Tcbe 3103 Constuction Tectnology Iii Lecture Notes

Course Name: TCBE 3103 CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY III
Level: YEAR THREE SEMESTER I
Credit Units: 3
Contact Hours: 45
Course Description
This course introduces advanced principles and techniques in construction technology.
Detailed course outline
Underpinning (? hours)
Reasons for underpinning, methods, choice of the appropriate method, precautions before
underpinning, shoring for underpinning.
Special Constructions: Sound, Fire, Heat, Cavity Floors and walls. (? hours)
Advanced Construction: (? hours)
Factors considered in the design of: roads, bridges, dams and tunnels
Construction of roads, bridges and tunnels
Offshore construction
Industrialised Building Construction: (? hours)
Definition of industrialised Buildings
Why industrialise construction of buildings?
Classification of industrialised Buildings: onsite and offsite and product industrialisation

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Prepared by Nandugwa Harriet
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Key factors of industrialisation.
Limitations in Uganda's Rural and Urban Areas, Appropriate Solutions to Identified Limitations
Maintenance of Structures: (? hours)
Definition of terms
Types of maintenance
Importance
Appropriate Technology Considerations and alternative energy (? hours)
(Details of Sketches Must Be Emphasised in This Course.)
Mode of delivery
The course will be taught by using lectures, tutorials, consultations, practicals and site visits.
Assessment
The course will be assessed through assignments, tests, practical reports and course examination.
Their relative contribution to the final grade is shown below:
Requirements Contribution
Assignments 5%
Tests 10%
Practical reports 25%
Final examination 60%
Total 100%
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References
1. Chudley, R. and Greeno, R. (2009), Building Construction Handbook. 3rd ed.

Butterworth-Heinemann, London.
2. Foster, G. (2000), Construction Site Studies – Production, Administration and
Personnel. Longman, London.
3. Chudley, R. and Greeno, R. (2011). Construction Technology, 5th Edition, ISBN:
9780435046828;
4. Mike, R. and Alison, C. (2011). Construction Technology 3: The technology of
refurbishment and maintenance, 2nd Edition, published by Palgrave and Macmillan, UK.
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1.0. UNDERPINNING
Underpinning is the process of strengthening and stabilizing the foundation of an existing

building or any other structure. Underpinning is a repair process that strengthens foundations
which have been weakened by a variety of factors. In the process of underpinning, the area
underneath the foundation load is repaired, made strong or reinforced.
There are situations where a failure in the foundation or footing happens unexpectedly after the
completion of whole structure (both sub and superstructure). Under such an emergency situation,
a remedial method has to be suggested to regain the structural stability.
Underpinning comes in many types and suits different kinds of repair projects. In order to make
the right choice, it is necessary to first understand the structure of the whole foundation, the
supports used and the factors that caused the foundation to crack or get damaged. Therefore, this
process should be done by a professional.
1.1. Reason for Underpinning
Underpinning may be necessary for a variety of reasons:
 The original foundation is no longer strong or stable enough to serve its intended purpose,
e.g. due to decay of say maybe wooden piles under the foundation or due to old age.
 Requirement of a basement below an already existing structure.
 The usage of the structure has changed which requires a stronger foundation compared to
the existing one e.g. from a residential house to a church.
 The construction of nearby structures necessitating the excavation of soil supporting the
existing foundations.
 The properties of the soil supporting the foundation may have changed or were
mischaracterized during planning.
 Earthquakes, floods or other natural causes have caused the structure to move or settle,
requiring stabilisation of foundation soils and/or footings.
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1.2. Methods of Underpinning
Underpinning helps to strengthen the foundation of an existing building or any other

infrastructure. These involve installation of permanent or temporary support to an already existing
foundation so that additional depth and bearing capacity is achieved.
Whatever type of underpinning method selected for strengthening the foundation, all of them
follow a similar idea of extending the existing foundation either lengthwise or breadthwise and to
be laid over a stronger soil stratum. This enables distribution of load over a greater area. The choice
of the method depends on the the type of existing foundation, the ground conditions and the new
foundation depth.
Before you think of underpinning, as an engineer you have to first ensure that the procedure chosen
will achieve the intended objective i.e. transferring loads from the existing foundation to the new
foundation.
Underpinning methods most commonly used for foundation strengthening include:
 Mass concrete underpinning method (pit method).
 Cantilever Needle Beam Method
 Pier and beam method.
 Pile method.
Other methods include: -
 Pynford Stool method.
 Grouting method.
1.2.1. Mass Concrete Method (Pit or Traditional Method)
Mass concrete underpinning method is the traditional method of underpinning, as it has been
followed by centuries. The process is best suited for shallow underpinning and involves excavating
the weak soil underneath the existing foundation and replacing it with mass concrete which
provides more strength and it is a low-cost method.
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Excavating
The technique involves the construction of a new foundation beneath a failing section of a building
by extending the existing footings down to a greater depth where stable soil of suitable bearing
capacity exists. This is achieved by excavating individual bases in short lengths (usually not
exceeding 1200mm) in a pre-determined sequence to a designed depth in a suitable stratum (see
Figure 1.1a). The depth of the bases may vary depending upon the profile of the stratum selected.
Once each base is excavated to the appropriate depth, and before concreting, check the excavation
to ensure that the correct stratum has been reached and that the ground is free from loose soil, tree
roots etc. Once the excavation has been approved, shutters, if required, are set in position and the
base is filled with concrete of a specified mix.
Concrete
The strength of concrete should be considered and concrete should be placed the same day as
completion of excavation. All concrete should be poker vibrated, and should be placed to a level
of 150mm minimum above the underside of the existing footing/foundation.
Alternatively, place the concrete to a depth of 75mm below the existing footing/foundation and
poker vibrate. After, not less than 24 hours curing, dry pack the void with 1:3 cement: sand mixed
with a minimal amount of water and well rammed into place. Allow a further 24 hours before
excavating adjacent to a mass filled or dry packed underpinned section. Excavation of sections
marked 2 (see Figure 1.1a) may then take place. Follow the same procedure for section marked 3
and 4 to complete the work.
Bases will generally be linked together using ‘joggle’ joints (T&G) to provide a key between
adjacent bases. Reinforcement cages can be introduced using couplers to provide continuity
between the bases. Anti-heave precautions consisting of polythene sheeting and/or low-density
polystyrene are usually installed when underpinning is constructed in shrinkable clay.
All excavations for working width not concreted should be backfilled with clean stone, compacted
in max 200mm thick layers.
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Fig. 1.1a Setting out sequence for underpinning excavations
Fig. 1.1b Section through Underpinned foundation using mass concrete fill and dry pack methods
respectively
Advantages of using the mass concrete method:
 Bases are usually constructed from one side of a wall only, and it is therefore often possible
to construct all underpinning from outside without disturbing the inside of the building and
possibly necessitating a building to be vacated.
 Soil conditions can be examined at close quarters, tested for strength using hand
penetrometers or vane testers, and the presence of tree roots or soft spots easily identified.
 The method is not technically complex and operatives can be relatively easily trained to
achieve competence.
 Excavations can often be undertaken using minimal amounts of plant and machinery.
 It can be designed to act as a retaining structure to assist in retro-fit basement construction.
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 By increasing the base width, it is possible to reduce imposed stresses by spreading the
load in weak soil.
For more complicated problems related to the foundation other superior methods have to be
adopted.
Disadvantages include:
 There are large amounts of excavated material to be disposed of.

 There are large amounts of concrete to be imported to construct the bases.
 Excavations and bases are difficult to construct in unstable or water-logged ground.
 Base depths in excess of 3.0 meters are generally uneconomic and create a number of health
and safety issues.
 Mass concrete underpinning generally requires good site access due to the amount of spoil
to be removed and concrete imported. If access is difficult, the technique is more difficult
and may prove costly.
1.2.2. Cantilever Needle Beam Method
Figure 1.2 represents the arrangement of the cantilever needle beam method (cantilever pit
method) of underpinning which is an extension of the pit method or a modernized pit method. If
the foundation has to be extended downwards only to one side and the structure possess a stronger
interior column, this method can be used for underpinning.
In this method, a pit is excavated beneath the existing exterior wall whose foundation is faulty, after
supporting it with a needle beam above the plinth wall, at already predetermined locations. Needle
beams are mainly made out of concrete, timber, steel. A needle beam is strapped to join the exterior
wall with that of existing interior loaded column or pedestal. The exterior wall is hanged up with
the needle beam arrangement, pushed up by a hydraulic jack supported on the fulcrum (pivot). This
method is also ideal for limited site space.
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Fig. 1.2a Cantilever Needle Beam Method
Another slight modification of this method also exists in which the existing foundation is supported
by a cantilever beam strapped to tension piles and compression piles which are rested on a firm
stratum underneath as shown in the Figure 1.2b below.
Fig. 1.2b Cantilever Needle Beam Method
Another way is to support the wall as shown in Figure 1.2c. Bearing plates are placed above the
needle to support the masonry above it. The needle is supported on bot side by crib supports e.g.
wooden blocks and screw jacks.
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Fig. 1.2c Cantilever Needle Beam Method
The following precautions are to be considered in the pit method:
 Excavations and construction should be done in alternate sections then the remaining
intermediate sections are taken up. Only one section should be taken at a time.
 It is better to start from the middle in the case of long walls.
 If the new foundation is deeper, proper timbering of the foundation trench may be done.
 When the foundation has gained full strength then only all the arrangements like needle
beams etc. should be removed slowly.
 The needle holes etc. should be closed in masonry using cement mortar.
Advantages of Cantilever Needle Beam Method:
 Faster than traditional method.

 One side access only.
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 High load carrying capability.
Disadvantages:
 Digging found uneconomical when existing foundation is deep
 Constraint in access restricts the use of needle beams
1.2.3. Pier and Beam Method

It is also termed as base and beam method. This method progressed because the mass concrete
method couldn’t work well for high depth foundations. It is found feasible for most ground
conditions. Here reinforced concrete beams are placed to transfer the load to mass concrete bases
or piers under the ground as shown in Figure 1.3. The size and depth of the beams are based on the
ground conditions and applied loads. It is found economical for depths shallower than 6m.
Fig. 1.3 Pier and Beam Underpinning Method
Push and helical pier underpinning are also examples of pier underpinning.
(Videos on push and helical pier underpinning).
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1.2.4. Pile Method of Underpinning
For cases where the load is to be transferred to a stratum that is situated at a depth greater than 5m
mini piles of pre-determined dimension can be used. In areas where the soil nature is highly
variable and there is a restricted area for access, you can still make use of this method. These piles
can be either driven steel or augured (concrete/grout) types. The maximum depth possible is 15m.
a) Traditional Underpinning
As shown in the Figure 1.4, piles are driven on either side of a weak foundation. Concrete or steel
needles are then penetrated through the wall and are connected to the pile. These needles function
as beams and act as pile caps as well. Settlement in soil due to water logging, clayey nature or low
bearing capacity, can be treated by this method.
Fig. 1.4 Pile Method of Underpinning
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b) Jack pile underpinning
Jack pile underpinning is done where traditional underpinning is uneconomical because of the
depth of the suitable bearing capacity of subsoil. The main advantage of this method is that, it is
vibration-free and flexible because the pile depth can be adjusted to suitable subsoil conditions
encountered. In this system, the existing foundation spans over the heads of the pile caps which
are cast in onto the jack pile heads after the hydraulic jacks have been removed.
Fig. 1.5 Jack Pile Method of Underpinning
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Other Method of Underpinning include: -
1.2.5. Pynford stool Method
This method can be used where the existing foundations are in a poor condition and it enables the
wall to be underpinned in a continuous run without the need for needles or shoring. The reinforced
concrete beam formed by this method may well be adequate to spread the load of the existing wall
or it may be used in conjunction with other forms of underpinning such as the traditional and jack
pile method.
Fig 1.5: Pynford stool Method

