The story of Malik Ambar, an African slave-turned-warrior, is an unusual one.

Sold and
bought several times by slave dealers during his youth, fate brought him miles away from
his home in Ethiopia to India, not only did Ambar get his freedom back, but he also rose up
the social ladder, got an army, vast estates, and founded a city that today goes by the name
‘Aurangabad’.

IMPORTANT IVC CITIES

 Harrappa. Ravi river.
 Mohen jo daro. Indus river.
 Dhaulaveera.
 Surkotara. Gujarat. Horse and camel bones found.
 Kaalibangan. Made black bangles.
 Shortuga. Trade post in Afghanistan.
 Manda
 Malwan
 The westernmost site is Sutkagendor on the Makran coast of Pakistan, and the
easternmost is Alamgirpur in the Saharanpur district of Uttar Pradesh.
 Northern most city is Shortuga from Afghanistan.
 Desalpur in kutch is the southernmost.
 Bronze casting was popular at all the major centers of the Indus Valley
Civilisation.
FEUDALISM BEGAN IN INDIA UNDER HARSHVARDHAN.
PANDYA KINGDOM WAS KNOWN FOR PEARLS.
BIMBISAR OF HARYNYKA DYNASTY HAD THE FIRST STANDING ARMY IN
INDIA.
KING KANISHKA RULED FROM 1ST TO 2ND CENTURY AD. HIS COURT ADORNED
SCHOLARS SUCH CHARAK & ASHWAGOSH. CHARAK FOUNDED AYURVEDA.
CHANDRAGUPTA II ADOPTED TITLE OF VIKRAMADITYA. UJJAIN WAS CAPITAL.
KALIDASA, VRAHAMIR, DHANVANTRI, ETC WERE INCLUDED IN THE
NAVRATNA OF HIS COURT.

TENALI RAM WAS ONE OF THE NAVRATNAS OF THE COURT OF AN

VIJAYNAGAR EMPIRE KING NARSIMHA RAYA.

TANSEN, BIRBAL, TODAR MAL & RAJA MAN SINGH WERE AMONG THE
NAVRATNAS OF THE COURT OF AKBAR
HARSHAVARDHANA IS DESCRIBED AS THE LORD OF THE NORTH
(SAKALAUTTARAPATHANATHA).
AMOGHVARSHAM OF RASHTRAKUTA DYNASTY IS KNOWN AS THE
ASHOKA OF SOUTH. RASHTRAPATI TERM ORIGINATED FROM THEM
TRIPARTITE STRUGGLE – Gurjara (Pratiharas) in north India, Palas in eastern India,
and Rashtrakutas in South India.
AURANGZEB CREATED A SEPARATE RELIGIOUS OFFICER CALLED
MUHTASIB.

HE WAS ALSO NOT TOLERANT OF OTHER MUSLIM SECTS. THE

CELEBRATION OF MUHARRAM WAS STOPPED.
HE HATED SHIA FAITH.

Punched marked coins of silver were used in Trade & commerce during the time of
mahajanapadas.

NORTH INDIA – KUSHANA came first and they were contemporary with SATVAHAN
of SOUTH INDIA.
Then, GUPTA ruled in NORTH and they were contemporary with the
HARSHAVARDHAN of SOUTH INDIA.
GAUTAMPURI SATKARNI OF SATVAHANA – SATVAHANA MINTED COINS
WITH KING AND LOTUS MINTED ON THEM. HE WAS DETROYER OF THE
PRIDE OF KSHATRIYAS.
Genghis Khan has the record of ruling the largest mass of land on continuing basis. Even the
British empire was not as big on any continuous land!
Govind Chandra, a gahadwal dynasty ruler of medieval India laid the foundation stone
of ram mandir at Ayodhya. Proof given in Shri Hari Inscriptions.
 Pre history – no written record exist.
 Proto history – written record exist but we cannot decipher it.
 History is what we study. All Indians owe their origin to Harrapans.
 Important Paleolithic – Liddar river valley, sohar river valley in Punjab, munger &
rajgir in Bihar etc.
 Important Mesolithic sites – adamgarh and Bhimbetka of MP, Bagar in rajasthan etc.
 Neolithic – Mehargarh in Pakistan. it is the first village settlement ever.
 Chalcolithic – first ever use of metal i.e. copper. Malwa of MP, Sonpur of Bihar,
Ahar in Indus valley of rajasthan etc. Jorwe culture belonged to chalcolithic period.
Black and Red ware was the widely prevalent pottery in this period. People in this
period knew the art of spinning and weaving.
 Harappa civilization – also called Bronze Age Society. Iron was not discovered
back then.
Roma also called Gypsies are the only group of people who migrated from India.
Vedas are shruti literature, means they were heard and passed on to next generation. Rig,
Sam, Athar, Yajur & Nitya are four forms of Veda. Each Vedas consist of four parts –
Samhita, brahman, arnykas & Upanishads. Rig veda consists of 10 books also called
mandala. The tenth mandala has laid down the varna system as purush sukta.
 Aryans named India “sapt sindhu” because of the seven indus rivers. Later India was
named “Aryavrat”.
  Kuru and Bharat were dominant Aryan tribes. Others were puru, anu, dharyu etc.
 Das and Dasyu were enemy to Aryan tribes.
 Go was the name for cows. Gowashiti was the name for wars as most wars were
fought for cows.
 Rigvedic Aryans knew iron, copper, bronze and gold. The Rig Veda mentions words such
as nishka and nishka-griva (gold ornaments).
 The basic unit of Ancient Indian coin weight systems was a red-and-black seed of the
gunja berry (Abrus precatorius) known as the raktika, ratti, or rati.
 Sabha was the assembly of elites and Vidhata was the assembly of tribes while
Samiti was the assembly of people.
 These tribes came together to form janapadas and later evolved to become
Mahajanapadas.
 Indra dev is the most important god mentioned as Purandar.
 Varun was the god of water and Marut the god of wind.
 Rishi Vashishta & Vishwamitra were sages in the Aryan tribe. They strengthened the
varna system.
 Vishwamitra made the gayatri mantra and spread it among the non-Aryan tribes so
that they can also become a part of Aryan tribes.
Shudras worshipped Pushan (god of cattle) while others worshipped Rudra & Vishnu.

