NIGERIA MARITIME UNIVERSITY OKERENKOKO

FACULTY OF TRANSPORT
DEPARTMENT OF TRANSPORT AND LOGISTICS MANAGEMENT
LECTURE NOTES.
COURSE CODE /TITLE: TLM 211.1: PRINCIPLE OF TRANSPORT
LECTURERS IN CHARGE: MR. SILE, ALEX AKPOBOLOEMI AND MR. EGELU,
FAMOUS

COURSE OUTLINES
1. Introduction/Functions of Transport
2. General Characteristics of Roads, Railways
3. Inland Waterways, Seaways, Airways, Pipelines
4. Location of road and Rail Terminals
5. Seaports and Airports
6. Services and Facilities Required at Transport Terminals
7. Principles in the Design of Units of Carriage
8. Units of Carriage by Road, Rail, Sea, Air and Pipeline
9. Types of Prime Mover
10. Motive Power and its Influence on Road Haulage and Rail Transport
11. Aircraft Power Units
12. Transport Documentation

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 LECTURE NOTE 1:
OVERVIEW TRANSPORT
History from the beginning has it that, human sensitivity has revealed an urge for movement
leading to a measure of Society’s progress. The history of transport is the history of
civilization all over the world. For any country to develop with the right momentum modern,
an efficient Transport as a basic infrastructure is a must. It has been seen throughout the
history of any nation that a proper, extensive and efficient Transport has played a major role.
This therefore means that the principal role of transport is to provide or improve access to
different locations for businesses and individuals, for both freight and personal movements.
Transport is the movement of people, goods and services from one place known as the
point of ‘origin’ to another place called the ‘destination’. In other words, Transport is a
service or facility for the carriage of persons and goods from one place to the other
using humans, animals and different kinds of vehicles. Such movements take place over
land, water and air. The main function of transportation is to carry the products to different
markets, which may be at different geographical locations. Apart from transporting the
goods, the additional values that transportation provides to the customers are providing the
products on time, in the quantities demanded, and in the undamaged form. The utility that
transportation provides is called 'place utility' and the utility which is created by the storage is
regarded as "time utility". Time utility cannot be provided to a customer without the help of
transportation activities as the speed and the consistency by which a product is moved from
one point to other is determined only by the transportation activities. The activity of
transporting something or someone from one point to other or the activities involved in being
transported is termed as transportation. Some of the essentials of a good transport system
include affordability, availability, efficiency, convenience, safety, and speed. When a
transport system is affordable, it can increase passenger flows and reduce the cost of goods.
A safe transport system minimises fatalities and severe injuries on public roads. But one of
the most critical contributing factors to a sound transport system is speed because it helps
drive mobility.

MODES OF TRANSPORT
This is not new all over the world that, transport is possible through land, air or water, which
are called the different modes of transport. On land we use trucks, tractors, etc., to carry
goods; train, bus, cars etc. to carry passengers. In the air, we find aero planes, helicopters to
carry passengers as well as goods. Similarly, in water, we find ships, steamers, etc., to carry
goods and passengers. All these are known as various means of transport. Let us discuss
various modes of transport.
The modes of transport can be broadly divided into three categories:
i. Land
ii. Air
iii. Water

FUNCTIONS OF TRANSPORT
These followings are the function of transport:
i. Movement of Products: The fundamental function of transportation is to move the
products from one place to another. The upward and downward movements of products in the
value chain are facilitated by transportation. Transportation is important for moving the
material to the next stage of manufacturing process and also closer to the customer. The

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material can be in the form of components, assemblies, materials, work-in-progress, finished
products.

ii. Storage of Products: Storing the product in the vehicles for temporary purpose can be
seen as another function of transportation. It can be seen as a costly source of storage but it is
less expensive than the cost of unloading the material in a warehouse for few days and again
loading it. Vehicles are used as temporary storage facility because sometimes the need of
storing the in-transit shipment, generally for few days, arises. Another situation where the
transportation vehicle can be used as a storage facility is when the space in the warehouse is
limited.
iii. Contributes in Growth of Industries: Transport contributes in Growth of industries
whose product requires quick marketing. Perishable articles like fish and green vegetables are
carried to various consumers quickly even in distant markets through transport.
iv. Helps in Increase in the Demand for Goods: Transport helps in increase in the demand
for goods. Through transport newer customers in newer places can be easily contacted and
products can be introduced to them. Today markets have become national or international
only because of transport.
v. Creates Place Utility: Transport creates place utility. Geographical and climatic factors
force industries to be located in particular places far away from the markets and places where
there may not be any demand for the products. Transport bridges the gap between production
and consumption centres.
vi. Helps in the Stabilization of Price: Transport helps in the stabilization of price.
Transport exerts considerable influence upon the stabilization of the prices of several
commodities by moving commodities from surplus to deficit areas. This equalizes the supply
and demand factor and makes the price of commodities stable as well as equal.
vii. Enables Consumers to Enjoy the Benefits of Goods: Transport enables the consumers
to enjoy the benefits of goods not produced locally. This increases the standard of living, an
essential factor for further development of marketing and the economy.
viii. Large-Scale Production: In order to enable the large scale production, any firm will be
requiring the collection of different types of raw material, spare parts, equipment, items from
number of sources and from number of locations. Similarly, after producing the product it
should be distributed to a large geographical market at a reasonable cost. Therefore,
transportation is a very crucial element for carrying out a large-scale production.
ix. Identifies Competition: Transport identifies competition, which in turn, reduces prices.
Prices are also reduced because of the facilities offered by transport for large-scale
production. Advantages of large-scale production is possible only due to transport.
x. Increases the Mobility: Transport increases the mobility of labour and capital. It makes
people of one place migrate to other places in search of jobs. Even capital, machinery and
equipment are imported from foreign countries through transport alone.

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 LECTURE NOTE 2:

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF ROADS, RAILWAYS

ROAD TRANSPORT

Roads are the means that connect one place to another on the surface of the land. You must
have seen roads in your village, in towns and cities. Not all of them look alike. Some of them
are made of sand and some may be of chips and cement or coal tar. You find different
vehicles plying on roads like bullock carts, cycles, motorcycles, cars, trucks, buses, etc.
All of these constitute different means of road transport. The means of road transport may be
divided into three types:

 Man driven;
 Animal driven; and
 Motor driven.
Man driven
You might have seen individuals carrying goods on their heads or back, on bicycles and so
on, move from one place to another. People also ride a bicycle or use a rickshaw to travel
short distances.

Animal driven
We also find animal-driven vehicles like carts (drawn by bullocks, camels, horses, donkeys,
etc.) used in rural areas to carry crops, straw, fodder and sometimes even people. Sometimes
even animals are directly used to carry goods from one place to another. In areas, which are
normally covered with snow throughout the year, we find sledges pulled by dogs used to
carry both passengers and goods.

Motor driven
Compared with a man driven and animal-driven means of road transport, motor-driven means
of transport have become more important over the years. This is due to their speedy
movement and larger carrying capacity. The extension of roads to every corner of the country
has also enhanced the use of motor-driven transport.