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1.2.6. Grouting
This is the process of ground improvement (strengthening) attained by injecting grout or slurry or
fluid like material into the cavities or cracks in concrete, soil or rock formation. It involves
injecting a pumpable material into pores, fissures or voids, or the jetting of this material at high
flow rate and pressure into the soil to create soil-cement, to increase the strength. The grout
subsequently hardens, increases the strength, stability and decreases compressibility and
permeability of the soil.
Grout material includes a mixture of cement, sand, water and or chemicals.
Grouting can be applied either to strengthen or stabilize a formation or to reduce water flow
through it. Apart from being used as an underpinning material, it is also used to correct faults
in concrete and masonry structures. Grouting has been performed on the foundation of virtually
every one of the world’s large dams, in order to reduce the amount of leakage through the rock,
and sometimes to strengthen the foundation to support the weight of the overlying structure, be it
of concrete, earth, or rock fill. It is also used to seal cracks and joints other underground structure
like tunnels, canals, etc.
Apart from underpinning, grouting may also be used in the formation of pile foundations, ground
anchors, road construction, dam construction and so on.
It is also a key procedure in the production of post-tensioned prestressed concrete, a material used
in many concrete bridges, among other places.
Different materials may be used for grouting depending upon the soil or rock type, the area to be
grouted, and so on. However, the basic process is the same. The soil or rock is injected with fluid
grout which sets and reduces or acts as a sealant on the material’s permeability.
Grouting is relatively costly and so wastage must be controlled. This is achieved by the use of
additives which improve the gelling properties of the grout and limit its spread through the ground.
Typically, grouting is carried out is by driving pipes or boring holes into the ground, and then
pumping the grout solution at high pressure through inserted tubes (the tubes are eventually
removed).
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The extent of grouting required for a particular area is determined through investigation of ground
conditions and the calculation of a drilling pattern. This considers the size, spacing and depth of
the holes required. The type of grout and the particular ground conditions will influence the spacing
of the holes.
Site conditions will influence the tools used for the boring process, but pneumatic tools, diamond
drills or wash-boring are the most common. Alluvial soils (deposited by surface water) are prone
to collapse and so holes are usually cased.
The pressure of the grout injection is dependent on soil conditions, and in-situ testing may be
carried out before the correct pressure is determined.
Some of the grouting materials include: -
a) Cement grouting
Cement (or cementitious grout) is used for grouting materials with a high permeability and low
bearing capacity.
Neat cement and water (for Type I cement: 0.46 - 0.53) or a mixture of sand (4 parts) to cement (1
part) is the usual composition. When hydrated it hardens onto a rock-like seal which will not wash
out from due to ground water movement.
Holes are bored in a radius around the area to be excavated before being injected with a thin grout.
If a more viscous mix is required, the water-cement ratio is reduced. If required, secondary holes
are bored between the primary holes to ensure the complete grouting of the area. Neat cement
grout is best suited in high fractured rocks especially limestone.
Type III cement can also be used. It has a high early strength development and finer particles than
the former and a faster curing rate. A water cement ratio 0.53 - 0.62 is recommended.
Bentonite is used as an additive (1-2%) by weight to increase volume, reduce shrinkage, decrease
density and water loss from the cement. However, more water is required for the hydration
process.
Calcium chloride (CaCl2) is another additive which accelerates the setting time and increase early
strength development. Useful in cold weather to speed up curing i.e. 2% by weight added to
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cement, will result in a compressive strength after 24 hours approximately equal to that without,
after 48 hours. However, these ill generate high heat of hydration.
b) Bentonite grouting
Bentonite is the principle material produced from clay mineral which has thixotropic
(viscose) properties, meaning it forms a highly water-resistant gel which and it is capable of
swelling up to 15 times its dry volume when hydrated, when mixed with additives, can create a
permanent barrier to water flow. It should have minimum density of 1126kg/m3. Since it has a
high settlement of solids, it should have a solids content of over 20% by weight to reduce on being
washed away. For this reason, they are not suitable for use in some porous formations like
fractured limestone where it may be washed away due to excessive ground water movement. This
is used where soil particles are too small for cement grouting, most commonly to combat seepage
in alluvial soils beneath the foundations of dams or other water-bound structures.
c) Chemical grouting
Chemical grouting is used in soils of medium to coarse grading. Materials such as sodium silicate
and calcium chloride are mixed together in liquid form and solidified into a gel. There are
two main processes:
‘Two-shot’ process: Pipes are driven into the ground. One chemical is injected followed by another
meaning that the reaction, and soil strengthening, is rapid.
‘One-shot’ process: This involves chemical mixing prior to injection, with hardening being
delayed by the composition. This allows for wider borehole spacing.
Chemical grouting has the advantages of allowing economical spacing of bore holes, greater
penetration of the grout, and more flexibility in terms of the time of grouting.
d) Resin grouting
As opposed to chemical grouts, resin grouts have a very low viscosity which enables them to
penetrate fine sands.
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The type of resin used depends on the chemical content of the local water table and may result in
different times for setting. Common types include:
o Tannin-based grouts.
o Phenol formaldehyde.
o Resorcinol formaldehyde.
e) Bituminous (Asphalt) grouting
Bitumen emulsion can serve as a suitable grouting material that can be injected into fine sands as
an impermeable barrier to water. Soil strength will not be increased, but cut-off walls beneath dams
and other water-bound structures can be formed effectively.
Temperature, type of soil (geological formation), extent of fracturing, use of additives are some of
the factors that affect the performance of grout materials.
Methods of Grouting
i. Permeation or Penetration method.
This is the most common and conventional grouting method. It involves filling any cracks, joints
or voids in rock, concrete, soil and other porous materials with grout without disturbing its
formation or change in volume or configuration. This is typically done to strengthen the existing
formation, creating an impermeable water barrier or both.
ii. Compaction or Controlled displacement.
Grout mix is specifically designed not to permeate the soil voids or mix with the soil. Instead, it
displaces the soil into which it is injected. i.e. Grout remains more or less intact as a mass and
exerts pressure on soil.
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iii. Hydraulic Fracturing or Uncontrolled displacement (Hydro fracture).
It is the process of initiation and propagation of a crack by injecting grout into soils. As the pressure
of the fluid injected surpasses the tensile strength of soil or rock, the hydro fracturing of soil is
thus triggered. Typically, it is used to compact and stiffen the ground or to access otherwise
inaccessible voids. However, this method is most common for oil and gas exploration, though it
has shortcomings.
iv. Jet Grouting
Jet grouting is a cross between soil mixing and grouting in which an ultra-high pressure (~
41N/mm2) fluid stream of grout is used to erode and mix the soils, see Figure 1.6. The grout used
in jet grouting is often a suspension of Portland cement in water.
Jet grouting method can be performed using single fluid (generally Portland cement and water
grout), double fluid (grout and air) or triple fluid (grout, water and air). Single fluid jet grouting
is the simplest and most common technique applied. Double and triple fluid jet grouting are used
to achieve site objectives in difficult soil strata or to achieve larger than normal jet grout column
diameters (125mm). In all types of jet grouting, the grout and other fluids, if applicable, are fed
through the drill stem by a specialized high-pressure pump (jet pump). The fluid coming out of
the jet pump is pushed through a rotating drill pipe and forced out laterally through small jet ports
at the bottom of the drill pipe. Jet grout columns are typically formed from the bottom up.
Jet grouting is commonly used in conjunction with soil mixing or slurry trenching to complete a
continuous barrier or soil-mixed monolith in areas with difficult or limited surface access,
subsurface obstructions, or sensitive utility locations. Jet grouting is also particularly effective in
structural underpinning and foundation rehabilitation, construction of banks/embankments, tunnel
walls etc.
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Fig 1.6a Procedure of Jet Grouting
Fig 1.6b Images of Jet grout
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Below are some useful links about jet grouting.
http://www.railsystem.net/jet-grouting/
https://www.keller.co.uk/expertise/techniques/jet-grouting
How to choose the correct method

In order to choose the correct method, you should keep the following points in mind:
 The type the foundation.
 The factors that may have caused damage to the existing foundation.
 Depth of excavation.
 Site restraints.
 Local permits and regulations.
 Cost of the entire process.
 Time duration.
Precautions to be undertaken before starting Underpinning
 Before any underpinning process is started, it is necessary to remove the load of the building
e.g. live loads, semi-permanent loads like furniture, etc.
 Additionally, you can opt for shoring and install temporary structures for protecting the
property.
 Undertake a careful investigation of the site and the neighboring structures as a
precautionary measure.
 The operation should be carried out by skilled personnel.
1.3. Shoring for underpinning
Shoring is the means of providing temporary support to structures that are in an unsafe condition
till such time as they have been made stable, or to structures which might become unstable by
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reason of work being carried out on or near them, such as underpinning of foundations. Usually
using timber and steel can are used.
Shoring may be used in such situation as:

 Rebuilding the lower part of a defective load bearing wall; or
 When carrying out alterations to an existing building e.g. Rebuilding (or replacing) or
deepening the existing foundations, which have either become unsafe or require
strengthening for carrying heavier loads; or
 To provide large openings in existing walls such as doors, windows, shop fronts or garages
at a lower level.
 When carrying out demolition work.
There are three typical types of shoring:
 Dead shoring used where the load is usually vertical.

 Raking shoring used where external support is necessary. They are usually inclined at an
angle between 60o – 75o.
 Flying shoring where structures close to one another provide mutual support by a system
of horizontal members.
The stress in the shoring members is usually compressive, except in the case of the needles used
in dead shoring where there is a bending stress.
Dead shoring
In this system of shoring, the vertical members (struts) known as ‘dead shores’ or vertical
shores are used to support temporarily the walls, roofs, floors, etc. They are provided at the
required distance away from the wall to be clear of underpinning operations and surmounted by a
horizontal beam or needle spanning between a pair of shores.
Figure 1.7a below provides shoring requirements for rebuilding the lower part of a defective load
bearing wall or carrying out alterations to an existing building.
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Fig. 1.7a Dead shores
Figure 1.7b illustrates how dead shores provide support to create an opening in an existing wall.
To meet this objective, the following procedure is adopted: -
 Before providing shores to a building, all door and window openings are properly strutted
to resist any possible deformation, and then inside floors of the building are also strutted
by props or vertical posts. At the top and bottom of these vertical struts or posts, timber
heads and sole pieces are provided to distribute the load more effectively, wedges are also
used at the bottom or foot of prop for tightening purpose.
 Holes are then cut in the wall by a crow bar at points above the required opening.
 Through these holes, timber or steel horizontal beams, called needles, are inserted and
projected at right angles on each side of the wall. The projected ends of needle beams are
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supported on heavy shores to transfer the loads to the ground and hence are made to rest
on a sole plate, firmly bedded on the ground.
 The shores are removed only after the new construction work has attained sufficient
strength and this period of removal usually is not less than 7 days.
 The sequence of removal of shoring system should be needles first and then strutting from
openings and floor strutting inside the building.
Sometimes, raking shores (Figure 1.7c) are provided to support the wall from above the proposed
opening to safeguard against shocks and vibrations during wall cutting. If raking shores are used,
they should be removed after the whole dead-shore system is removed.
Fig. 1.7b Dead shores for creating an opening
Raking Shores
Raking shores is a system of giving temporary support to an unsafe wall.

The construction of raking shores, also known as inclined shore, varies with the conditions of site.
In all cases wall-plate 230mm x 500mm to 230mm x 760mm in size is fixed against the unsafe
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wall with hooks. The wall-plate is further secured to the wall by means of needles. The needles
which are 100mm x 760mm in section, penetrate inside the wall for a distance of about 100mm.
In turn, the needles are strengthened by providing cleats. The top end of the inclined rakers rest
against the needles. At their base the rakers are supported by a sole piece bedded in an inclined
position in the ground. The rakers are secured to the sole piece by cleats. In soft ground the area
of the sole piece is increased so as to distribute the pressure over large area. In places where more
rakers are provided, they are bound together by means of hoop iron or braces 250mm. thick and
150mm. wide. The inclination of the outer raker to the ground should vary between 60o to 75°. The
sets of shores should be usually placed at least 3m center to center along the wall length.
Fig 1.7c: Raking Shore

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Flying Shores
This is referred to as horizontal support between two buildings that gives temporary support to one
or both of them, see Figure 1.7d. These types of shores are only possible of course where the gap
between the two buildings is quite small. If they can be used then they do have the advantage of
allowing passage under them, where raking shore do take up a lot of room and obstruct
construction operations. The recommended length of flying shores is up to 10m.
The details of the joints and needles etc. are similar to those on the raking shore details.
Fig. 1.7d Singly Flying Shore
Double or compound flying shores are used in cases where the distance is more, see Figure 1.7e.
They are limited to 10m.
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Fig. 1.7e Double Flying Shore
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2.0. SPECIAL CONSTRUCTION
2.1 Sound
Sound is a pressure wave created by a vibrating object. All sounds are produced by a vibrating
object which causes tiny particles of air around it to move in all directions and in unison. These
displaced particles insert a force on adjacent air particles inform of kinetic energy, setting them
into motion and in unison with vibrating objects. This chain causes a sound wave which travels in
air until it’s heard by the human ear.
For example, if you bang a drum, you make the tight skin vibrate at very high speed (it's so fast
that you can't usually see it) forcing the air all around it to vibrate as well. As the air moves, it
carries energy from the drum in all directions. Eventually, even the air inside your ears starts
vibrating and that's when you begin to perceive the vibrating drum as a sound.
Acoustics is the science of sound. The awareness of this science is necessary for the proper
functional design of theatres, cinema halls, auditoriums, conference halls, hospitals, buildings,
radio and TV stations, etc. so that unwanted sound is excluded or reduced or insulated.
A sound's loudness is measured in decibels (dB). Normal conversation is about 60 dB, a lawn
mower is about 89 dB, and a loud rock concert is about 110 dB. In general, sounds above 85 dB
(see Table 2.1) are harmful, depending on how long and how often you are exposed to it.
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Table 2.1: Noise levels of a number of sounds
Source (https://www.healthlinkbc.ca/health-topics/tf4173)
When the sound waves are periodic, regular and long continued, they produce a pleasing effect;
such a sound is known as musical sound. On the contrary, when the sound wave is non periodic,
irregular and of very short duration, it produces displeasing effect; such sound is known as noise.
The speed of sound depends upon the nature (elastic and density properties), temperature of the
medium through which it travels and air pressure. It travels much faster in solids followed by
liquids and lastly in air (gases). The velocity of sound in air depends upon moisture and
temperature of air. The velocity of sound in atmospheric air at 200C is 344m/sec while that in
bricks and concrete is 4300 and 4000m/sec respectively. The speed of sound is lowest in
atmospheric air at freezing temperatures (331m/s), see Figure 2.1 below.
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Fig. 2.1 Differences in the speed of sound when the temperature is changed.
𝑚⁄𝑠
Speed of sound, 𝑣 = 331 𝑚⁄𝑠 + 0.6 ×𝑇℃
℃
v is the average speed of sound and T is the temperature of the air.
Suppose that two volumes of a substance such as air have different densities. We know that denser
substances must have more mass per unit volume. More molecules are squeezed into the same
volume, therefore, the molecules are closer together and their bonds are stronger. Since sound is
more easily transmitted between particles with strong bonds, sound travels faster through denser
air. However, you may have noticed from Figure 2.1 above that sound travels faster in the warmer
45oC air than in the cooler 21oC air. This doesn't seem right because cooler air is denser. However,
in gases, an increase in temperature causes the molecules to move faster and this accounts for the
increase in the speed of sound.
https://www.nde-ed.org/Physics/Sound/components.xhtml.
Sound cannot travel in a vacuum. For sound to be audible, the sound source and ear must be
connected by an uninterrupted series of portions of elastic matter (particles), you can call them
atoms or molecules (see Figure 2.2). Reverberation refers to the persistence of sound even after
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the source of sound is ceased. This has been generally noticed in public halls, auditoriums and
churches. This is as a result of multiple reflections in an echoed space.
Sound waves develop in a compressible medium, such as air, when there are very short variations
in pressure. A sound is what the ear perceives from this fluctuation. If the wave created by a sound
source crosses the medium and arrives straight at the listener, then we call this a direct sound or a
dry sound. By contrast, sound waves generally don’t reach the listener directly. Instead, they are
reflected by an obstacle (e.g. wall, floor, and object). This phenomenon is what we call an echo.
What’s more, if the sound wave is reflected several times before reaching the ear, we call this a
reverberation. Figure 2.2 helps to differentiate the three types of sound perceived when you listen
to guitarists as they play on stage.
Fig. 2.2 Three types of sound perceived by the ear.
2.1.1 Noise.
Noise is defined as any unwanted sound that you do not need or want to hear. A sound level meter
is used to measure noise. However, different meters are used to measure different types of noise
for accurate results.
Noise can be categorised as continuous, intermittent, impulsive and low frequency noise.
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By understanding these categorizations, you’ll better understand the measures you can take to
protect your hearing.
 Continuous noise
Continuous noise comes from objects or machines that run without interruption, e.g. machinery
that keeps running without interruption. This could come from factory equipment, engine noise or
heating and ventilation systems, etc.
 Intermittent noise
Intermittent noises are infrequent but regular. This might be caused by a train passing by, factory
equipment that operates in cycles, or aircraft flying above your house for settlers near airports.
 Impulsive noise
An impulsive noise, on the other hand, is abrupt or sudden. Impulsive noises commonly originate
from e.g. a boom or loud bursts from construction sites e.g. construction equipment, such as pile
drivers, or neighbours, or strangers shouting on the street.
 Low-frequency noise
This comes from objects around us in everyday life. It is one of the hardest types of noise to reduce,
and it makes a seemingly silent room still register sound levels around 30-40 decibels. Continuous
noise can be categorised as low frequency noise depending on its magnitude (dB). In a home, it
may come from the ticking on a grandfather clock, conversations, etc. Generally, we don’t even
recognize these types of noise unless we direct our attention towards them.
Sounds are either

