23

1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 PURPOSE AND SCOPE

The purpose of this document is to give guidance for the design and construction of
foundations in Hong Kong. It is aimed at professionals and supervisory personnel involved
in the design and construction of foundations. The document has been prepared on the
assumption that the reader has some general knowledge of foundations.

Foundations can be classified as shallow and deep foundations, depending on the

depth of load-transfer from the structure to the ground. The definition of shallow foundations
varies in different publications. BS 8004 (BSI, 1986) adopts an arbitrary embedment depth
of 3 m as a way to define shallow foundations. In the context of this document, a shallow
foundation is taken as one in which the depth to the bottom of the foundation is less than or
equal to its least dimension (Terzaghi et al, 1996). Deep foundations usually refer to piles
installed at depths and are :

(a) pre-manufactured and inserted into the ground by driving,

jacking or other methods, or

(b) cast-in-place in a shaft formed in the ground by boring or

excavation.

Traditional foundation design practice in Hong Kong relies, in part, on the British
Code of Practice for Foundations (BSI, 1954), together with empirical rules formulated some
40 years ago from local experience with foundations in weathered rocks. Foundation design
and construction for projects that require the approval of the Building Authority shall comply
with the Buildings Ordinance and related regulations. The Code of Practice for Foundations
(BD, 2004a) consolidates the practice commonly used in Hong Kong. Designs in accordance
with the code are 'deemed-to-satisfy' the Buildings Ordinance and related regulations.
Rational design approaches based on accepted engineering principles are recognised practice
and are also allowed in the Code of Practice for Foundations. This publication is intended as
a technical reference document that presents modern methods in the design of foundation.

Rational design approaches require a greater geotechnical input including properly

planned site investigations, field and laboratory testing, together with consideration of the
method of construction. The use of rational methods to back-analyse results of loading tests
on instrumented foundations or the monitored behaviour of prototype structures has led to a
better understanding of foundation behaviour and enables more reliable and economical
design to be employed. This should be continued to further enhance the knowledge such that
improvements to foundation design can be made in future projects.

A thorough understanding of the ground conditions is a pre-requisite to the success of

a foundation project. An outline of geological conditions in Hong Kong is given in Chapter 2,
along with guidance on the scope of site investigations required for the design of foundations.
Shallow foundations are usually the most economical foundation option. The feasibility of
using shallow foundations should be assessed. Chapter 3 provides guidance on some key
design aspects and clarifying the intent of the methods.
 24

In Hong Kong, tall buildings in excess of 30 storeys are commonplace both on

reclamations and on hillsides. Steel and concrete piles are generally used as building
foundations. Timber piles, which were used extensively in the past to support low-rise
buildings and for wharves and jetties, are not covered in this document. Guidance on the
types of foundations commonly used in Hong Kong is given in Chapter 4.

Factors to be considered in choosing the most appropriate pile type and the issue of
design responsibility are given in Chapter 5, along with guidance on assessing the suitability
of reusing existing piles. Guidance on methods of designing single piles and methods of
assessing pile movement are given in Chapter 6.

The design of pile groups and their movement are covered in Chapter 7. Given the
nature of the geology of the urban areas of Hong Kong where granular soils predominate,
emphasis has been placed on the design of piles in granular soil and weathered rock, although
pile design in clay has also been outlined for use in areas underlain by argillaceous rock.

Consideration of the practicalities of pile installation and the range of construction

control measures form an integral part of pile design, since the method of construction can
have a profound influence on the ground and hence on pile performance. A summary of pile
construction techniques commonly used in Hong Kong and a discussion on a variety of issues
to be addressed during construction, together with possible precautionary measures that may
be adopted, are given in Chapter 8.

In view of the many uncertainties inherent in the design of piles, it is difficult to

predict with accuracy the behaviour of a pile, even with the use of sophisticated analyses.
The actual performance of single piles is best verified by a loading test, and foundation
performance by building settlement monitoring. Chapter 9 describes the types of, and
procedures for, static and dynamic loading tests commonly used in Hong Kong.

1.2 GENERAL GUIDANCE

In this document, reference has been made to published codes, textbooks and other
relevant information. The reader is strongly advised to consult the original publications for
full details of any particular subject and consider the appropriateness of using the methods for
designing the foundations.

The various stages of site investigation, design and construction of foundations require
a coordinated input from experienced personnel. Foundation design is not complete upon the
production of construction drawings. Continual involvement of the designer is essential in
checking the validity of both the geological model and the design assumptions as
construction proceeds. For deep foundations, the installation method may significantly affect
the performance of the foundations, it is most important that experienced and competent
specialist contractors are employed and their work adequately supervised by suitably
qualified and experienced engineers who should be familiar with the design.