 IVC bronze statues were made using the ‘lost wax technique. In bronze, we find
human as well as animal figures, the best example of the former being the statue of a
girl popularly titled ‘Dancing Girl’. Amongst animal figures in bronze the buffalo
with its uplifted head, back, and sweeping horns and the goat is of artistic merit.
 Bronze casting was popular at all the major centers of the Indus Valley
Civilisation.
 The copper dog, bird of Lothal and the bronze figure of a bull from Kalibangan.
 The Indus valley sites have yielded terracotta figurines of women, heavily
jewelled, some with elaborate headdresses. These were regarded as mother
goddesses.
 The Pashupati seal from Mohenjo-Daro demonstrates a deity sitting in a yogic
posture. This gives evidence of Image worship in the IVC.
 The structure of the Great Bath found at Mohenjo-Daro indicates a tradition of
ritual bathing.
 The evidence of tree worship, plants and animal worship has been found in the
numerous seals.
 The pipal (Ficus religiosa) tree appears often on the seals which indicate tree worship
in the Indus Valley.

IMPORTANT MAHAJANAPADAS
 Avanti kingdom – maheshmati and ujjayani present day Maheshwar and ujjain.
 Gandhar kingdom – capital was Taxila present day Rawalpindi. Conquered by persian
king Daryus. Origin of Gandhara and mathura style of architecture. Also rise to the
Kharosti script.
 Kashi kingdom – varuna river and Asi river present day Varanasi.
 Kosala kingdom – Saryu River present day Ayodhya.
  Kuru kingdom – yudhdhithala family of yudhistra. Indraprastha.
 Magadha kingdom – enemies with avanti kingdom. Patna and gaya. Ganga, son and
champa river.
 Matsya kingdom – viratnagar present day Jaipur.
 Vajji kingdom – Vardhman Mahavir was related to this kingdom.
 Vatsa kingdom – another enemy of avanti kingdom. King udayana married the
daughter of avanti king pradyot. Udayana-vasvadatta stories are the main theme of
most of the romantic dramas of ancient times.
 The age of Mahajanpadas (sixth century B.C.) was characterized by the use of
Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW) which signifies their material culture.
NBPW was a very glossy, shining type of pottery.
 The NBPW phase saw the beginning of metallic money. Punched marked coins of
silver were used in Trade & commerce.
 The NBPW phase marked the beginning of the second urbanization in India.
During this phase, the artisans and merchants were organized into guilds
termed Nigama. Such organizations led to the specialization of art and craft
activities.

LATER VEDIC PERIOD

 The history of the later Vedic period is mainly based on the Vedic texts which were
compiled after Rig Veda.
 These texts show that Aryans expanded from Punjab over the whole of western Uttar
Pradesh covering the Ganga-Yamuna doab.
 Painted Grey Ware (PGW) increased in number and size.
 The institution of gotra developed in this period. This means that people having
a common gotra descended from a common ancestor and no marriage between
the members of the same gotra could take place.
 Some restrictions on women appeared during this period. In a text, a daughter
has been said to be the source of all sorrows.
 Popular assemblies lost their significance and royal power increased at their cost.
 Women were no longer permitted sit on the sabha and it was dominated by
nobles and brahmans.
 Religion-wise, the people still worshipped gods for material gains but ritualism
took shape during this period. Prayers ceased to be the dominant mode of
worship. Another important feature was the increase in the frequency and
number of the yajna which generally ended with the sacrifices of a large number
of animals. Some of the important yajnas were - ashvamedha, vajapeya, rajasuya
etc.

RISE OF MAGADHA EMPIRE

 Haranyka dynasty – Bimbisar was killed by his son Ajatshatru who convened the
first buddhit council at their capital Rajgriha. It is accepted that the first standing
army of India was created in Maghada by the ruler Bimbisara.
 Shishunag dynasty – Ruler Kalashok convened the second buddhist council at
Vaishali.
 Nanda dynasty – Mahapadmananda took the title of ekrat. Even alexandar didn’t
dare to fight him. He insulted Chanakya so Chanakya swore to overthrow him.
  Porus ruled in the north-west near river Jhelum and he fought Alexander.
 Mauryan dynasty – as promised by Chanakya, Chandragupta Maurya overthrew the
nanda dynasty to found Maurya dynasty. Kautilya and Vishnugupta are other
names of Chanakya. He wrote arthashastra from the pov of a Vijigshu i.e. a
conqueror. Mauryan empire is the first political unification of the entire Indian
subcontinent.
 The Mauryan administration was a highly centralised administration.
 Though it was a monarchy form of government which Kautilya insisted on, he
stood against royal absolutism.
 A council of ministers called Mantriparishad were thus appointed for assisting
the king.
 The council consisted of Purohita, Mahamantri, Senapthi and Yuvaraja.
 The important functionaries were known as the Tirthas.
 Amatyas were the civil servants who were appointed to maintain day-to-day
administration.
 Rajukas were a class of officers appointed by Ashoka, who were responsible for
rewarding and punishing the people.
 In order to supervise the spread of dhamma, Dhamma Mahamatras were
appointed.
 The Capital city of the Mauryan empire, Pataliputra was administered by six
committees each consisting of five members.
 Shunga dynasty – pushyamitra patronaged patanjani who wrote mahabhashya. Greek
ambassador heliodorus was a friend of shunga dynasty and claimed himself to be a
bhagwat.
 Magadh Empire came to an end in 38 BC with Kanva as the last dynasty.

