CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background to the Study

The increasing population of the world, especially developing nations has led to increasing

demand for roadways, railways, housing facilities and other infrastructures (Balarabe and

Mary, 2018). Soil with higher stability is required to bear the weight of these structures;

generally speaking, the stability of any construction related structure indirectly or directly

depends on the soil stability. Expansive soils swell or increase in volume in humid seasons on

absorption of water, and shrink or reduce in volume because of evaporation of water in dry

seasons.

As a result of the alternate swelling and shrinkage of expansive soils, structures such as

foundations, pavements and residential buildings etc. constructed on it experienced severe

damage. The objective of expansive soil stabilization may be to stabilize volume change

characteristics, modify plasticity and improve workability, or modify plasticity and volume

change characteristics while substantially improving strength. Generally, engineers aim is to

achieve the last one because the subgrade layer must not only be volumetrically stable, but

must also support traffic or building loads. Targeting strength gain is also one of the reasons

why a particular method of soil improvement is adopted. Unlike manufactured products,

some soils have to be improved to meet the engineering specifications for the intended use,

this is because they come with some deficiencies due to the geologic processes that the soil

have undergone during the formation (Jayanthi and Singh, 2016). Chemical stabilization is

commonly used to improve engineering properties of problematic soils. Ground improvement

using the technique of shallow or deep soil mixing has received much interest and acceptance

in recent years largely due to its extensive applications in construction projects. In advance

1
countries where the uptake and implementation of the technology has increased exponentially

over the past three decades, environmental policies and laws, taxes, landfill directives and the

ever-increasing cost of excavating and moving poor soils has made this method of ground

stabilization even more imminent (Puppala, 2016, Corrêa-Silva et al 2020, Kranina et al

2021, and Moiseev et al, 2020). However, the attendant negative environmental impacts

associated with the production of these energy intensive binders are a present global concern.

Hence, based on current developments in knowledge and research, attention is gradually

shifting from an over-reliance on solely cement and lime to the utilisation of waste materials,

industrial and agricultural by-products, organics and many others, in soil stabilisation

( Tiwari et al 2021, Renjith et al 2021).

Although, whenever the desired properties required in soil are not adequate, there is a need

for stabilization. Stabilization through various methods such as the use of chemicals and

naturally occurring pozzolans is a vital way of enhancing the quality of road materials. This

improves the engineering properties of the materials. Generally, conventional stabilizers have

been used in the past. Stabilizers such as lime and cement have been considered for soil

stabilization (Ayodele et al,2022). Nigerian researchers such as Adebayo et al. (2017),

Adedokun et al.(2019), Edeh et al.(2020), Offiong and Akpan (2017), Ojuri and Oluwatuyi

(2018) and Owamah et al. (2017) have assessed the use of lime and cement either in a binary

or ternary form in the stabilization of soil. Complementary pozzolans have proven to be

effective. The use of pozzolans marginalizes the cost of these conventional binders, reduces

blight associated with littering of waste materials to the optimum level in the environment,

enhances the ideology of waste to wealth and reuse of waste. The pozzolans vary from

industrial wastes to agricultural wastes. They include bagasse, coconut shell, cassava peel

ash, fly ash, calcium carbide residue (CCR), and rice husk ash (RHA), among others. Agro-

based environmentally friendly pozzolanic materials, such as rice husk ash, palm oil fuel ash,

2
bagasse ash, coconut shell ash, coconut husk ash, corn cob ash, almond shell ash, and many

others, have also gained considerable attention in il stabilization given the ever-growing costs

of their disposal (Lakshmi et al 2021). The use of solid waste materials (agricultural or

industrial) in soil stabilization for construction has been reported. The major chemical

composition of these plant-based pozzolans are alumina-silicates (Jongpradist et al 2018,

Juluru et al, 2019 and Khalid, 2013).

