AE 462 , SPRING 2022

DESIGN OF AEROSPACE STRUCTURES

TERM PROJECT

MINIMUM WEIGHT VLA WING DESIGN AND ANALYSIS

1-Project Description

In the project, the students are asked to design a VLA wing structure.

Students are expected to size the structural members (wing skin, spar web, spar flanges,
stringers, rib web/flanges) based on the 3.8g loading distribution (plus 1.5 factor safety) at the
minimum maneuvering speed using the ESDU loads. Your units must be SI units.

The design will be judged based on the total structural weight and design with the least weight
being considered the winner from a competitive standpoint. You should make sure that you do
not have any calculation mistake in your analyses. Additional considerations affecting the
project grade are:

• Credibility of your design from a manufacturing standpoint

• The technical approach taken
• Structural solutions developed to meet the various design constraints

The class will be divided into two member design teams, with each member being responsible
for different tasks. It is the responsibility of the team to divide the work load evenly. The team
members are jointly responsible for the overall design. It is important that each member of
your team participates fully for your design to be successful.

The final report is due to the July 6th, Wednesday until 13:00. Project presentations will be on
July 7th Thursday afternoon. The exact time and place will be announced later on. Final
report should be submitted as a complete document with the team members identified on the
cover page of the report. The report should be organized into sections according to the main
analysis and design tasks performed as required by the project specifications. Reports should
be typed, no handwritten reports will be accepted. Reports should be submitted in pdf format.
No hardcopy is required !!.
2- Design Loads
Internal loads should be calculated using ESDU application external loads utilizing the
following common parameters:

Root Airfoil = SD 7062

Tip Airfoil = SD 7062
Twist = 0o
Root chord = 1.776 m
Tip chord = 0.9155 m
Wing span = 9.3695 m
Sweep angle of the leading edge of the wing root= 2.8o

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2 corner points of the leading edge of the right wing (x,y,z) in mm:
Leading edge of the wing root: (0,0,-591.857)
Leading edge of the wing tip: (229.275, 4684.732,-191.313)

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Aspect ratio = 6.966

Taper Ratio = 0.5155
Wing area = 12.602 m2
Flight Design Gross Weight (of the whole airplane) = 750 kg
Limit load factor: +3.8, -1.5

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Minimum maneuvering speed = 100.4 KEAS (51.65 m/s) (Equivalent air speed). Make the
load calculation at the sea level.

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Use the following equation to calculate the mean camber line of the SD 7062 airfoil.

Use the maximum number of camber points that ESDU allows. This is 20 points.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Calculate the CL required to fly at VA via the following relation,

nW=(0.5*p*VA^2)*S*CL

and with the CL determined run ESDU. In this case you do not have to calculate the incidence
angle and give it as input. ESDU calculates the incidence angle.

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ESDU gives Cll*c(y)/c_bar as output. Here c(y) is the local chord, c_bar is the geometric
mean chord and Cll is the local lift coefficient.

For the running load calculation (lift per unit span) you should proceed as:

𝑑𝐿
= 𝑞 ∗ 𝑐(𝑦) ∗ 𝐶𝑙𝑙
𝑑𝑦

where y is the spanwise coordinate.

This is the strip approach. Infinitesimal lift (dL) acting on the strip (area=c(y)*dy) is given by

𝑑𝐿 = 𝑞 ∗ 𝑐(𝑦) ∗ 𝑑𝑦 ∗ 𝐶𝑙𝑙

Hence, running load is given by 𝑞 ∗ 𝑐(𝑦) ∗ 𝐶𝑙𝑙 .

Similarly, ESDU gives Cmacl*c(y)/c_bar as output. Here c(y) is the local chord, c_bar is the
geometric mean chord and Cmacl is the local pitching moment coefficient.

Similarly, pitching moment per unit span is given by:

𝑑𝑀
= 𝑞 ∗ 𝑐 2 (𝑦) ∗ 𝐶𝑚𝑎𝑐𝑙
𝑑𝑦

In the lift and pitching moment per unit span calculation, you either have to find Cll and Cmacl
and use the above relations or:

𝑑𝐿 𝑐(𝑦)
= 𝑞 ∗ (𝐶𝑙𝑙 )𝑐̅
𝑑𝑦 𝑐̅

𝑑𝑀 𝑐(𝑦)
= 𝑞 ∗ (𝐶𝑚𝑎𝑐𝑙 )𝑐̅ ∗ 𝑐(𝑦)
𝑑𝑦 𝑐̅

where 𝑐̅ is the geometric mean chord.

All groups have to use this set of parameters to calculate the external forces by ESDU
application. For the internal loads you can linearly interpolate as necessary to find the
sectional loads. It is your responsibility to make correct calculation of internal loads.