In common with other types of geotechnical structures, professional judgement and

engineering common sense must be exercised when designing and constructing foundations.
 25

2. SITE INVESTIGATION, GEOLOGICAL MODELS AND

SELECTION OF DESIGN PARAMETERS

2.1 GENERAL

A thorough understanding on the ground conditions of a site is a pre-requisite to the

success of a foundation project. The overall objective of a site investigation for foundation
design is to determine the site constraints, geological profile and the properties of the various
strata. The geological sequence can be established by sinking boreholes from which soil and
rock samples are retrieved for identification and testing. Insitu tests may also be carried out
to determine the mass properties of the ground. These investigation methods may be
supplemented by regional geological studies and geophysical tests where justified by the
scale and importance of the project, or the complexity of the ground conditions.

The importance of a properly planned and executed ground investigation cannot be

over-emphasised. The information obtained from the investigation will allow an appropriate
geological model to be constructed. This determines the selection of the optimum foundation
system for the proposed structure. It is important that the engineer planning the site
investigation and designing the foundations liaises closely with the designer of the
superstructure and the project coordinator so that specific requirements and site constraints
are fully understood by the project team.

An oversimplified site investigation is a false economy as it can lead to design

changes and delays during construction and substantial cost overruns. The investigation
should always be regarded as a continuing process that requires regular re-appraisals. For
large projects or sites with a complex geology, it is advisable to phase the investigation to
enable a preliminary geological assessment and allow appropriate amendments of the study
schedule in response to the actual sub-surface conditions encountered. Significant cost
savings may be achieved if development layouts can avoid areas of complex ground
conditions. In some cases, additional ground investigation may be necessary during, or
subsequent to, foundation construction. For maximum cost-effectiveness, it is important to
ensure that appropriate tests are undertaken to derive relevant design parameters.

General guidance on the range of site investigation methods is given in Geoguide 2 :

Guide to Site Investigation (GCO, 1987), which is not repeated here. Specific guidance
pertinent to marine investigations is given in BS 6349-1:2000 (BSI, 2000a). This Chapter
highlights the more important aspects of site investigation with respect to foundations.

2.2 DESK STUDIES

2.2.1 Site History

Information on site history can be obtained from various sources including plans of
previous and existing developments, aerial photographs, old topographic maps, together with
geological maps and memoirs. Useful information on the possible presence of old
foundations, abandoned wells, tunnels, etc., may be extracted from a study of the site history.
For sites on reclaimed land or within areas of earthworks involving placement of fill, it is
 26

important to establish the timing and extent of the reclamation or the earthworks, based on
aerial photographs or old topographic maps, to help assess the likelihood of continuing
ground settlement that may give rise to negative skin friction on piles. Morrison & Pugh
(1990) described an example of the use of this information in the design of foundations. Old
piles and pile caps left behind in the ground from demolition of buildings may affect the
design and installation of new piles. It is important to consider such constraints in the choice
of pile type and in designing the pile layout.

Sites with a history of industrial developments involving substances which may

contaminate the ground (e.g. dye factories, oil terminals) will require detailed chemical
testing to evaluate the type, extent and degree of possible contamination.

2.2.2 Details of Adjacent Structures and Existing Foundations

Due to the high density of developments in Hong Kong, a detailed knowledge of

existing structures and their foundations, including tunnels, within and immediately beyond
the site boundaries is important because these may pose constraints to the proposed
foundation construction. Records and plans are available in the Buildings Department for
private developments, and in the relevant government offices for public works. Details of the
existing foundation types and their construction and performance records will serve as a
reference for the selection of the most appropriate foundation type for the proposed
development. In certain circumstances, it may be feasible or necessary to re-use some of the
existing foundations if detailed records are available and their integrity and capacity can be
confirmed by testing (see Chapter 5).

Particular attention should be paid to the special requirements for working in the Mid-
level areas, north shore of Lantau Island, Yuen Long and Ma On Shan, and in the vicinity of
existing sewage tunnels, the Mass Transit Railway, West Rail and East Rail, possible
presence of sensitive apparatus (e.g. computers, specialist machinery) within adjacent
buildings, and locations of hospitals or other buildings having special purposes that may have
specific requirements. Attention should also be paid to the other existing tunnels, caverns
and service reservoirs and railways. All these may pose constraints on the construction
works.

2.2.3 Geological Studies

An understanding of the geology of the site is a fundamental requirement in planning

and interpreting the subsequent ground investigation. A useful summary of the nature and
occurrence of rocks and soils in Hong Kong is contained in Geoguide 3 : Guide to Rock and
Soil Descriptions (GCO, 1988). Detailed information about the varied solid and superficial
geology of Hong Kong can be obtained from the latest maps and memoirs, published at
several scales, by the Hong Kong Geological Survey. The broad divisions of the principal
rock and soil types are summarised in Figure 2.1, and a geological map of Hong Kong is
shown in Figure 2.2. Given the variability of the geology, it is inadvisable to universally
apply design rules without due regard to detailed geological variations.

