UNIT G485

Module 5
5.5.2
Universe Evolution
Candidates should be able to :

Explain that the standard (hot big bang) model of the universe
implies a finite age for the universe.


Select and use the expression :



Describe qualitatively the evolution of the universe 10
-43
s after
the big bang to the present.


Explain that the universe may be open, flat or closed, depending
on its density.


Define the term critical density.


Select and use the expression for critical density of the universe :









Explain that it is currently believed that the density of the
universe is close to, and possibly exactly equal to, the critical
density needed for a flat cosmology.






The fact that the universe is expanding not only resolved Olbers paradox,
but also suggested when and how, the universe began.

According to Hubbles law, galaxies are moving apart at a speed which is
directly proportional to the distance between them.
Assuming that the galaxies have always been moving at the speeds we now
Observe, there must have been a time, long ago, when all the galaxies in the
Universe were in the same place. This suggests that the universe must have
started with an immense explosion or big bang.

This theory is supported by the following observational evidence :





















The hot big bang model assumes that space and time evolved from a
singularity* in an event that occurred about 13.7 billion years ago.

FXA 2008
age of the universe 1/H
0



0
= 3(H
0
)
2

8G
1
STANDARD (HOT BIG BANG) MODEL OF THE UNIVERSE
The universe is expanding.
Hubbles law shows that all galaxies are receding from us.
The universe is saturated with cosmic microwave background radiation.
The most distant galaxies, and hence the youngest, show a chemical
composition of 25% primordial helium.
* A singularity is a point in space-time in which the laws of physics do not apply.
The instant before the big bang occurred is a singularity because all the matter
in the universe is thought to have been concentrated at a single point of infinite
density.
UNIT G485
Module 5
5.5.2
Universe Evolution



The table below shows the sequence of events from the big bang to the
present. The times and temperatures are typical values and apart from
ime = 0, they do not represent gradual, rather than abrupt changes.

FXA 2008
EVOLUTION OF THE UNIVERSE
TIME TEMPERATURE WHAT WAS HAPPENING

0

infinite
The universe is infinitely small, infinitely
dense and extremely hot.
The big bang occurs about 13.7 million years ago.


10
-43
s


10
27
K
The universe is rapidly expanding and cooling.
All four types of forces (i.e. gravitational,
electromagnetic, strong and weak) are unified.
Size of universe 10
-35
cm.


10
-34
s

10
22
K
The gravitational force separates from the
other forces.
The universe consists of a primordial soup of
quarks and photons.


10
-16
s


10
16
K
The strong force separates from the weak and
electromagnetic forces.
The universe is still quite small (size 2 light
minutes) and for reasons unknown it contains
more matter than antimatter.
Leptons form from photons.




10
-3
s




10
10
K
The weak and electromagnetic forces separate.
The strong force becomes dominant and quarks
are combined to form hadrons (including protons
and neutrons). Proton-neutron ratio is about
4 to 1.
There is much combination of matter and anti-
matter until all antimatter disappears from the
region that becomes the Milky Way.
Size of universe 1 to 2 light years.
2
TIME TEMPERATURE WHAT WAS HAPPENING



10
2
s



10
7
K
The matter in the universe is in the plasma
state, consisting of a soup of free nuclei and
electrons.
Fusion reactions between protons produces a
significant amount of helium (known as primordial
helium). 25% of the observable universe is
helium.
Size of universe 30 light years.



10
5
years



10
4
K
The temperature is low enough for hydrogen
and helium atoms to be formed as electrons
become attached to protons.
Photons travel freely and the universe is
transparent.
The cosmic microwave background (CMB)
radiation is formed.



10
6
years


6000 K
The gravitational force becomes dominant.
Hydrogen and helium clumped together to form
stars and eventually clusters of stars which
become galaxies.
Size of universe 1.5 million light years.

10
9
years

17 K
Heavy elements formed as a result of the
gravitational collapse of stars.


13.7 x
10
9
years


2.7 K
The present time.
There is life on Earth.
Proton-neutron ratio is still about 4 to 1.
Present size of the observable universe is
estimated at 46.5 x 10
9
light years!
UNIT G485
Module 5
5.5.2
Universe Evolution


FXA 2008
3
UNIT G485
Module 5
5.5.2
Universe Evolution


The Hubble graph of recession speed against distance from earth is shown
below. It should be noted that the reliability of the Hubble constant, H
0

(= the gradient of the graph) is poor because the values for distant galaxies
are uncertain.




















From the graph it can be seen that a galaxy at a distance (d) of 4000 Mpc
has a recession speed (v) of 280 000 Km s
-1
.

Time taken for the galaxy to reach this position at this speed is given by :

Time = distance (d) = 4000 Mpc x 3.09 x 10
22
m Mpc
-1

speed (v) 2.8 x 10
8
m s
-1


= 4.4 x 10
17
s


= 4.4 x 10
17
s =
3.15 x 10
7
s year
-1


This figure is slightly high because the following approximations have been
made :

That the galaxy has been travelling at the same speed throughout
its existence. This is not true in practice, since it must have
gained some gravitational potential energy and hence lost some
of its initial kinetic energy. This means that the galaxys present
speed is less than its average speed and if the latter had been
used in the calculation, a lower value would have been obtained for
the age of the universe.

There is an uncertainty in the value of H
0
and this means an that
the value obtained for time (t) is also uncertain.