Moreover, in order to achieve the desired effect on the mechanical properties of soils, most

applications in soil stabilization have tended towards the partial substitution of calcium-based

agents by ago-based pozzolans. The soil-binder mix in this regard can speed up the rate of

development of the calcium alumina-silicate hydrated gel (CAH or CASH) as well as the

sodium alumina-silicate hydrated gel (NASH) (Abdeldjouad et al 2019). These binding gels

will develop inside the soil voids, and aid in the formation of a more compact soil-binder mix

and thus enable a further improvement in the strength of the stabilized soil. In general, the

determination of the strength properties of soils stabilized by using a composite binder

mixture is often a crucial first step towards establishing the correct design mix guideline for

field application [26–28]. For soils stabilized by using multiple binder combinations, the

challenges of establishing a parameter, such as the UCS, may require laborious laboratory

experimentation and time-consuming trial batching of binder type, quantities, optimal

combinations, choice of curing duration, and the determination of other influencing factors

Similarly, CCR is gaining attention for use in highway applications. Nigeria produces a

considerably large amount of calcium carbide waste which emanates mainly from automobile

workshops, and local industries for headlights, and minor industrial works. Calcium carbide

is a chemical compound that contains calcium and carbide and has the chemical formula

CaC2. It is a calcium-based stabilizer. Its residue has cementitious properties, making it a

viable replacement for conventional binders. The use of CCR in conjunction with pozzolanic

3
materials provides cementing property (Danso 2015). The viability of calcium carbide residue

has been established and proven to be feasible (Adebayo, 2015). Akinwumi et al. (2021)

investigated the use of CCR in soil stabilization and concluded that increasing the application

of CCR reduced the soil's specific gravity, plasticity index, and maximum dry unit weight. As

a result, the soil became more workable and its strength properties significantly improved.

Bandyopadhyay et al. (2016), Phummiphan et al (2013)] and Kumar et al (2014) also

investigated the use of CCR as a stabilizing agent. They concluded that cation exchange

between the soil and CCR improves the engineering properties of the soil and, more broadly,

the plasticity index of the soil. OPF and CCR can be used as binary materials for soil

stabilization due to their inherent cementitious properties. As a result, the primary objective

of this study is to investigate the durability performance of soils by stabilizing it with Oil

palm fibers and CCR. This will provide baseline data on the use of OPF-CCR stabilized soils

for construction and may help to minimize the environmental impact of waste materials.

1.2 Aim and Objectives of the study

The aim of this study is to evaluate the durability performance of oil palm fibers and calcium

carbide in soil stabilized.

1.3 Objectives of the study

The specific objectives of this study are to:

i. assess the strength and stability imparted by the oil palm fibers and calcium carbide

in the stabilized soil using CBR.

ii. evaluate the durability of stabilized soil and functional over time under various

environment conditions

iii. assess the long-term performance of the stabilize soil.

iv. evaluate the environmental impact of using these materials for soil stabilization.

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1.4 Statement of the Problem

Unlike manufactured products, some soils have to be improved to meet the engineering

specifications for the intended use, this is because they come with some deficiencies due to

geologic processes the soil have undergone during the formation (Jayanthi and Singh, 2016).

Civil engineers are turning away from the traditional cement and lime method in soil

stabilization. Cement production is known to be a significant contributor to carbon dioxide

emissions. As environmental awareness increases, there is a growing shift towards more eco-

friendly soil stabilization methods. The cost of materials, particularly when considering large-

scale soil stabilization projects. Engineers are exploring cost-effective alternatives that still

offer effective stabilization. Some newer stabilization techniques offer greater flexibility in

terms of application and performance compared to traditional cement and lime methods.

Engineers are looking for solutions that can adapt to a variety of soil types and conditions.

Overall, the shift away from cement and lime in soil stabilization is driven by a combination

of environmental concerns, cost considerations, and the search for more versatile and

effective solutions in civil engineering projects.