FOREIGN INVASIONS/CENTRAL ASIAN INVASIONS

KUSHANA DYNASTY
 The ruler of china constructed the The Great Wall of China. So, Kushana,
Greeks, Parthians & Shakas started invading India.
 Indo-greeks were the first issue gold coins in India.
 Parthians were from Iran. St.thomas came to India under their ruler to spread
Christianity.
 Kushana were yeuchi tribe from Chinese frontier. They were most important middle
men in the ancient silk route. Kushana empire started declining from the time of Vasudeva
I, in about the mid-2nd century CE, and Vasudeva II was the last Kushana emperor.

SATVAHANA DYNASTY
 Contemporary To Kushana Were Satvahana In India. Simuka was the founder
of the Satavahana Dynasty. Originally a tribe from Andhra Pradesh. King Satkarni I
conquered Kalinga and assumed the title of Lord of the Dakshinpath.
 His son Gautamiputra Shatkarni was the greatest ruler of this dynasty. He
described himself as a brahmana and claimed to have established the fourfold
varna system which had fallen into disorder. He boasted that he had put an end
to the intermixture between the people of different social orders. He considered
 it their primary duty to uphold the varna system i.e. the fourfold division of
social structure.
 He won the title of Destroyer of the pride of Kshatriyas. Satvahana kings were
named after their mothers. They started brhamadev land and agraha dev land.
 THEY ARE THE FIRST NATIVE INDIAN KINGS TO ISSUE COINS WITH
IMPRESSION OF THE RULER & LOTUS.
 Gandhikas were perfume makers under this Satvahana kingdom, Gandhi name
comes from them.

CULTURAL CONSEQUENCES OF CONTACT OF CENTRAL ASIAN POWERS

OVER INDIA:

 They introduced better cavalry and the use of riding horse on a large scale.
 They popularized the use of reins and saddles, which appear in the Buddhist sculpture
of the second and third centuries AD.
 The Shakas and the Kushans were excellent horsemen.
 Trade prospered. India received a great fund of gold from the Altai mountains in
Central Asia. Gold may also have been received by it through trade with the
Roman empire.
 The Kushans controlled the Silk Route. Mahayana Buddhism emerged under
Kanishka.
 Kushana administration was more or less decentralized.

Romans loved black pepper so much that they used to trade it more than gold. It was called
yavan-priya by Indians meaning loved by outsiders.
 Megalithic age – known by the style of burial, the graves are called megalith.

GUPTA EMPIRE (CONTEMPORARY WITH HARSHAVARDHAN)

 Golden age of Indian history as they minted highest number of gold coins.
 Sri gupta founded it in 3 AD. Him and his son Ghatotkach took the title of
maharaja.
 Chandragupta I then Samudragupta then Chandragupta II and then
Kumargupta were all prominent rulers.
 Samudragupta restored ashwamedha. Ruled from Nepal to Kanchi in south.
 Kumargupta took the title of shankaraditya and mehandraditya.
 Because of sirname, maybe they were vaishyas. Moreover, their administration had a
lot of business centric posts and even had shrenis i.e. trade unions.
 Chandals were the original untouchables of the subcontinent. They were the
people who disposed corpses. Shudras were infact farmers. The number of
chandals increased during gupta dynasty rule.
 Guptas were bhagwats. They patronaged Vaishnavism.
 Chess was called chaturanga.
 Large-scale land grants to the brahmanas suggest that the brahmana supremacy
increased in Gupta times.
  The Guptas, who probably were originally vaishyas, came to be looked upon as
kshatriyas by the brahmanas. The brahmanas presented the Gupta kings as
possessing god-like attributes.
 The castes proliferated into numerous sub-castes as a result of two factors. A large
number of foreigners had been assimilated into Indian society, and each group of
foreigners was considered a kind of caste.
 As the foreigners largely came as conquerors they were given the status of
kshatriya in society.
o The Hunas, who came to India towards the close of the fifth century,
eventually came to be recognized as one of the thirty-six clans of the
Rajputs. Even now some Rajputs bear the title Hun.
o The other reason for the increase in the number of castes was the
absorption of many tribal people into brahmanical society through the
process of land grants.
 The position of shudras improved during this period. They were now permitted to
listen to recitations of the Ramayana, the Mahabharata, and the Puranas.
 The shudras could also worship a new god called Krishna. From the seventh
century onwards, they were mainly represented as agriculturists; in the earlier period,
they generally figured as servants, slaves, and agricultural labourers working for the
three higher varnas. However, during this period, the number of untouchables
increased, especially the chandalas. The chandalas entered the society as early as
the fifth century BC.
 The Brahmanas along with tribal practices resulted in the development of
Tantrism. It did not believe in any caste or gender bias and admitted both
women and Shudras in its ranks. It resulted in the introduction of the worship of
female deities in these religions.
 In the Gupta period, like the shudras, women were also allowed to listen to the
Ramayana, the Mahabharata, and the Puranas, and were advised to worship
Krishna. However, women of the higher orders did not have access to
independent sources of livelihood in pre-Gupta and Gupta times.

The first example of the immolation of a widow after the death of her husband occurred
during the Gupta period during 510 AD but it was not rampant. Widow remarriage was
not allowed to members of the higher orders, but the shudras could practice widow
remarriage.