The types of motor vehicles used to carry goods and passengers include auto-rickshaws,
scooters, vans, buses, tempos and trucks, etc. In Kolkata, tramway also forms part of road
transport for carrying passengers.

CHARACTERISTICS ROAD TRANSPORT

i. Dominant form of transport worldwide

ii. Provide door-to-door service
iii. Essential for feeder purposes for other transport modes
iv. Most suitable for short and medium distance traffic
v. Virtually can transport any kind of product

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 vi. Ways are shared by many different users and between both public &private transport
carrying passengers and goods
vii. Traffic concentration & congestion causing delays & unreliable
viii. Effect from seasonal nature
ix. Unsuitable for long distance and bulky traffic

Advantages of Road Transport

Road transport has the following advantages.

 It is a relatively cheaper mode of transport as compared to other modes.
 Perishable goods can be transported at a faster speed by road carriers over a short
distance.
 It is a flexible mode of transport as loading and unloading is possible at any
destination. It provides door-to-door service.
 It helps people to travel and carry goods from one place to another, in places which
are not connected by other means of transport like hilly areas.
Limitations of Road Transport
It has the following limitations.
 Due to limited carrying capacity road transport is not economical for long distance
transportation of goods.
 Transportation of heavy goods or goods in bulk by road involves high cost.
 It is affected by adverse weather conditions. Floods, rain, landslide, etc., sometimes
create obstructions to road transport.
RAILWAYS:
Transportation of goods and passengers on rail lines through trains is called rail transport. It
occupies an important place inland transport system of our country and is the most
dependable mode of transport to carry goods and passengers over a long distance. Besides
long-distance, local transport of passengers is also provided by local trains or metro-rail in
some metropolitan cities. The Nigerian Railway Corporation traces its history to the year
1898, when the first railroad in Nigeria was constructed by the British colonial government.
On October 3, 1912, the Lagos Government Railway and the Baro-Kano Railway were
amalgamated or joined starting nationwide rail service under the name Government
Department of Railways. With the passing of the Nigerian Railway Corporation Act of 1955,
the company gained its current name as well as the exclusive legal right to construct and
operate rail service in Nigeria.

Railways have played a very significant role in the economic, social and political
development of many countries in the world. Though the railway requires a very huge capital
outlay as compared to other modes of transport, it is our principal means of transport. It
carries about 70 to 80 percent of our total traffic of goods and people. Nigeria railway system
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is being engineered to be the largest in Africa. In some first World Countries, Rail transport is
available throughout the country except in some hilly or mountainous regions. In India, two
types of trains are found. One is a passenger train and the other is a goods train. While
passenger trains carry both human beings and a limited quantity of goods, the goods trains are
exclusively used for carrying goods from one place to another. These trains are driven by rail
engines and they use steam, diesel or electric power to move. Let us now discuss the
advantages and limitations of rail transport.
Characteristics:
The rail transport has the following characteristics:
1. Public Utility Service:
Railways provide an essential service to the public. It being a public utility service, requires
protection and investments by government.
2. Monopoly:
Railways have monopoly in India. The rail transport is managed by the Railways Department
of the Central Government. No private operator is allowed to enter this transport sector:
3. Huge Investments:
Until the recently passed bill in 2023, The FG has the monopoly on railway in Nigeria After
the passage of the bill, State Governments are now allowed to own and operate inter-city rail
services. Although, intra city or mono rail services are within the rights of city council, e g
Lagos mono rail project. The railways require huge investments for purchase of land, laying
of tracks, constructing railway stations and sheds, buying automobiles, etc. No single
individual can afford to make all these investments.
4. Privileges:
The railways require special privileges to provide efficient transport service. Railways’
require special property rights for purchase of land, construction of bridges and railway lines.
5. Special Rate Fixation:
The railways fix separate rate for passengers and goods traffic. The same rates are applicable
to all persons and all areas of the country. Rail services are available to all members or the
public on equal terms.
6. Non-transferability:
Once the railway lines are laid down then these tracks cannot be used for any other purpose.
So railway services are non- transferable.

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 LECTURE NOTE 3:
INLAND WATER TRANSPORT
Inland waterways are made up of navigable rivers, lakes, coastal creeks, lagoons and canals.
The movement of goods and services along inland waterways is one of the oldest means of
transporting goods and services from point to point. This is largely due to the fact that inland
water transport (IWT) offers the most economical, energy efficient and environmental
friendly means of transporting all types of cargo from place to place. It also offers safer and
cheaper rates in areas where water exist naturally. This facilitates commerce, promotes
wealth creation, poverty alleviation, and creates job opportunities for youths within such
regions.
Inland water transport use boats, launches, barges, streamers, etc., to carry goods and
passengers on the river and canal routes. These routes are called inland waterways and are
used in domestic or home trade to carry bulky goods. In order to ship heavy, non-perishable,
and low value goods (such as coal, grain, ore, and petroleum products), the cheapest mode of
transportation can be seen as waterways. There is a huge capacity in case of water carriers.
Products weighing a minimum of ten times the weight of one rail car can be transported by
waterways powered by towboats, tugboats, barges which move in inter coastal canals and
inland rivers.

Its use to move goods and services was found to fuel the economic growth and rural
development of the local, coastal communities especially where it is the only means of
transport available. Inland waterway forms an integral part of the region social fabric and

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plays a pivotal role in assisting the people, especially the poor, in gaining access to social
services, employment opportunities and in benefiting from the nations’ economic agenda. It
enhances rural productivity and it is necessary for the continued existence of the dispersed
settlements in the region.
There were indeed reported and widespread evidences especially in the coastal states that
IWT promotes all facets of agro and other businesses- ranging from crop production through
fishery, production of basic materials, processing of timber products to the promotion of rural
development etc. Findings revealed that this mode of transport promotes the growth of rural
economics, both through its direct positive impacts on commerce, agriculture and industries.
In addition, it offers hundreds of millions of people the opportunity to produce or purchase
sufficient food, fish and other goods, especially in the remote coastal communities where it
remains the only means of transport available. Inland waterway offers additional benefits
which included employment and income generation. In most countries, tourism is the ‘go to’
option for bringing economic development to a specific region endowed with waterways.
Inland Waterways transport systems incur lower costs of development, management and
maintenance as compared to road systems.
SEAWAYS

Shipping has always been a key player in global transport. In recent years there has been an
increase in demand for the use of maritime transport, probably due to the advent of new
technologies and e-commerce. Shipping has become an ideal choice to meet these new needs.

According to recent data, it has been estimated that shipping accounts for 80% to 90% of
international logistics. These are very relevant numbers to get an idea of the importance of
this type of transportation. But why is maritime transport becoming more and more
important? Let’s take a closer look at what maritime transport is and all the advantages it
brings. Let’s go there!

What is maritime transport

The concept is not very complex; maritime transport is a term that designates large cargoes
transported by cargo ships. Starting in the 1960s, shipping began to use containers,
facilitating the transport of large cargoes, reducing the cost of storage and product

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 monitoring. With all this, seaways have become one of the main options for the transport of
goods.

