Cosmology and Fundamental Astrophysics

25/01/2022 - Fundamental Astrophysics - Francesca Pozzi

Exam: oral presentation on a subject of interest (presentation with slides is possible)

10 min + 20 min of questions on other part of the program

Astronomical unity of measure

AU
lightyear (ly)
1 parsec (pc) = 1 arcsec =3.2 ly (is the distance of 1 AU seen in one arcsec)
redshift z
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Redshift
Solar Masses = Msole
0.08 Msole< M < 150Msole (0.08 is ignition oh idrogen burning cycle)

Milky Way and Galaxies

Visible Mass < Actual Mass (in the galaxy)
Visible mass = barionic matter
DM don’t interact with electromagnetic forces and therefore doesn’t emit photons
DM IS NOT barionic matter (!)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dark_matter

Tassonomy of Galaxies
Types, dimensions, masses
Clusters (around 1000 galaxies) and superclusters
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supercluster

Astronomical observations

Light spectrum and the different parts of the spectrum

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electromagnetic_spectrum

List of space telescopes divided per electromagnetic wabelenght

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_space_telescopes

JWST and Euclid

Both detect the radiation in the infrared spectroscopy, MIR and NIR. JWST study the
really far universe, meanwhile Euclid it will mappe NIR for mapping the the dark
energy and dark matter distribution in the universe.
They are place in the Lagrangian Points:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lagrange_point

Luminosity

L = dE/dt
Bolometric= L integrated on all the frequencies
Lmoocromatic
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luminosity

Flux = F = dL/dA
The flux it is what is really observed by the observer

Solar spectrum = blackbody spectrum

Intensity = F/dsoldiAngle
(intensity is not dependent by the distance of the source)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luminous_intensity

Radiative transport equation

Gas and dust between the source and the observer can be seen on the radio
wavelengths. Is a typically region of star formation.

Definition: Absorption coefficient and emission coefficient

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiative_transfer
Definition: optical depth, source function

Sv it’s very dependent on the physical processes in the interposed material:

- Thermal processes= photons emitted depends on the temperature of the
interposed material (stars emit with thermal processes)
- Non thermal processes= are synchrotron processes and compton processes

The Transfer Equation:

EQ.1
25/01/2022 - Cosmology - Lauro Moscardini

Concordance model = is the standard model for cosmology now

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lambda-CDM_model

It’s interesting that we cannot explain the physical universe, since we don’t know
what are the dark matter and the dark energy. We are not sure that general relativity
is working in a cosmological scale.

- Cold dark matter and collisionless non baryonic matter are the two major
component. Ordinary matter (baryonic one) is not dominant.
 - Inflationary model predict a universe with Flat Geometry

- The universe is accelerating: it is needed to introduce the cosmological

constant Lambda for the Dark Energy

- Assumption (cosmological principle) of the first universe: is homogeneous and

isotropic, but is also observed that this isotropicity and homogeneity is present
from our location. Is valid on large scale anyway.

- Formation of the cosmic structure is driven by gravitational instability

- Galxies and other cosmic structures form later in the evolution of the universe.
When Baryonic matter feeled gravity of dark matter form the actual galaxies
structures.

Cosmic Microwave Background is a proof for the assumption of homogeneity and

isotropicity. Blue and red regions are fluctuations of temperature of 1/10^5.
At least of our scale of observations.

Is ot possible to have a stable condition of the universe. Or is in expansion or in

collapsing, depending by the total density of the matter.

Perfect Cosmological Principle: time has not a preferred origin (steady state
cosmology) => but with expansion of the universe and presence of the CMB is
difficult to maintain a steady state model. Therefore the PCP is not adopted.

The revolution of the use of CMB is the prediction that the small perturbations of the
CMB reveals the formation of the structures of large scales of the universe.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmic_microwave_background_spectral_distortions

The second assumption is the assumption of the validity of General Relativity at

cosmological scale. We use indeed GR to create the models of the universe.