 The Gupta rulers gave patronage to Bhagvatism. But they were tolerant of other
religions too.
 The Chinese pilgrim Fa Hien visited during the time of Chandragupta II and
Hsuan Tsang during the time of Harshavardhan, both clearly give the impression
that Buddhism was also flourishing.
 Last gupta ruler was Mihirkula. He was a tyrant. Destroyed many buddhist
stupas and killed many buddhist monks. He was defeated by yashodharman of
Malwa in 515 AD.
UNTOUCHABILITY WAS INCREASING AT THE SAME TIME IN BOTH NORTH
AND SOUTH INDIA. IN NORTH BY THE GUPTA RULERS AND IN SOUTH BY
THE SATVAHANA RULERS.
7TH CEN AD TO 12TH CEN AD IS CALLED EARLY MEDIEVAL INDIA.
  Vardhan dynasty. Harshvardhan. Feudalism began in India under his rule. 600 to
647AD.
 Pallava dynasty. Narsimhavarman pallava defeated pulakesin II and took the title
of vatapikonda.
 Chalukya dynasty. 6th to 12th CEN AD. Chalukyas of Badami, chalukyas of vengi
(Andhra Pradesh), chalukyas of Lata (Gujarat). Pulakesin II was the greatest
chalukya ruler. Aihole inscription in Karnataka is considered cradle of Indian
architecture and gives a lot of information about pulakesin II. Vesara style of
architecture emerged under them.
 Rashtarkutas dynasty. 8th to 10th cen AD. Krishna I built the kailsnath temple in
ellora caves.
Pala kingdom. Dynasty in Bengal. They were the last patron of Buddhism.
 Pratihara kingdom. 750 AD to 1090 AD. Mahendra pal took the title of maharaja
Dhiraj aryavrat.
 Imperial Chola. 11th CEN AD. Entire south India and sri lanka. They ultimately
ended pallava kingdom. Rajya raja chola developed revenue system under which
land was surveyed and revenue set accordingly.
 Kakatiya dynasty. AP & Telangan. Kohinoor diamond was discovered but army
commander malik kafur of Allauddhin Khilji stole it.
 Hoysala dynasty. 11th to 14th CEN AD.

SOUTH INDIAN HISOTRY

SANGAM AGE/CLASSICAL AGE

 Sangam age – 300 BC to 300 AD. Includes three tamil literature sangam assemblies
called muchchangam.
 SANGAM AGE saw three important south Indian kingdoms – Chola, Chera &
Pandya (ruled by women according to megasthenes) collectively called Muvendrum.
Sangam literature says losing war means losing your drum.
 Murgan was the main deity people worshipped in sangam age. He was Karthikey, the
son of Shiva. Small villages called Nadu.
 These three kingdoms were also called Vendars as they ruled fertile territoty.

Cheras

 The Cheras ruled over parts of modern Kerala .

 Their capital was Vanji and their important seaports were Tondi and Musiri

Cholas

 The founder of the Chola empire was Vijayalaya, who was at first a feudatory of
the Pallavas.
o The greatest Chola rulers were Rajaraja (985–1014) and his son Rajendra
I (1014–1044).
 o Rajaraja destroyed the Chera navy at Trivandrum and attacked Quilon.
o He then conquered Madurai and captured the Pandyan king. and also
invaded Sri Lanka and annexed its northern part to his empire.
o One of the most remarkable exploits in the reign of Rajendra I was the
march across Kalinga to Bengal in which the Chola armies crossed the
river Ganga, and defeated two local kings.
o This expedition took place in 1022 and followed in reverse the same route
that the great conqueror Samudragupta had followed.
o To commemorate this occasion, Rajendra I assumed the title of
Gangaikondachola.

 The Chola kingdom of the Sangam period extended from

modern Tiruchi district to southern Andhra Pradesh
 Their capital was first located at Uraiyur and then shifted to Puhar.

The magnificent Shiva temple of Thanjavur called the Rajarajeswara or

Brihadeeshwarar temple was completed around 1009 by Rajaraja Chola and is the
largest and tallest of all Indian temples. This Chola temple’s pyramidal multi-storeyed
vimana rises a massive, 70 meter (230 ft. approx) structure topped by a monolithic shikhara
which is an octagonal dome-shaped stupa. It is in this temple that one notices for the first
time two large gopuras (gateway towers) with an elaborate sculptural program that was
conceived along with the temple.

Pandyas

 The Pandyas are first mentioned by Megasthenes, who says that their kingdom was
celebrated for pearls.
 The Pandya territory was Tamil Nadu, with its capital at Madurai.
 The Pandya kings profited from trade with the Roman empire and sent
ambassadors to the Roman emperor Augustus.
 The Brahmanas enjoyed considerable influence. An ideal king was one who never
hurt the Brahmanas.
 Pandya king performed Vedic sacrifices.
 The Kshatriyas and vaishyas appear as regular varnas in the Sangam texts. The
warrior class was an important element in the polity and society.
 Civil and military offices were held under both the Cholas and Pandyas by
vellalas or rich peasants.
 The ruling class was called arasar, and its members had marriage relations with the
vellalas.
 Agricultural operations were generally the task of members of the lowest class
(Kadaisiyar).
 The Periyars were agricultural labourers who also worked with animal skins and
used them as mats.
 Many of the Sangam texts, including the didactic ones, were written by the brahmana
scholars of Prakrit or Sanskrit.
 Tolkkappiyam deals with grammar and poetics.
 Another important Tamil text deals with philosophy and wise maxims and is
called Tirukkural.
  In addition, we have the twin Tamil epics Silappadikaram and Manimekalai. The
two were composed around the sixth century. Silappadikaram deals with a love story
of Kovalan and Madhavi. The other epic, Manimekalai, was written by a grain
merchant of Madurai. It deals with the adventures of the daughter born of the
union of Kovalan and Madhavi.