Let’s delve a little deeper into the special characteristics of maritime transport that make it so
relevant in today’s international logistics.

Characteristics of maritime transport

As we have already mentioned, maritime transport is a very important part of international

logistics. This is not a random fact; it is due, above all, to the attractive characteristics that
define it.

 Large capacity. The vessels stand out for their high tonnage capacity, which is very difficult
to match for other types of transport. This high capacity is one of the great assets of maritime
logistics.
 International transportation. Ocean freight is capable of transporting large quantities
internationally at a lower cost.
 Versatile transport. Maritime logistics enjoys great versatility; there are vessels of many
different types, capable of adapting to any type of cargo.
 Competition. Despite some cases, maritime transport is governed by the principle of free
competition, so there is a wide range of supply.
 Good adaptability to cargoes of different sizes, weight and shape.
 Low unit transportation cost.

Types of maritime transportation

It is the cargo and its volume that usually define the types of maritime transport that we can
find. In the following, we will list some of the most common types of maritime transports
within this logistics:

 Container ships: They are the most common type of vessel used for the transport of
goods. The organization by means of containers makes it possible to keep a better
control and a large volume of cargo.
 General cargo vessel: This is a more basic type of vessel; it does not allow the use of
containers. Its most widespread use is for the transport of dry cargo.
 Bulk carrie: They are also called bulk carriers, as they are used for the maritime
transport of bulk cargo (e.g. minerals, fertilizers, etc…).
 Reefer vessel: As its name suggests, it is a vessel with refrigeration capacity,
making it ideal for the transport of perishable foodstuffs. Because of the type of cargo,
they carry, the speed of this type of vessel is faster than that of other vessels. Another
interesting fact about reefer vessels is that they are usually white, in order to reflect
the sun’s rays as much as possible and avoid overheating.
 Heavy lift cargo vessels: Special vessels designed for the transport of extremely
heavy cargoes.
 Roll on – Roll off vessel: They are a type of vessel that transports wheeled cargo,
usually machinery, cars, trucks, etc….

There are many other types of vessels such as tankers, livestock… the great versatility of
maritime transport facilitates different types of transport and the design of vessels for this
purpose.

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 LECTURE NOTE 4:
AIRWAYS
This is the fastest mode of transport. It carries goods and passengers through airways by
using different aircraft like passenger aircraft, cargo aircraft, helicopters, drones, etc. Besides
passengers, it generally carries goods that are less bulky or of high value. In hilly and
mountainous areas where another mode of transport is not accessible, air transport is an
important as well as convenient mode. It is mostly used for transporting goods and
passengers during natural calamities like earthquakes and floods, etc. During the war, air
transport plays an important role in carrying soldiers as well as supplies to the required areas.
Air transport may be classified as domestic and international air transport. While domestic air
transport mainly facilitates movement within the country, international air transport is used
for carrying goods and passengers between different countries. Air transport is the most
recent mode of transport. It is the gift of the 20th century to the world. The two world wars
gave a great impetus to the development of air transport in almost all the countries of the
world. The peculiar characteristic of air transport is that is does not need a specific surface
track for its operations. It has no physical barriers as in the case of other mode of transport.
Political boundaries are also immaterial although it has to observe the requirements of the
International Law. The supreme advantage of air transport lies in its quickness.

Characteristics:
Air transport has the following characteristics:
1. Unbroken Journey: Air transport provides unbroken journey over land and sea. It is the
fastest and quickest means of transport.

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2. Rapidity: Air transport has the highest speed among all the modes of transport.
3. Expensive: Air transport is the most expensive means of transport. There is huge
investment in purchasing aero planes and constructing of aerodromes.
4. Special Preparations: Air transport requires special preparations like wheelers links,
meteorological stations, flood lights, searchlights etc.

Advantages: Fastest Mode of Transport

1. High Speed:
The supreme advantage of air transport is its high speed. It is the fastest mode of transport
and thus it is the most suitable mean where time is an important factor.
2. Comfortable and Quick Services:
It provides a regular, comfortable, efficient and quick service.
3. No Investment in Construction of Track: It does not require huge capital investment in
the construction and maintenance of surface track.
4. No Physical Barriers: It follows the shortest and direct route as seas, mountains or forests
do not come in the way of air transport.
5. Easy Access: Air transport can be used to carry goods and people to the areas which are
not accessible by other means of transport.
6. Emergency Services: It can operate even when all other means of transport cannot be
operated due to the floods or other natural calamities. Thus, at that time, it is the only mode
of transport which can be employed to do the relief work and provide the essential
commodities of life.
7. Quick Clearance: In air transport, custom formalities can be very quickly complied with
and thus it avoids delay in obtaining clearance.
8. Most Suitable for Carrying Light Goods of High Value: It is most suitable for carrying
goods of perishable nature which require quick delivery and light goods of high value such as
diamonds, bullion etc. over long distances.
9. National Defence: Air transport plays a very important role in the defence of a country.
Modern wars have been fought mainly by aeroplanes. It has upper hand in destroying the
enemy in a very short period of time. It also supports over wings of defence of a country.
10. Space Exploration: Air transport has helped the world in the exploration of space.

Disadvantages:

1. Very Costly: It is the costliest means of transport. The fares of air transport are so high
that it is beyond the reach of the common man.
2. Small Carrying Capacity: Its carrying capacity is very small and hence it is not suitable
to carry cheap and bulky goods.
3. Uncertain and Unreliable: Air transport is uncertain and unreliable as it is controlled to a
great extent by weather conditions. Unfavourable weather such as fog, snow or heavy rain
etc. may cause cancellation of scheduled flights and suspension of air service.
4. Breakdowns and Accidents: The chances of breakdowns and accidents are high as
compared to other modes of transport. Hence, it involves comparatively greater risk.
5. Large Investment: It requires a large amount of capital investment in the construction and
maintenance of aeroplanes. Further, very trained and skilled persons are required for
operating.
6. Specialised Skill: Air transport requires a specialised skill and high degree of training for
its operation.
7. Unsuitable for Cheap and Bulky Goods: Air transport is unsuitable for carrying cheap,
bulky and heavy goods because of its limited capacity and high cost.

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 8. Legal Restrictions: There are many legal restrictions imposed by various countries in the
interest of their own national unity and peace.

The different types of air transport include:

1. Commercial Airlines: These are the most common form of air transport, providing
passenger and cargo services for both short-haul and long-haul flights.
2. General Aviation: This type of air transport includes smaller aircrafts like private
planes, business jets, and helicopters, used for personal or business purposes.
3. Military Aviation: The military uses aircraft for various purposes such as
reconnaissance, transport, and combat operations.
4. Air Ambulance: Medical services are provided to patients in need of critical care
through air ambulance services.
5. Ballooning: Ballooning is a type of air transport that involves flying in a hot air
balloon.
6. Gliders: Gliders are unpowered aircraft that use thermal currents and wind to stay
aloft.
7. Parachuting: Parachuting is a type of air transport where a person jumps from an
aircraft and deploys a parachute to land safely.
LECTURE NOTE 5:
PIPELINES TRANSPORT

In modern times, pipelines are used for various purposes. Water supply to residential and
commercial areas is carried on with the help of pipeline. Petroleum and natural gas are also
transported from one place to another through pipelines.