 Impact sound (due to the impact on solids or solid vibration) or
 Air-borne sound (due to the vibration of the air e.g. conversations etc.).
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The source of the noise in a room can fall into one of two types as shown in Figure 2.3.
Fig. 2.3 Sources of noise into a room
The line on the left hand side of Figure 2.3 represents sound from outside the room coming in.
Some of it will be absorbed by the wall, but this is, for example, when you can hear traffic from
the road, or noise from your neighbour. The sound waves these sources create are coming through
the walls, floors, ceilings, doors and windows.
The line on the right hand side is sound generated from within the room itself, which reflects off
the walls and ceilings (and floors if it is a solid floor). This might be music, people talking, or
appliances such as washing machines and vacuum cleaners, children playing etc.
Since the two types of noise are different, we have to take a slightly different approach to reducing
it through:
 Stopping noise from coming through walls by using an insulating material (thick, dense
material); using a variety of materials in construction, as different materials have different
insulation properties; use of barrier walls e.g. boundary walls; use of an unconnected
structure e.g. cavity walls. This is the best way to insulate the solid-borne sound.
Sound insulation is a kind of measure to prevent sound waves from permeating.
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 Stopping noise from bouncing off walls by using specialised materials e.g. fibre glass, soft
furnishings, acoustic paint, etc., that will bounce the noise around within its structure rather
than reflect it back into the room. Because they need to be directly in the line of the noise,
they cannot be hidden within walls or ceilings, this means they are usually available in a
variety of styles and colours to try and complement the room.
2.1.3. How to achieve sound insulation and sound absorption
a) In Walls.
 Wall thickness. The wall must be of adequate thickness. This relays on mass.
 Cavity wall construction.
 Use of a drywall e.g. gypsum wall boards increase the thickness of wall.
 Masonry construction between isolating panels (Figure 2.4a).
 Use of insulation material in the space between timber stud (Figure 2.4b).
 Apply specially formulated acoustical paint to your interior walls to reduce noise by up to
30 percent which may contain components like sound-absorbing resins, fillers (ceramic
microspheres) that can improve the soundproofing of your walls.
 Acoustical wallpaper helps to absorb sound in walls by reducing noise by up to 75 percent.
 Sealing cracks and gaps in walls using an acoustic sealant.
 Use of blankets.
Timber frame wall construction.
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Fig. 2.4 Sound insulation and absorption in walls
Examples of insulation material include fibre glass insulation (foam or fibres, panels), rock foam.
Fibre glass insulation is a mixture of recycled glass and sand.
Rock foam is a mixture of rock and slag (recycled metal). It is also called mineral wool.
Video on walls
b) Floors
Concrete floor (soft covering)
Concrete floating floor (with a floating layer)
Fig. 2.5 Sound insulation and absorption in floors
c) Ceiling
Fig. 2.6 Sound insulation and absorption in ceiling

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Video on floors/ceilings
d) Doors
There are two ways through which sound travels through doors:-
 Sound transmission through the door its self and
 The gaps along the sides and bottom of the door. Mainly the gap at the bottom
of the door is the biggest source of sound leakage.
The following can be applied to reduce on sound transmission: -
 Increasing the mass of the door to an amount which would provide a standard which is
equal to the adjoining wall would make it very difficult for sound to move and to open the
door.
 Use of solid instead of panelled doors. Fibreboards have better sound insulation than
natural solid doors.
 Use of acoustic chalk and door gaskets around the joint between the door frame and wall.
 Sound insulation in doors can also be achieved by introducing a compression seal.
 Use of curtains.
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Fig. 2.7 Sound insulation in doors
e) Windows
For windows, double glazing may be adopted to improve on sound insulation.
Fig. 2.8 Sound insulation in windows
2.2 Fire
With today’s development and increased population, space for constructing buildings is reduced
day by day with the construction of high-rise buildings and electro fittings. These factors greatly
increase the chances of fire in buildings. Some of the combustible materials when stored carelessly
also cause fire. Today’s architects and engineers design plans and orient buildings in such a way
that safety of the users of the buildings is assured against a fire outbreak.
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There are three essential fire catalysts: -
 Fuel (organic material).

 Heat (the correct temperature to promote combustion of fuel).
 Oxygen to support combustion.
If you remove any of the above essentials, combustion cannot take place.
Therefore, these catalysts of fire provide the basic for; -
 Fire prevention
 Fire protection and
 Fire fighting
There is no material especially amongst the building materials which may be considered fire
protective. What can be done is to improve fire spread within reasonable limits by adopting
construction materials with respect to their dimensions that are comparatively more resistant to
fire.
The international fire prevention congress (1903) recommended the use of the term resistance in
the place of fire proofing. Fire proofing is neither possible nor required.
Fire resistance enables the evacuation of people from the building, protects life, goods (property)
and activities in the building.
2.2.1 Factors to consider when designing for fire
 It’s costly to protect the whole building it against fire. This is because the amount spent in
making the structure fire resistant should be relative to the loss that might occur in case of
fire.
 It’s not always true that non-combustible materials possess more power to resist a fire e.g.
metal, sheet glass etc.
 The degree of fire resistance required depends on the purpose of the building e.g. town
hall, cinema hall, theatres etc. require greater degree of fire resistance than a ware house or
store because of the population they hold.
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2.2.2 Measures to limit the spread of fire
 Firefighting equipment. Fire extinguishers, fire hydrants, sprinklers (they detect smoke),
sand buckets etc.
 Selective use of construction materials.
 Use fire-rated barriers e.g. fire doors (FD30, FD60).
 Provisions of means of escape in private and public settings.
 Subdivision of buildings into blocks.
2.2.3 Fire resistance construction
i. Load Bearing Walls

 In construction of load bearing walls, burnt clay bricks should be used in preference
to stones.
 Increased wall thickness also increases the fire resistance properties of the wall.
 The surfaces of walls should be plastered with fire resistant mortar (e.g. Gypsum
plaster).
 If the walls are made of concrete, we use light weight concrete (300-2000kg/m3)
with a thermal conductivity (0.2-1.0 W/mK) rather than dense walls (2100 –
2500 kg/m3) with a thermal conductivity (1.6–1.9 W/mK).
 Hollow blocks are better fire barriers.
ii. Partition walls
 The height of the partition has to go up to the ceiling.
 The materials to be used may include but not limited to: reinforced concrete, metal
lath and plaster, plywood, fibreboards and hollow clay blocks, etc.
 If one is to use timber, additionally use metal lath and plaster.
iii. Common walls (Party walls)

 The thickness of the walls should not be less than 2 bricks i.e. (102.5mmx2).
 The wall should be raised above the roof level by about 900mm.
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iv. Floors
Timber floors. Use of cement particle boards but reinforced concrete is preferred to all
other floors with hollow block construction.
iv. Openings
Dimensions of doors and window openings should be kept to minimum standards.
v. Doors
 Doors should be stable and integral. A door set 30/20 resists collapse in 30minutes
but allows flames or hot gases to leave out in 20 minutes.
 The thickness of the timber shutters of doors should not be less than 40mm.
 Doors must be tested in conjunction with their frames because fire or smoke or both
may escape through the door frame yet there has to be a gap between the door and
the door frame to allow for the door to open. This is achieved by using a heat
activated sealing system which operates on a mechanism of melting and sealing the
gap when it detects a fire and the common one in use is the intumescent strip
where one or two strips are fitted on either the door frame or door (Figure 2.9).
These swell when they reach a temperature of about 200-2500c. An intumescent
strip is a plastic extrusion containing a core of intumescent material that swells as
a result of high temperature thus increasing in volume and reducing in density. It
can be either plain (fire only) or supplied with a brush or fin or flipper (fire and
smoke) to give cold smoke protection. Fire doors can be made of steel or timber;
however, steel doors provide a greater fire integrity. Fire doors are typically
designed for a minimum fire integrity of thirty minutes.
 Gaps around doors should be limited between 3-4mm to limit the spread of fire
/smoke.
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Points of weakness with respect to the door are:
 Hinges and latches or locks. In this case hinges have to be of a narrow blade so
that the intumescent strip is not covered and the others may be painted or covered
with intumescent paint or paste.
 The gap between the frame and brick jamb. This gap should be accurately filled
and fixed. The gap should be filled with mortar, mineral wool, an architrave, lining
or intumescent strip. The area of fire resting door should not be greater than 6m2.
Fig 2.9a: Fire protection on doors
Fig. 2.9b: Intumescent strip in door frame. Fig. 2.9c: Intumescent strip and smoke seal
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vi. Windows
Fire resistant windows consist of 6mm reinforced glass panels and as far as possible windows
should have a metal frame with steel shutters.
vii. Ceiling
It should be made fire resistant by using: -
 Fibre boards
 Metal lath and plaster
 Fibre glass insulation
viii. Roofs
Flat roofs are preferred to as pitched roofs in case of fire-resistant structures.
ix. Means of Escape
Doors and windows for storeyed buildings should be properly positioned and having the right
direction of opening and as quick as possible.
Stairs and lifts should be wisely located and their walls should be given a highly fire-resistant
treatment.
x. Alarm Systems
It gives information to occupants and sends the information in case of a fire outbreak to the nearest
control room.
xi. Internal Hydrants
A number of hydrants may be located in the premise of the building so that water may be easily
accessible to short reaches for firefighting.
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Sprinklers/automatic fire extinguishers are used in hotels, textile mills, and public places etc.
Overhead pipes of 20-25mm are provided with in the structure and the pipes have small
perforations to release water.
The entire system is connected to a heat activated device (sprinkler heads) at regular intervals. The
sprinkler heads are fitted with fusible plugs and in case of fire the fusible plugs melt and the water
starts pouring on the source of fire.
2.3 Heat
2.3.1 Thermal insulation
Heat is usually unwelcome. It not only increases the load on the HVAC system resulting in more
energy wasted but also reduces the thermal comfort of people in the building. Thermal insulation
in buildings is an important factor in achieving thermal comfort for its occupants.
Thermal insulation refers to the reduction in energy consumption in buildings by preventing heat
gain/loss through the building envelope i.e. walls, floors, windows, doors, roofs. Heat transfer is
caused by the temperature difference between indoors and outdoors. Thermal insulation can be
achieved if the levels of thermal transmittance are controlled to the required levels.
Thermal transmittance is the rate of heat transfer through matter. This could be through
conduction, convection (liquids and gases), and radiation (vacuums).
Well-insulated parts of a building have a low thermal transmittance whereas poorly insulated parts
of a building have a high thermal transmittance.
The thermal transmittance of a material (such as insulation or concrete) or an assembly (such as a

wall or window) is expressed as a U-value.
The rules give maximum allowable thermal transmittance coefficient or U values of different
construction materials as seen in Table 2.2.
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Table 2.2: Maximum allowable thermal transmittance coefficient.
(Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermal_transmittance)
Part of the building U value (W/m2.K)
Single glazed windows, allowing for frames 4.5
Double glazed windows, allowing for frames 3.3
Double glazed windows with advanced 2.2
coatings
Double glazed windows with advanced 1.2
coatings and frames
Triple glazed windows, allowing for frames 1.8
Triple glazed windows, with advanced 0.8
coatings and frames
Well-insulated roofs 0.15
Poorly insulated roofs 1.0
Well-insulated walls 0.25
Poorly insulated walls 1.5
Well insulated floors 0.2
Poorly insulated floors 1.0
W/m2.K = watts per square metre times Kelvin.