Typically, a mantle of insitu weathered rock overlies fresh rock, although on hillsides,
this is commonly overlain by a layer of transported colluvium. The thickness and nature of
 27

the weathering profiles vary markedly, depending on rock type, topographical location and
geological history. Corestone-bearing profiles (Figure 2.3) are primarily developed in the
medium- and coarse-grained granites and coarse ash tuffs (volcanic rocks), although they are
not ubiquitous. Many volcanic rocks, such as the fine ash tuffs, and the fine-grained granites
generally do not contain corestones. The incidence of corestones generally increases with
depth in a weathering profile, although abrupt lateral variations are also common. The depth
and extent of weathering can vary considerably with changes in rock type and spacing of
discontinuity. Thus, the inherent spatial variability of the soil masses formed from
weathering of rocks insitu and the undulating weathering front are important considerations
in the design and construction of foundations in Hong Kong.

Granitic saprolites (i.e. mass that retains the original texture, fabric and structure of the
parent rock) are generally regarded as granular soils in terms of their engineering behaviour.
In addition, they may possess relict or secondary bonding, depending on the degree of
weathering and cementation.

The lithological variability of volcanic rocks is considerable. They include tuffs,

which vary in grain size from fine ash to coarse blocks, are massive to well-bedded, and may
be welded, recrystallised or metamorphosed, and lava flows, which may be recrystallised or
metamorphosed. Sedimentary rocks of volcanic origin are commonly interbedded with the
volcanic rocks and these range in grain size from mudstones to conglomerates. The rate and
products of weathering of these rocks vary widely. Most soils derived from volcanic rocks
are silty. They may contain fragile, partially or wholly decomposed grains and possess relict
bonding. In view of the diversity of rock types, their structure and complexities in the
weathering profiles, generalisation about piling in volcanic rocks is inadvisable.

Colluvium, generally including debris flow and rockfall deposits, has commonly
accumulated on the hillsides, and fills many minor valleys. Large boulders may be present
within a generally medium-grained to coarse-grained matrix, which may impede pile driving.
Clay profiles are generally rare in weathered rock in Hong Kong. However, clays may occur
as alluvial deposits or as the fine-grained weathered products derived from the meta-siltstones
of the Lok Ma Chau Formation (Figure 2.1).

Marble may be found in the northwest New Territories, the northwest coast of Ma On
Shan and the northshore of Lantau Island. For sites underlain by marble, particular attention
should be paid to the possible occurrence of karst features (GCO, 1990). Chan (1996)
described different mechanisms leading to the development of karst features. They can be
grouped as surface karst, pinnacles, overhangs and cliffs, dissolution channels and
underground caves. Stability of the foundations will depend on the particular type and
geometry of the karst features and the rock mass properties.

It is important to note the significance of careful geological field observations and

experience in relation to the influence of geology on pile performance. Such an experience,
built on a direct and empirical relationship between geology and engineering, can be
invaluable, particularly in circumstances where observations cannot be adequately explained
by the theory of mechanics. On the other hand, it must be cautioned that experience can
become generalised as rules of thumb. It is advisable to be aware of the danger of these
generalisations being invalidated by variations in the geology, or by differences in the
mechanical behaviour of the range of materials in a given geological formation.
 28

Geological (Ages -
Timeline Millions
of Years)
Superficial Deposits

Quaternary
Beach sand, intertidal mud and Hang Hau
sand, and estuarine mud, clayey Formation
silt and sand

Cenozoic
Alluvial sand, silt gravel and Fanling Formation
colluvium 1.8
Chek Lap Kok
Formation

Tertiary
Sedimentary Rocks

Thinly-bedded dolomitic and Ping Chau 65

calcareous siltstone with rare Formation
chert interbeds

Dominantly calcareous breccia, Kat O Formation

conglomerate and coarse
sandstone

Reddish-brown thickly bedded Port Island

conglomerate and sandstone, with Formation
thinly bedded reddish siltstone

Reddish-brown thickly bedded Pat Sin Leng

conglomerate, greyish red Formation
sandstone and reddish purple
siltstone Granitoid Rocks

Lion Rock Suite

Volcanic Rocks Mount Butler Equigranular fine- and fine- to

Granite medium-grained biotite granite
Kau Sai Chau Volcanic Group
Cretaceous
Mesozoic

Po Toi Granite Megacrystic coarse-grained to

Dominantly welded fine ash vitric High Island equigranular fine-grained
tuff with minor tuff breccia and Formation biotite granite
tuffaceous sandstone
Kowloon Granite Equigranular medium-grained
Flow-banded porphyritic rhyolite Clear Water Bay biotite granite
lava, rhyolite breccia and eutaxitic Formation
vitric tuff Fan Lau Granite Porphyritic fine-grained biotite
granite
Dominantly eutaxitic block- and Undifferentiated
lapilli-bearing vitric tuff with Sok Kwu Wan Megacrystic medium-grained
minor flow-banded rhyolite lava Granite biotite granite

