Chapter 1

Ethylene Production

NOTE: The following chapter is the debottlenecking at existing plants, as well as

first of many to be released as part greenfield plants being built in the Middle East and
of a Chemical sourcebook. These Asia. Due to the change in market conditions and
chapters will be released to eDocs the economy, there is an over‐supply of ethylene
as they are completed and when capacity. Many plants have been taken offline in
fully developed, compiled into one this time period, are operating at reduced rates, or
sourcebook. are undergoing turnarounds. As the ethylene
market rebounds, capacity will increase. In fact,
Ethylene is one of the most important based on new capacities announced and plants
petrochemical intermediates and is a feedstock for that are under construction, global ethylene
many various products. End products made with capacity is expected to be at 162 million tpy by
ethylene include food packaging, film, toys, food 2012, ahead of the demand growth.
containers, bottles, pipes, antifreeze, carpets,
insulation, housewares, etc. Chemicals that are There are five major licensors of ethylene plants:
made from ethylene in order to produce these end KBR; Technip; Linde; Shaw, Stone & Webster;
products are polyethylene, ethylene dichloride, and Lummus. While ethylene production differs
ethylene oxide, ethylbenzene, and vinyl acetate, slightly by licensor, the overall process is fairly
just to name a few. similar (see Figure 1‐1). There are also some
differences in the process coming from the type of
Global ethylene capacity utilization has remained feedstock being used. Some of these differences
above 90% since 2004 until 2008's economic will be highlighted. This chapter will cover the
meltdown. In 2007, 2 million tonnes per year (tpy) general steps in ethylene production and will
of ethylene capacity was added, according to the discuss the critical valve applications within an
Oil & Gas Journal. As of January 1, 2009, global ethylene plant, what valve challenges those
capacity was 126.7 million tpy. Capacity has been applications present, and the recommended
added in recent years due to expansions and Emerson solutions.

Figure 1‐1. General ethylene process (naptha fed cracker)

www.Fisher.com
 Figure 1‐2. General ethylene furnace schematic

I. Furnace products such as ethylene and propylene. Long

residence times will favor the secondary reactions.
The two primary feedstocks for ethylene
production are naphtha and natural gas (ethane, Table 1‐1. Furnace Reactions
propane, butane, etc.). The first step in the Secondary
Primary Reactions
production of ethylene is to take the feedstock and Reactions
crack it into ethylene and other various products in Ethylene C4 products
a furnace. This process is called pyrolysis. Propylene C5 products
Pyrolysis is the thermal cracking of petroleum Acetylene C6 products
hydrocarbons with steam, also called steam Feedstock/steam Hydrogen Aromatics
cracking. The main types of commercial furnaces Methane C7 products
are the ABB Lummus Global furnace, Millisecond Heavier
Etc.
furnace (KBR), Shawt furnace (ultraselective products
cracking furnace), Technip furnace, and the Linde
PYROCRACKt furnace. See Figure 1‐2 for a Maximum ethylene production requires a highly
general schematic of an ethylene furnace. saturated feedstock, high coil outlet temperature,
low hydrocarbon partial pressure, short residence
The feed hydrocarbon stream is pre‐heated by a time in the radiant coil, and rapid quenching of the
heat exchanger, mixed with steam, and then cracked gas. Valves in the furnace section play a
further heated to its incipient cracking temperature critical role in maximizing ethylene production and
(932_F to 1256_F or 500_C to 680_C depending throughput.
upon the feedstock). At this point, it enters a
reactor (typically, a fired tubular reactor) where it is There are three critical control valve applications in
heated to cracking temperatures (1382_F to the furnace area: dilution steam ratio control, feed
1607_F or 750_C to 875_C). During this reaction, gas control, and fuel gas control. Each will be
hydrocarbons in the feed are cracked into smaller discussed in further detail in the subsequent text.
molecules, producing ethylene and co‐products.

The cracking reaction is highly endothermic,

Dilution Steam Ratio Control
therefore, high energy rates are needed. The The quantity of steam used (steam ratio) varies
cracking coils are designed to optimize the with feedstock, cracking severity, and design of
temperature and pressure profiles in order to the cracking coil. Steam dilution lowers the
maximize the yield of desired or value products. hydrocarbon partial pressure, thereby enhancing
Short residence times in the furnace are also the olefin yield. Because of this, it is important to
important as they increase the yields of primary obtain the appropriate ratio and maintain proper

1-2
control of that ratio. Steam helps to reduce coking Feed Gas Control
deposits by reacting with coke to form carbon
dioxide (CO2), carbon monoxide (CO), and The feed into an ethylene furnace can be ethane,
hydrogen (H2) and also reduces the catalytic effect propane, butane, gas oil, or naphtha. Variation in
of the reactor coil's metal walls, which tend to the type of feedstock used is related to availability.
promote coke formation. An improper ratio Plants in the Middle East tend to use natural gas
reduces efficiency of the cracker and can result in feedstock because it is plentiful in the region and
the need for more decoking cycles, thus resulting is a low cost feedstock. Asia has a large
in less furnace uptime. It is necessary that availability of naphtha and, therefore, is inclined to
decoking be performed on a regular basis. This is use it more frequently as a feedstock. Plants can
typically done by burning out the coke with a also be designed to handle different types of
mixture of steam and air. Time intervals for feedstocks, allowing them more flexibility to
decoking will depend upon several factors change based upon availability and cost.
including, but not limited to the type of furnace,
how the process is operated, feedstock type, and
the types of coils utilized. The feed gas control valve controls the flow of
feedstock used in the ethylene plant. Tight control
Precise control of the steam dilution valve is of the valve is critical in the steam dilution valve so
necessary to maintain the proper steam ratio, that the proper reaction ratio can be maintained
which can greatly affect the efficiency of the within the furnace. Control of the reaction ratio of
furnace. Due to the process conditions seen by the feedstock to steam will affect the reaction
dilution steam control valve, it requires the use of efficiency and percentage of conversion to
graphite packing. Graphite packing often leads to ethylene. Due to the process conditions, the use of
higher friction than one would see with the use of graphite packing is required. Graphite packing
PTFE packing. This added friction contributes to often leads to higher friction than with the use of
high deadband and high variability, thus the loop PTFE packing. This added friction contributes to
may become unstable. With high deadband and high deadband and high variability, thus the loop
variability, it's difficult to have precise control within may become unstable in automatic. With the high
the valve, which leads to issues controlling the deadband and variability, it's difficult to have
loop. Due to the location of the valve (near the precise control within the valve, which then leads
furnace), high ambient temperatures are possible, to issues controlling the loop. Due to the location
thus making the location a variable to consider of the valve (near the furnace), it can see high
when selecting the actuator and related ambient temperatures. This should be a
accessories. consideration when selecting the actuator and
related accessories. While most of these issues
mimic those of the steam dilution valve, there is an
The FisherR control valve solution for the dilution additional variable to consider: the use of low
steam ratio control valve is typically a Fisher emission packing to reduce the emissions of the
easy‐et sliding‐stem valve or a Fisher GX feedstock for environmental and safety concerns.
sliding‐stem valve. Because of the friction
concerns mentioned previously, graphite ULF
packing is recommended. This packing meets the The Fisher control valve solution for the feed gas
process temperature requirements and has much
control valve is typically an easy‐e valve or GX
lower friction than standard graphite packing. A valve. Because of the friction concerns mentioned
spring‐and‐diaphragm actuator should also be and the desire to reduce emissions, use of Fisher
used as they are proven to provide precise control
ENVIRO‐SEALt graphite ULF packing is
in the field as well as in Fisher valve testing
recommended. A spring‐and‐diaphragm actuator
facilities.
should also be used as they are proven to provide
precise control in the field and in Fisher valve
The use of a Fisher FIELDVUEt digital valve testing facilities. A FIELDVUE digital valve
controller with Performance Diagnostics (PD) can controller with PD can be utilized to monitor control
be utilized to monitor control valve assembly valve assembly performance and allow for
performance and allow for predictive maintenance. predictive maintenance. When the performance is
When the performance is degrading, the next time degrading, the next time the furnace is brought
the furnace is brought down for maintenance down for maintenance (typically decoking), valve
(typically decoking), valve maintenance can be maintenance can be scheduled ahead of time to
scheduled ahead of time to bring the valve bring the valve assembly back to an optimal
assembly back to an optimal performance level. performance level.