The geometrical properties of the space are defined by the matter and the energy
distribution. THerefore the distribution of the energy in the universe is homogeneous
and isotropic. The speed of light is finite and constant.

Gravitational lensing and gravitational waves on big scales are a confirmation of GR

in the big scales.

Metric of Robertson-Walker (using general relativity) in spherical coordinates:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedmann%E2%80%93Lema%C3%AEtre%E2%80%93
Robertson%E2%80%93Walker_metric
a(t) = expansion factor or scale factor
k is the curvature parameter and could be -1,0,+1
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scale_factor_(cosmology)
the scale factor change with the time of universe and its different thermal life

Comoving coordinates: x are proportional to a(t) r : are changing with the expansion
of the universe.

K defines the “geometry of the universe”

For instance:
k=+1 is a spherical geometry and the sum of the angles of a triangle is >180

Distances in the universe depends on the geometry and therefore of k. If the velocity
of the light is constant therefore the distance travelled is different. We can measure
distance to define the geometry of the universe.

Consequences of the robertson walker metric is the Hubble-Lemaitre law.

If the scale factor a(t) varies in time, that means that there is a motion between the
galaxies, the Hubble Flow. This means that each object has a recessional velocity:
v=H0 d (recessional velocity of galaxies depend by distance observed)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hubble%27s_law

H0 is measured now and this means that all universe is expanding at the same rate,
but is not constant in time (i’m not sure what does it mean, because we measure H0
for object far in past…and it is constant).

We have used standard candles as Supernovae Ia for measure distance very far and
scientist found that the Hubble Law accord to this observations.
The expansion is positive from the observation, a(t) > 0 . From the RW metric this is
not possible to say.

1/H0 set the time scale of the universe and is about 10^10 (smaller is H0, older is the
universe)

c/H0 is the time scale of the observable horizon.

HUbble constant can be measured in different ways and each way is performing a
measuration on a typical cosmological scale.
26/01/2022 - Cosmology - Lauro Moscardini

Since a(t) is dependent of time, the universe cannot be static, position continuous to
vary -> Hubble Flow.

H0 is not constant but for a given time is the same for all the universe

Redshift Z is due to the expansion of the universe, i.e. of the metric of the universe.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hubble%27s_law#redshift

(1) d=c/H0 x Z

(2) 1+z=a0/a redshift is a measurement of the the variation of the scale factor in
the past related to now

measuring z we can therefore measure also a time and not only a distance

THe redshift due to the expansion of the universe is not a exact doppler effect as a
velocity speed, but is due to the stretching of of the space dimension that length the
wavelength

The (1) is an approximation, if you apply general relativity che proportion between Vr
and Z is the (2) , that means at high z and for more distant galaxies.

Olbers Paradox: is due to the fact of the prejudice that the universe is eternal
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olbers%27_paradox

Solution to the Paradox: the universe is finite and has an origin in time.

Distances in cosmology

There is a different definition of distance in cosmology. There is not the so called

“standard ruler”.
Comoving distance, luminosity distance, light time distance and angular diameter
distance. THere are different sets of distance that can be used in cosmology.

Comoving distance: we assume dt=0 and obtain the proper distance dp. But dp is
dependent by the time since there is the factor a(t). Comoving distance is the proper
distance computed at time t of today
Luminosity distance:dL is computed dividing the flux received f on the total luminosity
L of distance object. We can use this distance for object for which we know exactly
L, i.e. the standard candles (supernovae Ia)

This is valid for the euclidean geometry, then we should derive these relation of other
geometries.

Angular diameter distance: distance measured by the angular dimension of a

standard dimension.

Light Time distances: dT is a measure of time but is a measure of distance only in

local universe.