Tei Tong Tsui Porphyritic fine- to medium-

Quartz grained quartz monzonite
Monzonite

Tong Fuk Quartz Porphyritic fine-grained quartz

Monzonite monzonite

D’Aguilar Quartz Porphyritic fine- to medium-

Monzonite grained quartz monzonite

Figure 2.1 - Principal Rock and Soil Types in Hong Kong (Sheet 1 of 3) (Sewell et al, 2000)
 29

Geological (Ages -
Timeline Millions
of Years)
Repulse Bay Volcanic Group

Dominantly coarse ash crystal Mount Davis

tuff with intercalated tuffaceous Formation
siltstone and sandstone

Coarse ash crystal tuff Long Harbour Cheung Chau Suite

Formation
Luk Keng Quartz Megacrystic fine-grained
Trachydacite lava Pan Long Wan Monzonite quartz monzonite
Formation
Shan Tei Tong Feldsparphyric rhyodacite to

Cretaceous
Rhyodacite porphyritic granite dykes
Dominantly tuffaceous siltstone Mang Kung Uk
with minor crystal-bearing fine Formation
ash vitric tuff and tuff breccia Chi Ma Wan Granite Equigranular medium-grained
biotite granite
Eutaxitic crystal-bearing fine ash Che Kwu Shan
vitric tuff with minor tuff breccia Formation Shui Chuen O Porphyritic fine- to medium-
Granite grained granite
Eutaxitic fine ash vitric tuff Ap Lei Chau
Formation

Dominantly eutaxitic fine ash Ngo Mei Chau

vitric tuff, and lapilli tuff with Formation
minor intercalated siltstone and
mudstone
144
Kwai Chung Suite
Mesozoic

Lantau Volcanic Group Sha Tin Granite Equigranular coarse- and fine-
to medium-grained biotite
Dominantly coarse ash crystal Lai Chi Chong granite
tuff with intercalated mudstone, Formation
tuffaceous sandstone, rhyolite East Lantau Feldsparphyric rhyolite to
lava and minor conglomerate Rhyolite porphyritic granite dykes

Dominantly fine ash vitric tuff Undifferentiated East Lantau Feldsparphyric rhyodacite to
and flow-banded rhyolite lava Rhyodacite porphyritic granite dykes
with minor eutaxitic coarse ash
crystal tuff Needle Hill Porphyritic fine-grained
Granite granite and equigranular
medium-grained granite
Jurassic

Sham Chung Flow-banded porphyritic

Rhyolite rhyolite sill

South Lamma Equigranular medium-grained

Granite biotite granite

Hok Tsui Rhyolite Quartzphyric rhyolite dykes

Lamma Suite

Tai Lam Granite Porphyritic medium-grained to

equigranular fine-grained
leucogranite

Tsing Shan Granite Equigranular to inequigranular

two-mica granite

Figure 2.1 - Principal Rock and Soil Types in Hong Kong (Sheet 2 of 3) (Sewell et al, 2000)
 30

(Ages -
Geological Millions
Timeline of Years)

Chek Lap Kok Equigranular fine-grained

Granite leucogranite

Chek Mun Rhyolite Quartzphyric rhyolite dykes

Tsuen Wan Volcanic Group

Flow-banded dacite lava, minor Sai Lau Kong

vitric tuff, tuff breccia and Formation
intercalated siltstone

Lapilli lithic-bearing coarse ash Tai Mo Shan Lantau Granite Megacrystic coarse-grained
crystal tuff Formation biotite granite

Lapilli lithic-bearing coarse ash Shing Mun Tai Po Granodiorite Porphyritic medium- and fine-
crystal tuff and tuff breccia with Formation grained granodiorite

Jurassic
intercalated siltstone

Lapilli lithic-bearing coarse ash Yim Tin Tsai Mesozoic

crystal tuff Formation

Andesite lava and lapilli lithic- Tuen Mun

bearing fine ash crystal tuff with Formation
intercalated tuff breccia

Sedimentary Rocks

Grey to red fine-grained Tai O Formation

sandstone and siltstone

Grey laminated siltstone with Tolo Channel

interbedded fossiliferous black Formation
mudstone
206
Triassic

Pinkish to pale grey calcareous Tolo Harbour 248

sandstone, siltstone and mudstone Formation
with interbedded conglomerate
Permian

and limestone

San Tin Group

290
Metamorphosed sandstone and Lok Ma Chau
carbonaceous siltstone with Formation
graphitic interbeds and
Carboniferous

conglomerate
Palaeozoic

White to dark grey or black Yuen Long

calcite and dolomite marble (not Formation
exposed at surface; equivalent to
Ma On Shan Formation in Tolo
Harbour area)