How thermal transmittance is calculated:
The general formula for calculating the U-Value is:
U = 1/Rt
Where:
U = Thermal Transmittance (W/m²·K)
Rt = Total thermal resistance of the element composed of layers (m²·K/W), obtained according
to:
Rt = Rsi + R1 + R2 + R3 + ... + Rn + Rse
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Where:
Rsi = Interior surface thermal Resistance.
Rse = Exterior surface thermal Resistance.
R1, R2, R3, Rn = Thermal Resistance of each layer, which is obtained according to:
R=D/λ
Where:
D = Material Thickness (m).
λ = Thermal Conductivity of the Material (W/K·m).
The Thermal Transmittance is inversely proportional to the Thermal Resistance: the greater the
thermal resistance of the materials that make up an envelope, the lower the amount of heat that is
lost through it.
U = 1/R
In practice, thermal transmittance is strongly affected by the quality of workmanship and insulation
material. Thermal transmittance can be considerably higher if insulation is fitted well.
The degree of thermal transmittance is the summation of individual transmittances or reciprocal

resistances of each material.
Materials and Methods of Thermal Insulation of Buildings
There are many forms of thermal insulation materials available on market e.g.:
Blanket insulation, loose fill insulation, bat insulating materials, insulating boards, reflective sheet
materials, sprayed foam insulation and lightweight materials etc.
 Blanket Insulation
Blanket insulation materials are available in blanket shape which usually come in rolls with a foil
backing directly spread over the wall or ceilings. They are flexible and have a thickness of about
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12 to 80mm. These blankets are made of animal hair or cotton or wood fibres, fibre glass, mineral
wool etc., see Figure 2.10.
Fig. 2.10 Blanket insulation
 Loose Fill Insulation
One of the most common forms of insulation is loose-fill and blown-in cavity wall insulation.
Loose-fill takes the form of small particles that form a material that can conform to any space
without disturbing structures. The most commonly used material for this type of insulation is
cellulose (wood or paper based), fibreglass and mineral rock wool which are all produced from
recycled material. Loose-fill will typically be installed in wall cavities and attics/lofts and a pipe
is used to install it.
 Bat Insulating Materials

These are also available as blanket rolls but bat insulating rolls have more thickness than blanket
type materials. These are also spread over the walls or ceilings.
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Fig. 2.11 Bat insulating Material
 Insulating Boards
Insulating boards are made from pulp of wood (saw dust), mineral wool, cork board, cellular
rubber, cane or other materials. These material is pressed hard with an adhesive and some stress at
a suitable temperature to make it as a solid board. They are available in many sizes in the market.
And these are generally provided for interior lining of walls as well as for partition walls and
ceilings. These are fixed to the walls and roofs to prevent heat loss and maintain the required
temperature.
Fig. 2.12 Example of an Insulating Board
 Reflective Sheet Materials
Reflective sheet materials like aluminum foil sheets, polyurethane oil bubble sun reflective
material, etc. will have more reflectivity and low emissivity. So these materials have high heat
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resistance. The heat gets reduced when solar energy strikes and gets reflected. These are fixed
outside of the structure to stop the heat entrance into the building.
Fig 2.13 Reflective sheet insulation material
 Sprayed foam insulation
Sprayed foam is also a common insulation and works in a similar way with liquid foam being
poured or injected in place into wall cavities making it very versatile. Sprayed in foam is installed
using a foaming agent and will expand and become solid as the mixture cures. Slow curing foams
are available which will flow around any obstructions inside the wall cavity before hardening.
Fig. 2.14 Sprayed foam insulation
Video on foam spray heat insulation (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8jt-1-EgB6Q).
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 Lightweight Materials
By using light weight aggregates while preparing concrete mixture will result in low heat
transmittance. Concrete will have more heat resistance if it is made of light weight aggregates like
blast furnace slag, vermiculite, burnt clay aggregates etc. However, at very high temperatures,
normal concrete has a better performance since light weight concrete has a challenge of spalling.
Other general methods of thermal insulation in buildings
Without using any thermal insulating materials as said above we can achieve the thermal insulation
from the following methods: -
 Providing roof shading
By providing roof shading for the building at locations where the sun directly strikes the building
during peak hours can reduce heat. Additionally an appropriate angle should be provided for
shading to prevent sun light.
 Proper height of ceiling (Headroom)
The heat gets absorbed by the ceiling and emitted downwards into the building. But it should be
noted that, the vertical gradient of radiation intensity is not significant beyond 1 to 1.3m. It means
heat can travel 1 to 1.3m downward from the ceiling. Heat transmittance will be reduced by
providing a ceiling at height of 1 to 1.3m from the height of occupant.
 Orientation of the building
The building orientation with respect to the sun is an important thing. The building should be
constructed in such a way that it should not be subjected to more heat. Buildings should not be
constructed facing the east, the direction in which the sun rises. The shorter side of the building of
the building should face east west direction.
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a) Thermal Insulation to Roofs
Much of the heat (up to 25%) lost in houses escapes through the roof due to the fact that hot air
heat rises due to its low density. Thermal design is concerned with the flow of both heat and water
vapour through the roof construction and their subsequent effect on the performance of the roof
and the various components in the system. The designer therefore needs to consider the amount of
insulation required to control both heat loss and condensation.
Insulation Envelope
This refers to components of the structure that require insulation.
 In flat roofs
In flat roof construction (pitch < 10o to the horizontal), thermal insulation can be placed above or
below the structural roof/deck. Timber roofs are a better option for thermal insulation.
Above the roof (warm flat roof insulation)
The insulation is placed between the roof and the waterproofing material. It is necessary to
incorporate a vapour control layer/vapour barrier (VCL) beneath the insulation in order to prevent
vapour from being forced into the insulation due to thermal pressure from within the building. The
waterproofing membranes are placed over the insulation to completely encapsulate it.
There is no requirement for roof void ventilation. In case of any cold bridging through the system,
it is easier to eliminate because there are no interruptions from the structural supports as there is
in cold roof construction. This is the most widely used type of flat roof construction, due to the
simplicity of its design, and its suitability for most building types.
Warm flat roofs also known as built-up roofs (BUR) can be installed on most modern construction
material types such as concrete, timber and timber based sheets (plywood, MDF, HDF, etc.).
Profiled metal decks can be used if the insulation selected can provide enough rigidity to span the
open sections of such decks. A detailed study should be carried if profiled steel decks with a wider
open area or “trough” are to be used.
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BUR type of insulation is recommended for new construction. Figure 2.15 below shows a warm
flat roof deck insulation.
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Fig 2.15 Warm flat roof insulation
This insulation can also be called inverted if the insulation for example is placed above the
structural roof/deck.
Below the Roof (cold flat roof insulation)
The insulation is placed below the structural roof/deck i.e. between the joists or the roof void. It is
mainly applicable to existing structures. A gap of at least 50mm is required between the insulation
and the deck to allow for ventilation. Cold flat roofs are typically avoided since there would be
need to provide for ventilation, which can prove problematic for many reasons relating to space,
labour costs, etc.
Fig 2.16: Cold flat roof ventilation

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Pitched Roofs
 Pitched Roof Insulation
The primary function of a pitched roof is to drive water/ice off the structure; however, it has also
become an increasingly important element when considering the most cost-effective ways in which
energy use in dwellings can be saved. Heat is lost more through the roof and the walls. So energy
efficient measures have to be undertaken to reduce heat loss if thermal insulation is a major
concern.
The choice of the position of insulation in pitched roofs can be in two forms:
i) At Rafter Level (Warm Pitched Roof)
The enclosed roof space in many dwellings is increasingly being recognized as a potential area
that can be used as a habitable space where insulation is placed in the slope of the roof at rafter
level. This type of insulation is the most common and additionally provides warmth to rafters. It
is known as a ‘warm pitched roof’. Figure 2.17 shows the cold and warm pitched roof insulation
respectively.
ii) At Ceiling Level (Cold Pitched Roof)
Pitched roofs have traditionally been insulated at ceiling level, i.e. between the ceiling joists. This
is known as a ‘cold pitched roof’.
Fig. 2.17 Cold and Warm Pitched Roof Insulation
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Warm Pitched Roof
In warm pitched roof construction, the insulation is placed in the rafter line. The position of the
insulation can be wholly above or partially between and above the rafter. Alternatively, it can be
positioned in between the rafters (same thickness as the rafters) or partially between and below the
rafter.
Additionally, an underlay is used. This material is used to protect the roof from weather i.e. wind
and rain. This material can either be High water vapour resistance (non-permeable) or Low water
vapour resistance (permeable).
Where high water vapour resistance (HR) underlays e.g. traditional bituminous membranes are
used, an adequate ventilation space (of at least 50mm) between the cold side of the insulation and
the underlay must be provided to facilitate dissipation of water vapor to the external environment
by letting in air from outside thus creating a pressure difference, see Figure 2.18. According to BS
5534, High water vapour resistance (type HR) underlays have a water vapour resistance in excess
of 50 MNs/g, which effectively prevent the transfer of water vapour.
Low water vapour resistance (vapor-permeable or breathable) underlays e.g. polypropylene,

polyethylene are porous thus allowing far greater moisture (vapor) to pass through them, making
it crucial that there is adequate air movement above (Figure 2.18). According to BS 5534, Low
water vapour resistance (type LR) underlays have a water vapour resistance of at most 0.25 MNs/g,
which allows the transfer of water vapour.
These types of underlay should also comply with BS EN 13859-1. BS 5534, revised and published
in February 2018 recommends a maximum drape (sag) of 15mm for the underlay to prevent wind
load transfer to the roof covering and water ponding.
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Fig. 2.18
For unventilated roofs (with a breathable underlay), counter-battens are recommended. A counter
batten is a strip of square timber which is nailed onto a rafter (Figure 2.19) to provide some distance
between a breathable underlay and a batten. Counter-battens allow the water penetrating under the
tiles/slates to flow over the breathable underlay without any obstruction, such as battens fixed
directly to rafters. It also provides the necessary ventilation space for the roof covering.
Fig. 2.19
Generally, adequate ventilation is facilitated by openings situated at the eaves and the ridge of the
roof. Ventilation reduces the chances of condensation which could lead to molding and rotting of
the roof structure. The size of the openings may vary depending on the roof pitch, span and
configuration (shape). The ventilation requirements for roofs with a double pitch are shown in
Figure 2.20.
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Ventilation openings must be insect proof by applying a 3mm or 4mm mesh across the ventilation
holes. Access (loft) hatches (access door) are particularly problematic thus requiring perimeter
sealing to avoid air leakage. The loft hatch should also be insulated to a minimum depth of 50mm.
A vapor control layer (e.g. plasterboards, insulating boards etc.) should be positioned on the warm
side of the insulation for all roof types to prevent large volumes of water vapor entering the roof
structure from the interior, while also helping reduce heat loss through the roof. This should not
be confused with the non-breathable membrane which is located on the cold side of the insulation.
Fig 2.20: Warm Roof Ventilation
Where ventilation is not adequate, roofs require breathable undelays. All the above considerations
depend on specific building regulations.
Cold Pitched Roof
Here the insulation is normally placed at ceiling joist level. This type of insulation system can be
ventilated (non-breathable) or not ventilated (breathable), see Figure 2.21, although non-breathable
insulation is mainly used here since there is adequate ventilation within the attic/loft.
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Fig. 2.21 Cold Pitched Roof Ventilation
To avoid thermal bridging, the roof insulation should butt up to or lap the wall insulation. In cold
roofs, this may be achieved in practice by placing a short length of insulation over the wall plate
(and cavity closer, where applicable) immediately before the underlay is fixed.
Large ‘cold pitched roof’ voids can be used to locate services such as water storage tanks &
associated pipes, ventilation ducts, electrical cables and recessed light fittings. Where this is the
case, all gaps and holes around service that pass into the cold roof via the ceiling should be sealed
to restrict the amount of water vapor that enters the loft space. Ducts may have to be insulated to
prevent moisture from condensing inside the ducts.
Videos and References
Attic insulation (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6F_IkZJ8NOY)
Roof ventilation (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QEPzyrynU6Q)
https://www.bauder.co.uk/technical-centre/design-considerations/flat-roof-design-
considerations/thermal-design-insulation-and-consideration
https://www.greenspec.co.uk/building-design/ventilated-roof-insulation/
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https://www.kingspan.com/gb/en-gb/products/insulation-boards/insulation-technical-
hub/articles-and-advice/why-are-counter-battens-used-in-pitched-roofs
https://nhbc-standards.co.uk/7-roofs/7-1-flat-roofs-and-balconies/7-1-11-thermal-insulation-and-
vapour-control/
b) Thermal insulation to walls
The minimum thermal performance standards for exposed walls should meet building regulations.
The usual methods require careful specification, detail and construction of the wall fabric,
insulating materials and/or applied finishes, see Figure 2.22.
Fig. 2.22 Different types of wall insulation

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Typically the U-values for walls are:
Solid brick wall - 2.0 W/m2K, cavity wall with no insulation - 1.5 W/m2K, insulated cavity wall -
0.3 W/m2K or less.
2.4 Cavity wall and Floor construction
2.4.1 A cavity wall

A cavity wall is a double wall consisting of two separate walls, called “skins”, “leaves” or “wythes”
of masonry separated by an air space/void and joined together by metal ties at suitable intervals.
The walls are formed by units such as bricks, stones or blocks.
The small space between two leaves of the cavity wall is left for insulation purpose. The outer wall
is called an external leaf, and the inner wall is called an internal leaf. The empty space or cavity
size should be in between 40 to 100mm.
Cavity walls are useful in two ways:

The cavity prevents dampness from the outer leaf percolating into the inner leaf.
They provide excellent insulation from heat and sound. The wider the cavity the better the
insulation.
However, when used in tropical countries, sufficient precautions must be taken to see that they do
not become breeding places for lizards, insects, etc.
Masonry is an absorbent material and therefore slowly draws rainwater or humidity into the wall.
Most masonry is porous to some degree, and sooner or later, especially with weak, or incorrectly
constructed joints, that masonry will let in water. Without a barrier of some kind, there is a chance
that water will work its way indoors, however thick the wall may be. By inserting a cavity, to some
extent this is reduced. However, the cavity has to be bridged i.e. the two leaves, or skins, of the
wall have to be connected to act as one. Figure 2.23 below shows a section through a typical cavity
wall.
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Fig. 2.23 A Cavity wall
Metal (Wall) ties
Wall ties are made of steel or non-ferrous metal and should be used with respect to the designer’s
specifications.
These are placed in between the two leaves and help to tie the two together and stop one from
moving independent of the other. They usually extend from the interior wall through the outer wall
with a weep hole connected at its rear end (outer leaf) to allow water to drain out.
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 Wall ties should be built in and not pushed into the mortar joint after construction.
 They should be placed sloping downwards towards the outer wall.
 Should have a drip (Figure 2.24a). The drip should be at the center and should be facing
downwards. This allows water to form on this part of the tie and, given that water cannot
run uphill, it will drip off at the lowest point.
 Should not have mortar droppings on.
 They should be embedded into each leaf by a minimum of 50mm, see Figure 2.24b.
Fig. 2.24a Some types of metal ties
Fig. 2.24b Minimum bed length for metal ties
From Table 2.3 and Figure 2.25;