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Fuel Gas Control
Fuel gas regulates the temperature of the furnace
by controlling the fuel to the burners. Special
temperature profiles are applied along the cracking
coil to avoid long residence times at low
temperatures. This is because low temperatures
favor the oligomerization reactions involved in the
formation of secondary products. Oligomerization
is a chemical process that converts monomers to a
finite degree of polymerization (i.e. products that
are not desirable in ethylene production). Because
special temperature profiles are applied, the
temperature control of the cracker is critical. The
goal is to maintain the optimum temperature in
order to favor the desired primary reactions and
produce the most ethylene possible.

Due to the nature of the fuel, many plants utilize

emissions control packing to limit the emissions of
the fuel gas. This is for environmental concerns as
well as general safety concerns. As with the other
valves in the furnace area, due to location, the fuel
gas valve may also see high ambient
temperatures. Depending upon on the ambient
temperatures for each particular application,
special care may need to be taken in selecting the Used with permission of Qenos Pty Ltd
actuator and accessories. Figure 1‐3. Quench tower

The Fisher control solution for the fuel gas control

valve is typically an easy‐e valve or GX valve. Due
to emissions concern, use of ENVIRO‐SEAL use either quench oil or quench water. Generally,
graphite ULF packing is recommended. A only quench water is used on natural gas‐based
spring‐and‐diaphragm actuator should also be systems whereas naphtha plants use quench oil
used as they are proven to provide precise control and may use a quench water tower as well.
in the field and in Fisher testing facilities. A
FIELDVUE digital valve controller with PD can be
For situations in which a quench oil tower is being
utilized to monitor control valve assembly
used for a naphtha fed plant, the quench oil is an
performance and allow for predictive maintenance.
extremely erosive fluid. It is usually dirty with
When the performance is degrading, the next time
entrained carbon particles. In order to have a
the furnace is brought down for maintenance
long‐lasting solution, the erosive nature of the fluid
(typically decoking), valve maintenance can be
must be taken into account when selecting an
scheduled ahead of time to bring the valve
appropriate valve.
assembly back to an optimal performance level.

The Fisher V500 eccentric plug rotary control

valve is a well‐suited solution for this application
as it was specifically designed to control erosive,
coking, and other hard to handle fluids. It should
II. Quench Tower be operated in the reverse flow position for erosive
service as this will help move the downstream
Cracked gases leave the furnace at 1382_F to turbulence away from the shutoff surface. For the
1607_F (750_C to 875_C). The gases must be quench oil application, a hardened trim should be
cooled immediately in order to preserve the applied, either Alloy 6 or ceramic. Ceramic trim is
current composition of the gas and prevent the typical solution. Sealed metal bearings are
undesirable side reactions from taking place. available to help prevent particle buildup and valve
These side reactions are generally the secondary shaft seizure. The seat ring is reversible and will
reactions listed in Table 1. The quench tower can help improve the lifetime of the construction.

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W8359

Figure 1‐4. V500 eccentric plug

rotary control valve

III. Cracked Gas Compressor

After the cracked gas has been cooled in the
quench tower, the next step in the process is
cracked gas compression. A turbine driven
centrifugal compressor is utilized to perform this
compression and there are typically four to five
stages, with intermediate cooling. The number of W8950‐1

stages necessary depends primarily upon the

Figure 1‐5. Antisurge control system
cracked gas composition and the temperature
level of the cooling medium. All of the throughput
of the ethylene plant will pass through a cracked
gas compressor, so performance and reliability of
this unit are especially important. The compressor maintenance cycles and it is important to ensure a
is also an extremely expensive piece of reliable control valve assembly solution. The
equipment, resulting in a large percentage of the antisurge valve is the main piece of equipment that
overall capital of the plant. protects the compressor from damage caused by
a surge. When these valves are called upon to
move, they are required to stroke very quickly,
An antisurge control system is designed to protect typically in the open direction only. For example,
this asset. The system is designed to provide a valves with travels up to 20 inches (50.8 cm) have
faster response than adjusting the turbine speed to been required to stroke in as little as 0.75
control the onset of surge. The controller looks at seconds. This can necessitate oversized actuator
multiple variables to prevent the onset of surge. It connections and the use of volume booster(s) and
requires fast, accurate response in order to quick exhaust valve(s). The improper selection of
prevent surge conditions. The characteristics of a these accessories will result in poor valve
surge condition are fast flow reversal (measured in performance and tuning difficulties. During a surge
milliseconds), excessive compressor vibration, event, the pressure drop and flow rate
increase in flowing media temperature, noise, and experienced by the valve can be high, causing
it may cause the compressor to “trip”. excessive levels of noise. This must be considered
Consequences of surge situations are substantial in valve selection, although noise control
and may include shortened compressor life, loss of throughout the entire range of valve travel may not
efficiency, reduced compressor output, and be required. This valve may also be required to
mechanical damage to seals, bearings, impellers, throttle intermittently from 0 to 100% open. These
etc. cases require the valve to have fast, accurate
control for incremental step sizes. Any delays can
Antisurge control valves present many various cause a surge to occur. The antisurge valve must
challenges. The key challenge is ensuring valve be able to pass the highest possible output
reliability. There is an extended period between capacity of the compressor. Application of a

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 W6980

Figure 1‐6. WhisperFlo Trim cage

multiplying factor to the compressor capacity figure

is common and may lead to selection of an Figure 1‐7. Rich amine letdown system
oversized valve. Valves with too much capacity
often have controllability issues and can cause
unstable operation. remotely by operators as process requirements
change. This feature gives plant operators and
technicians the capability to tune this assembly in
Emerson has developed an optimized antisurge the field. The lead‐lag filter in the ODV tier can be
package to meet the challenging demands of this used to improve the response to small amplitude
application. Some highlights of this package will be steps by overdriving the set point. Asymmetric
discussed, but for more information, please see adjustments allow the response to be set
the brochure titled “Fisher Optimized Antisurge independently in the open and closing directions.
Control Valves”. These valves use a spoked plug Integrated, real time graphics allow adjustments to
versus the traditional balanced plug. With the be done remotely as well. Also, diagnostics can be
traditional plug, when the valve is asked to move collected, viewed, and analyzed using ValveLink
very quickly, there is not enough area in the software to look at items such as packing friction,
balance holes to keep the plug in a balanced state; air path leakage, actuator spring rate, and bench
therefore, creating a differential pressure situation set. Partial stroke tests can also be performed to
between the top and the bottom of the plug. This check the health of the valve and ensure the
differential pressure case can lead to plug antisurge valve is going to move when it is
instability. The spoked plug has large balance requested to.
areas so that this does not occur. For surge events
where noise is a concern, a Fisher valve with a
Whisper Trimt III or WhisperFlot trim is
recommended.
IV. Acid Gas Removal
Emerson has the engineering capability to The acid gas removal system is typically located
characterize these trims in order to meet the between the 3rd and 4th or between the 4th and
specific application needs and tailor a solution 5th stages of the compressor. In all process
towards them. For situations when the valve configurations, acid gas removal must be located
assembly is called upon to move quickly, upstream of the drying unit in order to avoid
mechanical air cushions have been added to the formation of ice and hydrates in the following
actuator cylinder to provide controlled deceleration fractionation steps. Acid gases are typically
to help protect actuator and valve components. scrubbed on a once‐through basis or in
combination with a regenerative chemical.
The Fisher optimized antisurge package also Regenerative pre‐scrubbing, before a final sodium
includes a FIELDVUE digital valve controller with hydroxide treatment, is applied for high sulfur
the Optimized Digital Valve (ODV) tier. There are feedstocks. This will reduce the sodium hydroxide
features within this tier and ValveLinkt software consumption. Regenerative scrubbing can employ
to meet the needs of the application. For example, alkanolamines. The use of alkanolamines should
factory expertise is not required to tune the Fisher then require the use of a rich amine letdown valve
optimized antisurge valve. A technician can simply as seen in Figure 1‐7.
use ValveLink software's performance tuner or the
stabilize/optimize feature with real time graphics. After any free liquids are removed from the gas at
Configuration and tuning can also be performed an inlet scrubber, the gas passes to the absorber

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section. Here, it rises counter‐currently in close
contact with the descending amine solution.
Purified gas leaves from the top of the absorber.
Lean amine enters the tower at the top where it
flows across trays and downward against the flow
of the gas. At the bottom of the absorption tower,
the acid gas rich amine leaves through the rich
amine letdown valve that is actuated by a
liquid‐level controller. The rich amine then goes to
a flash tank, operating at a reduced pressure,
where large portions of the physically absorbed
gases are offgassed. From there, the rich amine W0961

goes through various processes to be regenerated Figure 1‐8. Whisper Trim I cage
and the cycle starts over again.