1.5 Significance of the Study

The conventional method of using cement and lime for stabilization is more expensive, thus

increasing the cost of civil engineering construction. The durability performance of oil palm

fiber and calcium carbide residue stabilized soils is crucial on how these materials interact

with soil over time is essential for ensuring the long-term stability of any construction

projects that use them as soil stabilizers. By investigating durability performance, engineers

and researchers can better predict how these stabilized soils will perform under different

environmental conditions, such as changes in temperature, moisture, and loading. Also,

durability of these soil stabilizers will help to determine their cost-effectiveness over time.

5
Materials that retain their strength and stability for longer periods can lead to reduced

maintenance and repair costs. This study will go a long way to minimize environmental

pollution caused by waste calcium carbide residue (CCR) and to improve deficient soils with

cheap and environmentally friendly and agricultural waste materials (CCR and OPF).

Consequently, the cost of civil engineering construction will reduce and the use of cement

minimized. This study will be essential for ensuring the effectiveness, longevity, and

sustainability of construction projects utilizing these materials.

1.6 Scope of the Study

Studying the durability performance of oil palm fiber and calcium carbide residue to stabilize

soils is an important to underscore reflecting the global cost of the traditional material (Lime

and cement). Both these materials have the potential to enhance the mechanical properties

and stability of soils for various engineering applications. By investigating their effectiveness

in soil stabilization, individual can potentially contribute valuable insights to the field of

geotechnical engineering. It's important to consider factors such as the long-term durability,

strength improvement, and environmental sustainability of these stabilizers in this research.

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 CHAPTER TWO

LIERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Soil Stabilization

Soil stabilization is a method of improving soil properties by blending and mixing it with

other materials. Soil stabilization can also be seen as a process of improving the shear

strength parameters of soil and thus increasing the bearing capacity of soil. It is required

when the soil available for construction is not suitable to carry structural load. Soil

stabilization is used to reduce permeability and compressibility of the soil mass in earth

structures and to increase its shear strength. Soil stabilization involves the use of stabilizing

agents (binder materials) in weak soils to improve its geotechnical properties such as

compressibility, strength, permeability and durability. One may achieve stabilization by

mechanically mixing the natural soil and stabilizing material together so as to achieve a

homogeneous mixture or by adding stabilizing material to an undisturbed soil deposit and

obtaining interaction by letting it permeate through soil voids. Soil stabilizing additives are

used to improve the properties of less-desirable rood soils. When used these stabilizing agents

can improve and maintain soil moisture content, increase soil particle cohesion and serve as

cementing and water proofing agents (Habiba, 2017). A difficult problem in civil engineering

works exists when the sub-grade is found to be clay soil. Soils having high clay content have

the tendency to swell when their moisture content is allowed to increase. Many researches

have been done on the subject of soil stabilization using various additives, the most common

methods of soil stabilization of clay soils in pavement work are cement and lime stabilization.

The high strengths obtained from cement and lime stabilization may not always be required,

however, and there is justification for seeking cheaper additives 17 which may be used to

alter the soil properties. Chemical stabilization is commonly used to improve engineering

7
properties of problematic soils (Nima et al., 2018). Lime or calcium carbonate is oldest

traditional chemical stabilizer used for soil stabilization.

2.2 Soil stabilization methods

Soils can be stabilized by the addition of cement or lime. Such stabilization processes

improve the various engineering properties of the stabilized soil and generate an improved

construction material. Increase in soil strength, durability stiffness, and reduction in soil

plasticity and swelling/shrinkage potential are the benefit of soil stabilization (Das et al.,

2015). The concept of stabilization is 5000 years old. Stabilized earth roads were used in

ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia and that the Greeks and Romans used stabilization tests were

performed in the United States in 1904 (Firoozi et al., 2014). Cement was introduced as a

stabilizer to construct a street in Sarasota, Florida, in 1915 (American Concrete Institute)

1997, and lime was first involved in short stretches of highway with the expansion of roads to

cater for the growth of vehicle traffic in 1924 (Khan et al., 2014). Traditional stabilizers

typically depend on pozzolanic reactions and cation exchange to modify and stabilize soil.