All the distances coincide at small z, but diverge at big Z

The visible universe and the Horizon

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Observable_universe

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faster-than-light#Universal_expansion

THe horizon is expanding in time. There is a part of the universe that is not in
connection with us at a given time, because the speed of light is finite. The horizon is
bigger that Cx1/H0 because while light is travelling the universe is stretching and so
this mean that the light is running in a expanding length, anyway….

So not all the regions of the universe are connected thermically and by photons.

Einstein equation that relates energy to the geometry of the universe. The universe
geometry is determined by energy content.
Using the assumption of homogeneity and isotropy, we can derive the RW metric
from the einstein equation.

From that we can derive a spherical, finite and stati universe. But we need a
repulsive static force in the equation to have a static universe, i.e. the cosmological
constant lamda.

But now we know that universe is not static but in expansion! So

Friedmann models
Is the model of the universe of the GR equation of EInstein without the cosmological
constant, assuming homogeneity and isotropy.
He took the energy tensor Tij as a perfect fluid, using only the variables of Pressure
and Density. And the law of the conservation of the total energy.
He found two equation, for a(t) and for the velocity.
Universe solution for the einstein equation with Lambda = 0 give the existence of
three kind of universe flat, closed and open, depending on the geometry K.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedmann_equations

This is a real model of a perfect fluid, a dynamical model in which pressure and
density are related to the energy tensor and therefore to the geometry of the
universe. This is the fundamental equations.

From the Friedmann velocity equation we can find the total energy of the universe
depending on the velocity of expansion. In the velocity relation K defines the
geometry of the universe. Therefore its values make the kinetic term da/dt bigger or
smaller than the energy term, therefore we can have an universe that is expanding
or contracting. At K=0 the expansion tend to arrest as time tend to infinite.

If we consider the density in general relativity for relativistic particles, the velocity
equation has an added term. The two equation are linked by the adiabatic condition,
i.e. the total energy is preserved.

To solve the friedmann equation we need to assume a relation between pressure

and density

EQ.2

if we do the substitution in the acceleration equation for dd(at)/dtdt

we have ‘’a < 0 for w > -⅓ …..it means that the universe of Friedmann are
always decelerating!

and for standard physics is always the case w> -1/3

So for friedmann models we have an expanding and decelerating universe.

We can define the deceleration parameter q0. Q0 is > 0 always for Friedman models

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deceleration_parameter

We know if we have an expansion, we can infer that there is a t=0 where a=0 since
‘’a is always negative, so a(t) is a function that is always decreasing and therefore
when a(t=0)=0 we have the big bang.

This is a singularity in the space time.

For K=+1 it will be a time in the future t where a=0 and therefore there will be a
collapse.
For K=0 or =-1 there will be and indefinite expansion with different rates.
K=0 -> a proportional to t^⅔
K=-1 -> a proportional to t

“Engineering is enabling”

Anyway, so all of this is depending by the total energy content of the universe.
There is a given energy, Ec for which the universe is collapsing or expanding.
So therefore there is a critical density that decide the geometry of the universe

critical density it will be derived from the velocity equation and we have that
critical density is proportional to H^2

If we measure H0 we can derive critical density today.

So we know that today the critical density is proportional to 10^-29 gcm^3

We can measure che observable critical density and confront with the critical density.

There is only a possible way to have a density for the flat universe with K=0 and
it will be just the exact value of critical density.

Comparing the density with the critical density we obtain the density parameter
Omega.

- Omega = density now / critical density

Omega>1 close universe, Omega< 1 open unvierse, Omega=1 flat universe

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedmann_equations#Density_parameter

26/01/2022 - Fundamental Astrophysics - Francesca Pozzi

The source function describes the property of the interposed material of absorbing
and emitting radiatioan.

The material can have thermal processes and non thermal processes.
Non thermal processes are caused by synchrotron radiation and compton radiation
(scatter between photons and particles)

THe thermal processes are black body radiation and bermsstrahlung radiation
caused by ionized plasma.
Thermal processes -> Source function it becomes a blackbody function that means
that the spectrum depend only by the temperature. Stars emit thermal radiation
described well by a black body function.