The rich amine letdown valve is a demanding

application because the process has entrained gas
in solution. As the fluid passes through the letdown
valve, it takes a pressure drop due to the pressure
differential between the tower and the flash tank.
As this pressure drop takes place in the valve, a
large amount of outgassing occurs. Outgassing is
when the entrained gas comes out of solution. As
a result of outgassing, the valve has a two phase
flow. One phase is the liquid amine and the other
is CO2 and/or hydrogen sulfide (H2S) that comes
out of solution. This two‐phase flow may produce
excessive vibration and may be very erosive due
to high velocity impingement of the liquid phase on
the valve trim.

Outgassing is very similar in effect to flashing and

requires special consideration in the proper choice W6787
of valve, trim style, and materials. Generally, the
Figure 1‐9. DST
overall approach is dependent on the severity of
the pressure drop experienced. Although some
sizing methods predict cavitation, small orifice
parts are recommended. For pressure drops over
anti‐cavitation trim should not be used on this
600 psi (41.4 bar), use of a slotted Whisper Trim I
service for two reasons: first, the vapor cushions
cage made of solid Alloy 6 is recommended. A
any cavitation bubble implosions and then
hardened valve plug and seat ring should also be
cavitation damage should not be experienced and
used.
second, the accelerated gas breakout that, in turn,
accelerates the liquid, would rapidly erode the
Other options for this condition include the use of a
multiple passage trim structure because of
Fisher NotchFlot Dirty Service Trim (DST) valve
incompressible fluid impingement.
or DST‐G trim designed for outgassing. For all rich
amine letdown applications, NACE materials are
For pressure drops of 300 to 600 psi (20.7 to 41.4 likely specified.
bar), use of slotted (Whisper Trim I) or drilled hole
(Whisper Trim III) trim styles installed in the flow
up direction are recommended. The slotted or
drilled hole cages “break up” the flow, minimizing
the potential energy available to be dissipated V. Drying
during the outgassing process. Many relatively
small sources of energy do not possess the The cracked gas is saturated with water before
damage capabilities of fewer large sources. By compression and after each intercooler stage.
flowing the process fluid up, these small sources Moisture must be removed before fractionation to
of energy are kept away from other critical trim prevent the formation of hydrates and ice.
parts. Standard hardened cage, plug, and seat Temperatures of -148_F (-100_C) would form ice

1-7
 W9603

Figure 1‐10. DST‐G

compounds that could block pipes and/or damage

equipment. Typically this is accomplished by
Figure 1‐11. Molecular sieve drying system
chilling and by adsorption on molecular sieves.
The drying process is similar to that of a two bed
pressure swing adsorption (PSA) skid. Older
plants also use absorption by a glycol scrubbing
system or adsorption on alumina. Drying is
arranged before the first fractionation step,
typically after the last compression stage. Multiple
adsorption beds make continuous water removal
possible. One or more adsorption beds are in
operation while at least one unit is being
regenerated. The inability to dry because of
molecular sieve issues will shut down the plant.

Generally, line‐sized butterfly valves or

quarter‐turn ball valves are used in molecular
sieve switching valve applications. Over‐sizing can
occur and high cycle demands will cause wear on
the valves. As a result, galled bearings and seal
wear will also occur. In the case of high output
torque, bed lifting of the adsorption beads can A6163‐1

occur if the valve is controlling poorly or opens too

quickly and “jumps” out of the seat. This can Figure 1‐12. ENVIRO‐SEAL PTFE packing system
damage the adsorption beads and cause them to
rub or abrade together and create dust. This have been used with good results. The UHMWPE
reduces the drying effectiveness of the adsorption seal allows for tight shutoff. Tight shutoff allows for
beads. The dust or fines from bead wear can get improved bed drying. PTFE lined PEEK bearings
stuck in the bearing area and cause damage. At should also be used as these have been shown in
the very worst, it can cause seizing of the valve. molecular sieve applications to last longer than
The adsorption bead dust or fines can also cause wire mesh bearings. ENVIRO‐SEAL packing may
seal wear. also be considered to avoid leakage of the cracked
gas.
Emerson has experience and success in
molecular sieve applications for the ethanol Use of a FIELDVUE digital valve controller can
industry. Fisher A81 valves with a 316 SST increase the response to set point at the beginning
chrome plated disc and UHMWPE seal technology of the adsorption and regeneration cycle without

1-8
overshoot. It precisely controls the rate of opening frequently as polymer grade propylene from
to eliminate adsorption bead bed disturbance. propane. Propane is recycled for cracking.
D Primary fractionator: With liquid pyrolysis
feedstocks (naphtha fed plants), the primary
fractionation column is the first step in the cracked
gas processing route. Cracked gas enters the
VI. Distillation Columns column and it is contacted with circulating oil and,
The fractionation section receives the compressed at the top of the column, with a heavy pyrolysis
cracked gas at a pressure of 464 to 551 psi (32‐38 gasoline fraction obtained from the subsequent
bar) for further fractionation into different products water quench tower. Cracked gas leaves the top of
and fractions at specified qualities. This is done the primary fractionator free of oil but still
through a series of distillation columns and containing all the dilution steam. Hot oil, which
hydrogenation reactors. Cryogenic separation is functions as a heat carrier, is collected at the
the predominant method for cracked gas bottom of the column. After cooling, it is
separation. Although gas separation processes via recirculated as reflux to the middle section of the
adsorption, absorption, or membrane technology primary fractionator and to the quench nozzles
have made progress in the recent past, they have downstream of the transfer line heat exchangers.
not found major applications within the ethylene Distillation columns occur in all types of chemical
industry. Today, three processing routes have plants. The objective is to separate a feed stream
gained commercial importance, with the main into light‐component and heavy‐component
characteristics being the first separation step and product streams. It relies on the relative volatility
the position of the acetylene hydrogenation. These between the components that make up the feed
routes are demethanizer first with tail‐end stream. The high volatility (lighter) components
hydrogenation, deethanizer first with front‐end boil at a lower temperature than the low volatility
hydrogenation, and depropanizer first with (heavier) components. Therefore, when heat is
front‐end hydrogenation. The following is a listing added to the column through a bottom reboiler, the
of the various distillation columns and their lighter materials are vaporized and rise to the top
functions: of the column. The overhead vapors are cooled
until they condense and become a liquid again.
D Demethanizer: Demethanization of the
cracked gas separates methane as an overhead The efficiency of distillation depends on the
component from C2 and heavier bottom amount of contact between the vapor rising and
components. Concurrently, hydrogen is removed the liquid falling down the column. Therefore,
from the cracked gas stream and may be obtained some of the overhead liquid product is sent back
as a product by purification before or after (refluxed) to the top of the column. Increasing the
demethanization. Methane is typically used as a reflux will improve the purity of the overhead
plant fuel or sold. C2 and heavier components are product. However, it also requires more heat from
sent to the recovery system. the reboiler to re‐vaporize the lighter components
in the reflux stream. Some distillation columns can
D Deethanizer: Deethanization of cracked gas operate with a side reboiler as well, such as the
separates acetylene, ethylene, and ethane as demethanizer. The operation of a distillation
overhead components from C3+ bottom column is a balancing act between product purity
components. and energy usage. If the amount of vapor and
liquid traveling through the column becomes too
D Depropanizer: Depropanization separates great, the column can “flood.” Too much reflux, too
propane and lighter fractions as overhead much reboil heat resulting in too much vapor, or
components from C4+ fractions as bottom both can causing flooding. When flooding occurs,
components. the efficiency of the distillation column is
dramatically reduced with corresponding drops in
D C2 splitter or ethylene fractionation: Ethylene product purities.
fractionation separates ethylene as a high‐purity Figure 1‐13 shows the general schematic of a
overhead product from ethane, which is combined distillation column. The valves associated with this
with propane and recycled for cracking. are the feed, reflux, bottom product, overhead
product, pressure control, and reboil valves.
D C3 splitter or propylene fractionation:
Propylene fractionation separates propylene as a Feed valves are usually used as flow or level
chemical grade overhead product or more control loops. An upstream unit or process often