Pozzolanic reactions occur when siliceous and aluminous materials react chemically with

calcium hydroxide at regular temperatures to form cementitious compounds. On the other

hand, a cation exchange occurs when the soil is able to exchange free cations available in the

exchange locations (Little, 2009). Generally, soil stabilization is a method of improving soil

properties by blending and mixing other materials. Improvements include increasing the dry

unit weight, bearing 18 capabilities, volume changes, the performance of in situ subsoils,

sands, and other waste materials in order to strengthen road surfaces and other geotechnical

applications.

2.2.1 Stabilization using cement

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One of the common methods of chemical stabilization is to mix soil with cement to form a

product named as soil–cement. Soil–cement can be defined as a mixture of soil and measured

amounts of Portland cement and water and compacted to the desired density. Soil–cement has

been used as a base material as an adoption of improved measure in many projects, such as

slope protection of dams and embankments, pavement of highways, building pads, terminals

for rail and truck, composting facilities, cheap base for streets, parking lots, channels and

reservoir linings, mass soil–cement placement for dikes, foundation stabilization etc. The

soil–cement technique has been practiced almost for 100 years. It serves to amend the

mechanical and the engineering properties of the soil. The new performance depends on the

ability of the additives to react with the mixing soil. There are four main properties of soil;

strength, permeability, volume stability, and durability that can be enhanced with additives

(Anggraini et al., 2014). The choice of a specific additive depends on the type of soil, service

that is required to serve and the surrounding environment. When water is mixed with cement,

hydration occurs, meaning cementing compounds of calcium–silicate–hydrate (C–S–H) and

calcium–aluminate–hydrate (C–A–H) are formed and excess calcium hydroxide (CaOH) is

released, approximately 31% by weight. Formation of C–S–H and C–A–H occurs when

crystals begin forming a few hours after the water and cement are mixed; crystals will

continue to form as long as unreacted cement particles and free water remain within the

mixture (Khan, 2015). Five standard types of Portland cement (Types I through V) are

available as specified by ASTM C150. The process of cementation and the results of soil–

cement and lime stabilization are similar, they used in quantities too small to provide high-

strength cementing action. They reduce the plasticity of clay soils. Calcium chloride or

sodium chloride are added to the soil to retain moisture and also control dust, to hold fine

material for better compaction, and to reduce frost heave by lowering the freezing point of

water in the soil. In contrast, other studies shows that cement increases the optimum water

9
content but decreases the maximum dry density of sandy soils. Cement increases plastic limit

and reduces liquid limit, which mainly reduces plasticity index. The other significant effects

of soil–cement stabilization is reduction in shrinkage and swell potential, increase in strength,

elastic modulus, and resistance against the effect of moisture, freeze, and thaw. Cement

treated soils show a brittle behavior compare to non-treated. Cement can be applied to

stabilize any type of soil, except soils with organic content greater than 2% or having pH

lower than 5.3 (ACI 230.1R-90, 1990). The use of cement in granular soils has proven to be

economical and effective because smaller amounts of cement are required. In addition, soils

that have a Plasticity Index value higher than 30 are difficult to mix with cement. To avoid

this issue, lime can be added prior to mixing in cement; this initial step will keep soils more

workable (Firoozi et al., 2014).

Swell pressure decrease as the stabilizer content increased in cement treated samples.

Cementitious links develop between the calcium silicate and calcium aluminate found in

Portland cement with the soil particles (Khan et al., 2015). Unlike lime, hydration in cement

occurs at a faster pace which allows for an immediate strength gain. Therefore, there is no

need of a mellowing period when stabilizing with cement; compaction of soil–cement

samples is typically conducted within 2 hour of initial mixing. The strength gain achieved

during compaction may be below the ultimate strength of a soil–cement sample. However,

the cement stabilized soil will continue to gain strength over the course of several days

(Chittoori, 2008). There are many factors contributing to the length of curing time required

for strength gain in soil–cement samples. These include ambient air temperature, relative

humidity, type of cement used, and concentration of cement used. The relative strength is

sensitive to the previously mentioned factors, while the relative compaction is not. Faster

wind speed, lower relative humidity and longer delay in compaction commonly result in a

poor strength.