Wien displacement law: lambda_max x temperature = costant

Stefan-Boltzmann law -> we obrai that the total luminosity is

Lbol = 4 pi r^2 sigma T^4, where sigma is the boltzmann constant

The bolometric luminosity is determined by the temperature of the stars.

Apparent Magnitudes and Colors

magnitudes follow a logaritmic scale of luminosity. Magnitudes are derived from the
flux.

F1/F2 = 2.5^(m1-m2) -> m1-m2=-2.5log(F1/F2)

m1 and m2 are magnitudes took in a specific band of frequencies.

we set m=0 for the Vega Star => m=-2.5logF + c

Color index => are the magnitudes measured with two different color filters.
m1-m2 = -2.5log(f1/f2) + c1 +c2 where 1 and 2 are two different colors wavelength

In this way we can use to filters, as B and V wavelength (blue and yellow) to
measure a color index B-V =mb - mv
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Color_index
the color index give us a index of the brightness of the star.
Now i can derive the temperature from the color index

B-V of cold star is > B-V of hotter star, they have a bigger magnitude.
So a bigger magnitude it means the temperature is lower.
Intrinsic color only depend on temperatures.

Extinction

extinction is due to absorbtion and scattering. Depending of the material crossed:

m(observed) = m(0) + A
where m(0) is the intrinsic magnitude, out of atmosphere and A is the extinction
coefficient.

the extinction make a star appear less hot

Apparent magnitude at the end increase caused by extinction.

Absolute magnitude

is defined as the apparent magnitude that an object would have if place at a distance
of 10 parsec.

m-M=5logr-5 is the distance module, that is relative to the distance of the star

Stars spectra

Absorbtion lines of the blackbody spectra of a star

Emission lines of a gas very hot (thermal gas)

Therefore, spectra of stars have absorption lines, hot gases have emission lines.

(Look at Kirchhoff’ Law: hot, denses gas produce a continuum spectra. A hot rarified
gas produces line spectra)

How absorption and emission lines are produced

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spectral_line

Rutherford-BOhr atomic model => Ein-Efin = h x frequency

energetic levels of the atoms and types of radiative transitions

Hydrogen Atoms -> Lyman, Balmer, Paschen series.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_number

In the optical band we recognize transitions in the Balmer series of emission of the
Hydrogen atoms. Balmer series of Hydrogen in optical band is defined as Halpha,
Hbeta, Hgamma….

Emission line spectrum of hot gas region are for instance obtained by the HST taking
images of the gas region with filters for each oh the Balmer series emission lines.

The absorption lines of the spectra of the starts depend by the atoms composition of
the stars. Starts of different temperatures have the same absorbtion lines.
Classification of the Stars: O,B, A; F, G ….

The temperature is the surface of the temperature of the star!

Each sequence star has a typical absorption spectra

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stellar_classification

Structure of Stars

Hydrostatic equilibrium of stars

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stellar_structure

conservation of mass, conservation of energy, equation of energy transport,

equation of hydrostatic equilibrium. Are the four main equation for study the
stellar structure.

dP/dr = - GM/r^2 x density is equation of hydrostatic equilibrium

Method of energy transport

Convection, conduction and radiation are the three ways in which energy is
transported inside a star.

Majority of energy is transferred inside a star by means of radiation transport, since

the mean free path of photons is bigger than that of particles, and this means they
can transport energy outside stars easier.
27/01/2022 - Fundamental Astrophysics - Francesca Pozzi

Thermonuclear reaction

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stellar_nucleosynthesis

Abundances of nuclei in the Solar System

Mass defect: the difference between the sum of the mass of proton and neutron that
forms a nucleus and the mass of the nucleus in itself.

In order to fuse particles in nucleus it is needed to overcome the coulombian barrier

of potential. This means reach scale of 10^-15m in order that nuclear force will
become stronger than the repulsion of the electric charge.