1-9
 Figure 1‐13. Schematic of a basic distillation column

controls the feed valve. Unstable feed flow will The reflux valve is typically either a flow or column
make the distillation column difficult to control. A temperature control loop. It is used to adjust the
problem valve will often cause the feed flow to purity of the overhead product. The higher the
oscillate. As a result, the column will alternate reflux rate, the more pure the overhead product
between too little and too much reboil heat. will become. However, raising the reflux rate
Depending upon the size and number of trays in requires more reboil heat and will eventually flood
the column, the effect of a swing in the feed will the tower. A poorly operating reflux valve has the
take anywhere from several minutes to more than same effects as a bad feed valve. Product purities
an hour to reach the ends of the column. will oscillate and the column will be difficult to
Sometimes, the reboil and reflux control will control. This ultimately affects the efficiency of the
amplify the swings. As a result, meeting product column.
purity targets becomes more difficult. Operations
The bottom product valve is used to control the
personnel will normally respond by over‐purifying
level in the bottom of the column. It can cause the
the products, wasting energy to compensate for
level to change quickly and dramatically. Issues
the problematic feed control valve.
with this valve reduce efficiency or at worst, cause

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flooding in the column. The overhead product ethylene refrigeration compression trains are the
valve is used to control the level in the overhead other two compressors in addition to the cracked
receiver. It can also cause the level to change gas. These compressors also have antisurge
quickly and dramatically in the column. Problems systems and, therefore, antisurge valves. The
with this application can reduce efficiency. antisurge valve challenges and solutions are the
same as highlighted in Section III: Cracked Gas
Pressure control valves provide the back pressure Compressor, though it is important to note that
to the column. This is very important for controlling valve sizes may differ for each compressor.
the stability of the tower. Stable pressure is
required to ensure that temperature changes
reflect composition changes and not pressure
changes. With too small of a valve, the pressure
response will be very sluggish. Too large of a VIII. Hydrogen Purification
valve and small valve movement will cause a large
pressure swing. Oscillating column pressure and Hydrogen is produced in the cryogenic section of
difficult control result with either over‐ or the plant. The purity is typically 80‐95% volume.
under‐sizing the valve. However, it contains approximately 1000 parts per
million (ppm) of CO. It needs to be purified
The reboil valve controls the amount of heat put because CO is a poison for hydrogenation
into the column by the reboiler. In many cases, processes. One of the hydrogenation processes is
steam is used as a heat source. The service is the acetylene conversion to ethylene. Typically the
very clean and fugitive emissions are not a ethylene specification requires less than 1 ppm of
concern. Steam valves are usually very reliable; acetylene. The other hydrogenation process is
however, a problematic valve will make the column MAPD (methylacetylene and propadiene)
difficult to control precisely. This is especially true conversion to propylene and propane. This is done
if the column feed is subject to frequent changes. for economic reasons and to remove these
Not all reboilers use steam though. Higher components from the propylene product. The most
temperature process streams can also be used to common process for hydrogen purification is PSA.
provide heat for lower temperature processes such
as using cracked gas streams. The control valves used in PSA applications are in
a very high cycle service, seeing 100,000 to
Whichever distillation column application is being 250,000 cycles per year. The valves and actuators
discussed, the control valve solution needs to are expected to stroke up to once every three
provide accurate and reliable control. The valves minutes. The stroking speeds are required to be
can affect column efficiency, stability, column fast and controlled. Uncontrolled opening can
energy usage, flooding, etc. An easy‐e valve or cause pressure/flow spikes. Depending upon the
GX valve is recommended and are typically CF8M type and size of a PSA skid, the amount and type
constructions. The demethanizer and deethanizer of control valves will vary. PSA skids can use
may require the use of cryogenic valve globe and/or rotary valves. Control valve shutoff is
constructions. A FIELDVUE digital valve controller a major concern because it affects PSA unit
should be utilized to achieve tight control. efficiency. Bi‐directional flow conditions will also
Diagnostics are key in these applications for exist. Also, if valve leakage causes contamination
preventative maintenance since distillation from one PSA bed to another, industrial gas purity
columns have long periods between shutdowns, can be compromised.
and loss of a distillation column will shut down the
entire ethylene plant. A GX valve is the recommended globe valve
solution for PSA service. It can handle stroking
speeds up to 1.5 ‐ 2 seconds. Class VI shutoff is
necessary and bi‐directional shutoff is standard in
this construction. Certified emission control
packing is standard to reduce potential hydrogen
VII. Propylene and Ethylene leakage. The recommended high performance
Refrigeration butterfly valve construction requires the use of a
pressure assisted UHMWPE seal. PTFE lined
Refrigeration in ethylene plants is important and PEEK bearings that can withstand long cycle life
costly. Refrigeration optimization is vital in plant requirements are used. Live loaded PTFE
design. Typically, two different refrigeration ENVIRO‐SEAL packing is available to reduce
systems are employed. The propylene and hydrogen leakage.

1-1 1
 Figure 1‐14. PSA basic flow scheme

These constructions have undergone extensive heaters. The main purpose of the boiler feedwater
testing within the flow lab in Marshalltown, Iowa, system is to condition the feedwater for entry into
United States to ensure that they meet the the boiler. The deaerator removes unwanted
demands of PSA service. PSA testing is used to oxygen from the feedwater, which in turn prevents
verify the life cycle of Fisher digital valves. PSA corrosion in the entire piping system. The boiler
testing was designed and set up with input from feed pump raises the pressure and the high
major PSA licensors to represent the PSA process pressure feedwater heaters raise the temperature
as accurately as possible. Both the GX and of the feedwater. The critical valves within the
butterfly valve solutions have undergone rigorous boiler feedwater system are the boiler feedwater
testing to prove they can meet the high cycle recirculation, feedwater startup, and feedwater
demands of this service. regulator valves.

In order to protect the feed pump, there must be a

recirculation system. The boiler feed pump
recirculation valve takes feedwater from the boiler
IX. Power/Steam Turbine feed pump and recirculates it to the deaerator. It is
there to protect the pump from cavitation and
As with most process plants, there is a power side excess temperature rise. There are three basic
to the ethylene plant. The valve applications in this methods of providing feed pump recirculation. Two
area are very similar to those seen in traditional older methods are continuous recirculation and
power plants. The conditions may not be as on/off recirculation. The current method is
severe but the applications and recommended modulating recirculation. This provides minimum
solutions are very similar. Heat from the cracked recirculation flow to protect the pump and optimize
gas is recovered through a Heat Recovery Steam efficiency. It requires a high technology
Generator (HRSG) to generate steam. Steam is recirculation valve.
used to run turbines and for other processes within
the plant, i.e. steam to the pyrolysis furnace. The The recirculation valve typically experiences
HRSG system has a feedwater, condensate, cavitation and if not properly taken into account
desuperheating, and blowdown system. The with valve selection, cavitation damage will result.
critical valve applications are boiler feedwater Because of the cavitation, tight shutoff is required.
recirculation, boiler feedwater start‐up and Any fluids leaking past the valve will cavitate and
regulator, continuous blowdown valves, and cause damage to the seat. A leaking recirculation
condensate recirculation. valve can cause decreased unit capacity, repeated
maintenance, and repeated trim replacement.
The boiler feedwater system begins at the Plugging can occur if feedwater is not clean. A
deaerator and ends at the inlet to the economizer. common issue with all feedwater applications is
The main components are the deaerator, the corrosion due to materials chosen. Amine or
boiler feed pump, and the high pressure feedwater hydrazine treated feedwater is corrosive to Alloy 6.

1-12
 Figure 1‐15. Boiler feedwater recirculation valve

W8433

Figure 1‐17. NotchFlo DST valve

because it has the ability to minimize cavitation

W5662
and allows for the passage of particles to prevent
Figure 1‐16. Cavitrol IV trim clogging. In the case of treated feedwater, 440C is
the recommended material.
If the feedwater is treated, use of this material
should be avoided. The feedwater startup and feedwater regulator
applications will be discussed separately.
It is important to select a valve that can combat However, it is not uncommon to see these two
damaging cavitation. Typical recommendations for applications combined into one valve. The
this application include an easy‐e sliding‐stem feedwater startup valve is used to initially fill the
control valve or a Design EH or HP globe valve boiler. Depending upon the design, this can be
with Cavitrolt III trim. For extremely high pressure through the main feedwater pumps or the
drops, Cavitrol IV trim can be used. condensate pumps. The valve transitions
operation to the feedwater regulator valve, or
In the case of unclean feedwater with particulates, variable speed drive, once drum pressure has
a Fisher NotchFlo DST valve is an optimal choice been built up.