Pale grey fine- to coarse-grained Bluff Head 354

quartz sandstone and reddish Formation
Devonian

brown and purple siltstone, white

greyish white quartz-pebble
conglomerate 417

Figure 2.1 - Principal Rock and Soil Types in Hong Kong (Sheet 3 of 3) (Sewell et al, 2000)
 Granite

Quartz monzonite

Granite

Quartz monzonite

Granite

Rhyolite dyke

Granite

Granodiorite

Geological boundary
Fault
Fault concealed
Thrust fault
Thrust fault concealed

Figure 2.2 – Geological Map of Hong Kong

31

Reclamation

Silt, sand and gravel

Dolomitic siltstone with chert

Red conglomerate and coarse

sandstone and siltstone

Rhyolitic vitric tuff

Trachytic tuff (eutaxite)

Rhyolitic crystal tuff

Rhyolitic vitric tuff and lava

Rhyodacitic crystal tuff

Andesitic tuff and lava

Sandstone with siltstone

Mudstone with sandstone

Black mudstone and sandstone

Graphitic siltstone, sandstone and
marble
Quartz sandstone, siltstone with
conglomerate
 32

Simplified geology

Simplified geology
Borehole log A
Borehole log B
Borehole B Borehole A

VI VI

IV

III

III

II

II

I
I

Note : (1) Refer to Geoguide 3 (GCO, 1988) for classification of rock decomposition grade I to grade VI.

Figure 2.3 – Representation of a Corestone-bearing Rock Mass (Malone, 1990)

 33

2.2.4 Groundwater

Information on the groundwater regime is necessary for the design and selection of
foundation type and method of construction. Artesian water pressures may adversely affect
shaft stability for cast-in-place piles. For developments close to the seafront, the range of
tidal variations should be determined. In a sloping terrain, there may be significant
groundwater flow, and hence the hydraulic gradients should be determined as far as possible
since the flow can affect the construction of cast-in-place piles, and the consideration of
possible damming effects may influence the pile layout in terms of the spacing of the piles.

2.3 EXECUTION OF GROUND INVESTIGATION

It is essential that experienced and competent ground investigation contractors with a

proven track record and capable of producing high quality work are employed in ground
investigations. The Buildings Department and the Environment, Transport and Works
Bureau manage the register of contractors qualified to undertake ground investigation works
in private and public developments respectively. The field works should be designed,
directed and supervised by a qualified and experienced engineer or engineering geologist,
assisted by trained and experienced technical personnel where appropriate. Suitable levels of
supervision of ground investigation works are discussed in Geoguide 2 : Guide to Site
Investigation (GCO, 1987).

2.4 EXTENT OF GROUND INVESTIGATION

2.4.1 General Sites

The extent of a ground investigation is dependent on the complexity of the ground and,
to a certain degree, the form of the proposed development and type of structures and the
intended foundation types. Adequate investigation should be carried out to ensure no
particular foundation options will be precluded due to a lack of information on ground
conditions. Sufficient information should be obtained to allow engineers to have a good
understanding of the ground conditions and material properties within the zone of influence
of the foundations. Although no hard and fast rules can be laid down, a relatively close
borehole spacing of say 10 m to 30 m will often be appropriate for general building structures.
In reclamation areas, closely-spaced boreholes may be needed to delineate buried
obstructions such as remnants of an old seawall where this is suspected from a desk study of
the site history.

In general, boreholes should be extended through unsuitable founding materials into

competent ground beyond the zone of influence of the proposed foundations. The zone of
influence can be estimated using elasticity theory.

Where pile foundations are considered to be a possibility, the length of pile required
usually cannot be determined until an advanced stage of the project. Some general guidance
in this instance is given in Geoguide 2 : Guide to Site Investigation (GCO, 1987). The
traditional ground investigation practice in Hong Kong is to sink boreholes to at least 5 m
into grade III or better rock to prove that a boulder has not been encountered. This practice
 34

should be backed by a geological model prepared by a suitably experienced professional.

It is good practice to sink sufficient boreholes to confirm the general geology of the
site. Consideration should also be given to sinking boreholes immediately outside the loaded
area of a development in order to improve the geological model. It is also important to
continually review the borehole findings throughout the investigation stage to ensure adequate
information has been obtained.

For piles founded on rock, it is common practice to carry out pre-drilling, prior to pile
construction, to confirm the design assumption and predetermine the founding level of the
piles. For large-diameter bored piles founded on rock, one borehole should be sunk at each
pile position to a depth of 5 m into the types of rock specified for the piles or the bases of the
rock sockets, whichever is deeper. In the case of diaphragm wall panels carrying vertical
load by end-bearing resistance, the boreholes should be sunk at about 10 m spacings. For
small-diameter piles, such as H-piles driven to bedrock, socketed H-piles and mini-piles, the
density of the pre-drilling boreholes should be planned such that every pile tip is within a 5 m
distance from a pre-drilling borehole. The above approaches should always be adopted in
Hong Kong in view of the inherent variability of ground conditions and the possible presence
of corestones in the weathering profile.