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2.2.2 Stabilization using lime

Limestone is broken down at elevated temperatures to form lime (Chittoori, 2008). As a

result, three forms of lime are produced: quicklime (calcium oxide–CaO), hydrated lime

(calcium hydroxide–Ca[OH]2), and hydrated lime slurry; all of which can be used to treat

soils. Quicklime is manufactured by chemically transforming calcium carbonate (limestone–

CaCO3) into calcium oxide. Furthermore, hydrated lime is created when quicklime

chemically reacts with water. When hydrated lime is mixed with clay particles, it

permanently forms strong cementitious bonds (Louafi et al., 2015). Lime has been known to

reduce the swelling potential, plasticity index and maximum dry density of the soil, and

increases its optimum water content, shrinkage limit and strength. It improves the workability

and compact ability of subgrade soils. If quicklime is used, it immediately hydrates

(chemically combines with water) and releases heat. Soils are dried, because water present in

the soil participates in this reaction, and because the heat generated can evaporate additional

moisture. The hydrated lime produced by these initial reactions will subsequently react with

clay particles. These subsequent reactions will slowly produce additional drying because

they reduce the soil’s moisture holding capacity. If hydrated lime or hydrated lime slurry is

used instead of quicklime, drying occurs only through the chemical changes in the soil that

reduce its capacity to hold water and increase its stability. After initial mixing, the calcium

ions (Ca2+) from hydrated lime migrate to the surface of the clay particles and displace water

and other ions. The soil becomes friable and granular, making it easier to work and compact.

At this stage the Plasticity Index of the soil decreases dramatically, as does its tendency to

swell and shrink. The process, which is called “flocculation and agglomeration,” generally

occurs in a matter of hours. When adequate quantities of lime and water are added, the pH of

the soil quickly increases to above 10.5, which enables the clay particles to break down.

Silica and alumina are released and react with calcium from the lime to form calcium-

11
silicatehydrates (CSH) and calcium-aluminate-hydrates (CAH). Cocoanut shell ash and

calcium-aluminate-hydrates are cementitious products similar to those formed in Portland

cement. They form the matrix that contributes to the strength of lime-stabilized soil layers. As

this matrix forms, the soil is transformed from a sandy, granular material to a hard, relatively

impermeable layer with significant load bearing capacity. The matrix formed is permanent,

durable, and significantly impermeable, producing a structural layer that is both strong and

flexible. However, alteration of particle structure occurs slowly, depending upon the type of

clay present, a mellowing period from one to four days is allowed to obtain a homogeneous,

friable mixture. These reactions maybe summarized as:

Ca2++ OH− + Soluble Clay Silica → Calcium Silicate Hydrate (CSH) (2.1)

Ca2++ OH− + Soluble Clay Alumina → Calcium Alumina Hydrate (CAH) (2.2)

Lime stabilization enhances engineering properties of soils, such as improved strength, higher

resistance to fracture, fatigue, and permanent deformation, enhanced resilient properties,

reduction in swelling; and resistance to the harmful effects of moisture. The most

considerable improvements in these properties are observed in moderately to highly plastic

clays (Solanki et al., 2010). Over the time, the properties of treated soil affect the strength

gain. Soil pH, organic content, the quantity of exchangeable sodium, clay mineralogy, natural

drainage, weathering conditions, extractable iron, carbonates and silica-alumina ratio are

some of the properties which influence the gain in strength. The stabilization of acidic soil

using lime, resulted in lower compressive strength than that of alkaline soil. Broderick and