1-13
During drum fill operation, the boiler is under
minimal pressure. This causes the entire pressure
drop to be taken across the feedwater startup
valve. Because of this, the formation of cavitation
becomes a concern. Sizing of the startup valve
must be done in combination with the feedwater
regulator valve. This is to ensure that the
feedwater regulator valve does not experience any
service conditions that lead to damaging
cavitation. The most common split is that 80%
capacity in the startup valve is equal to 20% W9693

capacity in the regulator valve. Once the transition Figure 1‐18. Gear‐toothing
to the regulator valve has begun, the startup valve
closes. Improper use is one of the main issues prevented. The best way to handle it is to minimize
surrounding two valve feedwater systems. For the amount of damage being caused by flashing.
example, the startup valve is not being used at all Use of an angle valve with a downstream liner is
and the regulator valve is being used to perform recommended to minimize the amount of damage
both functions. This can be a major problem if the caused by flashing. It is much more economical to
boiler feedwater regulator was not sized or replace a liner than to replace an entire valve.
selected to perform both functions. There can also
be an issue if switching between the startup and The condensate recirculation valve is similar to the
the regulator valve is happening too quickly. feed pump recirculation valve in that it also
protects the pump from cavitation. Inlet pressure
Because of the cavitation concerns and taking the and temperature differ from the feedwater system.
full pressure drop, the startup valve should utilize The dissimilarities from the feedwater system
some form of anti‐cavitation trim. Typically, in include the inlet pressure and temperature. Inlet
process plants, since the pressures are not as sizing often indicates that flashing is occurring.
high as power plants, Cavitrol III trim is selected. The end user needs to ensure that there is not a
440C trim is recommended for the case of treated sparger or diffuser downstream emitting back
feedwater. For cases where one valve is pressure on the valve. This will cause cavitation
performing the startup and regulator duties, rather than flashing. Cavitation can also cause
characterized Cavitrol trim can be designed to noise and vibration. Tight shutoff is needed on this
handle the cavitating conditions at startup and application because it prevents loss of condenser
then standard equal percentage or linear vacuum, loss of condensate pressure and flow to
characteristic for steady‐state conditions to the deaerator, and saves money in terms of
maximize capacity. Another common issue in both wasted pump horsepower. Valve selection is
the startup and regulator valves is to see them typically an EWT valve with Cavitrol III trim. Flow is
operated below the minimum operating point. This usually 25‐35% of the condensate pump's full
can cause “gear‐toothing” damage on the plug. capacity. Class V shutoff is highly recommended
Damage can be limited by utilizing a lower metal to minimize leakage past the seat because it can
piston ring or matched plug/cage combination. cause damage.
This limits the amount of clearance flow between
the plug and cage thus minimizing erosion effects.
Another solution is to use the protected inside seat
technology with Cavitrol III trim. This technology is
designed so that the shutoff surface is not X. Flare System
exposed to potential erosion. Protecting the In an ethylene plant, vent to flare systems are on
shutoff surface will extend the sealing life of the several of the unit operations such as the quench
trim. Using the low travel cutoff feature of the tower, distillation columns, steam systems, etc.
FIELDVUE digital valve controller is ideal. The Vent valves are used to depressurize the unit for
instrument can be setup so that the valves do not safe shutdown and, possibly, for startup as well.
throttle below a minimum point. Due to the high pressure drop and high mass flow,
they are severe service applications. They are also
The continuous blowdown application is constantly critical reliability applications as part of the safety
removing concentrated water from the drums and shutdown systems. These valves are closed
removes a significant level of suspended solids. except in flare scenarios. Plant personnel need to
Typically, this application is flashing. Flashing is a ensure that the valves move when the process
system phenomenon and, therefore, cannot be requires flaring.

1-14
The first challenge for vent valves is to have valves. Because this is a valve that normally sits
optimum sizing and selection of the valve with a closed but needs to move when called upon, the
silencer/diffuser. It is a balancing act when sizing FIELDVUE DVC6000 SIS (Safety Instrumented
this system as a result of optimizing the noise Systems) is an optimized solution. As plants are
attenuation by adjusting how much pressure drop paying more attention to their safety loops and
each component is taking. Because they directly performing safety evaluations, these are being
affect each other, they should be considered an tagged as SIS applications because they are key
engineered solution and sized together as a to ensuring that the process can flare in the event
system. Tight shutoff is a major concern as any they are needed (shutdown, startup, and
leakage causes a loss in plant efficiency. Class V emergency event). Partial stroke testing can be
seat load is recommended as it will minimize performed using the DVC6000 SIS. This can be
leakage past the vent valve while in the closed done without interrupting normal operation and
position. This is usually a high noise application requires the valve to move from 1 to 30% of its
due to the pressure drop and high mass flow. total travel.
Operation may be intermittent and for a short
duration so high noise may be tolerable.
Awareness and concern for structurally intolerable
noise levels are necessary. Noise requirements
are likely to be driven by plant and regulatory
noise requirements. XI. Conclusion
Globe or angle valves with a Whisper Trim III or Ethylene plants use hundreds of control valves
WhisperFlo trim for noise attenuation, are the throughout the entire production process and
typical recommendation for this application. There understanding the various applications is essential
are some exceptions to this. Vent valves on the in order to apply an engineered solution towards
quench tower may be able to use butterfly valves them. With the selection of an appropriate Fisher
with diffusers due to the low pressures in this control valve solution, plant performance will
particular application. Also, cryogenic valves may improve as a result of enhanced reliability,
be needed on some of the distillation column vent variability, safety, etc.

1-15
 Chapter 2

Polysilicon Production

I. Overview:
Polysilicon, or polycrystalline silicon, is a key
component used in the production of many
electronic devices used today including
computers, cell phones, game consoles, PDAs,
mp3 players, car and home electronics, digital
cameras, medical devices, etc. Polysilicon is
formed to make ingots, wafers, fabricated wafers,
and integrated circuits. It is then manufactured into
necessary parts. Polysilicon is also a key
component in the production of solar cells for solar
power. The solar energy market is growing as
producers come closer to reaching the level of grid W9770
parity. Grid parity is the cost at which photovoltaics Figure 2‐1. Silicon Wafers
are competitive against other forms of electricity
generation. Once grid parity is reached, demand
for photovoltaic products will increase significantly. Polysilicon has historically been a cyclical market.
There are times when capacity addition cannot
meet rising demand. At other times, oversupply is
There is not just one type or grade of silicon or a concern. Market fluctuations do not greatly affect
polysilicon. A supplier may classify the polysilicon established industry and larger downstream
produced into fifty or more different grades with customers as they generally work on long term
different specifications unique to the user and the contracts, typically five to eight years. Major
application. However, this chapter will only refer to producers of polysilicon include REC Silicon,
three main types: Hemlock Semiconductor, Wacker‐Chemie, and
Tokuyama. The market was in a period of extreme
 Metallurgical grade silicon (MG‐Si) is 95‐99% demand in 2006‐2007; however, analysts are
pure and it is produced from quartz crystals. currently predicting an oversupply beginning
sometime in 2010. Research by Photovoltaic‐Tech
in March of 2009 shows there has been an over
 Solar grade polysilicon is approximately 6N 50% increase in polysilicon capacity from major
to 7N pure. producers through 2012, compared to just nine
months earlier. A conservative model of the future
polysilicon market, taking an adjustment for grid
 Electronic or semiconductor grade polysilicon parity, was presented by Hemlock Semiconductor
is the purest form at grade 9N to 11N. VP Gary Homan in Photovoltaics International. It
shows a growth of polysilicon in the 3.3x range
from 2008 to 2014, or an increase from 64,000 to
In referring to purity levels of polysilicon, it is 209,000 metric tons (MT) in thousands. The rapid
common to use the number of nines past the rate of market growth means that periods of
decimal point, i.e. 6N pure is actually 99.999999%. oversupply are short‐lived (typically one to three

www.Fisher.com
 estimated the bill will create a total of 119,000 jobs
between 2010 and 2011. Analysts also anticipate
grid parity to exist in a number of large markets
between 2012 and 2015 at which point
government incentives are no longer necessary to
support additional capacity installation.

Two major production processes are used to make

polysilicon:

 Siemens process

 Fluidized bed reactor process.

This chapter will discuss each of them separately.

Critical valve applications and special
considerations for valves used for polysilicon
production will also be discussed.