Where appropriate, geophysical methods may be used to augment boreholes. A range

of surface, cross-hole and down-hole geophysical techniques (Braithwaite & Cole, 1986;
GCO, 1987) are available. The undertaking and interpretation of geophysical surveys require
a sound knowledge of the applicability and limitations of the different techniques, proper
understanding of geological processes and the use of properly calibrated equipment. The data
should be processed in the field as far as possible in order that apparent anomalies may be
resolved or confirmed. Geophysical techniques are generally useful in helping to screen the
site area for planning of the subsequent phases of investigation by drilling.

The design of foundations on or near rock slopes relies on a comprehensive study of

the geology and a detailed mapping of exposed joint conditions. In some cases, the rock face
cannot be accessed for detailed mapping for different reasons, e.g. the rock face is outside the
development boundary. Adequate drillholes or inclined drillholes may be necessary to
determine the continuity and orientation of discontinuities. The ground investigation should
include measurement of discontinuities from drillholes, using impression packer tests or
acoustic televiewer method. The presence of low strength materials, such as kaolin, should
be carefully assessed. The strength of the such low strength materials could well dictate the
stability of the rock slope under the foundation loads. Good quality rock core samples should
be obtained and it may sometimes require the use of better sampling equipment, such as triple
tube core barrels and air foam.

2.4.2 Sites Underlain by Marble

Given the possible extreme variability in karst morphology of the marble rock mass,
the programme of ground investigation should be flexible. It is important that the borehole
logs and cores are continuously reviewed as the works progress so that the investigation
works can be suitably modified to elucidate any new karst features intercepted.
 35

For high-rise developments on sites underlain by marble, the investigation should be

staged and should be carried out under the full-time supervision of technical personnel. For
preliminary investigation, it is recommended that there should be a minimum of one borehole
per 250 m2, drilled at least 20 m into sound marble rock, i.e. rock which has not been or is
only slightly affected by dissolution (e.g. Marble Class I or II (Chan, 1994a)). The depth of
boreholes should correspond with the magnitude of the load to be applied by the structure.
The position of subsequent boreholes for determining the extent of dissolution features, such
as overhanging pinnacles and deep cavities, should be based on the findings of the
preliminary boreholes. It is anticipated that boreholes on a grid of about 7 m to 10 m centres
will be required to intercept specific karst features. Boreholes in other parts of the site should
be sunk on a grid pattern or at points of concentration of piles, to a depth of 20 m into sound
marble. Attention should be given to logging the location and size of cavities, the nature of
the cavity walls, infilling materials and discontinuities. If the infill is cohesive in nature,
good quality tube samples of cavity infill may be obtained using a triple-tube sampler with
preferably air foam as the flushing medium.

A lower density of borehole may be sufficient for low-rise developments. Where the
loading is small or where the superficial deposits above the marble rock are very thick,
drilling may be limited to a depth where there is a minimum of 20 m of competent founding
material. Nevertheless, it is strongly recommended that at least one deep borehole is sunk at
each site underlain by marble, say to 100 m below ground level, to obtain a geological profile.

Surface geophysical methods can produce useful results to identify the potential
problematic areas. The cost of ground investigation can be reduced by targeting drilling over
the problematic areas. The micro-gravity method works best in relatively flat ground and
without any influence from high density objects in the surroundings. Leung & Chiu (2000)
used this method to detect the presence of karst features in a site in Yuen Long. The ground
investigation field works were carried out in phases using both conventional rotary drilling
and micro-gravity geophysics to supplement each other in refining the geological model.
Kirk et al (2000) described the investigation of complex ground conditions in the northshore
of Lantau Island using gravity survey to identify areas of deeply weathered zones and
supplement conventional ground investigation works. The accuracy of the gravity methods
depends on careful calibration and interpretation of the field data.

Borehole geophysical techniques, including cross-hole seismic shooting and electro-

magnetic wave logging, have been found to give meaningful results. Lee et al (2000)
described the use of tomography technique to analyse the images of cross-hole ground
penetration radar and predict the karst location. This technique is suitable when there is a
good contrast in the dielectric permittivity between sound marble and water (in cavities). It is
not suitable in highly fractured marble or marble interbeds with other rocks, such as meta-
siltstone and meta-sandstone (Lee & Ng, 2004).

While recent experiences in geophysics have demonstrated their capabilities in

identifying karst features, geophysics should be regarded as supplementary ground
investigation tools in view of their inherent limitations and the simplifications involved in the
interpretation. The value of geophysical testing is that it gives a greater level of confidence
in the adequacy of the ground investigation, particularly in relation to the ground conditions
between adjacent boreholes. In addition, the results may be used to help positioning the
boreholes of the subsequent phase of ground investigation.
 36

All boreholes must be properly grouted upon completion of drilling. This is especially
important in the case of drilling into cavernous marble in order to minimise the risk of ground
loss and sinkhole formation arising from any significant water flow that may otherwise be
promoted.

