers, fuel, maintenance, insurance,

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tires licenses and fleet depreciation). This mode thus does not enjoy economies of scale as rail
transport. There is stiff competition in this industry as is evident by the large number of
companies in existence.

In public transport, the bus system has a disadvantage in that they are restricted capacity per
vehicle, the rather low average travel time due to very short average distance between stops an
speed limit on urban streets, low average punctuality caused by influences of private transport and
capacity limits in the road network.

According to the restricted seat capacity, bus systems should be preferred in areas with a rather
low population density or as feeder lines to track-based systems in public transport.

Road Costs
The total transportation costs in road transport include the cost of constructing the highway;
design of the highway, construction and maintenance. The cost of accidents accruing to the users
and non-users which constitutes direct money paid to hospitals, repair of property, compensation
of injury and loss of life, legal fees etc. For some of these there may be no monetary payment, or
perhaps more importantly, the monetary payment may not truly reflect the loss incurred.
Other costs include damage due to air pollution or noise from vehicles (reflected in costs of
vehicle calming and pavement design), reduction of property value due to aesthetics
considerations, etc.

There are also some benefits from the from the highway improvements which go beyond the
gains for the system owner, users or those involved in the accidents, such as general benefits to
the regional economy from improved transport. It is thus very difficult to quantify transportation
costs.

2.2 THE RAIL TRANSPORT MODE/TECHNOLOGY Rail Transport (Guided Ground

Transport)
Basic Characteristics of Guided ground transport:
This transportation mode is characterized to cover large geographical areas and a low transport
cost charged. They are mainly used to transport large volume low high-weight and low value
commodities such as coal, grain, oil and chemical products, paper and pulp.

The rail road industry is also characterized by high fixed costs Right of Way ROW (Tracks,
bridges, tunnels, switches, terminals (Switching yards, interchanges, maintenance and storage
facilities) and rolling stock (locomotives, cars, repair machinery) .Their variable costs are
relatively low; they include labor, fuel electricity insurance taxes depreciation and equipment
maintenance and upgrading. The industry enjoys substantial economies of scale as increase in
volume transported is accompanied by low increases in costs.

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Technical Elements for rail transport technology

Rail infrastructure

· Alignment; the straight line is outstanding in the rail alignment, recommended the
percentage of curvature is always 20-30%
Low vertical grades are also dominant max grade is 1.25 - 4.00 % 1.25% for mixed traffic
4.00% passenger dedicated

(Viaduct, Bridge and Cuts)

· Infrastructure - structural Permanent way / Truck way

· Stations, for freight and passenger facilities

· Communication facilities and signalling

Advantages
· Pollution, The amount of pollution / emissions per passenger are lower when compared
with other conventional modes of transport, when electric, it does not pollute the
vicinity.
· Land use, the amount of land use required by rail infrastructure is much less than that
used by road transport,
· Safety, it is safer, Controlled from a central place,
· Fast,
· Has a higher performance capacity, passengers per hour per day,
· Low energy consumption due to small friction rate between steel rail and the truck
· Punctuality, calculated running time
· Low operation cost

Disadvantages
· Flexibility
· No door-to-door service
· Low grades are required (expensive to construct alignment) and large radii
· Small or low acceleration rates

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2.3 THE WATER TRANSPORT MODE/TECHNOLOGY

Water transportation is the oldest form of mass freight transportation overseas or long distance.
Traditionally, vibrant economic and industrial centers as well as population settlements were
developed around ports, harbors, lakes and navigable rivers. Water transportation currently plays
an important mode for shipping bulky materials.

The structure of domestic water carriers is similar to that of the motor vehicles, domestic water
carriers are either for hire or private. Domestic water carriers operate in three distinct areas;

 Inland navigable waterways (rivers and canals)

 Great lakes
 Coastal ports

Water ways and lake service is occasionally affected by ice formation and by drought.

Water transportation offers in general low -cost but slow service. Both the shipper and the
receiver need to have access to the waterway or port. Since the capacity of vessels exceeds the
capacity of rail cars and trucks by far, warehousing must be provided for storage. 22,500 tone
vessel is equivalent to 225 rail cars or 900 semi-trailer trucks.
Domestic waterway transportation industry is characterized by low fixed and
high variable costs. Casualty and insurance are a high a substantial part of the variable costs, they
are necessary to cover the loss and damage from the elements of nature. Fixed costs of deep-sea
operations are substantially higher than those of inland water operations, and strong economies of
ship utilization persist.

Containerization of cargo and mechanization of port operations has become popular to reduce the
time ships spent in the harbors.