Daniel (1990). reported that the lime and cement stabilized soils are less vulnerable to attack

by organic chemicals in comparison to untreated soils. Haraguchi et al. (1994) investigated

the variation of the engineering properties of freshly cement-stabilized decomposed granite

soil cured in water and in 0.2 N acid solution, and indicated that the California bearing ratio

12
obtained from the specimens cured in the 0.2 N acid solution was lower than that cured in

water (Haraguchi et al., 1994). The strong alkaline conditions were able to release silica and

alumina from the clay mineral and eventually react with lime to form new cementation

products. The success of the lime treatment process is highly dependent on the available lime

content, curing time, soil type, soil pH and clay minerals (Kassim, 2004). Limited research

has been conducted to determine whether pH variations will affect properties of lime-

stabilized soils. Additional studies are therefore necessary to explain the erosion mechanism

of lime-stabilized soils due to pH variations (Abdullah and Abdullah, 2013). However,

experience shows that lime will react with many medium-, moderately fine and fine grained

soils to produce decreased plasticity, increased workability, reduced swell, and increased

strength. Soils classified according to the USCS as CH, CL, MH, ML, OH, OL, SC, SM, GC,

GM, SW-SC, SP-SC, SM-SC, GWGC, GP-GC, ML-CL, and GM-GC should be considered

as potentially capable of being stabilized with lime. Lime should be considered with all soils

having a PI greater than 10 and more than 25 percent of the soil passing the No. 200 sieve

[FM 5-472/NAVFAC MO 330/AFJMAN 32-1221(I)].

.2.3.2 Stabilization using fly ash

Fly ash is one of four coal combustion products (CCPs) that are produced as a by product of

burning coal, two major groups, Class C and Class F fly ash are produced. Burning lignite

and subbituminous coal produces Class C fly ash. However, burning anthracite, other known

as bituminous coal, produces Class F fly ash, (Bose, 2012). Although there can be multiple

variations of the chemical additive, fly ash particles generally consist of hollow spheres of

silicon, aluminum, and iron oxides and unoxidized carbon all of which make both classes of

fly ash pozzolans-siliceous or siliceous and aluminous materials, Pandian et al. (2013). It is

typically viewed as non plastic fine silt (ML) when using the Unified Soil Classification

System (USCS). Class F fly ash is not used as often because it requires an activator, either

13
lime or cement, to form pozzolanic stabilized mixtures (PSMs) since it is not a self-

cementing material, Firoozi et al. (2015). Zulkifley et al. (2014) assessed the effect of

specification fly ash on the engineering properties of tropical soils from Hawaii. They

observed that the fly ash reduced the liquid limit and plasticity index, and enhanced the

California bearing ratio (CBR) and unconfined compressive strength. Radhakrishnan et al.

(2014) performed unconfined compressive strength (UCS) and one-dimensional free swell

tests on soil–lime mixtures altered with Class F fly ash. Observations showed that lime and

fly ash are a good combination for stabilizing silty and sandy soils. It drastically increased the

stiffness of the final product. Rupnow et al. (2015) used Class C fly ash with lime to develop

guidelines for estimating the coefficient of structural layer for the base layer of flexible

pavement. The required base layer thickness decreased with the addition of both additives.

Fly ash, when mixed with lime, can be used effectively to stabilize most coarse- and medium-

grained soils; however, the PI should not be greater than 25. Soils classified by the USCS as

SW, SP, SP-SC, SW-SC, SW-SM, GW, GP, GP-GC, GW-GC, GP-GM, GW-GM, GC-GM,

and SC-SM can be stabilized with fly ash. 2.2.4 Soil stabilization using fibers

The use of hair-sized polypropylene fibers in soil stabilization requests has been common in

soil stabilization projects for its low cost compared with other stabilization agents. These

materials have a high resistance towards chemical and biological degradation and do not

cause leaching in the soil. Mohammed (2013) studied the improvement in the properties of

swelling clay using hair fibers. He found that there was no considerable or reasonable change

in the Atterberg limits due to introduction of hay fiber. The maximum dry density (MDD)

decreased with the addition of hair. The optimum moisture content (OMC) decreased with

increasing hay content up-to 1.0% then began to decrease. The shrinkage limit decreased with

increasing hay content up-to 1.0% then increased. The unconfined compression strength

decreased with increasing of hay content to soil ratio. The direct shear strength increased