3- Design Objective and Design Requirements

The objective is to design a suitable primary structure of least possible weight for the uniform
cantilever VLA wing shown in Figure 1 which shows the layout of the VLA wing. Your
responsibility is to design the leading edge cell and the main torque box which is shown by
the red borders in Figure 1. The design has to be performed in two stages using a factor of
safety of 1.5 applied on the limit load. In Figure 1, vertical lines show the position of wing
ribs. Two horizontal lines show the position of the wing spars. The front spar is perpendicular
to the fuselage axis and also to the ribs. In the design that you will perform, the spar and rib
positions will be fixed. Figure 2 shows the cross-section of the wing which gives the
chordwise positions of the spars and the stringers.

In your design, exclude the wing ribs indicated by the bold lines in Figure 1. Do not include
them in your design.

Figure 1. Lay-out of the VLA wing (all dimensions are in mm)

Figure 2. Spar and stringer positions of the VLA wing

Once you design each rib section (skin thicknesses, web thicknesses, spar flange and stringer
areas) then you have to decide on constant dimensions in the regions defined in Figure 3. In
these regions, you need to pick the conservative dimensions for the skin thicknesses, spar web
thicknesses, spar flange and stringer areas. Note that in the regions defined in Figure 3, you
can use different thicknesses for the leading edge and torque box cells on the compression
side. Similarly, on the tension side you may use different thicknesses. Tension and
compression skin thicknesses may also be different from each other.
 Region 2_LE Region 3_LE Region 4_LE
Region 1_LE

Region 1_TB Region 2_TB Region 3_TB Region 4_TB

Figure 3. Regions of the wing with constant dimensions (all dimensions are in mm) (TB:
Torque Box, LE: Leading Edge)

Stage 1: Size the wing based on the conservative internal loads determined at the limit load
calculated at the 3.8g minimum maneuver speed pull-up maneuver condition at the sea level
and for a factor of safety of 1.5. In this stage, you will not take the inertial loads into account
since the mass distribution of the wing is not known. This stage consists of performing design
iterations to achieve the minimum thicknesses for wing skin and spar webs and flange areas
for the spar flanges and the stringers. For each design constraint (strength, buckling,
crippling) your goal should be to achieve small positive margin of safety such as 0.01. Since
the design will be performed for the limit load case and a factor of safety of 1.5 applied on the
limit loads, to have the minimum weight you need to minimize the margin of safety but keep
it positive at the same time. At the end of stage 1, you will have a minimum weight wing
configuration based on external aerodynamic loads only.

Stage 2: In this phase of the design, since you know the mass distribution, take the the inertia
forces (centrifugal acceleration and the weight of the wing) into account. We will assume that
the aircraft is performing pull-up maneuvre at the minimum maneuvering speed as shown in
the figure below.

Note that if the load factor is n, then normal acceleration is (from n=1+an/g) equal to (n-1)g.
Since the wing is tapered, mass per unit span will be function of spanwise coordinate. Once
you determine the mass distribution of your wing, you can take the inertia force and the
weight of the wing into account in the same way as you take the external lift (running load)
into account by the use of strips. Here, all you need to consider is that the inertia force (m*an)
will be in the opposite direction of the normal acceleration and and weight per unit span (mg)
will be in opposite direction of the lift, and you have less shear force in the wing sections
compared to the external aerodynamic force case. In a way, you will reduce your running load
due to the inertia force.

In stage 2, after you determine the net loads (aerodynamic plus inertia) redo the sizing you
have performed in stage 1 once more. This part can be done much faster since you have
already completed stage 1. In stage 2, you may have to reduce the dimensions since you have
less loads compared to stage 1. Make sure that at the end you use standard stock size for the
sheet material that you should obtain from TAI. At the end of stage 2, your mass distribution
may change since dimensions may change. Normally, one has to perform sizing a number of
times until the mass distribution remains more or less constant. However, in this project you
can stop after you consider inertia forces only once. This way, you will understand if inertia
forces affect the design significantly or not.

Design requirements are:

- Calculate the optimum (which provides minimum weight) thicknesses (skin, spar web,
rib) and flange/stringer areas in sections between the ribs stations. Thicknesses and
flange areas should change at each rib station. In this project, you are not supposed to
make designs for splice arrangements to connect skins and webs with different
thickness and flanges with different flange areas.
- C section front spar at 25% chord and perpendicular to the wing root.
- C section rear spar passes at 67% chord measured from the leading edge.
- Use standard dimensions (for the sheet material) and for the standard dimensions
contact TAI or the VLA group. In the design iterations, you may use continuous
design variables, but at the end you may select the next highest available stock size.
- In this design, do no think about the fuel tank position. When the fuel tank volume and
position are determined in the actual project, this model can be changed.