W9771
Figure 2‐2. Solar Panels

II. Siemens Process:

years); however, various complex factors influence
The Siemens process, or a modified Siemens
this trend.
process, accounts for more than 90% of the global
install base for polysilicon production. This process
Government incentives have a major effect on can be used to produce solar or semiconductor
market needs as interest in using solar power as grade polysilicon. The general process is no
an energy source continues to grow. The longer protected but several technology suppliers
economic viability of solar power has been do license their own specific variants to the
critically dependent upon a state subsidy of some process. There are three main steps to this
form. This mainly occurred in Japan and Germany process:
but was used in Spain in 2008 as well. It also
depends upon the grid prices of conventional 1. Preparation and purification of trichlorosilane
electricity in the region. The American Recovery (or occasionally silane)
and Investment Act includes over US$6 billion in
loan guarantees for renewable energy projects, 2. Chemical vapor deposition (CVD)
solar in particular. Industry representatives have 3. Recovery

2-2
 Figure 2‐3. Generic Polysilicon Production Process

The general chemical reactions for the main steps of the Siemens process are shown below:
TCS production STC conversion
Si ) 3HCl ³ HSiCl 3 ) H 2 SiCl 4 ) H 2 ³ HSiCl 3 ) HCl
HSiCl 3 ) HCl ³ SiCl 4 ) H 2
Nomenclature : 
Polysilicon production(CVD) Trichlorosilane(TCS) : HSiCl 3
HSiCl 3 ) H 2 ³ Si ) 3HCl SiliconTetrachloride(STC) : SiCl 4
HSiCl 3 ) HCl ³ SiCl 4 ) H 2 Silicon : Si

Figure 2‐4. Chemistry of the Polysilicon Process

Preparation and Purification of dichlorosilane (SiH2Cl2), or silane (SiH4). Though

Trichlorosilane chlorosilanes are more commonly used than
silane, there is a major advantage to using silane
In step one; silicon is converted to trichlorosilane as its deposition temperature is about two‐thirds
(SiHCl3), silicon tetrachloride (SiCl4), that of trichlorosilane. However, silane is not

2-3
 Figure 2‐5. Flow Chart of the Preparation and Refining of Trichlorosilane

widely used because it is more difficult to work The TCS produced includes some contaminants of
with and ignites spontaneously in air. boron, aluminum, and phosphorous. These
Trichlorosilane is used as the feed material in contaminants are removed in a multistage
approximately 75% of worldwide polysilicon fractionation process. To ensure proper
production by the Siemens process. Chlorosilanes separation, TCS is cooled and the liquid is flashed
can be produced at the polysilicon manufacturing through a multistage fractionation tower. In the first
site or at a nearby plant and transported to the stage, hydrogen is separated and recycled back to
polysilicon site while maintaining the purity level of the process. The first stage column bottom product
the fluid; however, larger polysilicon plants are is flashed through the second stage column where
typically producing their feed materials onsite or at the TCS and STC are separated. The TCS is
an adjacent plant. further purified through fractionation and other
purification methods to get ultrapure TCS for use
Dry hydrogen chloride (HCl) gas is passed through as the reactor feed. Typically, there are eight to
a heated MG‐Si, particle sizes smaller than 40 μm, ten purification towers installed in series for each
in a fluidized bed reactor. This is done at a HCl plant. Sometimes complexing agents are used to
ratio of 1:3. The reaction takes place at around remove phosphorous and boron chlorides from the
600°F (315°C) and 500 psig (34.5 barg). The process. Impurities are removed as metal
resulting chemicals of this reaction are a blend of chlorides in solution of TCS/STC. It is “impossible”
chlorosilanes, hydrogen, HCl, and unreacted to measure impurities at such low levels, so an
silicon. Two chlorosilane species predominate: over‐design of the columns can occur and purity
trichlorosilane (TCS) at 90% and tetrachlorosilane, levels cannot be measured until the final product.
also referred to as silicon tetrachloride (STC), at TCS is typically stored in a tank and then fed to
10%.

2-4
the chemical vapor deposition reactors as polysilicon. The exhaust gases must be recycled
necessary. for the process to be cost effective.

The reactor is kept cold during the vapor

deposition process. It is double walled and uses a
Chemical Vapor Deposition water jacket for cooling. The filaments are the only
Using chemical vapor deposition to produce items heated so that the reaction only takes place
polysilicon was first developed by Siemens and on the filaments themselves. Newly formed
Halske in 1952 and patented in 1956. It is a batch polysilicon therefore deposits directly on the
process that takes place in a reactor. This reactor filaments. The amount of time filaments are in the
may be called a Siemens dome reactor, reduction chemical vapor deposition process is proprietary to
reactor, or a chemical vapor deposition reactor. the polysilicon manufacturer, but one batch lasts
The basic reactor design is a bell jar with three approximately three to seven days with a
starter polysilicon rods, also called filaments. twenty‐four hour turnaround time. The growth rate
These filaments are approximately 7‐8 mm size of the filament is approximately one mm/h. The
and are placed into an inverted U shape. Some final filament diameter is approximately 200 mm
companies have their own proprietary reactor with a filament length of greater than two mm and
design. Others purchase reactor technology from eight to sixteen filaments per reactor. The
companies such as GT Solar. Reactors can be economic effects of an unplanned shutdown of a
built to have more capacity, but this requires reactor are market dependent but can range from
extensive engineering and design to ensure that US$60,000 to US$100,000 per run of the reactor.
there is uniform performance across the entire
reactor surface. Some points to consider on
choosing between multiple reactors or one larger Recovery
reactor include: The chemical vapor deposition reactor has low
conversion efficiency, about 10‐20%. Thus, STC is
 Turnaround time due to the batch nature of recovered and recycled. STC separation and
the process conversion is a complex process involving
distillation columns, cryogenics, and pressure
 Growth rates are nonlinear across the length swing adsorption. STC converters are chemical
of a run (reach a point of diminishing return in the vapor deposition reactors with platinum filaments.
process) This recovery process enables plants to recycle
the silicon tetrachloride and eliminates byproducts
 Equipment failure consequences on that are difficult to handle. The hydrogen that is
operability produced in the chemical vapor deposition
reaction is purified through a pressure swing
adsorption process, then compressed and
 Purity levels returned to the process.

Filaments are electrically heated to 1832‐2012F Supporting the whole plant are the offsite and
(1,000‐1,100C) and voltage and current are utilities. This includes HCl synthesis and storage,
adjusted throughout the batch. This process is either cryogenic or aqueous storage; exhaust gas
highly energy intensive. The pressure of the recovery system; and utilities. There is a caustic
reactor is approximately 85‐270 psig (5.9‐18.6 scrubber for vent gas treatment that needs to
barg). Pure TCS is blended with a carrier gas, handle 0‐100% turndown. Also present is an
typically hydrogen, to form the gas phase emergency gas discharge tank of caustic with a
feedstock to the polysilicon reactors. Mole mini scrubber on top. All drains in the plant must
concentrations of TCS in the carrier gas are be sealed for safety reasons. All chlorides must be
typically 5‐20% with exceptions to 50%. During the precipitated out before discharge of wastewater.
start of the batch, hydrogen is recycled through the On the utility side, the cooling water is the most
reactor. Once the desired temperature is reached, critical process for plant safety. It is used to cool
TCS is mixed with hydrogen at a varying ratio and reactors and quench exhaust gases. These types
fed to the reactor. A gas distribution system, of polysilicon plants are large consumers of
essentially a series of nozzles, is designed to electricity. Every reactor has its own electrical
produce uniform polysilicon deposition across the control equipment, transformers, and rectifiers.
diameter and throughout the length of the rod.
About 22 pounds (10 kg) of trichlorosilane is The final processing step is packaging, which is a
required to produce 2.2 pounds (1 kg) of manual process. The finished polysilicon filaments

2-5
 Figure 2‐5. Chemical Vapor Deposition of Granular Silicon

are taken to a clean room where they are broken Fine metallurgical grade silicon powder, granules
up into cut rod, chunk, chip, or fines to meet size of about 100 μm diameter, is heated to 1340°F
requirements per customer specifications. (727°C). This silicon powder is let in through an
opening at the top of the reactor and fluidized by
the upflowing silane or TCS gas. The silane
decomposes into silicon and hydrogen on the hot
silicon particles. The silicon particles grow and
when large enough, approximately one mm
diameter, they fall to the bottom of the reactor
III. Fluidized Bed Reactor: where they are removed. There is some unwanted
The fluidized bed reactor process is a closed loop, deposition of silicon on the hot walls of the reactor.
continuous reaction process that is becoming A newer version of this process avoids this issue
more common in polysilicon production. It is due to choice in reactor wall material.
typically used to produce solar grade polysilicon.
Polysilicon is produced in granular pellet form.
Main benefits of this process over the Siemens
process are that the fluidized bed reactor plants
are typically smaller for the equivalent throughput, IV. Critical Valve Applications
use much less energy, and polysilicon beads can
be harvested continuously without having to and Special Considerations:
shutdown the reactor. Less energy is required While most valves used for polysilicon production
because the heat transfer is much more efficient, could be considered standard valve configurations
as the gases are heated going into the reactor. (Vee‐ball, easy‐e, and GX valves), several
According to REC Silicon, this process will reduce applications are critical to the process and special
energy consumption in the silane to polysilicon considerations must be taken into account when
step by 80‐90% from the Siemens process. The selecting these valves, such as cleaning and
general process is trichlorosilane or silane process fluid containment. It can be said, though,
production, polysilicon deposition in the fluidized that around the reactors, no one valve is more
bed reactor, and recovery/utilities. critical than another. However, there are some
critical applications in the cooling water, vent gas,
and recovery sections that have the potential to