Pipelines are an extremely important and extensive mode of land transport, although very
rarely recognized by the general public, mainly because they are buried underground or under
the sea, as in the case of gas pipelines from North Africa to Europe. For example, in the
United States, there are 215,000 miles of pipelines that carry 17% of all ton-miles of freight.
Two main products dominate pipeline traffic: oil and gas. Although local pipelines are
significant for the transport of water, and in some rare cases, for the shipment of dry bulk
commodities, such as coal in the form of slurry. Pipelines can even be used to carry small
quantities of freight, such as in pneumatic tubes, but this use remains marginal and for short
distances.

Pipelines are almost everywhere designed for a specific purpose only, to carry one
commodity from one location to another. They are built mostly with private capital, and
because the system must be in place before any revenues can be generated, they represent a
significant capital commitment and sunk costs. They are useful in transporting large
quantities of products where no other feasible means of transport (usually maritime) is
available. Pipeline routes tend to link isolated production areas to major refining and
manufacturing centers in the case of oil, or major populated areas, as in the case of natural
gas. To fulfil their role, pipelines have four main functional properties:

 Collecting pipelines. Their purpose is to move oil and natural gas from extraction fields to
processing and storage facilities. The growth in offshore oil and gas extraction facilities has
favored the setting of underwater collective pipelines moving products to shore-based
facilities.

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 Feeder pipelines. They move products from processing and storage facilities to transmission
pipelines. Their purpose is to ensure that a sufficient volume of products is collected to justify
the larger diameter of transmission pipelines.
 Transmission pipelines. Major conduits, mostly transporting crude oil and natural gas over
long distances and commonly across international jurisdictions.
 Distribution pipelines. Small conduits that deliver natural gas to homes, businesses, and
industries. This also applies to water distribution pipelines, but the supply systems are usually
local in scale.

However, operating costs are very low since pipelines represent a fundamental mode for
transporting liquid and gaseous products over long distances. One major disadvantage of
pipelines is the inherent inflexibility of the mode. Once built, which is usually at great
expense, an expansion of the demand cannot be easily accommodated without adding a
second adjacent pipe. There are specific limits to the carrying capacity of pipelines, which
require careful consideration.

This is the most convenient as well as an economical mode of transport for petroleum as well
as natural gas in comparison to road and rail transport, provided the volume to be transported
is large. But the cost of installation and maintenance requires large capital investment.

The advantages of oil pipeline transportation:

1. The transportation volume is large, and the construction cost of the infrastructure is low
compared with the railway transportation.
2. It is affected by climatic factors such as typhoon and can maintain long-term stable and
continuous transportation, and has little pollution to the environment.
3. Convenient centralized control and management, high production efficiency.
4. It has low transportation and transportation costs and low energy consumption. The
transportation cost of pipeline transportation is between one-fifth and one-sixth of the railway
transportation cost, and the cost is only higher than that of water transportation.
5. The topographical restrictions on oil pipeline transportation are relatively small, and
basically no occupation of cultivated land.

Pipeline transport is the long-distance transportation of a liquid or gas through a system

of pipes—a pipeline—typically to a market area for consumption. The latest data from 2014
gives a total of slightly less than 2,175,000 miles (3,500,000 km) of pipeline in 120 countries
of the world. The United States had 65%, Russia had 8%, and Canada had 3%, thus 76% of
all pipeline were in these three countries.

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Oil pipelines are made from steel or plastic tubes which are usually buried. The oil is moved
through the pipelines by pump stations along the pipeline. Natural gas (and similar gaseous
fuels) are pressurized into liquids known as Natural Gas Liquids (NGLs). Natural gas
pipelines are constructed of carbon steel. Hydrogen pipeline transport is the transportation of
hydrogen through a pipe. Pipelines are one of the safest ways of transporting materials as
compared to road or rail, and hence in war, pipelines are often the target of military attacks.
Pipelines are generally the most economical way to transport large quantities of oil, refined
oil products or natural gas over land. For example, in 2014, pipeline transport of crude oil
cost about $5 per barrel, while rail transport cost about $10 to $15 per barrel. Trucking has
even higher costs due to the additional labor required; employment on completed pipelines
represents only "1% of that of the trucking industry."

LECTURE NOTE 6:
LOCATION OF ROAD AND RAIL TERMINALS, SEAPORTS AND AIRPORTS
Passengers and freight cannot travel individually but in groups or batches. Passengers must
go to bus terminals and airports first, where they are “assembled” into busloads or planeloads
to reach their final destinations where they are dispersed. Freight must be consolidated at a
distribution center, a port, or a rail yard before onward shipment. Terminals may also be
points of interchange involving the same transport mode. Thus, a passenger wishing to travel
by train from Paris to Rotterdam may have to change trains in Brussels, or an air passenger
wishing to fly between Montreal and Los Angeles may have to change planes in Toronto.
Terminals may also be points of interchange between different modes of transportation and
their respective networks. Passengers travelling from Warri, Delta State to Abuja may travel
by rail from Otor-Udu train station to Itakpe, Kogi State, then board motor vehicle from there
to Abuja which is their final destination. Likewise, goods being shipped from Okerenkoko,
Warri South-West, Delta State to Benin, Edo State, will go through the jetty which the
terminal and placed on a barge to travel to the jetty in Warri, then change the mode of
transport to motor vehicle or truck for onward delivery in Benin. Transport terminals,
therefore, are central and intermediate locations for the mobility of passengers and freight.
Terminals are obligatory points of passage, capitalizing on their geographical location, which
is generally intermediate to commercial flows. The importance of a transport terminal is often
a function of its size. Large transport terminals, particularly ports and airports, confer the
status of gateway or hub to their location since they become obligatory points of transit
between different segments of the global transport system. Containerization has favored the
emergence of a hierarchy of terminals fulfilling different functions and added value, from the
mega-gateway coordinating the flows of a large market area to a small rail yard or truck
depot servicing a local market. The same observation applies to passenger transport, where a
specific hierarchy of terminals is evident. There are large hub airports located in global cities,
connecting continents down to the small local airport with limited daily services to a few
destinations.

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 Terminal is any location where freight and passengers either originates, terminates, or
is handled in the transportation process. A terminal is a facility where passengers and
freight are assembled or dispersed during transportation. They are central and intermediate
locations in the movements of passengers and freight. They often require specific facilities
and equipment to accommodate the traffic they handle.
Terminals may be points of interchange within the same modal system and which insure a
continuity of the flows. This is particularly the case for modern air and port operations with
hubs connecting parts of the network. Terminals, however, are also very important points of
transfer between modes. Buses and cars deliver people to airports, trucks haul freight to rail
terminals, and rail brings freight to docks for loading on ships. One of the main attributes of
transport terminals, international and regional alike, is their convergence function. They are
indeed obligatory points of passage having invested on their geographical location which is
generally intermediate to commercial flows. Thus, transport terminals are either created by
the centrality or the intermediacy of their respective locations.