MEDIEVAL HISTORY OF SOUTH INDIA

 Prabhakarvardhana was able to defeat the Hunas and established the

Pushyabhutis or Vardhana dynasty of Thanesar.
 After his death, his elder son Rajyavardhana came to the throne but he was
treacherously killed by Shashanka, the king of Bengal and Bihar.
 Harshavardhana then ascended the throne in AD 606. He was only sixteen years
of age at that time. Still, he proved himself to be a great warrior and an able
administrator.
 We have two valuable sources that throw important light on the life and times of
Harshavardhana (606–647). These are Harshacarita written by his court poet
Banabhatta and Si-Yu-Ki, the travel account of the Chinese Buddhist pilgrim
Hsuan Tsang, who visited India during AD 629–644.
 Harsha, though a Shaiva in his early life, became a follower of Buddhism and a great
patron of the religion.
 He convened an assembly at Kanauj to publicize Mahayanaism.
 Nalanda developed as a great center of education for Mahayana
Buddhism during his time. Students from outside countries also came to study at this
university.
 According to Hsuan Tsang, the revenues of one hundred villages supported it.
 Harshavardhana united his kingdom with that of his widowed sister Rajayashri
and shifted his capital to Kanauj.
 But he was defeated by Pulakesin II, the Chalukya ruler, on the banks of river
Narmada. The river thus became the southern boundary of his kingdom.
 The death of Harsha in AD 647 was followed by a political confusion that continued
up to the eighth century when the Gurjara Pratiharas, the Rajput rulers, emerged as a
big force in northern India.
 Contemporary To Pushyabhuti Dynasty Was Chalukya Dynasty.

POST HARSHA PERIOD/ TRIPARTITE STRUGGLE

The political developments after Harshavardhan, can be best understood if we divide

the period from AD 750 to AD 1200 into two parts.

 AD 750–AD 1000 – The first phase was marked by the growth of three important
political powers in India. These were Gurjara (Pratiharas) in north India, Palas
in eastern India, and Rashtrakutas in South India. These powers were constantly
fighting with each other to set up their control of Kannauj of the Gangetic region in
northern India. The struggle for control over Kannauj among these three dynasties is
known as the tripartite struggle in Indian history. Control of Kanauj also implied
control of the upper Gangetic valley and its rich resources in trade and agriculture.
 AD 1000–AD 1200 – In the second phase, we notice the break-up of these powers.
 It resulted in the rise of many smaller kingdoms all over the country.
 The PRATIHARAS KINGDOM was founded by Nagabhatta. The greatest ruler of the
dynasty was Bhoja. The Gurjara-Pratihara was a dynasty that ruled much of Northern
India from the mid- 8th to the 11th century. They ruled first at Ujjain and later at Kannauj.

 Rulers of the Pratihara dynasty:

o NagabhattaI (725-740 A.D.): Founder of the Pratihara dynasty with Kanauj as its
capital.
o Mihirabhoja: The most powerful Pratihara king. During his period, the empire
expanded from Kashmir to Narmada and from Kathiawar to Bihar. He was a devotee
of Vishnu and took the title "Adivaraha".
o Mahendrapala I (885-908 A.D.): Son of Mihirabhoja, was also a powerful ruler.
He extended his control over Magadha and North Bengal.
 In the south, Dantidurga founded the RASHTRAKUTA DYNASTY (8th AD).
The capital of the Rashtrakutas was Manyakheta or Malkhed near Sholapur. It
was under the king Dhruva took control of Kannauj. Krishna I built the Kailsnath
temple at Ellora. Dhruva raya defeated the Pratihara ruler Nagabhatta. Govinda
III captured the whole of south.
 The PALA EMPIRE was founded by Gopala, probably in AD 750. Gopala was
succeeded in AD 770by his son, Dharmapala, who ruled till AD 810.

SOUTH INDIA 800 to 1000CE

PALLAVA KINGDOM

 Narasimhavarman I, also known as Mamalla

 The shore temple at Mahabalipuram was built later, probably in the reign of
Narasimhavarman II, also known as Rajasimha who reigned from 700 to 728
CE.

CHOLA KINGDOM

SOTH INDIA 1000 to 1600CE

KAKATIYA KINGDOM

VIJAYNAGAR EMPIRE

TULUVA DYNASTY (KRISHNA RAYA)

BAHMANI KINGDOM

 The most remarkable figure in the Bahmani kingdom during the period was Firuz
Shah Bahmani (1397–1422).
 He was well-acquainted with the religious sciences, that is, commentaries on the
Quran, jurisprudence, etc., and was particularly fond of the natural sciences such as
botany, geometry, logic, etc.
 He was a good calligraphist and a poet and often composed extempore verses.
 According to Ferishta, he was well versed not only in Persian, Arabic and
Turkish but also in Telugu, Kannada and Marathi.
  The most remarkable step taken by Firuz Shah Bahmani was the induction of
Hindus in the administration on a large scale.
 Firuz Shah Bahmani encouraged the pursuit of astronomy and built an
observatory near Daulatabad.
 Principal ports of his kingdom were Chaul and Dabhol.
 In 1419, the Bahmani kingdom received a setback when Firuz Shah Bahmani was
defeated by Deva Raya I. This defeat weakened the position of Firuz. He was
compelled to abdicate in favour of his brother, Ahmad Shah I, who is called a saint
(wali) on account of his association with the famous sufi saint, Gesu Daraz.

KINGDOMS BEFORE DELHI SULTANATE

Pratihara break into number of Rajput states. These are the:
 Gahadavalas of Kannauj, which was a Rajput dynasty that ruled parts of
present-day Uttar Pradesh and Bihar, during the 11th and 12th centuries. Their
capital was located at Banaras. in the Gangetic plains, and for a brief period, they also
controlled Kannauj.
 The Paramara was a Rajput dynasty that rose on the ruins of the Pratihara empire
of Kanauj and ruled the Malwa region/ central India between the 9th and 14th
centuries. Raja Bhoj belonged to this dynasty and founded city of Bhopal.
 Chauhans of Delhi and Ajmer were a Rajput dynasty, also known as the
Chahamanas of Shakambhari, who ruled over part of modern-day Rajasthan and
neighboring areas (northern India).
 The Kalachuri Dynasty of Tripuri was a medieval Indian dynasty that ruled over
the Tripuri region in present-day Madhya Pradesh between the 10th-12th
century.
 Chandelas of Jejakabhukti was a Rajput dynasty in Central India. The dynasty
held power in the region of Bundelkhand, Kalinjar & Mahoba.
 The Chalukyas of Gujarat.