Hydrogen burning in the stars: Proton - Proton reaction chain

About 99% of the energy output of the sun comes from the various p–p chain

To ignite this reaction chain it is needed to reach temperature in the order of 10^6 K

There is the CNO cycle that ignite for stars bigger than 1.3 Solar Msses

Triple alpha reaction is needed to create carbon

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triple-alpha_process

Temperature in the star increase due to the contraction of the the star (see Virial
Theorem).

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CNO_cycle

This processes continue until the formation of the iron, because the binding energy
increase up to the iron with Z=26, but then the binding energy due to the fusion
decrease. The elements heavier than the iron are produced not in the core of the
stars but during the supernovae explosions, where there will be enough energy
available to produce elements with atomic number Z bigger than iron.

It is interesting studying the various abundance of elements in differents starts and

celestial bodies
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abundance_of_the_chemical_elements#Universe
Stellar evolution

How a cloud of gas enter the Main Sequence

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stellar_evolution

When a cloud of gas enter the MS it starts thermonuclear reactions.

This happens because the gravitational energy of the collapsing gases is converted
in kinetical energy and therefore thermal energy.

Thank to the Virial Theorem

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virial_theorem

2T+U=0

There is a critical mass for a cloud of gas to collapse and start thermonuclear
reaction. The spherical gas has to have a critical density in order to collapse

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Star_formation

Typical gas clouds that collapse are at least 100 solar masses, because as the cloud
is collapsing the gas clouds are losing mass and the final mass of the formed star
would be around 1 solar mass.

The pre-sequence phase dures from 10^4 to 10^7 yrs

Depending by the initial mass stars will populate the main sequence
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Main_sequence
Main sequence phase: 10^7 - 10^10 yrs
time main sequence is proportional to M^ -2
Bigger the mass of the star, lower the time it spends inside the main sequence.

The luminosity of a star is proportional to the mass of the stars:

L proportional M^3.5

Evolution of the stars after main sequence phase

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stellar_evolution

Red GIant Phase: Hydrogen finish in the core of the nucleus, and the star cannot
sustain it’s gravitational mass anymore with the fusion reactions, and therefore the
core collapse.
Once we reach temperature of 10^8 K the triple alpha phase can start and Ber and C
can be produced. Also O and Ne can be produced.

This defines the Horizontal branch phase. In this phase the most important process
is the burn of the helium

Asyntotitc Giant Phase

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asymptotic_giant_branch

A core of C and O it is formed. Over the core are formed shells of Helium that starts
to burn.

Stars with M<3 are not big enough to start Carbon burning in the core but the core
become a nucleus of degenerate electrons that balance the gravity while the
temperature in the nucleus remain constant.

The results is a white dwarf and a planetary nebula outside.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planetary_nebula
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_dwarf

In the AGB temperature will decrease continuously but very slowly.

White dwarf effective surface temperatures extend from over 150,000 K to barely
under 4,000 K and less until to a so called black dwarf, it means not emit anymore
light.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_dwarf

Stars with M>3

Are stars with a onion-like layers made of different kind of elements.

Stars will enter the supergiants phase:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supergiant

27/01/2022 - Cosmology - Lauro Moscardini

We see that for all three models of the solutions (friedmann models) back in time
there is a point where a(t) is zero, but the time in which that happens is different.
This means that the age of universe in the 3 different models is DIFFERENT!

Even if the hubble constant is the same (the slope) the different models have
different behaviour of a(t). For close universe the age of the universe has a
minimum. Open universe are older and are consistent with the observation.
THe initial singularity: the big bang

The Friedmann models imply all a initial singularity.

the primordial universe was a very hot plasma. -> hot plasma should emit thermal
radiation and should have a black body spectrum and should be uniform on the
entire sky. => CMB discovered by Penzias and Wilson (predicted by Gamov in
1958).