14
notably with hay addition. The tensile strength of the air dried mixture increased with hay

addition and the swelling decreased with hay addition. 25 Mehdi (2017) studied unconfined

compressive strength (UCS) of reinforced clays with the waste of carpet fibers. He found that

carpet waste fibers mixed with clay soils, prepared at the same dry unit weight, can

considerably increase the unconfined compression strength (UCS), decrease the post peak

strength loss, and alter the failure behavior from brittle to ductile. The results also indicated

that the relative benefit of fibers to enhance the unconfined compression strength of the clay

soils is largely dependent on initial dry unit weight and water content of the soil. Cristelo et

al. (2015) studied the performance of fiber reinforced clayey soil. They found that the

excessively compressible clayey soil reinforced with randomly mixed fibers, resulted in

higher ultimate bearing capacity, and lesser settlement at the ultimate load. Yilmaz (2015) in

studying the compaction characteristics of reinforced soil, found that the addition of fiber,

affected compaction behavior of samples. The increment in fiber content and length of fiber

caused increment in optimum moisture content (OMC) and slight decrement of maximum dry

density (MDD). Anggraini et al. (2014) found that with the inclusion of fibers into the soil,

the unconfined compressive strength and the corresponding strain at failure increase up to an

optimum fiber content and length, and decrease thereafter. In addition; inclusion of fibers in

soil increases the strain at failure, and therefore makes the reinforced soil matrix more

ductile. The settlement under a particular load in unreinforced soil is much more than the

reinforced soil. Minimum settlement being observed for the soil reinforced with

polypropylene fibers. Anggraini et al. (2014) studied the stiffness and strength response of

coir fiberreinforced tropical soil. They found that the stress–strain behavior of soil improved

by incorporating coir fibers into the soil. The maximum increase in strength was observed

when the fiber length is between 15 and 25 mm. The stiffness of soil increases and also 26

the immediate settlement of soil reduced considerably due to the inclusion of fibers in the

15
soil. Shukla et al. (2010) studied analytical model of granular soils reinforced with fibers,

under high confining pressures. They found that the apparent cohesion and shear strength

increase is proportional to the fiber content and aspect ratio. The increase in shear strength of

the granular soil stabilized with fibers was mostly from the apparent cohesion, and the

contribution from the increase in normal confining stress was quite limited. Estabragh et al.

(2013) studied the mechanical behavior of a fiber-clay composite with natural fiber. They

found that the inclusion of the fiber reinforcement within the soil causes a decrease in pre-

consolidation stress and increases compressibility and swelling indices. In addition, the

strength and angle of internal friction increase considerably for the total and effective

stresses.

2.2.5 Reinforcement Fiber Materials

Adding and mixing of reinforcement fibers offers a mechanical process as opposed to the

chemical process of cementitious and pozzolanic binders to improve the properties of soil.

The reinforcement binders can be either natural or synthetic in origin. Natural fibers are

derived from plant-based or cellulosic materials e.g. barley straw, jute, palm, sisal, bamboo,

coconut fibers etc. Synthetic fibers can be any form of man-made plastic, mineral or metal-

based material. Examples researched and applied have included polyvinyl alcohol (PVA),

polypropylene (PP), polyester (PET), polyethylene (PE), nylon (NL), steel (ST) etc. some of

which, can also be derived from waste industrial materials. Research and studies have been

conducted on the contribution of fibers (with varying fiber length (L) and diameter (d), either

applied solely or in conjunction with chemical process binders for soil stabilization.