MIDIEVAL INDIA– NOTEBOOK 12TH NOTES

Arab people were the first to follow Islam. Persians were second. In India, people of
Sindh region were the first.
SOURCES OF MEDIEVAL HISTORY
 Ali Kufi. Chacha nama.
 Al Biruni. Kitab-ul-hind is his book.
 Amir Khusrau. Father of Indian music. Wrote many books for many rulers of delhi
sultanante from Balban to Ghiyasuddin Tughluq.
 Ziauddin Barani. Tarekh-e-firoz shahi is considered the greatest work of medieval
history.
 Ferishta. Terekh-e-ferishta.
 Al masudi. Maruz-ul-zaheb in which he compared banaras with rome.
 Ibn batuta. Kitab-ul-riha. He talked about Indian dacoits, paan and coconut.
Mehmood ghazni made the first Turkish invasion of India. Invaded India 17 times. They
were known as Ghaznavi Invasions.
After Ghaznavi rule weakened – Ghurids, who were subordinate to ghanzi once, started
invading India.
Mohammad Ghori fought two battles with Prithvi Raj Chauhan of Ajmer. Lost the first once,
however, in the second battle, chauhan did not had the support of gahadvals and hence Prithvi
RaJ Chauhan lost the battle. History is uncelar about his future but his son established a new
Chauhan dynasty in Ranthambore. First battle – 1191 and second – 1192.

DELHI SULTANATE – started by Turkish people. Turk kings were called sultans. Even
the Indian Muslims were made second class citizens. They introduced Iqtedaari system.
Wazir was the most important post. Sadre-sudr was the qazi i.e. chief justice. Khalisa was the
land directly controlled by sultans. Iqta was the land given to military commanders. Imaan
was the land granted to religious functionaries. Faujdar responsible for law and order.
Patwari maintained the land record, hence this name is so old!
TURKAN -E-CHAHALGANI
 SYSTEM UNDER DELHI SULTANS
 The Corps of Forty also known as Dal Chalisa or Turkan-e-Chahalgani, was a
council of 40 mostly Turkic slave emirs who administered the Delhi Sultanate as per
the wishes of the sultan.
 However, their number was not always 40, Barani clearly mentions that Turkan-e-
Chahalgani numbered 25 as well.
 It was initially formed by Shamsuddin Iltutmish, the third ruler of the Mamluk
dynasty.
 This group grew stronger.
 Balban, the next ruler of Delhi Sultanate was a part of chahalgani before becoming
the ruler.
 Balbam killed this corp one by one after becoming the ruler himself.
 Their duties included administration, governance, law & order.

SLAVE/ MAMLUK DYNASTY – 1206 TO 1290 AD

 Qutub ud din aiyabak founded the slave dynasty in 1206 AD.
 Iltutmish completed qutub minar.
 Razia Sultan – first ever female muslim ruler of Indian sub continent.
 Balban is the last ruler.
KHILJI DYNASTY – 1290 to 1320 AD
 Mix of Turk and Afghan people.
 Allaluddin Khilji even defeated the mongols!
TUGHLAQ DYNASTY 1320 to 1412 AD
 Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq founded this dynasty.
 Muhammad bin Tughlaq was the wisest of fools. Vijaynagar empire and
Bahamani empire got separated as independent empires in the south.
  Takkavi loans were given to the farmers by Muhammad bin Tughluq to buy
seeds and to extend cultivation.
 A separate department for agriculture, Diwan- i- Kohi was established.
 Feroz shah Tughlaq. Made the iqtedaari system hereditary. Destroyed the
temples of sun temple of konark at modhera and jagannath puri. He also
introduced irrigation tax.
 It was during the time of Firuz that jizyah became a separate tax. Earlier, it was
a part of land revenue.
 Firuz refused to exempt the Brahmans from the payment of jizyah since this was
not provided for in the sharia. Only women, children, the disabled and the
indigent who had no means of livelihood were exempt from it.
 Firuz Tughlaq was the first ruler who took steps to have Hindu religious works
translated from Sanskrit into Persian, so that there may be a better
understanding of Hindu ideas and practices.

Amir Taimur of Mongol invaded Delhi. Made Kizr Khan as the head. Kizr Khan founded the
SAYYID DYANSTY

 Sayyids were the descendants of prophet mohammad.

Sayyids were defeated by Lodis and led to the foundation of LODI DYNASTY
ADMINISTRATION UNDER DELHI SULTANATE
Administration

 The Turkish ruler Mahmud of Ghazni was the first to adopt the title of Sultan.
 The Delhi Sultanate was an Islamic State with its religion as Islam.
 The sultans were considered to be the representatives of the Caliph. The name of the
Caliph was included in the khutba (prayer) and also inscribed on their coins.
 This practice was even followed by Balban, who called himself “the shadow of God”.
 They obtained a ‘mansur’ (letter of investiture) from the Caliph.