IMPORTANCE AND PERFORMANCE

There are three major attributes that are linked with the importance and the performance of
transport terminals:

 Location. The major locational factor of a transport terminal is obviously to serve a large
concentration of economic activities, representing a terminal’s market area. Specific
terminals have specific locational constraints, such as port and airport sites. The former
requires a suitable coastline and nautical profile, while the latter requires a large footprint of
open flat land. New transport terminals tend to be located outside central areas to avoid high
land costs and congestion and find available land.
 Accessibility. Accessibility to other terminals (at the local, regional and global scale) as well
as how well the terminal is linked to the regional transport system is of importance. For
instance, a maritime terminal has little relevance if it is poorly connected to its market area
through a high-capacity inland transport system (rail, road, or barge).
 Infrastructure. The primary function of a terminal is to handle and tranship freight or
passengers since modes are physically separated. Modern terminal infrastructures
consequently require massive investments and are among the largest structures ever built.
Infrastructure considerations are essential as they must accommodate current traffic and
anticipate future trends along with technological and logistical changes. The time a
conveyance (bus, truck, train, or ship) is allowed to load or unload passengers or freight at a
terminal is usually defined as dwell time. For passenger terminals, travelers expect the lowest
dwell time possible. For freight terminals, the situation is more complex as dwell time refers
to the amount of time cargo stays in a terminal yard or storage area while waiting to be
loaded. Dwell time can be operational, which reflects the performance of terminal
infrastructures and management, including the scheduling and availability of transport
services. It can also be transactional, which is usually linked with the performance of
clearance procedures (such as checking in and customs). Finally, dwell time can be storage
related, implying that the owner or the carrier of the cargo deliberately leaves the cargo at
the terminal as part of a transport or supply chain management strategy.

i. ROAD TERMINAL

A bus terminal, or terminus, is the point where a bus route starts or ends, where vehicles stop,
turn or reverse, and wait before departing on their return journeys. It’s also where passengers

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board and alight from vehicles. It also often provides a convenient point where services can
be controlled from. The size and nature of a terminal may vary, from a roadside bus stop with
no facilities for passengers or bus crews, to a purpose built off-road bus station offering a
wide range of facilities. If the number of vehicles arriving and departing is low, a roadside
bus stop, with no facilities, will normally be adequate. With a large number of vehicles
arriving and departing, it may be necessary to provide off-road bus station facilities for the
convenience of passengers and to reduce traffic congestion. The term bus station is normally
used to refer to an off-road location with at least basic facilities for passengers, while a
terminal may be a fully equipped bus station but might equally be merely a point in the road.

Terminals versus stations

Although the terms bus terminal and bus station tend to be used synonymously, the latter is
normally more correct since in most cases there are some routes which pass through the
station without terminating there. The term bus station is normally used to refer to an off-road
location with at least basic facilities for passengers, while a terminal may be a fully equipped
bus station but might equally be merely a point in the road. In many cities the majority of
passengers start and end their journeys at bus stations, and a significant proportion of
operators’ revenue may be collected at these points.

Stations and terminals are important elements

Local bus services in many towns and cities are centered on bus stations. Often there are
large stations in the central area, with smaller ones at the outer ends of the routes. There may
also be intermediate stations, especially at points where many passengers interchange
between different bus routes, although most intermediate passengers on urban services board
and alight at roadside bus stops.

Bus stations may also be used for parking between journeys for buses which are away from
their home bases. But they should not normally be regarded as long-term parking facilities,
particularly in locations where land is expensive. When they are not required for loading,
buses should be parked elsewhere, preferably at depots where there are facilities for vehicle
servicing and cleaning. Buses should not normally be permitted to park in streets adjacent to
bus stations.

Locating bus stations for urban services

It’s essential that stations are not only constructed to a suitable design and with adequate
capacity, but also that they are suitably located. There are a number of considerations in
deciding the best location. The location should be where routes should logically connect or
terminate, as determined by passenger demand patterns. If the station is used as an
intermediate stopping point on routes passing through, it should be conveniently located for
passengers joining or leaving vehicles.

ii. RAIL TERMINALS

Rail terminals can be categorized by the passenger and freight markets they serve, with the
function of shunting accounting for an intermediary form. Passenger and freight terminals
can also be differentiated by their locational setting:

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 1. Location Dynamics

When rail transportation systems started to emerge in the second half of the 19th century, the
importance of rail terminals became apparent, including their location. Using rail
transportation requires purposely designed terminals where passengers can embark and
disembark and where freight can be transferred. Rail terminals, while not quite as space
extensive as airports and seaports, are less prone to site constraints. This involves two major
issues:

 Location. An important distinction concerns passengers and freight rail terminals, which
commonly involve very different locations. Many rail terminals were established in the 19th
century during the heyday of rail development. While sites may have been on the edge of
urban areas at the time, decades of urban development, including residential and industrial
areas, have surrounded older rail terminals, leaving limited expansion opportunities.
Passenger terminals are more compact and tend to occupy central locations that are
commonly the defining element of urban centrality. Freight terminals have seen a growing
separation from central locations, with new facilities often built in an exurban location,
including high-speed train stations.
 Setting. Because of the linear characteristic of the mode they serve, rail terminals are
dominantly rectangular-shaped facilities. Their capacity is a function of the number of track
spurs available, which is a characteristic difficult to change once the terminal has been built.
Individually rail terminals may not be as extensive as airports or ports. Still, cumulatively the
area occupied by all the rail sites in a metropolitan area may exceed those of the other modes.
For example, in Chicago, the combined area of rail freight yards exceeds that of the airports.

Rail terminals have a unique characteristic related to shunting (or switching), which
requires separate yard facilities often adjacent to the terminal and, at times, independent
facilities. The wagons composing a train often need to be assembled or broken down in
classification yards. This is particularly the case for freight trains that need to be assembled at
their origin, switched at intermediary locations (if long-distance hauling is concerned), and
broken down at their destination. This is less of an issue for passenger rail, where shunting
yards are needed to store, maintain, and assemble passenger rail cars. Shunting remains
fundamental to rail operations.

2. Passengers Terminals

Passenger rail terminals tend to be functionally simple facilities. In their most basic form,
they include a quay for passengers to embark or disembark and a common area for ticket
purchases, waiting, and activities servicing passengers (e.g. retail and restoration). While
some are along a line that requires a stop of a few minutes so that passengers can embark or
disembark, others are terminal locations at the head of an intercity corridor. Like any other
terminal facility, rail terminals have a size and complexity directly related to the number of
passengers they serve. It ranges from simple stops with only a platform to central rail stations
composed of enclosed facilities with multiple piers and amenities.

Central railway stations are typically in the heart of downtown cores and are primary
elements of national or regional passenger rail systems. At one time, their sites may have
been on the edge of the pre-industrial city, as is the case for London and Paris. The shift in
commercial and business activity has conferred many with a prominent central function.