4- Design Specifications and Materials

The proposed primary structure consists of two-cell box beams, as shown in Figure 4. In the
design process, you have to decide on the spar cap/spar web configuration for the C section
spars, and you will have to size spar flange areas, spar web thickness, skin thicknesses,
stringer areas and rib flange dimensions and rib web thicknesses.

x C

Figure 4. Two cell configuration of the VLA wing

Spars
Use the bent-up channel (C section) given in Fig.5, in the Airframe Structural Design book by
Niu. It is highly recommended that you also contact TAI and get information for the
applicable spar cap configuration in terms of design and manufacturing. You need to use
standard/available stock size for the sheets. For this information also contact TAI or the VLA
group. Most probably, you will use sheet metal to build the spar caps.

For the spar caps use double row rivets and use the same dimensions for the upper and the
lower spar caps.

Figure 5. Typical spar configurations

Ribs
Ribs can be C section type for the class project. For the C section ribs, use single row rivet.
You need to use standard/available stock size for the sheets or extrusions. For this information
also contact TAI. You can change rib thicknesses along the wing span to reduce weight.

Stringers
Use the same stringer type used in the VLA project. For this get help from the students
working on the VLA project. For the stringers, use single row rivet.

Skins
You need to use standard/available stock size for the sheets which will be used in the skin.
For this information also contact TAI. As mentioned before, you can decrease the wing skin
thicknesses between the ribs.

Design variables:

The design variables are (for their spanwise change see the design requirements in Section 3):
- Flange areas of the spars in each rib section. Assume double rivet connection between
spar flange and skin. This edge condition is going to be used in the skin/spar web local
buckling calculations. Therefore, you need to determine a minimum flange area based
on the use of double rivet arrangement for the spar flanges.
- Spar web thicknesses in each rib section
- Upper and lower skin thicknesses in each rib section
- Rib web thicknesses, rib flange areas (for C section rib flanges) and vertical member
at the intersection of the spars and the ribs (see the note for rib sizing)

Figure 6 shows the VLA wing and a mid section line between two ribs. You have to perform
the following checks which are explained in more detail in the next section.

i) Buckling check (combined compression plus shear) of the upper wing skin panels
at 60% of the limit load. We will allow upper skin panels to buckle at 60% of the
limit load. Hence, you need to perform post-buckling analysis as we have
discussed in class. Next section will outline the analysis procedure of the wing box
in the post-buckled regime.
 ii) Buckling check (combined in-plane bending plus shear) of the spar webs at 1.5
times the limit load. We will not allow local buckling of the spar webs.
iii) Tensile strength check of the spar flanges and stringers on the tension side at 1.5
times the limit load in the post-buckled stage.
iv) Compressive yield strength and crippling strength check of the spar flanges and
the stringers on the compression side at 1.5 times the limit load in the post-buckled
stage.
v) Strength check of wing skins (both on the compression and the tension side) based
on the maximum von Mises stress due to normal and shear stress at 1.5 times the
limit load in the post-buckled stage.
vi) Strength check of spar webs based on maximum Von Mises stress due to normal
and shear stress at 1.5 times the limit load in the post-buckled stage.

For the wing skin and the spar web buckling check in a wing section bounded by two ribs, as
shown in Fig. 6, use the mid section load values for the buckling check. For the strength
check in a section consider the stresses in the most critical section in a section bounded by the
ribs (most probably the inboard section).

Note that once you design (optimize) each rib section (skin thicknesses, web thicknesses, spar
flange and stringer areas) then you have to decide on constant dimensions in the regions
defined in Figure 3. In these regions, you need to pick the conservative dimensions for the
skin thicknesses, spar web thicknesses, spar flange and stringer areas.

Mid section between the ribs

Figure 6. Typical wing section bounded by 2 ribs

Design materials:

Each group should decide on the wing materials by contacting TAI or the students working on
the VLA project and using the MMPDS document. Use the materials which are already
selected in the VLA project. Obtain the allowables from the MMPDS document. The link is
given in the web site. You can register to Knovel and access the MMPDS document. Give
reasons as to why you have selected these materials.

Skin material:
Spar flange/web material:
Stringer material:
Rib material:

Prepare a table and compare the material properties of the materials selected in SI units.

5- General Requirements

Structural idealization:
Assume that spar flanges take axial load only. Spar webs and skin panels are effective both in
shear and axial load. Therefore, in your calculations you should include the moment of inertia
of the panels (skin panels and spar webs) in the bending stress calculations.

For the shear flow calculations, we will still use constant shear flow skin/web concept.

Explanation about the sizing of the structural members of the wing is given under two
separate headings. The first group is the spar flange, stringer, spar web thickness and skin
thicknesses. The second group is the sizing of the rib web thickness, rib flange area and
vertical rib members at the rib/spar intersections.