Central Administration

 Diwan-i-Wizarat (Department of Revenue): Managed by the Chief Revenue

Officer (Wazir).
 Diwan-i-Ariz (Military Department): Oversaw the army and defense forces.
 Diwan-i-Insha (Department of Correspondence): Managed official
communications and correspondence. It played a vital role in maintaining
communication between the central administration and regional officials.
 Diwan-i-Risalat (Department of Ecclesiastical Affairs): Oversaw religious and
judicial matters.
 Diwan-i-Kohi (Agriculture Department). A separate agriculture department,
Diwan-i-Kohi was set up by Muhammad Bin Tughlaq.
 Diwan-i-Bandagan (Slave Department).
 Diwan-i-Siyasat (Foreign Affairs Department).
 Diwan-i-Khairat (Charity Department).
 Shiqdar-i-Shiqdaran (Police Department).
 Kotwal (City Administrator).
  Patwari (village land record holder).

Provincial Government

 Iqtas, the provinces under the Delhi Sultanate were initially under the dominion of
the nobles.
 Muqtis or Walis was the name given to the governors of the provinces and were
responsible for maintaining law and order and collecting the land revenue.
 The provinces were further divided into Shiqs, which was under the control of the
Shiqdar.
 The Shiqs were further divided into Pargana, comprising a number of villages and
was headed by the Amil.
 The village remained the basic unit of administration and its headman was
called Chaudhri or Muqaddam. Patwari was the village accountant.

Delhi Sultanate Economy

 The lands were categorised into three classes-

 Iqta land – the lands which were allotted to the officials as iqtas instead of payment
for their services.

 Khalisa land – it was directly under the control of the Sultan and the revenue
generated was utilised for maintaining the royal court and royal household.

 Inam land – it was allotted to religious institutions or religious leaders.

 The farmers paid 1/3rd of their produce as land revenue and sometimes even half of
the produce. They also had to pay other taxes and lived miserable lives.
 Sultans like Muhammad Bin Tughlaq and Firoz Tughlaq provided better
irrigation facilities and also takkavi loans which helped in the increased
agricultural production.
 Firoz Tughlaq promoted the growth of the horticulture sector.
 The important cities were – Multan, Lahore (north-west), Anhilwara, Cambay, Broach
(west), Lakhnauti and Kara (east), Jaunpur, Daulatabad and Delhi.
 Overseas trade was dominated by Khurasanis (Afghan Muslims) and Multanis
(mostly Hindus).
 Roads were built and the royal roads were especially kept in good shape. In addition
to the royal road from Peshawar to Sonargaon, Muhammad Bin Tughlaq built a
road to Daulatabad.
 The silk and the cotton textile industry thrived. The introduction of sericulture on a
large scale made India less reliant on other countries for the import of raw silk.
 Paper was widely used from the 14th and 15th centuries which led to the growth of
the paper industry.
 The goods needed by the Sultan and his household were supplied by the royal
karkhanas. Expensive articles made of gold and silver were produced by the royal
karkhanas. The nobles were paid well and they copied the lifestyle of the Sultans and
lived a pleasurable life.
 The system of coinage had also boomed during the Delhi Sultanate. Several types of
tankas were issued by Iltutmish.
MUGHAL EMPIRE
 Abrahim Lodi was defeated by Babur and that led to foundation of Mughal
empire
 SOURCES – Babarnama, akbarnama, humayunnama, tuzuk-e-jehangiri.
 Babur was deeply learned in Persian and Arabic, and is regarded as one of the two
most famous writers in the Turkish language which was his mother tongue. His
famous memoirs, the Tuzuk-i-Baburi, is considered one of the classics of world
literature, written in the Turki language. His other works include a masnavi and the
Turkish translation of a well-known Sufi work.
 Babur is not the only Mughal emperor who wrote his auto-biography. Mughal
Emperor Jahangir also wrote his autobiography Tuzuk-e-Jahangiri in Persian
Language.
 An orthodox Sunni, Babur was not bigoted or led by the religious divines. At a
time when there was a bitter sectarian feud between the Shias and the Sunnis in Iran
and Turan, his court was free from theological and sectarian conflicts.
 Apparently, gunpowder was known in India but its use for artillery became common
in north India with the advent of Babur. He used it for the first time in his attacks
on the fortress of Bhira (Gateway to Hindustan) in 1520-21.
 Though his reign was a period of war, only a few instances can be found of the
destruction of temples. There is no evidence that the mosques built at Sambhal
and Ayodhya by the local governors were built by breaking the Hindu temples
there.
 Humayun followed Babar.
 Humayun was defeated by Sher Shah Suri who established Suri empire for a
little while. Later Suri was defeated by Akbar who restored Mughal empire.

LAND REVENUE UNDER AKBAR

 ZABTI SYSTEM – Akbar introduced a new land measurement system (knows as

the zabti system) covering from Lahore to Allahabad, including Malwa and Gujarat.
 It was based on Sher Shah's land revenue system with certain modifications.
 Under the zabti system, the sown area was measured by means of the bamboos
attached with iron rings.
 The zabti system, originally associated with Raja Todar Mal, is called as Todar
Mal's Bandobast.
 DAHSALA SYSTEM – The Dahsala system as instituted by Akbar, the average
produce of different crops as well as the average prices prevailing over the last
ten years was calculated and one-third share of the average produce was
apportioned to the state.
 The system was adopted only in the major provinces of the Empire covering
Multan, Delhi, Allahabad, Awadh, Agra, and Lahore.
 Zabti system was further improved by Raja Todar Mal and was named as
Dahsala system. Hence Dahsala system was a further development of the Zabti
system.
 TYPES OF LAND
 o Polaj – It was the ideal and best type of land throughout the empire. This land
was cultivated always and was never allowed to lie fallow.
o Banjar – It was the worst kind of land that was left out of cultivation for
longer than 2-3 years.
o Chachar – It was a kind of land allowed to lie fallow for two or three
years and then resumed under cultivation.
o Parati - This was the land kept out of cultivation temporarily in order to
recoup its lost fertility.
 The position of the Wazir revived under' the early Mughals . Babur's Wazir
Nizamuddin Muhammad Khalifa enjoyed both civil and military powers. Humayun's
Wazir Hindu Beg also virtually enjoyed great powers.