 Ties should be placed at most 900mm centers horizontally, and 450mm vertically and
should be staggered.
 At the sides of openings, movement joints, etc. ties should be placed within 225mm
horizontally from the opening and at most 300mm vertically.
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 At the top and bottom of openings, ties should be placed at most 450mm apart horizontally.
Table 2.3 Maximum tie spacing in cavity walls
Figure 2.25 Placing horizontal and vertical ties
Weep holes
These are drainage holes left in the outer leaf of the cavity wall to provide an exit for water out of
the cavity. They are normally located at the bottom of the wall where water collects or above
openings to drain off any moisture.
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Usually, weep holes are created by provision of vertical several voids approximately two meters
apart, see Figure 2.26.
Fig 2.26a A weep hole
Weep holes can also be made of plastic weep vents, which are built into the outer leaf joint to
allow for easier passage of water out of the wall (Figure 2.26b).
Fig 2.26b Examples of weep vents
Cavity Insulation
In modern cavity wall construction, cavity insulation is typically added. This construction makes
it possible to add a continuous insulation layer between the two leaves for horizontal (walls) and
vertically (lintels) insulation.
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Insulation can be placed in cavities in two ways. Either it can fill the cavity completely, or it can
be a partial fill, see Figure 2.27.
Partial fill allows the remainder of the cavity to be ventilated without significant heat loss. Clips
are used to stop the insulation from "leaning" over and bridging the cavity. The clips should be
compatible with the ties. Unless the independent assessment states otherwise, where partial cavity
fill is being used the wall ties should be spaced more closely to provide adequate support and
restraint for the 1200mm long boards. Ties should be spaced at 600mm centers horizontally and
vertically and not staggered.
If a complete cavity fill is required, great care must be taken in this case to ensure that a path is
not created for the penetration of moisture from the outer leaf to the inner one. Insulation used for
sound can be used for walls and floors.
Fig. 2.27 Cavity wall insulation
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As warm moist internal air permeates through the structure of the wall towards the outside, it will
tend to cool. When it reaches its ‘dew point’ temperature, moisture will begin to condense as water.
If this happens within the structure of the wall, this is known as interstitial condensation, and if
this occurs within the inner skin of the wall, this can cause problems such as: mold growth,
migration of salts, mildew and staining; corrosion and decay of the building fabric; poor
performance of insulation.
To prevent this, Vapour Control Layers (VCL)/ vapour barriers or Air and Vapour Control Layers
(AVCL) or are positioned on the warm side of the cavity insulation, (i.e. between the insulation
and the inner masonry skin), preventing the warm moist air from penetrating to a point where it
might reach its dew point temperature.
Air vent:
These are found below the DPC and to a large degree, where a hollow floor (normally of a timber
construction) needs to be ventilated. The reason for this, is to prevent water ingress into the wall
through the top part of the air vent.
These bridge the cavity as a continuous duct by joining the inlet and outlet of the openings.
Traditionally air vents (bricks) were made of clay, also cast iron was used but latest models are
made of plastic, which are less easily broken, and can also allow a greater airflow than the old clay
versions. They facilitate flow of air from the outside to the inside of the building. These ducts must
be inserted with a fall towards the outer skin of the wall.
Air vents are sometimes known as air bricks. The recommended spacing for air bricks is 1800mm.
The vents can also be made of hollow bricks. The construction of this air passage can be made in
individual components and some of these are shown below (Fig 2.28).
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Fig. 2.28 Air vents
DPC and Cavity Trays:
DPCs and related components are provided to prevent moisture rising or entering the building.
Issues to be taken into account include:-Provision of DPCs and cavity trays, Stepped cavity trays
and Parapet details.
Materials for use as DPC are Bitumen to BS 6398 and Polyethylene to BS 6515 (except below
copings and in parapets). Table 2.4 shows general positions for DPCs and cavity trays.
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DPCs and cavity trays shall be installed to prevent moisture entering the building. Items to be
taken into account include:
(a) Horizontal DPCs

DPCs and cavity trays should be in one continuous piece, whenever possible. Joints in horizontal
wall DPCs positioned to prevent rising damp should be lapped 100mm or sealed or welded. The
manufacturer’s recommendations should be checked. Elsewhere, joints in DPCs and cavity trays
should be sealed to prevent water seeping through the joints. At ground level, all parts of the DPC
should be at least 150mm above finished ground or paving level, see Figure 2.29.
Fig. 2.29
DPCs should:
Be laid on a surface, free from projections which could puncture or adversely affect it.
Be fully bedded on fresh mortar where required by the design, or where the building is over three
storeys in height.
Be of correct width,
Not project into the cavity
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Not be set back from the edge of the masonry.
Lap the DPM, see Figure 2.30.
The concrete fill in a cavity wall should stop at least 225mm below the base DPC. This may be
reduced to 150mm where special foundations, such as rafts, are used, see Figure 2.30.
Fig. 2.30
(b) DPC in parapet walls

Parapet walls should have: a DPC under the coping, and a DPC tray starting 150mm minimum
above the roof. The coping throating should be clear of the brickwork. All dpcs should be fully
bedded in mortar, see Figure 2.31.
Fig. 2.31
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(c) DPCs around openings
A DPC (either separate or combined as part of a proprietary cavity closer) should be provided at
jambs of openings and at heads and sills as required by the design, see Figure 2.32.
Fig. 2.32
Cavities around openings are required to be closed to prevent ingress of moisture. Where a cavity
is closed vertically, it is most often done using the bricks or blocks that the wall is built from. This
would of course bridge the cavity and a vertical damp proof course must be installed, see Fig 2.33.
A vertical DPC, 150mm wide is required. The DPC should protrude into the cavity by an extra
width of about 25mm and extend up to the underside of the lintel where it should be turned back
towards the inner leaf (Figure 2.34b).
Fig 2.34 vertical damp proofing of a cavity
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(d) Cavity trays
Cavity trays are used to drain water outwards above openings. Cavity trays over lintels should
extend at least 25mm beyond the outer face of the cavity closer and cover the ends of the lintel.
Where the lintel does not require a DPC, the lintel itself should have a suitable profile and
durability and give complete protection to the top of the reveal and vertical dpc where provided.
Fig. 2.35 Cavity tray section and plan
Where fair faced masonry is supported by lintels, weep holes should be provided spaced at
maximum 450mm intervals, see Figure 2.36. Each opening should have at least two weep holes.
Cavity trays or combined lintels should have stop ends returned into the inner leaf masonry (stop
end) unless it is stiff enough to stand against the inner leaf without support.
Fig. 2.36 Stop end and weep holes at the Lintel

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A cavity tray should be provided where the cavity is bridged by air bricks, meter boxes, etc. The
DPC should extend 150mm beyond each side of the bridge, see Figure 2.37.
Fig. 2.37 Cavity tray over openings
(e) Stepped cavity trays

At the abutment of pitched roofs to cavity walls, preformed stepped cavity trays should be provided
in order to minimize the risk of water ingress below the abutment of the roof and the inner leaf of
the cavity wall, see Figure 2.38. The lowest cavity tray should have two stop ends and a weep hole
to allow water to drain from the cavity
Fig. 2.38 Stepped cavity trays

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Lintels:
Lintels should be the correct size for the opening and have the correct bearing at each end, see
Figure
Table 2.4 Minimum bearing lintel length
Setting out should ensure that lintels bear on a full block, where possible, or on a whole brick, and
be installed level on a solid bed of a mortar, see Figure 2.39. Small pieces of cut brick or block
should not be used around lintel bearings.
Fig. 2.39 Lintel bearing on full block
Lintels are mainly made of timber, steel and precast concrete, and are in different shapes and sizes.
Insulation is provided below the lintel to stop cold bridging, see Figure 2.40.
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a) Steel cavity lintel with insulation b) Reinforced concrete lintels
c) Steel box lintel
Fig 2.40 Lintels for cavity walls
Cavity wall construction in summary (Figure 2.41)
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Fig. 2.41 Cavity wall construction details
Advantages of Cavity Walls.
 Cavity walls are best for damp prevention than solid building walls.
 They work best as heat insulators; it can decrease heat transmission from the outside
environment. The layer of air in the cavity being a non-conductor of heat, it reduces heat
transmission from the external face to internal one.
 Sound waves travel faster in solid walls as compared to hollow walls. Hence, the cavity
walls are also best for sound insulation.
 Cheaper than exterior or interior wall insulation.
 Maintains existing wall thickness.
Disadvantages of Cavity Walls.
 Highly skilled labor and masons are required for cavity wall construction.
 Require standard supervision during its construction.
 A vertical damp proof course is also necessary for it.
 Filling the cavity with insulation will always hold the risk that moisture will be able to find
its way across to the inside, whatever the insulation material.
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 Thermal bridging problems.
 Thickness of insulation is restricted by width of cavity.
https://nhbc-standards.co.uk/6-superstructure-excluding-roofs/6-1-external-masonry-walls/6-1-
17-dpcs-and-cavity-trays/
2.4.2 Cavity Floors
These are mainly common in the timber floors (ground floors) because there is need to have spaces
underneath ventilated via air 'bricks' through the outer walls and voids in any internal walls so that
the air can move across the building underneath the floors to prevent the build-up of moisture in
the timber which could lead to fungal attack. However, depending on one’s preference they can be
made of other materials.
A typical suspended floor is shown below in Figure 2.42a with the joists resting on sleeper walls
at right angles. Air bricks (vents) through the outer walls, facilitate air movement.
Fig 2.42a: Suspended timber ground floor with a cavity

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Fig 2.42b: Suspended block ground floor with a cavity
Figure 2.43 is a more detailed illustration of a timber cavity floor.
Fig 2.43a:
Fig 2.43b shows the side view of the sleeper walls with the bricks arranged to allow air movement
in addition to providing support to joists along their length.
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Fig 2.43b: Sleeper walls acting as air bricks as well
However, where the space between the concrete base and the floor is greater than 450mm, Figure
2.44 shows an alternative arrangement where the joists are supported in the inner wall and
probably, in addition to Fig 2.42. The size of joists is dependent on the span of the floor and there
will be a limit on the span that can be accommodated.
A stepped air brick is shown just to illustrate an alternative to the straight style illustrated in Figure
2.44. There’s no advantage in either type although the stepped style may be required if there is a
high external ground level.
Fig 2.44: Different ways timber joists can be supported.

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It can be noted that some of the upper floors have the same configuration as sound insulation for
walls.
https://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Cavity_wall
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3.0 ADVANCED CONSTRUCTION
3.1 Construction of Roads
Initially roads were constructed out of stone and timber. Modern roads are now constructed out
of asphalt and concrete. Within the context of building operations, roads works usually consist
of the construction of small estate roads, access roads and driveways together with temporary
roads laid to define site circulation routes and/or provide a suitable surface for plant movements.
The construction of roads can be considered under three headings: -
a) Setting out.
b) Earth works.
c) Paving construction.
a) Setting out roads. This activity is usually carried out after the top soil has been removed using
the dimensions given on the layout drawing(s). The layout could include straight lengths,
junctions, hammer heads, turning bays and intersecting curves. Straight Road Lengths are
usually set out from centre lines which have been established by traditional means, see Figure
3.1.
b) Earth works. This will involve the removal of topsoil together with any vegetation, scraping
and grading the required area down to formation level (cuttings or fills). Suitable plant for these
operations would be tractor shovels, graders and bulldozers. The soil immediately below the
formation level is called the subgrade whose strength will generally decrease as its moisture
content rises therefore if it is to be left exposed for any length of time, protection may be required.
For roads that are going to be carrying heavy load, the subgrade must be tested.
To preserve the strength and durability of the subgrade it may be necessary to install cut off
subsoil drains alongside the proposed road.
Weak subgrades, may be stabilised or removed from site.
c) Pavement Construction. Once the subgrade has been prepared and any drainage or other buried
services installed the construction of the paving can be undertaken. Paved surfaces can be either
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flexible or rigid. Flexible or bound surfaces are formed from materials applied in layers directly
over the subgrade (Figure 3.2) whereas rigid pavements consist of a concrete slab resting on a
granular base (Figure 3.3).
Fig. 3.1 Setting out straight roads, junctions and hammer heads (Chudley, 1998)
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Fig. 3.2 Flexible pavement detail
Video on construction of flexible pavements.
Video on the difference between rigid and flexible pavement.
Rigid Pavements. These consist of reinforced or unreinforced in-situ concrete slab laid over a
base course of crushed stone or similar material which has been blinded to receive a polythene
sheet slip membrane. The primary objective of this membrane is to prevent grout loss from the in-
situ slab.
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Fig 3.3 Rigid pavement details
Joints in Rigid Pavements.
These include Longitudinal and Transverse (expansion, contraction and construction) joints.
Longitudinal and transverse joints are required in rigid pavements to: -

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 Limit size of slab.
 Limit stress due to subgrade movements.
 Provide for expansion and contraction movements.
Video on joints in rigid pavements.
Foot paths
Fig 3.4: Footpaths
Video on footpaths constructed out of pavers
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3.2 Construction of Bridges
A bridge is essentially a structure that is built to cover a road, valley, water body, or other natural
obstacles to provide access over the barrier.
Several bridge designs are used that depend upon their function and the soil conditions of the site
for bridge construction. Bridges are designed, first, to carry their own permanent weight, or dead
load; second, to carry traffic, or live loads; and, finally, to resist natural forces such as winds or
earthquakes.
A bridge is described normally by:
 Its form of construction, like beam, truss, arch, etc.