2-6
shutdown the entire process and expose the plant more difficult. Operations personnel will normally
to significant safety risks. respond by over‐purifying the products, wasting
energy to compensate for the problematic feed
control valve.
Critical Control Valve Applications The reflux valve is typically either a flow or column
In the TCS purification section, there are several temperature control loop. It is used to adjust the
purification steps involving distillation columns. purity of the overhead product. The higher the
Distillation columns are found in various chemical reflux rate, the more pure the overhead product
processes and have the same basic setup. The will become. However, raising the reflux rate
objective is to separate a feed stream into requires more reboil heat and will eventually flood
light‐component and heavy‐component product the tower. A poorly operating reflux valve has the
streams. It relies on the relative volatility between same effects as a bad feed valve. Product purities
the components that make up the feed stream. will oscillate and the column will be difficult to
High volatility (lighter) components boil at a lower control. This ultimately affects the efficiency of the
temperature than low volatility (heavier) column.
components. Therefore, when heat is added to the
column through a bottom reboiler, lighter materials The bottom product valve is used to control the
are vaporized and rise to the top of the column. level in the bottom of the column. Poor control of
Overhead vapors are cooled until they condense this valve can cause the level to change quickly
and become a liquid again. and dramatically. Issues with this valve reduce
efficiency or at worst, cause flooding in the
Efficiency of distillation depends upon the amount column. The overhead product valve is used to
of contact between the vapor rising and the liquid control the level in the overhead receiver. It can
falling down the column. Therefore, some of the also cause the level to change quickly and
overhead liquid product is sent back, or refluxed, dramatically in the column. Problems with this
to the top of the column. Increasing reflux will application can reduce efficiency.
improve the purity of the overhead product; Pressure control valves provide the back pressure
however, it also requires more heat from the to the column. This is critical to controlling the
reboiler to re‐vaporize the lighter components in stability of the tower. Stable pressure is required to
the reflux stream. Operation of a distillation column ensure that temperature changes reflect
is a balancing act between product purity and composition changes and not pressure changes.
energy usage. If the amount of vapor and liquid With too small of a valve, the pressure response
traveling through the column becomes too great, will be sluggish. Too large of a valve and small
the column can “flood”. Too much reflux, too much valve movement will cause a large pressure swing.
reboil heat resulting in too much vapor, or both can Oscillating column pressure and difficult control
causing flooding. When flooding occurs, efficiency result with either over‐ or under‐sizing the valve.
of the distillation column is dramatically reduced
with corresponding drops in product purities. The reboil valve controls the amount of heat put
into the column by the reboiler. In many cases,
Figure 2‐7 shows the general schematic of a steam is used as a heat source. The service is
distillation column. The valves associated with this very clean and fugitive emissions are not a
are the feed, reflux, bottom product, overhead concern. Steam valves are usually very reliable;
product, pressure control, and reboil valves. however, a problematic valve will make the column
difficult to control precisely. This is especially true
Feed valves are typically used as flow or level if the column feed is subject to frequent changes.
control loops. An upstream unit or process often Not all reboilers use steam though. Some use
controls the feed valve. Unstable feed flow will other high temperature process streams.
make the distillation column difficult to control. A
problem valve will often cause feed flow to Regardless of distillation column application, the
oscillate. As a result, the column will alternate control valve solution needs to provide accurate
between too little and too much reboil heat. and reliable control. Valves can affect column
Depending upon the size and number of trays in efficiency, stability, column energy usage, flooding,
the column, the effect of a swing in feed will take etc. An easy‐e valve or GX valve is recommended
anywhere from several minutes to more than an and are typically CF8M constructions. A
hour to reach the ends of the column. Sometimes, FIELDVUE digital valve controller should be
reboil and reflux control will amplify the swings. As utilized to achieve tight control. Diagnostics are
a result, meeting product purity targets becomes key in these applications for preventative

2-7
 Figure 2‐7. Schematic of a Basic Distillation Column

maintenance since distillation columns have long reduce the overall envelope size. Due to the high
periods between shutdowns. temperature of the reactor, remote mounting of the
FIELDVUE digital valve controller may also be
For vapor deposition applications, such as the used.
feed valves to either the Siemens reactor or to the
fluidized bed reactor and the vent valves on the
Siemens reactor, tight control is necessary. Feed For the vapor deposition reactor, cooling water is
valves are critical in controlling the vapor another critical application. If for any reason,
deposition rate of producing polysilicon. Due to the cooling water is lost to a chemical vapor deposition
critical nature of these valves, online diagnostics reactor, even if electricity and gas supplies are
should be used to maintain performance and to isolated immediately, the reactor vessel will get so
perform predictive maintenance. In the Siemens hot that it is likely to fail and potentially melt. It is
reactor, envelope size is an important important to employ predictive maintenance on all
consideration as there is not always ample room cooling water applications so that maintenance
around the reactor to fit the valves. The GX valve can be scheduled ahead of time to avoid control
is a good fit as one of the design criteria was to valve failures during operation.

2-8
 Figure 2‐9. PSA Basic Flow Scheme

and compression. Hydrogen purification is done

through pressure swing adsorption (PSA). Control
valves used in PSA applications are in a very high
cycle service, seeing 100,000 to 250,000 cycles
per year. Valves and actuators are expected to
stroke once every three minutes. Stroking speeds
are required to be fast and controlled. Uncontrolled
opening can cause pressure/flow spikes.
Depending upon the type and size of a PSA skid,
the amount and type of control valves will vary.
PSA skids can use globe and/or rotary valves.
Control valve shutoff is a major concern because it
affects PSA unit efficiency. Bi‐directional flow
conditions also exist. If valve leakage causes
contamination from one PSA bed to another,
industrial gas purity can be compromised.

A GX valve is the recommended globe valve

solution for PSA service. It can handle stroking
speeds up to 1.5 ‐ 2 seconds. Class VI shutoff is
necessary and bi‐directional shutoff is standard in
this construction. Certified emission control
packing is standard to reduce potential hydrogen
leakage. The recommended high performance
butterfly valve construction requires the use of a
pressure assisted UHMWPE seal. PTFE lined
PEEK bearings that can withstand long cycle life
requirements are used. Live loaded PTFE
ENVIRO‐SEAL packing is available to reduce
hydrogen leakage.

These constructions have undergone extensive

W8787 testing within the flow lab in Marshalltown, Iowa,
Figure 2‐8. GX with DVC2000 United States to ensure that they meet the
demands of PSA service. PSA testing is used to
In the recovery section, there are critical valve verify the life cycle of Fisher digital valves. PSA
applications surrounding the hydrogen purification testing was designed and set up with input from

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 Hydrogen also needs to go through a compressor
before it is recycled back to the process. Typically,
a reciprocating compressor is used for polysilicon
plants. An antisurge control system is design to
protect the compressor as it is an expensive piece
of equipment and critical to the process. The
system is designed to provide a faster response
than adjusting the turbine speed to control the
onset of surge. The controller looks at multiple
variables to prevent the onset of surge. It requires
fast, accurate response in order to prevent surge
conditions. Characteristics of a surge condition are
fast flow reversal (measured in milliseconds),
excessive compressor vibration, increase in
flowing media temperature, noise, and it may
W8616
cause the compressor to “trip”. Consequences of
Figure 2‐10. ENVIRO‐SEAL Packing Systems surge situations are substantial and may include
shortened compressor life, loss of efficiency,
reduced compressor output, and mechanical
damage to seals, bearings, impellers, etc.
major PSA licensors to represent the PSA process Antisurge control valves present many various
as accurately as possible. Both the GX and challenges. The key challenge is ensuring valve
butterfly valve solution have undergone rigorous reliability. There is an extended period between
testing to prove they can meet the high cycle maintenance cycles and it is important to ensure a
demands of this service. reliable control valve assembly solution. The
antisurge valve is the main piece of equipment that
protects the compressor from damage caused by
a surge. When these valves are called upon to
move, they are required to stroke very quickly,
typically in the open direction only. This can
necessitate oversized actuator connections and
the use of volume booster(s) and quick exhaust
valve(s). Improper selection of these accessories
will result in poor valve performance and tuning
difficulties. During a surge event, pressure drop
and flow rate experienced by the valve can be
high, causing excessive levels of noise. This must
be considered in valve selection, although noise
control throughout the entire range of valve travel
may not be required. This valve may also be
required to throttle intermittently from 0 to 100%
open. These cases require the valve to have fast,
accurate control for incremental step sizes. Any
delays can cause a surge to occur. The antisurge
valve must be able to pass the highest possible
output capacity of the compressor. Application of a
multiplying factor to the compressor capacity figure
is common and may lead to selection of an
oversized valve. Valves with too much capacity
often have controllability issues and can cause
unstable operation.
Emerson has developed an optimized antisurge
W8950‐1
package to meet the challenging demands of this
application. Some highlights of this package will be
Figure 2‐11. Antisurge Control System discussed, but for more information, please see
the brochure titled “Fisher Optimized Antisurge
Control Valves”. These valves use a spoked plug