5.1. General procedure of calculating load redistribution in the post-buckled stage of the
upper wing skin panels

In the project we will allow local buckling of the upper wing skin panels at 60% of the limit
load. Hence, for the wing we need to perform stress analysis at the ultimate load in the post-
buckled stage of the upper wing skins. Follow the procedure outlined below to perform
calculation of load redistribution in the post-buckled stage.

1- Upper wing skin panels are loaded in compression and shear as shown below for a
representative panel.

Side support for spar flanges:

Assume double rivet connection
(but still use simply supported
edge condition)
Side support for stringers:
Assume single rivet connection
(simply supported edge condition)

Loaded rib ends: Assume single

rivet connection (simply
supported edge condition)
 As an example consider main torque box and leading edge cell skin panels on the
compression side in Figure 7. Note that in Figure 7, stringers are not shown. For
explanation purposes, stringers are removed. Based on the mid panel stresses, utilizing
the combined buckling relation for compression and shear given below, we will check
if the panels locally buckle or not.

𝜎𝑐 𝜏 2
+( ) =1
𝜎𝑐𝑟 𝜏𝑐𝑟

We will allow buckling of the panels at 60% of the limit load. Hence, we will find the
skin thicknesses of the leading edge cell and torque box cell at which these panels are
just about the locally buckle at 60% of the limit load. Most probably, thicknesses of
the leading edge skin and torque box skin will be different when they locally buckle at
60% of the limit load.

Leading edge cell

Torque box cell

Figure 7. Main torque box and leading edge cell skin panels bounded by 2 ribs

2- Once a panel buckles at 60% of the limit load, we need to perform stress analysis of
the sections of the wing box at the ultimate load.

3- Therefore, first we need to calculate the limit flange/stringer stress utilizing the
relation given below.

∗
𝜎𝑠𝑡𝑟 = 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 (𝜎𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 , 𝜎𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑏𝑢𝑐𝑘𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 , 𝜎𝑐𝑦 )
where,
𝜎𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 is the crippling stress calculated using HSB 53211-01 (discussed in class
using HSB 53211-01 )

𝜎𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑏𝑢𝑐𝑘𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 is the local buckling stress of the flange/stringer (discussed in class
using additional note shared in ODTUclass)

𝜎𝑐𝑦 is the compression yield strength of the flange/stringer material

Important Note: In the project select the minimum of crippling stress and
compression yield strength.
∗
𝜎𝑠𝑡𝑟 = 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 (𝜎𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 , 𝜎𝑐𝑦 )

4- After the local buckling of the panel, we need to find the load distribution at the
ultimate load. For this, we need to calculate the effective width of the panel utilizing
the the limit flange/stringer stress given above using the formula below.
 Note: If the panel is supported by the spar flange on one side and stringer on the other
side, then effective width must be calculated for the flange and the stringer sides
separately, if spar flanges and stringers provide different edge conditions.

where

𝑘𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 is the effective width coefficient. For clamped edges (2 rivet
connection) 2.52 , for simply supported boundary conditions 1.7.

𝑡𝑠𝑘𝑖𝑛 is the skin thickness

𝐿𝑓 is the flange width. For double rivet row case (clamped edge condition) half of the
flange width is added to the effective width.

Important Note: In the project, use simply supported edge condition for spar flange
and stringers. Hence, use 1.7 for the 𝑘𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛.

5- At this point, calculate the allowable crippling load using the following:

∗
𝐹𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒_𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 𝜎𝑠𝑡𝑟 ∗ {(𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑟) + 𝑤𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 ∗ 𝑡𝑠𝑘𝑖𝑛 }

where the total area of the flange or stringer must be calculated by ∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑏𝑖 ∗ 𝑡𝑖

where 𝑏𝑖 is the average width of the section element of the spar flange or stringer and
𝑡𝑖 is the thickness of the section element of the spar flange or the stringer.

As an example, consider the front spar flange given in Figure 8. Total flange area is
the cross-hatched area (web height /6 is taken for the contribution of the web to the
flange area) and effective width is the blue area.
 weffective_torque_box weffective_leading_edge

tskin_torque_box tskin_leading edge

Figure 8. Effective width calculation around front spar flange

For the front spar, since the skin thicknesses of the leading edge cell and the torque
box cell might be different, effective widths weffective_torque_box and weffective_leading_edge are
calculated as:

𝐸
𝑤𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒 𝑏𝑜𝑥 = 0.5 ∗ 1.7 ∗ 𝑡𝑠𝑘𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒 𝑏𝑜𝑥 ∗ √ ∗
𝜎𝑠𝑡𝑟

𝐸
𝑤𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑒𝑑𝑔𝑒 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙 = 0.5 ∗ 1.7 ∗ 𝑡𝑠𝑘𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑒𝑑𝑔𝑒 ∗ √ ∗
𝜎𝑠𝑡𝑟