 The construction materials used, like concrete, stone, timber and metal.
 Spans that include simple, cantilever, continuous, etc.
Bridges used by people to cross obstacles are called foot or pedestrian bridge. They must be built
strong enough to safely support their own weight as well as the weight of people that pass over
them. Bridges must also withstand the nature occurrences i.e. weathering, earth quakes, strong
winds, freezing etc.
3.2.1 Types of Bridges
There are five main types of bridges in common use; the beam bridge, arch bridge, suspension
bridge, cantilever bridge and the cable stayed bridge, extra-dosed bridge, etc.
a) Beam bridges
This consists of a horizontal beam supported at each end by piers or an abutment as shown in
Figure 3.5.
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Fig 3.5 A beam bridge
Beam bridges basically consist of a beam that is laid between piers or supports and a deck to act
as a surface for movement and provision of lateral restraint thus preventing buckling. The beam
should possess the strength to bear the loads that are expected to be placed on it. These loads are
borne by the bridge piers. The loads cause the beam top edge to be compressed, while the lower
edge is being stretched and is under tension. It is essential to calculate the bending moments in a
beam to establish a safe design of the beam bridges.
Existing beam bridges are formed by girders (normally box girders), trusses or I-beams that are
supported on strong piers.
Diaphragms are fixed between the beams to provide additional lateral restraint, load bearing
capacity, and also facilitate lateral distribution of loads to the bridge beams.
Box girders are stretched, box shaped elements that are more suitable to bear the twisting loads.
Trusses consist of one or more triangular units connected at joints or nodes.
I-beams are economical and simple to fabricate. They are simply beams with an I-shaped or H-
shaped cross-section. The horizontal elements of the "I" design are flanges and the vertical is the
web of the construction.
Other beam bridges may be fabricated from concrete beams that are pre-stressed. These materials
possess the steel characteristics to endure loads in tension, and concrete strength to bear the
compressive loads.
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The beam bridge's strength is largely influenced by the distance between the piers. Therefore, the
beam bridges are normally not suitable for longer length, unless several such bridges are connected
with each other.
Materials for construction of beam bridges.
With the advancement in technology, materials science has also advanced considerably. Beam
bridges materials being used are strong, light, and durable. The advanced materials for bridge
construction have good operational characteristics.
Such materials include reformulated concrete that is reinforced with fibres, seashells etc., and
composite concrete made of steel, and pre-stressed materials. Pre-stressed concrete is well suited
for beam bridge construction since it can endure excessive compressive stresses. Steel rods are
fixed in the concrete that can bear the tensile loads. Furthermore, pre-stressed concrete is cheaper
in the long run.
The current techniques include use of finite element analysis to improve the design of beam
bridges. Distribution of stresses on different bridge elements is analyzed to ensure strong beam
bridges that can endure the bridge loads. The beams should be held by piers at the ends to increase
the bridge load bearing capacity. Concrete, steel, or stones are normally used for the construction
of piers. Since stones and non-reinforced concrete are weak in tension, they are normally used for
beam bridges that are designed for lighter loads.
Advantages
 It rests simply on the supports and so the effect of thermal expansion and movement of the
ground are fairly easily sustained.
 It may be built away from the final position and lifted slowly to the final place with
minimum traffic interruption.
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Disadvantages
 The beam maintains its shape by means of the opposed tension and compression and by
the shear forces. This means that the beam contains forces which are much larger than the
load thus it needs to be massive.
 Beam bridges may be costly even for rather short spans, since expensive steel is required
as a construction material. Concrete is also used as beam material, and is cheaper. However,
concrete is comparatively not that strong to withstand the high tensile forces acting on the
beams. Therefore, the concrete beams are normally reinforced by using steel mesh.
 When long spans are required to be covered, beam bridges are extremely expensive due to
the piers required for holding the long beams. Building of the support piers may not always
be possible due to the limitation of space.
 Bridge beams are likely to droop (bend) between the piers, due to the different bridge loads
acting downwards. The forces acting upwards at the pier supports also influence the
drooping effect. The sagging tendency is increased when the bridge span or load is
increased.
Video on beam bridges
b) Arch Bridges.
These are the most ancient bridges that existed around 2000BC.
An arch bridge is a bridge with abutments at each end shaped as a curved arch. Arch bridges work
by transferring the weight of the bridge and its loads partially into a horizontal thrust restrained by
the abutments at either side.
Arch bridges are one of the most effective designs that humans have invented in history. We
continue to use this option still today, even with modern materials like steel and concrete, because
of the tremendous strength and flexibility that it provides without an increase in the risk of failure.
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Every arch has a maximum length and limit that it can support. Engineers must recognize these
concepts in the design phase to ensure the structure can offer the advantages of longevity. Then
the contractors who are responsible for the completion of the bridge must follow those plans
accurately to ensure a positive result.
The advantages and disadvantages of arch bridges are essential to consider when building a span
for travel. This information can then apply to other areas of life, such as building, a roof or
installing a window because the downward forces are essential the same in each scenario. Some
of the Arch members are shown in Figure 3.6 below.
Fig 3.6 Arch components
Types of arches bridges
Arch bridges can be classified basically according to: -
 Structural layout
 Architectural configuration
Structural layout
There are three common true structural layouts that you will find with bridges today: fixed arches,
two-hinged arches, and 3-hinged arches, see Figure 3.7.
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Fixed arches are used most often when building a reinforced concrete bridge, but it is also useful
for the times when a tunnel might be necessary. It is most effective when spans are short. These
are the hardest to design.
The two-hinged arch is useful for longer spans, offering pinned connections at the base that provide
rotation. This design gives the structure room to move during thermal contraction and expansion.
The three-hinged arch provides an additional connection at the mid-span so that the structure can
move in opposite directions to account for temperature changes.
Fig. 3.7 Structural layout of Arch bridges
Architectural configuration
These may be classified as deck, half through and through arch bridges as shown in Figure 3.8.
There so many arch bridges but their architectural layout falls under the above category.
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Fig. 3.8 Architectural configuration of Arch bridges.
Deck Arch Bridges
This type of bridge comprises an arch where the deck is completely above the arch. The area
between the arch and the deck is known as the spandrel. If the spandrel is solid, usually the case
in a concrete, masonry or stone arch bridge, the bridge is called a closed-spandrel deck arch bridge.
If the deck is supported by a number of vertical columns rising from the arch, the bridge is known
as an open-spandrel deck arch bridge.
Through Arch Bridges (Also known as half through depending on the location of the beck)
This type of bridge has an arch whose base is at or below the deck, but whose top rises above it,
so the deck passes through the arch. Thus, the deck is within the arch, and cables or beams that are
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in tension suspend the central part of the deck from the arch. The ends of the bridge may be
supported from below, as with a deck arch bridge (Figure 3.9). Any part supported from arch below
may have spandrels that are closed or open.
Fig. 3.9 Through Arch Bridge
Advantages of Arches
 Since the entire arch is in compression, the compressive force (vertical) is transferred
directly to the ground and the tensile force (lateral) is transferred to the abutments.
 The absence of tension in the arch means that it can sustain much greater spans than beams
can achieve.
 It can use materials that are not so strong in tension such as masonry and cast iron. Many
different things can be used to efficiently build an arch bridge. Man-made materials like
concrete or reinforced steel can be used, as well as natural materials like stones or bricks.
 Extremely strong. The arch design allows any forces or pressure that is placed on the bridge
to be pushed straight down, meaning that no part of the bridge takes on a high amount of
pressure. The half circle design prevents any changes or distortions in the bridge due to
bending.
 The more an arch bridge is used, the stronger it gets. This is because the materials compact
closer and closer together, giving an even firmer foundation.
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Disadvantages of Arch Bridges
 Arch bridges have to be built in a very specific and accurate way. This requires a very large
amount of labour and time to construct.
 Specifically, in the case of natural materials, a high level of maintenance and upkeep is
needed in order to ensure that the bridge remains safe and strong. This includes repairing
damage caused by wind, rain, and other types of storms.
 Because of high self-weight, they are limited by span though they span longer distances
than beam bridges.
 It cannot stand until complete, thus must either rest on the false work (centering) until it’s
complete or the 2nd half must be cantilevered from the springing.
 The thrust of a big arch has a horizontal component which the abutment must withstand
without significant movement.
Video on Arch Bridges
c) Cantilever bridges
A beam is said to be cantilevered when it projects outward, supported only at one end.
A cantilever bridge is generally made with three spans, of which the outer spans are both anchored
down at the shore and cantilever out over the channel to be crossed. The central span rests on
the cantilevered arms extending from the outer spans; it carries vertical loads like a simply
supported beam or a truss that is, by tension forces in the lower chords and compression in the
upper chords. The cantilevers carry their loads by tension in the upper chords and compression in
the lower ones. Inner towers carry those forces by compression to the foundation, and outer towers
carry the forces by tension to the far foundations as shown in Figure 3.10.
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Fig. 3.10 Cantilever bridge
A cantilever bridge is a bridge built using cantilevers, structures that project horizontally into
space, supported on only one end. For small footbridges, the cantilevers may be simple beams;
however, large cantilever bridges designed to handle road or rail traffic use trusses built
from structural steel, or box girders built from prestressed concrete. The steel truss cantilever
bridge was a major engineering breakthrough when first put into practice, as it can span distances
of over 460 m, and can be more easily constructed at difficult crossings by virtue of using little or
no falsework.
Construction of Cantilever Bridges
Like suspension bridges, steel cantilever bridges generally carry heavy loads over water, so
their construction begins with the sinking of caissons (water retaining structures) and the erection
of towers and anchorages. For steel cantilever bridges, the steel frame is built out from the towers
toward the centre and the abutments. When a shorter central span is required, it is usually floated
out and raised into place. The deck is added last.
The cantilever method for erecting prestressed concrete bridges consists of building a concrete
cantilever in short segments, prestressing each succeeding segment onto the earlier ones. Each new
segment is supported by the previous segment while it is being cast, thus avoiding the need for
falsework.
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Advantages
 Support is required only on one side of each cantilever.

 Do not require falsework except for pier.
 Span length can be longer.
 Cantilever bridges offer a way to build a continuous bridge across multiple supports to
effectively distribute the load evenly.
Disadvantages
 Cantilever bridges maintain their stability by a balance between compressive and tensile
forces, which requires a heavy structure. This drives up the cost.
 Such bridges are not suited to areas with extreme weather conditions, because of the lack
of multiple supports.
 These bridges experience a high level of turning stress, called 'negative moments', during
their construction.
 But cantilever bridge designs do require precise engineering because the counterbalance
weights can affect their strength if incorrect, especially if contractors build the segments
slightly differently.
d) Cable Stayed Bridges
A cable-stayed bridge is a bridge similar to a suspended bridge in that it has towers and a deck that
is held by cables, but its cables hold the deck by connecting it directly to the towers instead via
suspender cables, see Figure 3.11. It usually carries pedestrians, bicycles, automobiles, trucks, and
light rail. It is used in places where spans need to be longer than the cantilever bridge can achieve
(because of its weight), but the span is short enough so a suspension bridge is not practical there
economically.
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Cable-stayed bridges carry the vertical main-span loads by nearly straight diagonal cables in
tension. The towers transfer the cable forces to the foundations through vertical compression. The
tensile forces in the cables also put the deck into horizontal compression.
Construction of cable-stayed bridges usually follows the cantilever method. After the tower is
built, one cable and a section of the deck are constructed in each direction. Each section of the
deck is prestressed before continuing. The process is repeated until the deck sections meet in the
middle, where they are connected (balanced cantilever method). The ends are anchored at the
abutments.
Fig. 3.11 Front view of a double pylon cable stayed bridge
Classification of Cable stayed bridges
There are no distinct classifications for cable-stayed bridges. However, they can be distinguished
by the number of spans, number of towers and shape of towers, girder type, number of cables, etc.
There are many variations in the number and type of towers, as well as the number and arrangement
of cables. Typical towers (pylons) used are single, double, portal, or even A-shaped towers, see
Figure 3.12).
Fig. 3.12 Typical towers shapes.

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Cable arrangements
Cable arrangements also vary greatly. Some typical varieties are mono, harp, fan, and star
arrangements (Figure 3.13). The most commonly used are the fan type.
 Harp design. The cables are made nearly parallel by attaching cables to various points on
the towers so that the height of attachment of each cable on the tower is similar to the
distance from the tower along the road way to its lower attachment.
 Fan. The cables all connect to or pass over the top of the tower. These are preferred to the
harp since they reduce moments in the tower as a result of reduced spacing between them.
Fig. 3.13 Configuration of cables
Construction of Cable Stayed bridges using the balanced cantilever method, see Figure 3.14.
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Fig. 3.14 Balanced cantilever method
Key advantages of the cable-stayed bridges are as follows:
 Much greater stiffness than the suspension bridge, so that deformations of the deck under
live loads are reduced.
 Can be constructed by cantilevering out from the tower; the cables act both as temporary
and permanent supports to the bridge deck
 For a symmetrical bridge (i.e. Spans on either side of the tower are the same), the horizontal
forces balance and large ground anchorages are not required.
 Building out from each end enables construction to be done with little disruption to
navigation below.
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 Span greater lengths than all the above.
 Because the beam is resting simply on the arms thermo expansion and ground movement
are fairly simple to sustain. The supports can be simple piers because there are no horizontal
forces.
 They can be built out systematically from the towers though long spans are more/rather
flexible until the close of time.
 They can be cheaper than a suspension bridge for a given span.
 Any number of towers may be used. The bridge form can be as easily built with a single
tower as with a pair of towers; however, suspension bridge is usually built only with a pair
of towers.
Disadvantages of cable stayed bridges
 In the longer sizes the cantilevered halves are very prone to wind induced oscillation during
construction.
 The cables require careful treatment to protect them from corrosion.
 They maintain their shape by opposing large tensile and compressive forces as well as shear
forces and so they are relatively massive.
e) Suspension Bridge
A suspension bridge (more precisely, suspended-deck suspension bridge) is a type of bridge in

which the deck (the load-bearing portion) is hung below suspension cables on vertical suspenders,
see Figure 3.15. Simple suspension bridges, which lack vertical suspenders, have a long history in
many mountainous parts of the world.
This type of bridge has vertical cables suspended between towers, plus vertical suspender
cables (hangers) that carry the weight of the deck below, upon which traffic crosses. This
arrangement allows the deck to be level or to arc upward for additional clearance. Like
other suspension bridge types, this type often is constructed without falsework.
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The suspension cables must be anchored at each end of the bridge, since any load applied to the
bridge is transformed into a tension in these main cables. The main cables continue beyond the
pillars to deck-level supports, and further continue to connections with anchors in the ground. The
roadway is supported by vertical suspender cables or rods, called hangers. They span the longest
distance.
Fig. 3.15a Typical Suspension bridge
Fig. 3.15b Parts of a Suspension Bridge
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Functions of the Parts
Tower:
It holds up the cables. Have to be rigid enough to act as struts between the down forces from the
cables and the upward forces from the foundation but the modern cables are fixed to the towers
and saddles so that there is no movement.
Thus, the lowest part of the cable has to be flexible enough to allow the increase in length due to
live loads and temperature changes.
Anchorage:
They hold the ends of the main cables against the enormous tension either by shear weight or by
taking the tension into the ground at the time of construction.
They have to include means of adjusting the cable.
Hangers:
They connect the deck to the main cable. They hold up the deck and the traffic. They have to be
strong enough to do this without undue stretching.
They have to withstand vibration and be resistant to corrosion and dust.
Deck
The deck carries the traffic. It has to be as light as possible but rigid enough to prevent a dip as
each vehicle passes. It must be stable on winds of any possible magnitude and direction.
Why are the suspension bridges the longest bridges in the world?
Apart from the towers which are in principle simple struts, all the most highly stressed parts of a
suspension bridge are in tension. A cable though flexible is very stable and only needs to be
thickened up to with stand the tension with a factor of safety.
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Advantages of suspension bridges
 Longer main spans are achievable than with any other type of bridges.
 Less materials may be required than other bridge types, even at spans they can achieve
leading to a reduced construction cost.
 Except for the installation of the initial temporary cables, little or no access from below is
required during construction e.g. allowing a water way to remain open while the bridge is
built above.
 They may be better to withstand earthquake movements than can heavier and more rigid
bridge.
Disadvantages of suspension bridges
 Considerable stiffness or aerodynamics profiling may be required to prevent the bridge