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 These stations are typically imposing buildings reflecting the power and importance
represented by the railway in the 19th and 20th centuries. For many cities, railway stations
are the key elements of urban centrality and represent an impressive architectural
achievement unmatched in any other type of transportation terminal and occupying a large
amount of real estate. While many passenger terminals used to be privately owned by the
railways that built and operated them, a large share was transferred into public trusts such as
transit agencies.

Since many central rail stations handle large amounts of commuters, they also tend to be the
nexus of public transit systems as subway stations are directly connected to the terminal
facility. Even if, in several cases, the long-distance function has subsided, the imprint of
passenger rail terminals on the structure of urban transit systems has endured.

The development of high-speed rail systems has offered new opportunities for rail
terminals with the renovation of existing facilities, many of which are central railway
stations, or the construction of new facilities in suburban areas. The centrality of rail stations
became a positive factor in the development of high-speed rail systems as it confers direct
accessibility to core business activities. In many cases, the high-speed rail station has become
a new nexus of activity with co-located real estate developments such as office buildings,
retail stores, hotels, and parking facilities. The development of activities near high-speed rail
stations is often more driven by the availability of land and parking space, particularly in
suburban stations, than the actual connectivity that the high-speed rail network offers.

3. Freight Terminals

Unlike passenger terminals, rail freight yards did not have to be centrally located, and
because they required a great deal of space for multiple tracks for marshalling, they were
more likely located on greenfield sites. However, rail yards tended to attract manufacturing
activities able to use the distribution capabilities of rail, and many adjacent areas became
important industrial zones. When dealing with bulk commodities, rail terminals and spurs
will locate in proximity to the source as they are the main mean for these commodities to be
shipped to markets. They also vary in complexity because of the different freight markets
they service (e.g. grain, coal, cars, containers), each requiring specialized loading/unloading
facilities and equipment. Rail freight terminals perform four major functions:

 Bulk. These rail terminals are linked with extractive industries such as agriculture, mining,
and wood products. Terminals are generally designed to be commodity specific. For
instance, grain elevators are bulk terminals commonly used to store, mix, and load grain into
railcars. Another important characteristic of bulk rail terminals is their unidirectional flows,
implying that they are designed specifically to either load or unload bulk. Rail terminals
doing both are uncommon, which is reflective of the nature of bulk trades.
 Roll-on / roll-off. Used to transport vehicles such as cars, trucks, or construction equipment
where vehicles are rolled in a railcar using a ramp. Such terminals commonly require a large
amount of parking space to store vehicles, particularly if they concern cars bound for retail
outlets. Many serve as storage facilities supplying regional markets.
 Breakbulk. Involves the handling of various cargoes that can be bagged, in drums, rolls or
crates. They are commonly related to a specific activity such as a manufacturing plant or a
warehouse handling break-bulk cargo and serviced by dedicated rail spurs. Containerization
has reduced the need for breakbulk terminals.

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 Intermodal. The function of loading and unloading unitized freight from railcars.
Containerization has dramatically expanded the intermodal productivity of rail terminals
since it permits quick loading and unloading sequences but at the expense of more trackside
space available. Depending on the type of operation, specific intermodal equipment will be
used. Intermodal terminal can be part of a port facility (on-dock or near-dock facilities) or a
stand-alone inland terminal.
 Shunting. The function of assembling, sorting, and breaking freight trains. Since trains can
be composed of up to about 100 railcars (even more in North America), often of various
nature, origins and destinations, shunting can be a complex task performed on several
occasions. Comparatively, unit trains that carry the same commodity, such as coal, cars, or
containers, require little shunting. Shunting also takes place for passenger trains, but less
common since once a passenger train has been assembled, it will remain as such for a period
of time.

iii. SEAPORTS
Ports and Port Location

Ports are points of convergence between the land and maritime domains of passengers and
freight circulation. While the maritime domain can involve substantial geographic coverage
related to global trade, the land domain is related to the region and locality of ports. The term
port comes from the Latin portus, which means gate or gateway. Historically, ports emerged
as safe harbors for fishing, and those with convenient locations became trade hubs, many of
which of free access and designed to protect trade. As such, they became the nexus of
urbanization, with several becoming the first port cities playing an important role in the
economic welfare of their regions. Today, many of the most important cities in the world owe
their origin to their port location. The port is a multidimensional entity anchored within
geography by its site and situation and depending on its operations, governance structure, and
the supply chains it is embedded in.

While some of the ports may handle only specific cargoes, a vast majority of the ports around
the world handle multiple cargoes within the same port. These demarcated areas handling
different types of cargoes are known as Terminals. To start with, ports are seen as the main
gateways, while Terminals are areas within the ports where major activities regarding cargo
movement takes place. They contain berths dedicated for discharging particular kinds of
cargo from ships and aircraft. Similarly, when goods are transported internationally through
frontiers, terminals are provided to process the handling of goods. Ports are complexes
including at least one terminal, but larger facilities include a variety of terminals handling
different types of cargo. The composition of these terminals determines the role and function
of the port, with some ports being multifunctional while others can be specialized.

Furthermore, terminals are designed to match the type of traffic which pass through them. For
example, if a port handles oil tankers it would have oil terminals. Similarly, if a port handles
ro-ro vessels as well container ships it would have ro-ro and container berths at the
designated terminals.
Because of the wide variety, nature, size and volume of cargo handled at seaports, specialised
terminals are required. These terminals include those for:
1. General or break bulk Cargo Terminal

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 2. Dry bulk Cargo Terminal
3. Liquid bulk Cargo Terminal
4. Liquefied Cargo Terminal
5. Ro-ro Cargo Terminal
6. Containers Terminal
7. Barges Terminal

1. General or break bulk Cargo Terminal

They are conventional terminals that have berths designed for the loading and unloading of
cargoes shipped individually, in loose forms as in bags, boxes, bales, drums etc. Break bulk
also include fertilizer, sugar in bags, machineries, spare parts etc.
2. Dry bulk Cargo Terminal
They are mainly for the loading and unloading of dry bulk cargo such as grains, cement, coal,
fertilizer, sugar, gypsum etc.
3. Liquid bulk Cargo Terminal
They are designed berths for handling liquid cargo in bulk. Cargoes handled at these
terminals include wines, chemicals, vegetable oils, PMS, Kerosene etc.
4. Liquefied Gas Terminal
They are specially designed terminals for the loading and unloading of crude oil and
petroleum products which are carried by large tankers.
5. Ro-ro Cargo Terminal
Ro-ro Terminals are specially designated births for the loading and unloading of ships in
which most cargoes are carried on wheel such as cars, trucks, buses etc.
6. Container Terminals
These are terminals accommodating containers of 20 and 40 lengths as well as heavy cargoes
carried on ships.
7. Barges terminals
Barge terminals have births which are similar to the general cargo terminals. Cargo is loaded
or unloaded using shore cranes and forklift trucks e.g. grabs, pallets, slings etc.
8. Passengers
A relatively small element of modern port terminals, with the notable exception of areas with
a high intensity of ferry services (e.g. Agean Sea, the Baltic, or Indonesia). Recently, the
growth of the cruise industry has led to the emergence of specialized cruise terminals.