Hence, the allowable crippling load would be,

6- At the ultimate load, perform stress analysis and calculate the axial load on the spar
flange and stringer (on the compression side only) and determine 𝐹𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 . In a section
bounded by the ribs, decide on the critical 𝐹𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 by finding the maximum applied
load on the flange/stinger. As an example consider the front spar flange in a section
bounded by the ribs shown in Figure 9. Flange loads must be calculated at the rib
intersections as shown by black dots in the figure. In this rib section, maximum flange
load among the 2 flange load calculation locations must be must be selected as the
applied flange load for the front spar in region 2. Since in the rib section, flange
dimensions and skin thickness are constant, the allowable crippling load will be same
at both flange load calculation locations.
 Flange load calculation locations

Leading edge cell

Front spar
Torque box cell
Rib
Rib
Figure 9. Flange load calculation locations for crippling strength check

Find the crippling strength margin of safety:

𝐹𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒_𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔
𝑀𝑂𝑆 = −1
𝐹𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑

7- Crippling strength check:

- If 𝑀𝑂𝑆 < 0, then it means that flange/stringer fail due to crippling. Hence, we
need to increase flange/stringer dimensions.
- If 𝑀𝑂𝑆 > 0, then it means that flange/stringer do not fail due to crippling. Here, if
∗
𝜎𝑓𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒/𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑟 is very low compared to 𝜎𝑠𝑡𝑟 we can decrease flange/stringer
dimensions, provided that other failure modes are not affected (skin stresses etc.)

8- Note that in the above calculation, we calculate the effective width based on the limit
flange/stringer stress given by:

∗
𝜎𝑠𝑡𝑟 = 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 (𝜎𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 , 𝜎𝑐𝑦 )

∗
However, at the ultimate load 𝜎𝑓𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒/𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑟 may be less than 𝜎𝑠𝑡𝑟 , so normally
effective width must be calculated based on 𝜎𝑓𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒/𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑟 , as described in the note
∗
given below. But, if we use 𝜎𝑠𝑡𝑟 in the effective width formula, then with the
calculated effective widths we have to recalculate the sectional moment of inertia of
the rib section of interest and perform stress analysis to find 𝜎𝑓𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒/𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑟 which
will be definately greater than the flange/stringer stress calculated of the intact
(without using effective widths) wing section. At this step, if we have positive MOS
then we can stop. If we have negative MOS, then we need to increase flange/stringer
dimensions until we reach positive MOS.

Note:

To calculate the true value of the effective width at the ultimate load and true
flange/stringer stress, we need to pursue the following procedure:
 ➢ At the ultimate load, calculate the flange/stringer stress (𝜎𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑟 ) for
the intact panel.
∗
➢ Normally, 𝜎𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑟 has to be less than 𝜎𝑠𝑡𝑟 .
➢ Calculate the effective widths, as described above, using 𝜎𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑟 as
∗
the flange/stringer stress, not 𝜎𝑠𝑡𝑟 .
➢ With the effective widths of the panels under compression calculated,
perform stress analysis by reducing the sectional moement of inertia
and calculate the flange/stringer stress 𝜎𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑟 at the ultimate load and
recalculate the effective widths again.
➢ Do this until effective widths converge. At this point 𝜎𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑟 has to
∗
converge to a certain value which must be less than 𝜎𝑠𝑡𝑟 . If not, we
have to increase flange/stringer dimensions until we have positive
MOS.

9- In this project, to make strength analysis of the wing in the post-buckled stage, you do
not have to find the true effective width, as described in item 8. Proceed with the
method described in items 4,5,6, and 7. Once positive MOS values are obtained for the
crippling strength, for the wing section, with the determined effective widths, we must
do the following checks by first carrying out stress analysis utilizing the reduced the
sectional moments of inertia due to the locally buckled skin panels.

• Buckling check (combined in-plane bending plus shear) of the spar webs at 1.5 times
the limit load. We will not allow local buckling of the spar webs.
• Tensile strength check of the spar flanges and stringers on the tension side at 1.5 times
the limit load in the post-buckled stage.
• Strength check of wing skins (both on the compression (for the effective width part)
and the tension side) based on the maximum von Mises stress due to normal and shear
stress at 1.5 times the limit load in the post-buckled stage.
• Strength check of spar webs based on maximum Von Mises stress due to normal and
shear stress at 1.5 times the limit load in the post-buckled stage.
• Rib strength check as described in Section 5.3.

In the post puckled stage calculate the stresses as described below.