deck vibrating under high winds.
 The relatively low deck stiffness compared to other types of bridges makes it more difficult
to carry heavy real traffic where high concentrated live loads occur.
 Some access below may be required during construction to lift the initial cables or to lift
deck units. This access can often be avoided in cable stayed bridge construction.
3.3 Construction of Tunnels
A tunnel is an underground passageway, dug through the surrounding soil/earth/rock and enclosed
except for entrance and exit, commonly at each end. A pipeline is not a tunnel, though some recent
tunnels have used immersed tube construction techniques rather than traditional tunnel boring
methods.
A tunnel may be for pedestrian or vehicular road traffic, for rail traffic, or for a canal. The central
portions of a rapid transit network are usually in tunnel. Some tunnels are aqueducts to supply
water for consumption or for hydroelectric stations or are sewers. Utility tunnels are used for
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routing steam, chilled water, electrical power or telecommunication cables, as well as connecting
buildings for convenient passage of people and equipment.
Secret tunnels are built for military purposes. Special tunnels, such as wildlife crossings, are built
to allow wildlife to cross human-made barriers safely. Tunnels can be connected together in tunnel
networks.
For water crossings, a tunnel is generally more costly to construct than a bridge. However,
navigational considerations may limit the use of bridges or drawbridge spans intersecting with
shipping channels, necessitating a tunnel.
Tunnels are dug in types of materials varying from soft clay to hard rock. The method of tunnel
construction depends on such factors as the ground conditions, the ground water conditions, the
length and diameter of the tunnel drive, the depth of the tunnel, the logistics of supporting the
tunnel excavation, the final use and shape of the tunnel and appropriate risk management.
Back-up systems
Behind all types of tunnel boring machines, inside the finished part of the tunnel, are trailing
support decks known as the back-up system. Support mechanisms located on the back-up can
include: conveyors or other systems for muck (rock) removal, slurry pipelines if applicable, control
rooms, electrical systems, dust removal, ventilation and mechanisms for transport of pre-cast
segments.
There are three basic types of tunnel construction in common use.
 Cut-and-cover tunnels
 Tunnel boring machines tunnels
 immersed tunnels
Bored tunnels are constructed in situ, without removing the ground above.
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Finally, a tube can be sunk into a body of water, which is called an immersed tunnel.
a) Cut-and-cover
Cut-and-cover tunnels are constructed in a shallow trench and then covered over. Cut-and-cover is
a simple method of construction for shallow tunnels where a trench is excavated and roofed over
with an overhead support system strong enough to carry the load of what is to be built above the
tunnel.
Two basic forms of cut-and-cover tunnelling are available:
Bottom-up method: A trench is excavated, with ground support as necessary, and the tunnel is
constructed in it. The tunnel may be of in situ concrete, precast concrete, precast arches, or
corrugated steel arches; in early days brickwork was used. The trench is then carefully back-filled
and the surface is reinstated.
Top-down method: Side support walls and capping beams are constructed from ground level by
such methods as slurry walling or contiguous bored piling. Then a shallow excavation allows
making the tunnel roof of precast beams or in situ concrete. The surface is then reinstated except
for access openings. This allows early reinstatement of roadways, services and other surface
features. Excavation then takes place under the permanent tunnel roof, and the base slab is
constructed.
Shallow tunnels are often of the cut-and-cover type (if under water, of the immersed-tube type),
while deep tunnels are excavated, often using a tunnelling shield. For intermediate levels, both
methods are possible.
A major disadvantage of cut-and-cover is the widespread disruption generated at the surface level
during construction.
Video on cut and cover method
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b) Boring Machine Method
A Tunnel boring machine (TBM) is a machine used to excavate tunnels with a circular cross
section through a variety of soil and rock strata, see Figure 3.18.
Fig. 3.18 Tunnel Boring Machine
They can bore through anything from hard rock to sand.
TBMs are used as an alternative to drilling and blasting methods in rock and conventional "hand
mining" in soil.
Modern TBMs typically consist of the rotating cutting wheel, called a cutter head, followed by a
main bearing, a thrust system and trailing support mechanisms. The type of machine used depends
on the particular geology of the project, the amount of ground water present, geotechnical
properties of soil and other factors.
Categories of TBMs
 Hard Rock TBMs (Shield and Open type)
 Soft Rock TBMs (Earth Pressure Balance Machines (EPB) and Slurry Shield (SS))
 Hard rock TBMs

In hard rock, either shielded or open-type TBMs can be used. All types of hard rock TBMs
excavate rock using disc cutters mounted in the cutter head. The disc cutters create compressive
stress fractures in the rock, causing it to chip away from the rock in front of the machine, called
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the tunnel face. The excavated rock, known as muck, is transferred through openings in the cutter
head to a belt conveyor, where it runs through the machine to a system of conveyors or muck cars
for removal from the tunnel.
Open-type TBMs have no shield, leaving the area behind the cutter head open for rock support.
The open-type, or Main Beam TBM does not install concrete segments behind it as other machines
do. Instead, the rock is held up using ground support methods such as ring beams, rock bolts,
shotcrete, steel straps, and wire mesh.
Shielded hard rock TBMs can be used in fractured rock since they can erect concrete segments
to support unstable tunnel walls behind the machine, see Figure 3.19. Double Shield TBMs are so
called because they have two modes; in stable ground they can grip against the tunnel walls to
advance forward. In unstable, fractured ground, the thrust is shifted to thrust cylinders that push
off against the tunnel segments behind the machine. This keeps the significant thrust forces from
impacting fragile tunnel walls. Single Shield TBMs operate in the same way, but are used only in
fractured ground, as they can only push off against the concrete segments.
Fig. 3.19 Hard Rock TBM
Advantages
 They offer a continuous and controlled means of tunneling capable of high rates of advance
under favorable conditions.
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Disadvantages
 The major disadvantage is the upfront capital cost. TBMs are expensive to construct,
difficult to transport, require significant backup systems and power.
 Their applicability is limited to long tunnels where the high rates of advance and tunnel
quality can offset their high capital cost.
Main characteristics
 Tunnel Lining – Precast Concrete Segments / Sprayed Concrete / No lining
 Typical Performance – 12m to 67m per day. Actual performance and costs will depend on
ground conditions and tunnel diameter.
Soft ground TBMs
In soft ground, there are two main types of TBMs: Earth Pressure Balance Machines (EPB) and
Slurry Shield (SS). Both types of machines operate like Single Shield TBMs, using thrust cylinders
to advance forward by pushing off against concrete segments.
Earth Pressure Balance Machines are used in soft ground with less than 7 bar of pressure. The
cutter head does not use disc cutters only, but instead a combination of tungsten carbide cutting
bits, carbide disc cutters, and/or hard rock disc cutters, see Figure 3.20. The EPB gets its name
because it is capable of holding up soft ground by maintaining a balance between earth and
pressure. The TBM operator and automated systems keep the rate of soil removal equal to the rate
of machine advance. Thus, a stable environment is maintained. In addition, additives such as
bentonite, polymers and foam are injected into the ground to further stabilize it.
Bentonite is a clay material obtained after decomposition of volcanic ash.
EPB is a mechanised tunnelling method in which spoil is admitted into the tunnel boring machine
(TBM) via a screw conveyor arrangement which allows the pressure at the face of the TBM to
remain balanced without the use of slurry.
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Fig. 3.20 Earth Pressure Balance (EPB) TBM
Advantages
 Allows soft, wet, or unstable ground to be tunnelled with a speed and safety not previously
possible.
 Limits ground settlement and produces a smooth tunnel wall. This significantly reduces
the cost of lining the tunnel, and makes it suitable for use in heavily urbanized areas.
Disadvantages
Tunnel Lining – Precast Concrete Segments.
Typical Performance – 9m to 35m per day. Actual performance and costs will depend on ground
conditions and tunnel diameter.
Slurry Pressure Balance (SPB) TBM

Slurry Shield TBMs are needed in soft ground with very high-water pressure and large amounts
of ground water. These machines offer a completely enclosed working environment. Soils are
mixed with bentonite slurry, which must be removed from the tunnel through a system of slurry
tubes that exit the tunnel, see Figure 3.21. Large slurry separation plants are needed on the surface
for this process, which separate the dirt from the slurry so it can be recycled back into the tunnel.
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The basic principle of this TBM is to maintain the face pressure during the excavation phase by
filling the working chamber, located behind the cutter head, with slurry.
Fig 3.21 Slurry Pressure Balance (SPB) TBM
Advantages
 Allows soft, wet, or unstable ground to be tunneled with a speed and safety not previously
possible
 Suitable for ground with high water pressures (below water table).
 Limits ground settlement and produces a smooth tunnel wall. This significantly reduces
the cost of lining the tunnel, and makes it suitable to use in heavily urbanized areas.
Disadvantages
 Drive can be hindered by large stones and boulders.
 Tunnel Lining – Precast Concrete Segments
 Typical Performance – 5m to 30m per day. Actual performance and costs will depend on
ground conditions and tunnel diameter.
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 Stages of TBM Construction
Fig. 3.22 Stages of TBM Construction
c) Immersed Tube
An immersed tube is a kind of undersea tunnel composed of segments, constructed elsewhere and
floated to the tunnel site to be sunk into place and then linked together. They are commonly used
for road and rail crossings of rivers, estuaries and sea channels/harbours. Immersed tubes are often
used in conjunction with other forms of tunnel at their end, such as a cut and cover or bored tunnel,
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which is usually necessary to continue the tunnel from near the water's edge to the entrance (portal)
at the land surface.
Construction
The tunnel is made up of separate elements, each prefabricated in a manageable length, then having
the ends sealed with bulkheads so they can be floated. At the same time, the corresponding parts
of the path of the tunnel are prepared, with a trench on the bottom of the channel being dredged,
gravelled, screeded and graded to fine tolerances to support the elements. The next stage is to place
the elements into place, each towed to the final location, in most cases requiring some assistance
to remain buoyant. Once in position, additional weight is used to sink the element into the final
location, this being a critical stage to ensure each piece is aligned correctly (a GPS can be used).
After being put into place, the joint between the new element and the tunnel is emptied of water
then made water tight, this process continuing sequentially along the tunnel.
The trench is then backfilled with gravel and any necessary protection, such as rock armour, added
over the top. The ground beside each end tunnel element will often be reinforced, to permit a tunnel
boring machine to drill the final links to the portals on land. After these stages the tunnel is
complete, and the internal fit out can be carried out. Concrete and Steel can are some of common
materials for making these tubes.
Advantage
 The main advantage of an immersed tube is that they can be considerably more cost
effective than alternative options – i.e., a bored tunnel beneath the water being crossed (if
indeed this is possible at all due to other factors such as the geology and seismic activity)
or a bridge. Other advantages relative to these alternatives include:
 Their speed of construction
 Minimal disruption to the river/channel, if crossing a shipping route
 Resistance to seismic activity
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 Safety of construction (for example, work in a dry dock as opposed to boring beneath a
river)
 Flexibility of profile (although this is often partly dictated by what is possible for the
connecting tunnel types)
Disadvantages include:
 Immersed tunnels are often partly exposed (usually with some rock armour and natural
siltation) on the river/sea bed, risking a sunken ship/anchor strike
 Direct contact with water necessitates careful waterproofing design around the joints
 The segmental approach requires careful design of the connections, where longitudinal
effects and forces must be transferred across
 Environmental impact of tube and underwater embankment on existing channel/sea bed.
 Tubes can be round, oval and rectangular. Larger strait crossings have selected wider
rectangular shapes as more cost effective for wider tunnels.
Video on immersible tube tunnel construction
Choice of tunnels verse bridges
 Navigation considerations.
 Noise considerations.
 For aesthetic reasons (i.e preserve the above ground view, land shape and scenery).
 For weight capacity reasons, it may be more feasible to build a tunnel than a sufficiently
strong bridge.
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3.4 Offshore Construction
Offshore construction covers a wide spectrum of facilities built away from the shore. The
production of valuable resources such as oil, electricity, gas and construction of bridges, tunnels,
is possible. The transmission or transportation of these resources onshore is part of the whole
process, as well.
The form of an offshore structure varies depending on the resources that it is designed to produce,
transmit or support. For instance, a wind farm (a group of wind turbines in the same location used
to produce electricity) has a totally different shape and way of function from an oil
platform/drilling rig (an apparatus for offshore oil drilling). In that sense, they have different
benefits and points of concern.
As far as the building procedure of the platforms is concerned, the most common practice is the
manufacturing of the whole structure onshore. This solution simplifies the construction
process and facilitates the people working on the project due to the easier transportation of both
the materials and the equipment. However, there also are cases where the construction process
takes place in the open sea. Special vessels that allow the completion of the project such occasions,
are used.
These constructed structures or platforms maybe bottom founded structure which are lowered to
the seabed by de-ballasting or floating structures held in position with substantial mooring systems.
A mooring system is made up of a mooring line, anchor and connectors, and is used for station
keeping of a ship or floating platform in all water depths. A floating structure is connected to a
mooring line which is connected to an anchor and finally an anchor is connected to the sea-bed.
Surveillance of the sea-bed and that of the underlying rocks helps in the development of the
strategic sites for the optimum extraction of the resources. Furthermore, the oceanographic and
climatic conditions around that region are assessed. Then the topographic conditions pertaining to
that particular region along with the critical risk factors probable to the given sea-state gives the
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outline for the appropriate installation for the site. As these offshore structures are high-budget,
heavy-duty and long-term projects, care is taken to ensure its applicability in hostile sea state and
its long-term life span.
3.4.1 Types of Offshore Structures
Broadly, offshore structures can be categorised into two:
 Floating Platforms - These offshore platforms are floating in free surface and are movable
from one location to another. Examples include semi-submersibles, SPAR platforms,
Floating-leg platforms, drill-ships, FPSOs (Floating Production, Storage and Offloading
systems).
 Fixed Platforms: They are immobile and fixed permanently to one place. These sorts of
offshore units have greater strength and relative durability as compared to floating ones.
These are operationally irreversible as once installed they cannot be relocated. Examples
are Concrete/Gravity Platforms, Jacket Platforms, Tension-leg platforms (TLPs), Jack-Up
Rigs etc.
Most of these platforms are mainly used in exploration of oil and gas, construction of wind farms
and subsea pipelines. For construction of bridges, cofferdams, caissons (pneumatic), drill shafts
are used. For construction of tunnels cofferdams are mainly used.
Videos on offshore construction of bridges.
Advantages of offshore construction
 Boosted Efficiency
The case of the wind farms is a very indicative example in this case. The stronger winds over
the sea are helping towards the production of higher amounts of electricity compared to onshore
facilities. Another good example would be the cutback of the transmission pipeline for gas. This
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can have a very positive impact on transportation costs. It’s evident then that offshore
construction can have some multi-sided benefits in the construction process.
 Impact on the Environment
The absence of an onshore working site can be an environmentally friendly choice in many
cases. If done right, offshore construction can contribute to the minimization of the human
interference on the ecosystem. On the other hand, we can’t reach to any safe conclusions before
we analyze in depth the effect of offshore structures on the marine ecosystem.
Disadvantages of Offshore Construction
 Highly skilled labour