2.5 SOIL AND ROCK SAMPLING

Wash boring with no sampling is strongly discouraged. It is always recommended

practice to retrieve good quality soil samples and continuous rock cores from boreholes for
both geological logging and laboratory testing. A possible exception to this can be made for
supplementary boreholes sunk solely for the purposes of investigating particular karst
features in cavernous marble.

Good quality samples of soils derived from insitu rock weathering can be retrieved
using triple-tube core barrels (e.g. Mazier samplers). Samples that are not selected for
laboratory tests should be split and examined in detail. Detailed logging of the geological
profile using such soil samples can help to identify salient geological features.

2.6 DETECTION OF AGGRESSIVE GROUND

In general, materials derived from the insitu weathering of rocks in Hong Kong are not
particularly aggressive to concrete and steel. However, marine mud, estuarine deposits and
fill can contain sulphate-reducing bacteria or other deleterious constituents that may pose a
potential risk of damaging the foundation material. In reclaimed land, the content of sulphate
or other corrosive trace elements may be up to levels that give cause for concern. The zone
within the tidal or seasonal water table fluctuation range is generally most prone to corrosion
because of more intensive oxidation. In industrial areas or landfill sites, the waste or
contaminated ground may impede setting of concrete or attack the foundation material.

Basic chemical tests on soil and groundwater samples including the determination of
pH and sulphate content (total and soluble) should be carried out where necessary. For sites
close to the seafront, the saline concentration of groundwater should be determined. In sites
involving landfills or which are close to landfills, the possible existence of toxic leachate or
combustible gases (such as methane) or both, and the rates of emission should be investigated,
paying due regard to the possibility of lateral migration. Enough information should be
collected to assess the risk of triggering an underground fire or a surface explosion during
foundation construction (e.g. during welding of pile sections) in such sites.

Where other deleterious chemicals are suspected (e.g. on the basis of site history),
specialist advice should be sought and relevant chemical tests specified. For instance, heavy
metal contamination (especially lead and mercury) can, depending on the degree of solubility
or mobility in water, represent a health risk to site workers. The degree of contamination can
dictate the means by which the spoil from excavation for foundation works will have to be
disposed of. It should also be noted that high levels of organic compounds including oils, tars
and greases (as reflected by, for instance, toluene extractable matter measurements) can
severely retard or even prevent the setting of concrete, or alternatively can potentially cause
 37

chemical attack of concrete at a later stage (Section 6.14). It should be noted that particular
safety precautions should be taken when investigating a landfill or contaminated site.

Various classification systems have been proposed to assess the degree of

contamination of a site, e.g. Kelly (1980) and Department of Environment, Food and Rural
Affairs (DEFRA, 2002).

2.7 INSITU AND LABORATORY TESTING

For a rational design, it is necessary to have data on the strength and compressibility
of the soil and rock at the appropriate stress levels within the zone of influence of the
proposed foundations. Other relevant parameters include permeability, such as for
foundation works involving dewatering or grouting, and the properties of rock joints for the
design of a laterally loaded rock socket.

Insitu tests are usually carried out during the ground investigation. The range of
commonly used tests includes Standard Penetration Test (SPT), Cone Penetration Test (CPT)
and piezocone, pressuremeter, plate loading, vane shear, insitu permeability, impression
packer and light weight probes. The CPT has the advantage of continuously collecting
information on the properties of soils. It is therefore more accurate in determining soil profile
when compared with SPT. However, CPT is not suitable in some ground conditions, such as
in dense saprolites or gravelly soils, where it may be difficult to advance the cone. There is
limited local experience using other methods to determine properties of soils and rocks, such
as Goodman jack, high pressure dilatometer, cross-hole geophysics and self-boring
pressuremeter (e.g. Littlechild et al, 2000; Schnaid et al, 2000).

It should be noted that the state and properties of the ground might change as a result
of foundation construction. Where deemed appropriate, test driving or trial bore construction
may be considered as an investigative tool to prove the feasibility of construction methods
and the adequacy of quality control procedures.

Laboratory testing should be carried out to complement information obtained from

insitu tests to help to characterise the material and determine the relevant design parameters.
The tests may be grouped into two general classes :

(a) Classification or index tests - for grouping soils with

similar engineering properties, e.g. particle size
distribution, Atterberg Limits, moisture content, specific
gravity and petrographic examination.

(b) Quantitative tests - for measurement of strength or

compressibility of soil (e.g. triaxial compression tests,
direct shear tests, oedometer tests), and for measurement
of chemical properties of soil and groundwater (e.g.
sulphate, pH).