- Bending stresses: Update the second moment of inertia by including the effective
widths on the compression side of the upper skin, all flange and stringers, spar
webs and skin on the tension side in the lower skin. So here you have just exclude
the upper skin panels which have locally buckled but include the effective widths.
- Shear stresses: For shear stresses you have to recalculate the shear flow in the
skins and webs. Here, you still have to use the constant shear flow assumption,
hence in shear flow relations second moment of inertia will be just due to flange
and stringer areas. In the upper skin panels you still have to define shear flows as
before but you have to use effective thickness for the upper skin panels as
described in class and given by the relation,
 Note that twist equality relation will be affected from the change of the thickness
of the upper skin panels. As for the remaining moment, force and shear flow
equations nothing will change. In finding the shear stresses, for the upper skin
panels which have locally buckled, calculate the shear stress in the upper skin
𝑞
panels by dividing the shear flows by the effective thicknesses ( 𝑡 𝑖 ). Note that in
𝑖
the post-buckled stage we assume that only the effective width sections will be
active, hence shear stress that you determine for the upper skin panels will be valid
only for the effective width region. For the spar webs and lower skin panels, shear
stresses will be calculated by dividing the shear flows with the spar web and lowe
skin panel thicknesses.

5.2. Sizing of spar flange, stringer areas and spar web and skin thicknesses

Spar flange, stringer stress calculation and strength/crippling check:

In each rib region, size the spar flange accordingly. Since wing has taper, spar height and the
chord will change. For the front spar, take the vertical taper into account in calculating the
axial stress, since it will be higher than calculated by the beam bending formula. For the rear
spar, take both the vertical and chordwise taper into account in calculating the axial stress.

In axial stress calculations, you can use the symmetric beam bending formula. But use the
actual spar heights for the front and the rear spar. Note that moment of inertia of any section
has to include spar flange, spar web and wing skin inertia. For the strength checks, determine
the maximum direct stresses on the spar flanges based on the critical section stresses in each
rib section.

For the spar flanges, you need to also check the crippling strength at the ultimate load, as
described in section 5.1. Use the methodology given by HSB 53211-01 (cripping strength of
short metallic sections) that was sent to you before. Your spar flanges are connected to the
webs and therefore they are not like stringers and the effective height in the compressive zone
can be approximated by 1/6th of the spar height (h) at the wing section as shown in Figure 9.
For the C section spar, you need to select a configuration from the first three from the left to
determine the web heights which enter into the crippling calculations. Once you calculate the
crippling strengths of the front and rear spar flanges, you need to compare them with the
actual compressive stress and make sure that you do not experience crippling at the ultimate
load in the post-buckled stage as explained in section 5.1. For the crippling strength
calculation of the stringers, use an appropriate stringer type from HSB 53211-01 which is
suitable for the VLA stringer.

Figure 9. Flange buckling coefficients for spar-web combinations to be used in crippling

strength calculations (Important note: For the web portion corresponding to the h/6 length,
use k=3.6 not 0.41)
Note on spar flange and stringer sizing:
Note that in sizing the spar flanges, you have to make sure that spar flanges/stringers possess
sufficient stiffness to provide simply supported edge conditions. Hence, you need to come up
with reasonable flange areas so that they provide the required edge conditions. Remember,
because you are also taking the spar web and skin inertia into account, wing bending load will
also be carried by the skin and the spar web also. Therefore, if you increase the wing skin/spar
web thicknesses, you may come up with small flange areas and thicker wing skins/spar webs
with possible weight penalty. You should make a research on the required spar flange sizes
such that spar flange areas provide the required stiffness for the simply supported edge
conditions.

For this check try the following:

1- Check the book by Bruhn. Bruhn must have a section discussing this issue. You can
contact Doğukan Tezcan or Berkcan Sükut who lead the structural analysis group of the VLA
team.

2- A criterion on the minimum flange area can be determined by referencing Figure 10 which
shows an example on a T section spar flange. Note that in case of C section spar flange, you
may use 2 rows of rivet on the skin side unlike the 4 rows of rivet in Figure 10. According to
Fig. 10, minimum spar flange area can be determined by considering the following
constraints:

- Minimum edge distance (e) of at least 2*rivet diameter

- Minimum rivet spacing (p) of at least 4*rivet diameter
- Spar flange thickness is at least 2 * wing skin thickness
- Based on the design guideline of Airbus (Figure 11), skin+spar flange thickness
≤2*rivet diameter. By taking the limiting case of 2* rivet diameter, you can relate
rivet diameter to the total skin and spar flange thickness

Figure 10. Spar flange area approximation

 Figure 11. Approximation of the rivet diameter based on the design guideline of Airbus

For the stringers, you may use single row fastener and assume simply supported edge
condition. Depending on the stringer type used in the VLA project, you need to come up with
a methodology for determining a stringer area sufficient to provide the simply supported edge
condition.