Due to the operational characteristics of maritime transportation, port location is constrained

to a limited array of sites, mostly defined by geography. Since ports are bound by the need to
serve ships, access to navigable waterways has been historically the most important site
consideration. As terminals, ports handle the largest amounts of freight, more than any other
type of terminal combined.

iv. AIRPORT TERMINALS

An airport is a facility where aircraft can take off and land. They usually consist of hard-
surfaced landing strips, a control tower, hangars, and terminals for passengers and cargo.
Airports require very large sites; they need space for the two main components – runways
and terminal buildings – as well as for maintenance hangars, parking, and other facilities.
The terminal remains one of the most vital elements of air transportation as it dictates the
capacity of the system.

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The airport terminal is a building at an airport where passengers transfer between
ground transportation and the facilities that allow them to board and disembark from
the aircraft. Within the terminal, passengers purchase tickets, transfer their luggage, and go
through security. The buildings that provide access to the airplanes (via gates) are typically
called concourse. However, the terms terminals and concourses are used interchangeably,
depending on the configuration of the airport. Smaller airports have one terminal while larger
airports have several terminals and/or concourses. At small airports, the single terminal
building typically serves all of the functions of a terminal and a concourse. Some larger
airports have one terminal that is connected to multiple concourses via walkways, sky-
bridges, or underground tunnels (such as Denver International Airport). Some larger airports
have more than one terminal, each with one or more concourses (such as New York’s John F.
Kennedy Airport). Still other larger airports have multiple terminals each of which
incorporate the functions of a concourse (such as Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport. A
functional airport passenger terminal is meant to ease the stress encountered by air passengers
during the process of air travel.
International Terminal
The International Terminal mostly handles international flights from different parts of the
globe.

Domestic Terminal
The Domestic Terminal stands for a little terminal handling only domestic services within
Nigeria.

LECTURE NOTE 7:
SERVICES AND FACILITIES REQUIRED AT TRANSPORT TERMINALS
Passenger Terminals

With one exception, passenger terminals require relatively little specific equipment. This is
because individual mobility is how passengers access buses, ferries, or trains. Indeed,
services such as ticketing, shelter, food, and security are required, but the layouts and
activities taking place in passenger terminals tend to be simple. They may appear congested
and chaotic at certain times of the day. Still, the flow of people can be managed successfully
with good design of platforms and access points and with appropriate scheduling of arrivals
and departures. The amount of time passengers spend in such terminals tends to be brief. As a
result, bus terminals and railway stations tend to be made up of simple components, from
ticket offices and waiting areas with retailing catering to this transient mobility (fast-food
restaurants, convenience stores).

Airports are of a completely different order. They are among the most complex of terminals.
Moving people through an airport has become a very significant problem, not least because
of security concerns. Passengers may spend several hours transiting, with check-in and
security checks on departure and baggage pickup and, in many cases, customs and
immigration on arrival. Planes may be delayed for a multitude of reasons, implying complex
management of gates and scheduling of flights. The result is that a wide range of
services has to be provided for passengers not directly related to the transfer function,

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 including restaurants, bars, stores, and hotels, in addition to the activities directly related to
operations such as check-in halls, passenger loading ramps, and baggage handling facilities.
At the same time, airports must provide for the specific needs of the aircraft, such as
runways, maintenance facilities, fueling, fire protection, and air traffic control.

4. Freight terminals

Freight handling requires specific loading and unloading equipment. In addition to the
facilities needed to accommodate ships, trucks, and trains (berths, loading bays, and freight
yards, respectively), a wide range of handling gear and storage are required, which is
determined by the types of cargo handling. Freight transport terminals have a set
of characteristics linked with core (terminal operations) and ancillary activities (added value
such as distribution). The result is that terminals are differentiated functionally both by the
mode involved and the commodities transferred. A basic distinction is that between bulk,
general cargo, and containers:

 Bulk refers to goods that are handled in large quantities that are unpackaged and are available
in uniform dimensions. Liquid bulk goods include crude oil and refined products that can be
handled using pumps to move the product along with hoses and pipes. Relatively limited
handling equipment is needed, but significant storage facilities may be required. Dry bulk
includes a wide range of products, such as ores, coal, and cereals. More equipment for dry
bulk handling is needed, because the material may have to utilize specialized grabs and
cranes and conveyor-belt systems. For specific bulk cargoes, some changes in their
characteristics may be required to ensure the continuity of the transportation process, such as
its load unit or its physical state (from solid to liquid or gas, or any combination).
 General cargo refers to goods that are of many shapes, dimensions, and weights, such as
machinery, processed materials, and parts. Because the goods are so uneven and irregular,
handling is difficult to mechanize. General cargo handling usually requires labor.
 Containers are standard units that have had a substantial impact on terminal operations.
Container terminals have minimal labor requirements and perform a wide variety
of intermodal functions. They, however, require a significant amount of storage space, which
are simple paved areas where containers can be stacked and retrieved with intermodal
equipment (cranes, straddlers, and holsters). Depending on the intermodal function of the
container terminal, specialized cranes are required, such as portainers (container cranes). A
feature of most freight activity is the need for storage. Assembling individual bundles of
goods may be time-consuming, and thus some storage may be required. This produces the
need for terminals to be equipped with specialized infrastructures such as grain silos, storage
tanks, and refrigerated warehouses, or simply space to stockpile, such as for containers or
bulk commodities. Containerization, because of its large volumes, has forced a significant
modal and temporal separation at terminals and thus the need for a buffer in the form of
storage areas. In addition, a variety of transloading activities (transferring cargo from one
load unit to another) can take place in the vicinity of terminals, particularly if long-distance
inland transportation is involved. Transloading, when suitable, reduces transportation and
inventory costs by placing the cargo on the most suitable transportation mode.

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 LECTURE NOTE 8:
PRIME MOVER
The prime mover is the machine that allows it to rotate. Turbines, for example.
Prime movers rotate around themselves and assist in the generation of energy for others.
Because one of the characteristics of the prime mover is that the mechanical energy is taken
from the natural mover, it cannot be called a prime mover if you turn it around and help
others generate energy.
Steam turbines, gas turbines, water turbines, and inbound and outbound engines are
examples. In a power plant, the prime mover normally rotates the shaft of the AC generator.
An electric motor, on the other hand, turns various pumps, lathe machines, boring bars, and
other items, but it is not a primary mover because it is powered by electricity rather than
natural energy.
‘A prime mover is a device that takes energy from natural sources and turns it into
mechanical energy.’
The literal meaning of the term “prime mover” is a primary source of power. It refers to all of
the machinery that generates power in order to do various mechanical activities. It is a set of
devices that convert energy from thermal, electrical, or pressure to mechanical form, which
can subsequently be used to perform mechanical work in a variety of ways. Turbines and
engines are two examples of such machines.

Why is the Prime Mover Needed?