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versus the traditional balanced plug. With the inside a clean room. This requires an industrial
traditional plug, when the valve is asked to move heating, ventilating, and air conditioning (HVAC)
very quickly, there is not enough area in the system to meet the air cleanliness requirements of
balance holes to keep the plug in a balanced state; the clean room. Industrial HVAC means using
therefore, creating a differential pressure situation industrial grade control equipment to control the
between the top and the bottom of the plug. This environment to support the process, not human
differential pressure case can lead to plug comfort. These facilities should be designed to
instability. The spoked plug has large balance provide the necessary protection to minimize the
areas so that this does not occur. For surge events risk of contamination and to ensure that
where noise is a concern, a Fisher valve with a appropriate air quality (temperature, humidity and
Whisper Trim III or WhisperFlo trim is particulates) is maintained, especially in areas
recommended. where product is exposed to the environment. This
is critical to maintaining the purity of the product
Emerson has the engineering capability to that is such a concern throughout the entire
characterize these trims in order to meet the process. The HVAC system needs to provide good
specific application needs and tailor a solution performance, be reliable, and be low maintenance.
towards them. When the valve assembly is called While the valve applications are generally simple,
upon to move quickly, mechanical air cushions it is important to have an accurate (<1% device)
have been added to the actuator cylinder to and reliable valve assembly to ensure overall
provide controlled deceleration to help protect system performance. Generally, the Baumann
actuator and valve components for longer travel 24000 series works well in these applications.
applications. There are a variety of valve sizes, materials, and
trims available to meet each individual application.
The Fisher optimized antisurge package also The small light weight design is ideal for
includes a FIELDVUE digital valve controller with installation in tight areas such as around air
the optimized digital valve (ODV) tier. Features handling equipment, which is typically located in
within this tier and in AMS ValveLink software ceiling crawl spaces above the clean room. Also,
meet the needs of the application. For example, adding a FIELDVUE DVC2000 reduces start up
factory expertise is not required to tune the Fisher time by allowing for simple local push‐button
optimized antisurge valve. A technician can simply calibration, while adding remote diagnostic
use ValveLink software s performance tuner or capability to monitor valve performance in difficult
the stabilize/optimize feature with real time to access installations.
graphics. Configuration and tuning can also be
performed remotely by operators as process There are many toxic, lethal, and explosive fluids
requirements change. This feature gives plant that need to be contained throughout the
operators and technicians the capability to tune polysilicon process. Chlorine, HCl, TCS, STC, and
this assembly in the field. The lead‐lag filter in the hydrogen are flammable, corrosive, toxic, and
ODV tier can be used to improve the response to explosive. Silane ignites spontaneously with air.
small amplitude steps by overdriving the set point. HCl or TCS plus air gives hydrochloric acid, so
Asymmetric adjustments allow the response to be systems containing these fluids need to be kept
set independently in the open and closing completely dry. Depending upon the process fluid,
directions. Integrated, real time graphics allow government regulations, and customer
adjustments to be done remotely as well. Also, specifications, either ENVIRO‐SEAL packing or
diagnostics can be collected, viewed, and ENVIRO‐SEAL bellows will need to be used.
analyzed using ValveLink software to look at items ENVIRO‐SEAL packing limits emissions while
such as packing friction, air path leakage, actuator ENVIRO‐SEAL bellows eliminates emissions.
spring rate, and bench set. Partial stroke tests can
also be performed to check the health of the valve
and ensure the antisurge valve is going to move Special Cleaning
when it is requested to. Contamination is a major factor in the production
of polysilicon because the end product needs to
The conversion of STC in the recovery process meet such stringent purity levels. Residual grease,
uses distillation columns. These applications are oil, etc. in process equipment after maintenance,
the same as discussed in the TCS purification. testing, or initial construction causes product
See the above text for more details. quality issues and produces off‐specification
product. Phosphorous is a big contaminant and
The final step in the Siemens process is the can ruin batches. Some greases that are approved
manual breaking and packaging of the polysilicon for oxygen use are not acceptable in polysilicon

2-1 1
 required some form of Class A degreasing. This
may be modified to specify a certain cleaner or a
non‐phosphate rinse at the end of the cleaning
process. Emerson has also worked with polysilicon
manufacturers to tailor a cleaning process to meet
their specific needs.

Safety Instrumented Systems

Due to the nature of the process fluids involvement
and the reactions taking place, safety is an
important and critical part of the production
process. Safety instrumented systems (SIS) are
put in place to ensure protection against accidents
such as toxic chemical releases, facility
explosions, or fires. The SIS valve is present to
take the process to a safe state when specified
(dangerous) conditions are violated. Loops are
evaluated by plants to determine what safety
integrity level (SIL) level is needed for that safety
application. Several Fisher products have been
certified and are suitable for use in SIS
applications. These products include the
W9510
FIELDVUE DVC6000 SIS, GX, Vee‐ball, HP,
easy‐e, 8580, A81, and the Control‐Disk along
Figure 2‐12. 24000 with DVC2000
with the respective actuators for the valves.
Typically, safety valves operate in one static
position and only move upon an emergency
situation. Without mechanical movement for long
periods of time, unreliability inherently increases.
To ensure availability on demand, SIS valves must
undergo regular testing. This includes not only full
stroke tests, but also partial stroke tests that can
be used to increase the time between full proof
tests. The DVC6000 SIS can be utilized to perform
partial stroke testing. It can move the valve
between 1 and 30% from its original position.
Partial stroke tests can be scheduled via the
automatic test scheduler. If an emergency demand
occurs, the response will override the testing.
Using smart positioner technology with partial
stroke testing provides for predictive maintenance
through diagnostic information.

W9343

Figure 2‐13. GX with ENVIRO‐SEAL Bellows V. Conclusion:

As technical uses for polysilicon grow along with
the demand for solar power, the polysilicon market
environments. The cleaning process required will continue to expand. Reliability, safety, control,
varies from one polysilicon producer to the next. purity levels, and variability are all affected by the
Emerson has created and utilizes standard control valves used in the process. It is important
degreasing levels for Fisher control valves; Class to understand the polysilicon process in order to
A for non‐oxygen fluids and Class AAA for oxygen apply the proper control valve solution for various
applications. Typically, polysilicon projects have applications.

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Fisher, easy‐e, FIELDVUE, ENVIRO‐SEAL, Whisper Trim, WhisperFlo, ValveLink, NotchFlo and Cavitrol are marks owned by one of the
companies in the Emerson Process Management business division of Emerson Electric Co. Emerson Process Management, Emerson, and
the Emerson logo are trademarks and service marks of Emerson Electric Co. All other marks are the property of their respective owners.
The contents of this publication are presented for informational purposes only, and while every effort has been made to ensure their accuracy,
they are not to be construed as warranties or guarantees, express or implied, regarding the products or services described herein or their use
or applicability. All sales are governed by our terms and conditions, which are available upon request. We reserve the right to modify or im­
prove the designs or specifications of such products at any time without notice. Neither Emerson, Emerson Process Management, nor any of
their affiliated entities assumes responsibility for the selection, use or maintenance of any product. Responsibility for proper selection, use,
and maintenance of any product remains solely with the purchaser and end user.

Emerson Process Management

Marshalltown, Iowa 50158 USA
Sorocaba, 18087 Brazil
Chatham, Kent ME4 4QZ UK
Dubai, United Arab Emirates
Singapore 128461 Singapore
www.Fisher.com

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D103417X012 Fisher Controls International LLC 2010; All Rights Reserved