Spar web stress calculation and strength check:

In axial stress calculations for the spar webs, you can use symmetric beam bending formula.
Note that moment of inertia of any section has to include spar flange, spar web and wing skin
inertia.

For the front spar web, chordwise taper will not be effective on the normal stress since front
spar has zero sweep.
For the rear spar web, include the taper both in the vertical and in the chordwise direction in
calculating the normal stress.

In the shear flow equations, include only the inertia of the flanges and stringers in the
calculation of the first moments. This way, we can get constant shear flow webs/skins.

ex: q2=q1-VQ/I

In this equation, consider the first moment Q for flanges/stringers and for the total moment of
inertia (I) include the inertia of the flanges and stringers only in the shear flow calculations.
This is our classical approach except for the fact that for the bending stress calculations, use
the total moment of inertia including the inertia of the flanges and web/skin panels.

Also, use the actual height and width of the wing sections in the shear flow calculations and
also include the effect of wing taper in the contribution of the flange loads to shear flow
equations and also in the delta P equations. Take the wing taper effect as described below.

Methodology in taking the taper effect into account:

For the example shown in Figure 12, the wing is composed of two cells but there are 4
stringers; 3 on the compression side and 1 on the tension side. Hence, you have to define
distinct shear flows between spar flanges and stringers and between stringers. Figure 12
shows the flange and stringer loads which will affect the shear flow calculations. Top flanges
and stringers will be under compression and lower flanges and stringers will be under tension.
Vertical taper angle has to be calculated from the 3D wing geometry. Since the front spar is
perpendicular to the fuselage, there is only vertical taper. However, rear spar also has
chordwise taper. Hence, there will be horizontal forces in the rear spar side. Check the
directions of the vertical and horizontal flange and stringer loads in Figure 12 and make sure
them you use the correct sense for these forces.

Py1 Py6 Py5 Py7

Px4 Px5 Py3
Px1 Px3

Px2 Px6

Py2 Py4
Py8

Figure 12. Flange loads which affect shear flow equations

Use the following equations in calculating the shear flows, considering the effect of flange
loads, in a wing section.

- 2 force equations
- 1 moment equation
- Twist equality
- Shear flow equation as described below.

As we have discussed in class q(s)=q(0) –VQ/I formula has to be used with care. In class, we
have isolated a section of infinitesemal distance around a flange and wrote equilibrium
equation for that section. This equation related the derivative of the flange load to the shear
flows. But in that example, we could take derivative of the flange load since we had an
analytical expression for the flange load. In the project, you have discrete values and doing
this will be harder. What you have to to in this case is to use q(s)=q(0) –VQ/I relation as it is,
but replace V by V- (Py1+Py2+Py3+Py4+Py5+Py6+Py7+Py8). This means that, at that section
shear force, which is resisted by the web/skin panels, is the actual shear force reduced by the
flange load. This approach is assigned as homework 4.

For strength checks, calculate the maximum von-Mises stresses using the shear and axial
stresses due to bending at the critical section.

Wing skin stress calculation and strength check:

In axial stress calculations for the wing skins you can use the symmetric beam bending
formula. Note that moment of inertia of any section has to include spar flange, spar web and
wing skin inertia in the post-buckled stage.

For the wing skins, include the effect of vertical taper in calculating the normal stress in the
wing skins.

Shear flow calculations have to be performed as described for the spar webs.
Buckling checks of the upper wing skin and the spar web:

In this project, we will allow buckling at 60% of the limit load in the upper wing skin panels
only. For the spar webs, we will not allow buckling up to the ultimate load. You need to size
the skin panels such that you will have minimum positive margin of safety such as 0.01 (Note:
Bruhn has margin of safety relations for combined buckling cases). Panel buckling (skin and
spar web) will be due to combined buckling:

For the upper skin panels: combined shear + compression loading

For the spar webs: combined shear + in-plane bending loading

In the buckling calculations, for the VLA wing, use appropriate boundary conditons for the
single row and double row rivet arrangement. Note that spar flanges have double row rivet
and may be assumed to provide clamped edge conditions; however we will still use simply
supported boundary conditions for all edge conditions. Ribs with C section has single row
rivets and it may be assumed that single row rivet provides simply supported edge condition.

Buckling check of the leading edge upper skin: You can use the boundary conditions given in
the sketch below. For the leading edge skin, you can neglect the curvature (for the actual VLA
project we have to check and see if we gain from the effect of curvature) and consider the
leading as a straight panel as shown by the red dashed line.

Single row rivet at the

rib side
Double row rivet at the
spar side

Simply supported at the

Single row rivet at the nose of the leading edge
rib side

When checking the buckling design constraint remember that:

• You need to use interactive equations for buckling checks under combined loading of
the panels since we assume that panels also carry axial stress.
• For the buckling coefficient calculations, use the true values based on the aspect ratio
of the panels.
• For buckling check of the panels (skins and spar webs) use the average stresses (or
stresses in the middle of each rib section) in each rib section as shown in Fig.6.
• For the skin panels, you can neglect the curvature and consider the skin panels as
straight panels.
In this part, you also need to introduce the calculations performed by presenting one sample
calculation for the post-buckled stage in your report.