The galaxies formed some considerable time after the big bang
and this time delay has been ignored in the calculation.

For all the above reasons, it is preferable to say that:













The question cosmologists are asking is this :








And the answer to this question depends very much on the mean
density of the universe.
FXA 2008

R
e
c
e
s
s
i
o
n

s
p
e
e
d
,

v

/

k
m

s
-
1

Distance from earth, d / Mpc
THE AGE OF THE UNIVERSE

H
0
= 70 km s
-1
Mpc
-1

v = H
0
d
1.4 x 10
10
years = 14 billion years
4
Age of the universe 1/H
0

CRITICAL DENSITY (
c
) OF THE UNIVERSE
Have the galaxies got enough kinetic energy to go on and on for
ever or will they, at some time in the future, have expended all
their kinetic energy and be pulled back to the initial singularity
point in a big crunch?
UNIT G485
Module 5
5.5.2
Universe Evolution




The diagram opposite shows
a galaxy X of mass (m),
moving with velocity (v), at
a distance (r) from the site
of the big bang.

The total mass of all the
other galaxies between X
and the big bang site = M.


For X to travel outwards
for ever, it must overcome
the attractive forces of
the galaxies which lie
behind it, i.e. it needs to
gain gravitational potential
energy (Ep) given by :

E
p
= GMm/r (and M = V = 4/3 r
3
)
E
p
= G x 4/3 r
3
x m = 4Gr
2
m
r 3

The kinetic energy (E
k
) of X is given by : E
k
= mv
2

But, v = H
0
r So : E
k
= mH
0
2
r
2


If E
p
< E
k
, X carries on travelling for ever.
If E
p
> E
k
, X will eventually stop and be pulled back.

The limiting condition is when E
p
= E
k
and then :

4Gr
2

c
m = mH
0
2
r
2

3 2
From which the critical density (
c
) of the universe is given by :





























c
= 3H
0
2
= 3 x (2.3 x 10
-18
)
2
=
8G 8 x 6.67 x 10
-11


Using the cosmological principle that the universe is homogeneous, the
mean density, of the universe is found to be 10
-27
kg m
-3
.


It can be seen that and
c
are of the same order of magnitude, but
since neither is known accurately, it is impossible at present to say
which is the larger and hence predict the fate of the universe.
The majority of cosmologists think that =
c
and are advocates of
what is termed a flat universe.
FXA 2008
EQUATION FOR THE CRITICAL DENSITY (
c
) OF THE UNIVERSE

region containing galaxies
with a smaller r-value.
region within which all
the galaxies are found.
big bang site
X v
r
galaxy of mass (m)
moving with velocity (v)

c
= 3H
0
2

8G
5

If the present density, of the universe is less than
the critical density,
c
, the universe will carry on
expanding for ever.

If is greater than
c
, then the universe will eventually
stop expanding and collapse, producing the big crunch.
9.5 x 10
-27
kg m
-3

UNIT G485
Module 5
5.5.2
Universe Evolution



The diagram below shows the three possible scenarios for the future
of the universe.



The following facts are now known to within 10% :

The rate of expansion of the universe.

The mean separation of the galaxies.


This means that the position where each line intersects the y-axis on
the above graph is known to that degree of accuracy and that the
gradient at that point is the same for all three graphs.


In this outcome, the mean density () of the universe is so great that
the gravitational forces will eventually cause galaxies to slow down, stop
and then be pulled back to produce a big crunch.






In this outcome, the mean density () of the universe is too low and each
galaxy will reach a constant velocity and, at these velocities, all galaxies
will continue to separate for ever.






This is a boundary scenario which is unlikely, but most cosmologists
believe in it. What it implies is that the galaxies will gradually slow
down, but never actually stop.



Note that, each possibility implies a different zero time for the big bang.
When, in the future, the actual time at which the big bang occurred is
accurately known, we will come to know the fate of the universe with some
certainty.


FXA 2008
POSSIBLE FATES OF THE UNIVERSE

open universe
closed universe
flat universe
average
separation of
two galaxies
time
the present the past the future
possible times
for the big bang
The big crunch
6
CLOSED UNIVERSE ( >
c
)
OPEN UNIVERSE ( <
c
)
FLAT UNIVERSE ( =
c
)
UNIT G485
Module 5
5.5.2
Universe Evolution
HOMEWORK QUESTION

1 The critical density of the universe can be shown to be given by the
Equation :







(a) State two assumptions made in the derivation of this equation.


(b) Calculate the critical density of the universe, giving your answer in
hydrogen atoms per cubic metre.

Hubble constant (H
0
) = 1.6 x 10
-18
s
-1
.
Mass of a hydrogen atom = 1.7 x 10
-27
kg.



(c) Theory suggests that the universe may have three possible fates,
referred to as open, flat and closed.

Describe each of these and illustrate the evolution of the universe
in each case, by a suitable sketch graph with size on the y-axis and
time on the x-axis.

FXA 2008

c
= 3H
0
2

8G
7

Remember, there is no substitute
for solid hard study and revision,
so pull out all the stops in these
last weeks and do yourselves proud.




UNIT G485
Module 5
5.5.2
Universe Evolution


FXA 2008
UNIT G484
Module 2
4.2.3



FXA 2008
UNIT G484
Module 2
4.2.3



FXA 2008