Humans had to rely on their physical strength and animals to accomplish various tasks in the
early phases of mechanical machinery development, when there was no scientific progress or
inventions in the field of mechanical machinery development. Our culture’s distinguishing
feature, which sets it apart from all previous civilizations, is the widespread use of
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mechanical power. Animals were formerly taught to assist people in a range of duties,
including travel and agricultural labour. The wind energy industry saw a revolution as a result
of this. Ships, for example, were propelled by the wind. The use of power generated by
running streams began after a period of time.
Humans revolutionized the world when they discovered how to convert heat created by
chemical reactions into mechanical energy. Heat engines are the machines that have been
used for this purpose, while prime movers refer to the entire system of machines that have
been utilized for this purpose.

Types of Prime Mover

Prime movers can be divided into two main categories. Namely:
1. Thermal Prime Mover
2. Non-thermal Prime Mover
From those two types above, we still have a lot of subtypes.

1. Thermal prime mover

This thermal prime mover uses heat engines as its main mechanism.
Heat engines: These engines employ various fuels such as gasoline, oil, coal, and so on to
generate mechanical power.
Thermal prime mover uses heat engines which can be divided into:

 External combustion engine

 Reciprocating steam engine
 Steam turbine
 Closed cycle gas turbine
 Internal combustion engine
 Reciprocating I.C. engine
 Open cycle gas turbine

These are the main generators that use thermal energy from the source to generate electricity.
Some examples of thermal primary movers are as follows:
 Nuclear
 Geothermal
 Biogas
 Solar energy

Nuclear Prime Mover

This prime mover generates mechanical energy from thermal energy using atom fission or
fusion technologies.
It’s typically found in nuclear power reactors. Some radioactive elements, such as uranium
and thorium, have been employed in this fission or fusion process in a nuclear reactor.

Geothermal Prime Mover

The needed engine converts heat energy derived from a particular depth of this type of prime
mover or the heated portion of the earth beneath the earth’s surface into mechanical power.

Biogas Prime Mover

Biogas is made mostly from rubbish or any other waste that is utilized in a biomass plant to
generate power using prime movers.

Solar Prime Mover

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The planet receives solar energy in the form of radiation or electromagnetic waves. This
energy was trapped using solar panels made of semiconductor material. This thermal energy
is subsequently converted into electricity.

2. Non-thermal prime mover

Furthermore, the non-thermal prime mover can be divided again into three types:
 Hydraulic turbine
 Wind turbine
 Tidal turbine

Hydraulic Turbine Prime Mover

Another common and valuable energy source. Water falling from a specific height contains
latent energy. This potential energy is converted to kinetic energy when it reaches the prime
mover. The power-generating hydraulic turbine is the principal mover here.
The other application is to create steam in a boiler with water running through it. Steam is
utilized to generate mechanical power in steam turbines and steam engines once more.
Hydraulic turbines are machines that convert river kinetic energy into mechanical work at the
turbine’s shaft.
Tidal (wave) sea energy and river water energy are both renewable energy sources. In nature,
they are the products of a water circuit, and they are gravitational, respectively (tide energy).
Hydraulic turbines are one of the oldest types of primary movers known to man. Water is
employed as both an energy source and a working fluid; in general, water’s kinetic energy is
utilized.
Wind turbines are similar to hydroelectric turbines, with the exception that the kinetic
energy of the wind air replaces that of the water. Wind turbines, on the other hand, will be
treated individually due to their numerous variances. In their applications, hydraulic turbines
are frequently utilized as prime movers, or motors. There are also reversible hydraulic
machines that, depending on the purpose, can be utilized as a turbine or a pump. Hydraulic
turbine pumps are another name for these pumps. Hydrodynamic transmissions are made up
of two or more hydraulic machines that can be readily mounted on a single frame. They work
in the same way as mechanical gearboxes, except they are controlled by the user.

Wind Turbine Prime Mover

This power source has been increasingly popular in recent years because to its widespread
availability. It is a sort of green energy produced power. Wind turbines have been in use for
centuries in countries such as Holland, Denmark, Greece, Portugal, and other European
countries. The best locations are in the highlands, along the sea, or right on the water’s edge
(or offshore).
As you gain altitude, the wind speed increases and becomes more uniform. More uniform
flow and better energy extraction are achieved with larger height/turbine diameter designs
than with smaller height/turbine diameter designs.
This, however, comes at the expense of more expensive towers that are subjected to higher
structural vibrations. The wind’s uniformity and strength are determined by the wind’s speed
and direction, as well as its location, height above the ground, and size of local terrain flaws.
Wind-driven airflow can be defined as turbulent in nature in general.

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 LECTURE NOTE 9:
TRANSPORT DOCUMENTS
International sale of goods, i.e. the sale of goods across national borders, poses different
challenges to sales in a domestic environment. Sellers and buyers are typically located in
different countries and the goods sold are often not in the physical possession of the seller,
but in the hands of a third party, possibly in yet another country or on board a vessel.
Invariably,
international sales involve transportation of the goods, often over large distances. This means
that either the seller or the buyer needs to make arrangements relating to the transportation
and
insurance of the goods sold. Above all, both parties to the sale contract need to perform their
respective main obligations, that is, the delivery of goods in accordance with the contract
(seller) and payment of the agreed price (buyer), while at the same time seeking to ensure
contractual performance by the other party. Sales on shipment terms, such as cost, insurance
and freight (CIF) and free on board (FOB), have evolved to enable the international sale of
goods to be performed, to a considerable extent, by way of documentary means, i.e. by the
tender of documents in exchange for payment. Often, banks play an important part in this
process as payment under a letter of credit provides added security to both buyer and seller.
Transport documents are contracts for the carriage of goods exchanged between different
actors. They differ depending on the method of carriage used.

Delivery note or waybill

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The delivery note is a fundamental tool for transportation. It defines transportation freight
details and responsibilities. The delivery note is an internal document that has an official
value; potential deductions on the final payment are based on the information on the delivery
note (see Annex 15.5 Waybill format).

Freight notice
A freight notice is an internal email or fax that immediately informs the consignee of freight
details (content, estimated time of departure and arrival, details on the documentation, and
method of expedition of the documentation).

Transport letters (air waybill, bill of lading, rail consignment note, international
consignment note)
This is the transport document for goods with a legal value. The name will vary according to
the transport mode. Only the consignee mentioned on the bill or an authorized representative
can release the goods.

Invoices, pro forma

The invoice indicates the value of the goods. When no money was paid for the goods a pro
forma has to be prepared. The value indicated will be the basis for custom declarations and
insurance policies.

Cargo manifest
A cargo manifest mentions the type of goods, their origin, and their destination.

Packing lists
The shipment should contain a packing list. The packing list identifies the contents of each
carton or parcel. The packing list facilitates delivery control.

Gift certificate
When the organization is exempted from import taxes, a gift certificate states that the goods
are part of a non-profit effort.

Origin certificates, phytosanitary controls

Some items (drugs, food, etc.) need additional documents for international transportation.

Hazardous materials declaration

This document, normally with a red border, has to be included when the freight contents
require special care, handling, or testing (for example, insecticides, laboratory reactants, and
purification products).

Tax exemption certificates

In some countries, general agreements have been established for ‘exempt’ organizations,
which simplify the formalities of free entry. In other countries, each consignment must be
certified separately. Getting the necessary documents can take some time.

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