• Margin of safety calculation for one of the spar flange on the compression and
tension side at a certain wing span location for the final minimum weight
configuration that you obtained.
• Calculation of shear flows in the skin and spar webs at a certain spanwise station
for the final minimum weight configuration that you obtained. Here you also have
to show the margin of safety based on the von-Misses stress acting on the
particular skin or web panel.
• Buckling constraint calculation of the upper skin and spar web panels and buckling
margin of safety.

5.3. Sizing of the rib web thickness and the rib flange areas

Rib web thicknesses:

Size the inter-spar rib webs based on the rib web shear stresses. In this project, we assume that
ribs are composed of rib web, rib flanges and vertical members at the intersection of the ribs
with spar flanges. Vertical members are assumed to provide support for the spar webs and
they can be of L shape with one face riveted to rib and the other face riveted to the spar web.
Vertical members can also be integral with the rib and formed by bending the rib ends as
shown in Figure 13.

Figure 13. Rib-spar connection

Determine the inter-spar rib web shear stresses based on the maximum shear flow at the rib
stations.

Based on the maximum shear stress, make shear strength check and shear buckling check of
the ribs. Most probably, you will get low shear stress and rib thickness that you will get will
be low. In this case, decide on proper rib thickness and rib flange width based on the standard
sheet thickness and consider the constraints explained in spar flange approximation. You are
expected to propose a methodology for sizing the rib thickness and rib flange width. The same
logic can be used for the vertical members which connect ribs to spar webs. Note that since
the ribs can be made from sheet material by bending, rib flanges and the vertical members can
be formed. It should also be noted that rib flanges must provide possess sufficient stiffness to
enforce simply supported boundary conditions for local buckling of wing skins.
Final notes:

- For the moment of inertia calculations, use the actual airfoil shape for the wing
excluding the control surfaces.
- Since the internal loads are calculated at the ultimate load (1.5* the limit load at 3.8g
minimum maneuvering speed speed) for buckling calculations, do not use a factor of
safety on the elastic modulus.
- Use standard/available sheet sizes. You are expected to get this information from TAI
or from the VLA group. In your project report, you need to give reference to the
source of the standard sizes sheet material you have used.
- Do not try to reduce weight by making holes on the ribs and spar webs. Assume that
they are full. We want to see what will be the weight of the wing with the full rib and
spar webs.

7. Submission Documents

1. Wing loading calculation document.

Summarize the internal loads based on the 3.8g loading distribution at the minimum
maneuvering speed for the analysis settings defined at the beginning of this document using
the ESDU application.

2- Wing structural design and analysis document

The overall sizing should be decided based on the calculations that you have to report within
the content of this document.

You can perform the analysis with a computer program or using excel or Matlab etc. Based on
internal loads you have determined, you have to carry out iterations until you satisfy the
design constraints and obtain a wing structural lay-out with minimum weight. Do not forget
that your success is directly proportional to:

• Your design strategy to achieve minimum weight design

• Manufacturability and the use of standard size material
• Pay attention to the report writing. Give references that you have used and refer to
them in the report. Also refer to the tables and figures that you insert into the report
in the text of the report. Do not just insert a table or figure without referring to
them.

In this part of the report you have to describe your methodology in stage 1 (sizing due to
external aerodynamic load) and stage 2 (sizing due to net loads based on the mass distribution
obtained in stage 1).

Discussion of your results:

The final section of this part should include a table summarizing the structural elements and
cross-sectional areas and thicknesses etc. along with a weight break down resulting in the
final weight of the wing for the stage 1 and stage 2 analyses. This part should give the
summary of the structural layout calculated for the ultimate load case. Your summary tables
should be easy to understand. Readers should not have to guess what you have done. You
should have clear headings, explanations for all the information that you want to convey.

In the discussion of your results, stress on the design weight and the iterations performed to
reach the minimum design weight. Explain your design strategy. Present a flowchart of your
design strategy in your report.

Based on available data on other VLA, try to find the weight of one half wing. Compare your
design weight with that. Remember in your design, you do not consider the wing-fuselage
attachment fittings and the trailing edge sections.

3- Project Presentation

Each team will prepare a presentation and present the key points reported in your project
report. The presentation of each group will be maximum 20 minutes. In their presentation the
groups should stress:
• Methodology followed
• Design weight and the iterations performed to reach the minimum design weight
• Weight break down and minimum weight design you achived
• Manufacturability and the use of standard size material