Classification tests should always be carried out to provide general properties of the
ground for foundation design. Quantitative tests are necessary for assessing relevant design
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parameters if calculation methods based on soil and rock mechanics principles are used. It
must be borne in mind that the design parameters obtained from laboratory testing relate to
those of the samples tested, and may therefore be subject to size effects, sample disturbance,
and sampling bias.

Insitu tests can provide data for direct use in foundation design by employing
established semi-empirical correlations (e.g. results from SPT, CPT or pressuremeter tests).
However, the applicability of such relationships to the particular field conditions must be
carefully scrutinised. Alternatively, more fundamental soil or rock parameters, such as the
angle of shearing resistance φ', may be derived from the results of insitu tests, either through
empirical correlations, e.g. relationship between SPT N value and φ' for sands (Peck et al,
1974), or directly from the interpreted test results by theory, e.g. pressuremeter (Mair &
Wood, 1987).

Standard laboratory tests can provide data on design parameters, such as φ', for the
assessment of shaft and end-bearing resistance of piles or bearing capacity of shallow
foundations. Other special laboratory tests such as direct shear tests to investigate the
behaviour of interface between soil and steel or soil and concrete may also be undertaken for
foundation design as appropriate (e.g. Johnston et al, 1987; Lehane, 1992; Fahey et al, 1993).
Oedometer tests are not commonly carried out on saprolitic soils because of their fairly
coarse-grained nature, particularly for granites. They are more useful for clayey materials.
In principle, stress path testing incorporating small strain measurements can be carried out to
determine the yield loci and the behaviour under different stress paths. Data from such high
quality tests for soils in Hong Kong are so far very limited because the tests are rarely
required for routine foundation design.

2.8 ESTABLISHING A GEOLOGICAL MODEL

An appropriate geological model of a site is an essential requirement for safe

foundation design. The interpretation of borehole data, site mapping and other geological
information, should be carried out by an experienced geotechnical engineer or engineering
geologist to establish a geological model that is suitable for engineering design.

There are inherent uncertainties in any geological models given that only a relatively
small proportion of the ground can be investigated, sampled and tested. It is therefore
important that all available information is considered in characterising the ground profile and
compiling a representative geological model for the site. Additional information includes the
geomorphological setting of the site, nearby geological exposures, construction records of
existing foundations and experience from adjacent sites.

The representation on a borehole log of material, in a typical corestone-bearing rock

mass weathering profile, uses the six-fold weathering grade classification for hand specimens
(GCO, 1988). For general engineering purposes, the geological model for a corestone-
bearing jointed rock mass should comprise a series of rock mass zones with differing
proportions of relatively unweathered material, i.e. material grades I, II and III. Typical
classification systems based on rock mass grades or classes are given in GCO (1988) and
GCO (1990). However, it is customary in practice to adopt a simple layered ground model,
consisting of a planar rock surface overlain by a sequence of soil layers. This process
 39

requires a simplification of the borehole logs and judgement to delineate 'rockhead'. This
procedure should be carried out cautiously in a corestone-bearing profile as illustrated in
Figure 2.3. The possibility of establishing an over-simplified geological model or over-
relying on computer-generated rockhead profile, which may be incapable of reflecting the
highly complex ground conditions and therefore be potentially misleading, must be borne in
mind. Continual vigilance during foundation construction is called for, particularly in areas
of complex ground conditions such as deep weathering profiles and karst marble.

In view of the uncertainties and inherent variability of weathering profiles, the

geological model must be reviewed in the light of any additional information. In this respect,
the construction of each pile can be considered as a new stage of site investigation, to
continually review and modify the geological model.

The ground conditions in areas of cavernous marble can be exceedingly complex. A

detailed investigation is necessary to establish a reasonable geological model that is adequate
for design purposes. A classification system for cavernous marble rock masses was proposed
by Chan (1994a) (see Section 6.11).

2.9 SELECTION OF DESIGN PARAMETERS

The selection of parameters for foundation design should take into account the extent,
quality and adequacy of the ground investigation, reliability of the geological and
geotechnical analysis model, the appropriateness of the test methods, the representativeness
of soil parameters for the likely field conditions, the method of analysis adopted for the
design, and the likely effects of foundation construction on material properties. In principle,
sophisticated analyses, where justified, should only be based on high quality test results. The
reliability of the output is, of course, critically dependent on the representativeness and
accuracy of the input parameters.

'Best-estimate' parameters, which are those representative of the properties of the

materials in the field, should be selected for design. Guidance on the determination of 'best
estimate' parameters can be found in Geoguide 1 : Guide to Retaining Wall Design (GEO,
1993).

Engineering judgement is always required in the interpretation of test results and in

the choice of design parameters, having regard to previous experience and relevant case
histories. In adopting well-established correlations for a given geological material, it is
important to understand how the parameters involved in the database for the particular
correlation have been evaluated. In principle, the same procedure in determining the
parameters should be followed to safeguard the validity of the correlations.