Putting together a complex building structure onshore is one thing. But having to transfer or
create the same structure offshore is another. Today’s cutting-edge technology has played a
substantial role in simplifying this process but the challenges are still there. The weather
phenomena and the creation of solid structures that could endure the difficulties posed by the
sea environment are only some of the challenges.
 Supervisory Challenge
When you are supervising an offshore construction project from a distance, it can be really tough
to retain control over it. You have to establish strong communication channels with the
contractor(s) who work on the platform. Making sure that every step is followed according to
the plan is fundamental. It also involves much more high risks than onshore construction
 Environmental Disruption
Much as offshore construction can be beneficial for the onshore environment. On the other side,
there still strong concerns regarding its impact on the marine life. More specifically, it is not yet
totally apparent the extent to which offshore platforms can affect and put in danger the presence
of sea life. For that reason, a detailed environmental study should always be conducted prior the
beginning of an offshore project.
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4.0 INDUSTRIALISED BUILDING CONSTRUCTION (SYSTEMS).
An Industrialized Building Construction (IBC) may be defined as a mass production of building

components which are assembled in factory or at site, based on the standard shape and dimensions
under strict quality control and minimal site activities. The component then will be delivered to
the construction site to be re-arranged according to the standard requirement to construct the
building.
It may also be defined as an investment in equipment, facilities, and technology with the objective
of maximizing production output, minimizing labour resource, and improving quality to develop
interconnected elements joined together to enable the designated performance of a building.
In the construction sector, as in the other sectors, a transformation is also taking place. Traditional
methods and techniques are changing in order to introduce more innovative techniques and
automated processes.
4.1 Why industrialize construction?
 The execution time: the times are reduced since the design that is used is standard and the
production has been automated. Therefore, the work can be done in less time. In addition,
the assembly of the pieces is fast and easy, fact that also reduces the time in order to be
able to enjoy the building.
 Climate: To a large extent, the weather may no longer affect the construction of the
building. In industrialized construction, the elements are not built outdoors but are made in
a workshop, the work does not depend on whether it rains, is windy or sunny, because it is
manufactured in a closed space.
 Occupational accidents: the work environment is more controlled and the physical and
environmental conditions are more favourable.
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 Improved quality of products: Industrialization will lead to improved quality of the
products. There is a greater precision and consistency in quality due to standardisation of
the construction process.
 Reduced costs: Continued development of prefabrication provides a growing range of
construction products that may further reduce construction costs. In addition, most of the
work in industrialized construction will be done a workshop and leave only the part of
assembly in the final location. There is also minimal waste generation which can even be
recycled for future use. It also saves on the cost of some services e.g. (water and electricity)
during manufacturing.
 Increased demand for buildings: For example, Uganda’s population was expected to
grow to 41.2 million by 2020 yet the country has a housing deficit of 2.2 million units and
this deficit is expected to be reduced by 20%, according to the NDP III 2020/21-2024/25.
For urban dwellers living in slums and informal settlements, it is expected to reduce from
60% to 40%.
 Limited skilled labour: Increased shortage of skilled manpower to carryout specialized
building construction work. Therefore, prefabrication allows suppliers and contractors to
exploit special skills or specialized equipment.
 Reducing labour productivity: The problem of low and decreasing labour productivity is
typical of many countries.
The level of industrialization in Uganda seems to be low. For example, most workers do not have
all necessary tools and equipment to help them in the construction process. Lack of necessary tools
and equipment coupled with low skill levels and poor management generally have led to low levels
of productivity. Industrialization of construction is needed to increase the productivity of the
industry while at the same time reducing the amount of site labour involved.
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4.2 Classification of Industrialization
The existing strategies for industrialization can be divided into:
 Off-site industrialization and On-site industrialization.

 Product industrialization and Process industrialization.
4.2.1 Off-site and On -site industrialization
Off-site industrialization is based on the assumption that buildings may also be made in factories
(prefabrication). It refers to the manufacture and assembly of buildings or parts of buildings ahead
of time that would traditionally be constructed in-situ on site and usually takes place at a
manufacturing facility remote from the site. The factory setting enhances affordability through a
combination of quantity purchasing of materials, mass production, assembly techniques and use
of less skilled labour. The ultimate goal is a radical change that will lead to new buildings, fully
constructed with prefabricated elements assembled on site, ready for use. In the housing industry
some systems are already successful. Prefabrication may take one of these forms:
a) Prefabricated components,
b) Modular housing (specification used are from local authority or local building codes and
can either be permanent or temporary).
c) Manufactured housing (specifications used are with respect to national building codes and
usually permanent).
On-site industrialization refers to the application of advanced tools and technologies on building
sites. Some examples are Ground Positioning System (GPS), assembly of big prefabricated units,
identification of elements with bar codes, just in time deliveries, self-climbing formwork, self-
levelling concrete, robotic finishing etc.
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4.2.2 Product industrialization and process industrialization
Product industrialization focuses on the technological aspect of building. On-site and off-site are
both examples of product industrialization.
Process industrialization is concerned with how parties are cooperating, contractually and
informally. It deals with Design and Build contracts or with more advanced strategies like Private
Finance Initiative (PFI), Design Build Market and Operate (DBMO).
4.3 Key factors of industrialization
The key factors of industrialization of any industry and construction in particular include the
following:
• Materials
Materials should be available all the time and when they are needed to avoid unnecessary delays.
In this the paradigms of Just-In-Time (JIT) and Supply Chain Management are pertinent. The
materials should also be in a form that they are ready to fix into the building and not raw materials
that have to be processed on site in order to be able to fix them. In this regard, the concepts of
prefabrication are relevant. Industrialization assumes that most materials are standardized
(materials and components can be manufactured in several places but they can fit in the final
product without discrimination based on origin). The components should be easily identifiable by
bar codes just like other products.
• Methods
The methods employed in industrial construction should allow a continuous flow of inputs and
products. Methods are studied for optimizing resources. Industrialization leads to documentation,
so the methods and procedures are clearly spelt in the concept of Total Quality Management.
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• Men
Men should be skilled in whatever they are doing. Industrialization promotes specialization so that
the people develop expertise in whatever they are doing. Industrialization assumes that few people
are employed and are supported with tools/machines, so that they are not overworked and their
health and safety conditions are well catered for.
• Market
Industrialization is usually based on the premise that there will be steady markets for the products
so that the flow of products does not stop. The products also must be flexible to satisfy the varying
requirements of customers. Industrialization flourishes where the economies of scale are favoured.
• Money
The assumption made here is that the party that has the money takes the risk to finance the product
just like in the cases of Private Finance Initiatives (PFI) and its variants of Turnkey, Build, Own,
Operate and Transfer (BOOT), Design, Build, Market and Operate (DBMO).
• Machines
Industrialization calls for using the modern technologies such as robots to replace the traditional
methods that were mainly labour-based. Other examples are the use of self-climbing formwork
and GPS positioning. Industrialization assumes that the basic tools are available and there is a
development of processes and tools.
• Management
This requires a high degree of organization of work so as to minimize delays and wastage. Once
again, industrialization concepts, like JIT, Supply Chain has to be adhered to.
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The above factors notwithstanding, there is conservatism in the construction industry, i.e., manual
labour has been used in the construction industry for many generations. People are scared of losing
jobs because of being substituted by machines. Failure to adopt technological change is a great
barrier to industrialization in construction. There are many cultural issues in construction. For
example, women are not commonly employed on construction sites in many parts of the world
while they form the bigger percentage of the population.
Limitations of Industrialization
 The use of machines to replace manpower reduces on the jobs available for human labour.
In some countries where unemployment is high, this can exacerbate the problem.
Therefore, the increased use of industrialization might lead to higher levels of
unemployment. Care has to be taken to use appropriate levels of industrialization.
 For optimum productivity, there has to be an optimal level of industrialization i.e.
prefabrication. However, use of prefabrication in buildings has the following
shortcomings:
a) Possibility of damage during transportation;
b) Normally it requires lifting equipment;
c) Monotony of design unless there are variations in the prefabricated units;
d) Over designs to take care of the loading conditions.
 The cost of the technologies and equipment is usually high at the beginning. It was found
out that large volumes are required in the long run as the production volume must exceed
the critical volume and this is not always the case.
 Disposing of salvage equipment
In order to improve, the industry must design projects for ease of construction making maximum
use of standard components and processes. Designs should be fully developed before the
manufacture and site construction begins. When prototype equipment is involved, it must be
identified in the initial stage of the project. Detailed programs for research, design, testing and
manufacture must be produced and monitored. This has to be available before the work starts on
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site. It is hoped the use of Knowledge Based Engineering (KBE) that has already been developed
in manufacturing industry both for aero planes and cars would best suit the manufacture of
structures. It enables product managers and designers to see new ideas either through advanced
computer-aided design or ‘Virtual Reality’. All aspects of design, manufacture assembly and use
of the product can be presented in one entity. It is found out however that the construction industry
invests little in research and development (R&D) and in capital. The industry is typically seen as
dealing with the project process as a series of sequential and largely separate operations undertaken
by individual designers, constructors and suppliers who have no stake in the long-term success of
the product and no commitment to it. Changing this culture is fundamental to increasing efficiency
and quality in construction. It requires integration of the processes and the team around the product.
It was observed that 80% of the inputs into buildings are repeated. The advice offered to
construction by leading manufacturing industries is to approach change by first sorting out the
culture, then defining and improving processes and finally applying technology as a tool to support
these cultural and process improvements.
Measure of Industrialization
 Level of prefabrication. This can be measured by the ratio of value of work done on site
to the value of work done off site.
 Extent of use of mechanization. This includes use of high-tech machines and
technologies.
 Degree of automation. The more the system is automated, the more industrialized it is
regarded.
 Use of robotics. The more the robots are used, the more industrialized the industry is
regarded.
 Reproduction (continuity of production). The more and the ease with which products
are reproduced is an indicator of degree of industrialization. This can be measured by the
time taken to accomplish the project as a ratio of the planned time.
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Further measures that can be used include:
 Degree of standardization. The more standardized the building components and

construction procedures are, the higher the degree of industrialization.
 Professionalized skilled labour. The skills and training of the craftsmen should also be
regarded as indicators of industrialization. This can be measured by cost of labour as a
percentage of cost of construction. The higher the value, the less industrialized the industry
is regarded.
 Organized experimentation integrated with production. The indicator of this could be
the ratio of the cost of research and development (R&D) as a percentage of the annual
turnover.
The following variables are used to evaluate the degree of industrialization at the industry
level: Competitive advantage, logistical support requirements, environmental requirements,
local market demand, export market potential, related markets, technology, infrastructure,
suppliers, strategic requirements, market considerations, and current capacities.
Videos in IBC
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Course Name: TCBE 3103 CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY III

Level: YEAR THREE SEMESTER I

This course introduces advanced principles and techniques in construction technology.

Detailed course outline

Advanced Construction: (? hours)

Construction of roads, bridges and tunnels

Industrialised Building Construction: (? hours)

Definition of industrialised Buildings

Why industrialise construction of buildings?

Classification of industrialised Buildings: onsite and offsite and product industrialisation

Prepared by Nandugwa Harriet

Maintenance of Structures: (? hours)

Appropriate Technology Considerations and alternative energy (? hours)

(Details of Sketches Must Be Emphasised in This Course.)

Practical reports 25%

Final examination 60%

Prepared by Nandugwa Harriet

1. Chudley, R. and Greeno, R. (2009), Building Construction Handbook. 3rd ed.

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Underpinning is the process of strengthening and stabilizing the foundation of an existing

1.1. Reason for Underpinning

Underpinning may be necessary for a variety of reasons:

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Underpinning helps to strengthen the foundation of an existing building or any other

1.2.1. Mass Concrete Method (Pit or Traditional Method)

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Advantages of using the mass concrete method:

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 There are large amounts of excavated material to be disposed of.

1.2.2. Cantilever Needle Beam Method

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Fig. 1.2b Cantilever Needle Beam Method

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The following precautions are to be considered in the pit method:

 It is better to start from the middle in the case of long walls.

Advantages of Cantilever Needle Beam Method:

 Faster than traditional method.

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1.2.3. Pier and Beam Method

Fig. 1.3 Pier and Beam Underpinning Method

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Fig. 1.4 Pile Method of Underpinning

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Fig. 1.5 Jack Pile Method of Underpinning

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1.2.5. Pynford stool Method

Fig 1.5: Pynford stool Method

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e) Bituminous (Asphalt) grouting

i. Permeation or Penetration method.

ii. Compaction or Controlled displacement.

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iv. Jet Grouting

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Fig 1.6b Images of Jet grout