Wakil-Wazir – The period of Bairam Khan's regency (1556-60) saw the rise of the wakil-
wazir with unlimited powers under Bairam Khan. In the 8th regnal year (1564-65). Akbar
took away the financial powers of the wakil and entrusted it into the hands of the diwan-i-kul
(Finance Minister). Separation of finance gave a jolt to the wakil's power. However, the wakil
continued to enjoy the highest place in the Mughal bureaucratic hierarchy despite the
reduction in his powers.

AURANGZEB

 During Shah Jahan’s reign, Aurangazeb, was governor of Deccan.

 To contain the spread of the Marathas, Aurangzeb decided to invade Bijapur
and Golkonda. He defeated Sikandar Shah of Bijapur and annexed his kingdom.
Then, he proceeded against Golkonda and eliminated the Kutb Shahi dynasty. It was
also annexed by him. In fact, the destruction of the Deccan kingdoms was a political
blunder on the part of Aurangazeb.
 Aurangzeb was a staunch and orthodox Muslim in his personal life. His idea was to
transform India into an Islamic state.

The Mughal administration was the mostly centre based administration. In the Mughal
administration, the Mughal emperor was the supreme head. A number of ministers at the
different stages of the empire had been appointed in the Mughal administration.

Levels of the Mughal administration

The levels of Mughal administration were divided into many subparts. The different officers
were appointed in these governmental departments. The levels of the Mughal administration
in the Mughal empire are listed below.

Central Administration
The Mughal empire rules almost in every part of modern India. The Mughal empire was the
central administrative authority in order to hold the entire power.

1. Emperor-The emperor was the superior in the Mughal administration and holds the
supreme authority of the entire Mughal empire. The order of the emperor was the last
and final order in Mughal administration.
2. Wakil/Wazir/Dewan had civil and military power.
3. Diwani Kul – finance minister.
 4. Mir Bakshi – He looks out the payment, appointment and other works related to the
soldiers.
5. Mir saman- Mir saman or khan saman was the head of the purchase department.
6. Sadr-us Sudar- Ecclesiastical department and charity department was under the sadr-
us sudur or sadr.
Province Administration
1. Darogha- Darogha- i dak was responsible for the communication system of the
imperial postal system in the suba. It was the system of sending and receiving the
message at the dak chowkis.
2. Fozdar and kotwal- Fozdar was the administrative head of the district and kotwal
were appointed to do the executive and ministerial duties.

ASHTAPRADHAN
Ashtapradhan was the council of state ministers in Maratha kingdom.
Creation of Chhatrapati Shivaji as a council of eight ministers to guide the administration of
his nascent state.
Ministerial designations were drawn from the Sanskrit language; the eight ministerial roles
were as follows:

 Pantpradhan or Peshwa - Prime Minister.

 Amatya or Mazumdar - Finance Minister.
 Shurunavis/Sacheev - Secretary.
 Waqia-Navis - Interior Minister.
 Sar-i-Naubat or Senapati - Commander-in-Chief.
 Sumant/Dabir - Foreign Minister.
 Nyayadhish - Chief Justice.
 Panditrao - High Priest.

Under the grandson of Shivaji, Shahu, the post of peshwa became hereditary.

Mansabdari system was of the Mughals. The Mansabdari system was a grading system used
by the Mughal rulers to fix the rank and salary of a Mansabdar as per the number of cavalry
and foot soldiers held by the official.
They were nobles who occupied various positions in the administration of the Mughal
Empire. They were appointed and dismissed by the Mughal Emperor.
Mansabdari land was not hereditary. The system was of civil services of Mughals.
Jagirdari falls under mansabdari system. The Jagirdari system was a type of land tenancy.
Under this system, a state official was given control over both the tax collection and
management of an estate.
  Mansabdars were government officials who held a rank (mansab) and were paid
either in cash or land.
 Jagirdars were specifically those Mansabdars who were paid in the form of land
(jagirs) instead of cash.

Ryotwari system was introduced as an experiment in Karnataka. Thomas Munroe. 1792.

In this system, the peasants or cultivators were regarded as the owners of the land. They had
ownership rights, could sell, mortgage or gift the land. The taxes were directly collected by
the government from the peasants. The rates were 50% in dryland and 60% in the wetland.
Zamindari system came in Kolkata. Lord Cornwalis. 1793. The Zamindari System was a
land tenure system prevalent in India during the British colonial period. Under this system,
the British East India Company and later the British Raj granted large tracts of land to
intermediaries known as zamindars, responsible for collecting revenue from the peasants
working on the land.
Mahalwari system was introduced by Holt Mckenjie in western UP in 1833. (this was
introduced in UP as the word “lambardar” or the village head man is always used by Bir Pal
sir). This had elements of both the Zamindari and the Ryotwari systems.
Iqtadari System was based on the division of territories between Sultans and Nobility. The
land was divided into small tracts and they were given to the nobles, the officers, and the
soldiers. The areas directly under Sultan came to be known as Khalisa and the rest of the
areas were known as Iqra.

Akbar’s nine Jewels or Nav-Ratnas

Name Work
Translation of Babarnama into Persian; accorded
Abdul Rahim
Khan-i-Khanan title by Akbar.
Abul Fazl Akbarnama & Ain-i-Akbari
Birbal (Mahesh Dass) Witty advisor
Faizi Translated Leelawati into Persian
Hamim Humam Chief of royal school (pathashala)
Rajput general; aided emperor in Battle of
Raja Man Singh
Haldighati & against Afghans
Sheikh Mubarak The Brain behind Mahzar
Tansen Singer; known as Sangeet Samrat
Expertise in Land revenue, which was adopted
Todar Mal
by Akbar & Sher Shah