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmic_microwave_background

The CMB is highly homogeneous and isotropic.

The horizon problem of the CMB: regions of the universe not connected causally
have the same temperature and that is not possible, they cannot be in equilibrium!
Inflation resolve this problem.

What is Inflation? Inflation is an early epoch of the universe. At planck time 10^40 s
all the 4 basic force were united, at temperature of 10^32 K. THe inflation happen
when electromagnetic force and strong force decouple and this moment there is
release of energy that make the expansion of the universe increase dramatically. In
this way we can avoid the horizon problem.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inflation_(cosmology)
There is a change of about sixty order of magnitude of the horizon of the universe.
Inflation can solve also the monopole problem and the flatness problem (density
parameter is so close to 1, the so called fine-tuning problem)
The inflation can in this way in a “coup de baile” solve two important problem of the
Friedmann models.

Thermal History of the Universe

The evolution of the temperature of the universe:

assume adiabatic condition; black body law for radiation; we see that in a thermal
universe, the radiation determine the temperature evolution of the universe.
T propoprtional to (1 +z)
Radiation dominate in the early time of universe.

When radiation and matter decouple, the temperature of radiation and matter evolve
on their own accordingly to their own adiabatic relation.

Also the energy content in the early universe is dominated by radiation.

THerefore density radiation dominate over matter radiation in the early universe, at
least for the first 2500 yrs where there is the point of equivalence of radiation and
matter.
Unification of the Forces

The first 4 seconds: High energy radiations and photons that continue to create pairs
of particles and antiparticles.

As with time the universe expands, redshift increase, the energy of the photons
decreases and the pair matter-antimatter are not created anymore. Particle and
antiparticles would have annihilated forever were not have been an asymmetry in the
number of particle and antiparticles.
THere were 1 particle more every 10^9 couples of matter and antimatter.
THerefore at the end remained matter composed of particles and a thermal radiation
background (Baryogenesis) (is related to the theory of grand unification why this
asymmetry happened).

Big Bang Nucleosynthesis

At temperatures 10^7 or 10^8 starts the formation of deuterium and the firsts light
elements (at around 120 seconds after big bang).
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nucleosynthesis#Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis
The theory predict exactly the value of the He observable now (25%). THe big bang
nucleosynthesis theory is a strong support of the big bang theory.

Formation of nucleus bigger than He in the early universe is not possible because
there is no enough high density to produce nucleus bigger than He (there is no triple
alpha process happening).

We are still in the epoch dominated by radiation.

THere is a continuous scattering between matter and radiation that keep thermal
equilibrium between the two. The matter is ionized. WHen Hydrogen and electron
recombine (recombination epoch), the universe become neutral, and at 3000K it
happens 300 yrs after big bang happens the decoupling: radiation can escape the
matter and the universe become transparent to radiation.

(!) the image of the decoupling is just the CMB that we see! CMB is the footprint of
the decoupling! CMB is the most distant information that we can have for an
electromagnetic point of view! At z=about 1000

THe spectra of the CMB is exactly a black body, since the thermal equilibrium
between matter and radiation. THe blackbody peak at 0.2 cm, that means in the
microwave band. COBE satellite give us the best informations on the CMB from the
SPACE.
After recombination there is the so called Dark Age.
After that there are the formation of the first cosmic structure, around 10^6 or 10^7
yrs after big bang.

We find that intergalactic matter is ionised matter: what source can cause the
re-ionisation of the intergalactic matter?
The formation of big structure: during this formation there happens lot of explosions
(supernovaes) that re-ionize the matter: emission in the X-ray and UV band. Massive
OB stars, or also AGN that producing lot of radiation that ionize intergalactic matter.
In some part now the universe is not neutral but ionized.

Period of Reionization it happens 10^8 yrs after big bang.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reionization
20< Z < 6
Re-ionization inject new energy in the universe, giving T>3000K