Water transportation is the second least labor intensive

The rates of international water carriers, primarily ocean liners are set by cartel-like bodies called
steamship conferences. This arrangement hinders competition but offers stability with respect to
fluctuating international trading.

Three noteworthy types of ocean vessels in existence are;

 Liners, which follow fixed routes and schedules
 Tramp ships, which can be hired, rented, or leased on short term basis
 Private ships that are owned or leased on a long-term basis, tankers being the prime
examples.

A good site for harbour development is a palace characterised by (i) deep water area of the sea
(ii) area sheltered from storms and strong winds and (iii )

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area where good geological formation will allow easier/cheaper harbour construction

2.4 THE AIR TRANSPORT MODE/TECHNOLOGY

Air transport is the latest developed mode of transportation. The mode is popular due to the fact
that it makes places accessible in a matter of hours.

The structure of the industry is quite simple, air carriers are either private or for hire. For hire
service are classified according to their size (annual incomes) or according to the type of service
they provide ( cargo only or air taxi which offers service on demand, or commuter which offers
passenger service based on published timetables; charter for which the route and schedule are
negotiated in a contract and international).

The advantage of this mode is the fast terminal to terminal transportation, reliable service (except
under extremely poor weather conditions) and attention to the customer, inflight services and
entertainment.

Limited frequency of flights, capacity restrictions and poor services of small cities are a
disadvantage. There are also long travel times to and from airports, which are traditionally located
at the outskirts of urban areas as well as the often-long wait times, check-in boarding, taxiing
baggage claim increase the overall travel time.

In general, high value emergency and low weight items are shipped via air carriers.

The airline industry is characterized by low fixed costs and high variable costs. Fixed costs
include the aircraft fleet and maintenance facilities, computer reservation system, management,
logistics, airport counters, gates and baggage handling facilities as well as offices in cities.
Several of these may be leased including aircraft which makes them variable in nature.

Variable costs include landing fees (this covers the use of local, state, airport facilities, roadway
access networks, aircraft traffic controls) labor fuel (which combined account for 65% of the total
variable cost, maintenance and commission to travel agents. Passengers pay the same price for
tickets regardless of the source of purchase; also, part of the profit booked through travel agents
goes to travel agent commission.

There are usually economies of scale in aircraft utilization; use of large aircrafts may result in
higher profit margins, provided there is enough demand to fill the seats.

The capacity of an airfield is defined by a maximum number of landing and takeoff slots. At
congested airports, arriving aircrafts are placed on a holding pattern (Usually spirals in the
airports) and departing aircraft are queued on taxiways. Larger aircraft require longer but fewer
landing and takeoffs slots for serving a fixed number of passengers.

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There is a strong competition among airlines for the acquisition of rights over high volume routes
consequently, low density routes tend to be abandoned; therefore the service offered to small cities
deteriorates.

The use of air travel is expensive, limited baggage for passengers (20kgs). Unfavourable weather
conditions limit air travel.

Other advantages
Air transport contributes towards the national exchequer in the form of various taxes, duties and
other payments.
Air transport stimulates international trade
It also results in social and cultural benefits accruing out of movements by air. Due to the faster
mode of communication there is improved efficiency of political, commercial and administration
machinery.

ICAO: Air transport in the world is coordinated by ICAO (International Civil Aviation
Organisation), set up in 1947. It coordinates both military and Air traffic and sets up regulations for
airports. ICAO also provides technical advice and administrative support through seven regional
offices.

2.5 THE PIPELINES MODE/TECHNOLOGY

Pipelines provide mainly an underground form of transportation; they transport limited variety of
commodities i.e. in liquid form, thy have a limited geographical coverage and they have no back
haul movement (one way only)

Typical products carried by pipelines are natural gas, crude oil, petroleum products liquid
chemicals products and coal slurry.

Pipeline transport rates are usually low. The high fixed and low variable costs usually result in
strong economies of scale for this industry. Financial interests tend to consolidate and start with a
large initial investment, which tends to yield higher partly because of economies of scale and partly
because of inherent performance characteristics (A 12 inch pipe operating at capacity transports 3
times the liquid transported by an 8 inch pipe)

Sophisticated monitoring of facilities with computers as well as insignificant influence by elements

result in minimal loss and damage (i.e. quick detection of leaks) and in highly reliable deliverable
schedules. The only negative characteristics is the slow service, which is actually has positive
implications: the high accuracy and reliability of forecasted delivery times diminish the need for
safety stock at the receiving end, while in essence pipelines offer free storage for as long as the
order is on the way to delivery.

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