Comprehensive reviews were recently conducted for natural and synthetic fibers describing

the history, development and applicability to soil stabilization (Hejazi et al, 2012, Pourakber

and Haut, 2017). However, the long-term / permanent requirements of DSM columns may

preclude the usage of natural fibers due to their organic and bio-degradable nature. If fibers

16
are applied with DSM methods, it would need to be pre-mixed with a binding agent (typically

cement with water) to form in a slurry for injection under pressure into the soil.

2.3 Stabilization Using Calcium Carbide Residue (CCR) and Other Admixers

In addition to cement, lime (Ca(OH)2-rich material) has been widely used to stabilize clayey

soils. The dissociation of Ca(OH)2 leads to an increase in the pH values of the pore water.

Strong bases dissolve the silica and alumina from the clay particles (a natural pozzolanic

material) in a manner similar to the reaction between a weak acid and 32 a strong base. The

hydrous silica and alumina then gradually react with the calcium ions (pozzolanic reaction),

which hardens with time. Several researches have been conducted to evaluate the potential of

calcium carbide residue for stabilization of deficient soils. The study by Du et al. (2016) was

a good presentation of the potential of calcium carbide residue for use as material for

subgrade stabilization of weak clay soil. Field California bearing ratio, plate load test,

Benkelman beam deflection test and dynamic cone penetration (DCP) tests were used as

evaluation criteria to evaluate the potential of calcium carbide residue for stabilization of

weak subgrade clay soil. Results showed that treatment of soft subgrade with calcium carbide

residue increased the value of California bearing ratio and resilient modulus and resulted in to

a low construction cost. Binary blending of calcium carbide residue and palm oil fuel ash

were used to stabilize fine grained soils. Atterberg limits and unconfined compression

strength were used to evaluate the effect of calcium carbide residue and palm oil fuel ash on

the fine grained soils. The work of Vichan et al. (2013) investigated the amount of calcium

carbide residue and biomass ash (BA) required to cause Pozzolanic reaction. The author used

SEM and XRD to elucidate the Pozzolanic reaction going on in the clay after addition of

calcium carbide residue and BA. High increase in unconfined compression strength was

recorded due to Pozzolanic reaction between the binders and the clay. Clay of intermediate

plasticity (CI) and clay of high plasticity (CH) were both treated with calcium carbide residue

17
and Cocoanut shell ash (CSA) to improve their strength and stability (Balarabe & Mary,

2018). 4% calcium carbide residue and 6% calcium carbide residue were mixed with the clay

of intermediate plasticity and clay of high plasticity respectively, which were in turn admixed

with 4, 9, 14 and 19% cocoanut 33 shell ash each. The maximum dry density was observed to

decrease with increase in cocoanut shell ash while the optimum moisture content decreased in

the same order. The unconfined compression strength values of the clay of intermediate

plasticity clay recorded 11.38 times the value of the untreated clay soil while the clay of high

plasticity clay recorded 6.03 times the value of the untreated clay soil. The study by

Akinwumi et al. (2019) focused on the potential use of calcium carbide residue to stabilize

tropical sands for pavement structures. The researcher used Atterberg limits, calcium carbide

residue and California bearing ratio as evaluation criteria to determine the effect of calcium

carbide residue on tropical sandy soil. The unconfined compression strength values increased

from 220kN/m2 for untreated clay soil to 420kN/m2 on addition of 16% calcium carbide

residue while the California bearing ratio increased from 54% for untreated clay to 66% on

addition of 16% calcium carbide residue. The study on the effect of cement and calcium

carbide residue on the engineering properties of residual lateritic soil was carried out by Edeh

and Joel (2014). 2 – 10% cement and 2 – 10% calcium carbide residue were each used to

stabilize Ikpayongo laterite to determine the effect of cement and calcium carbide residue on

the geotechnical properties of the lateritic soil. The author concluded that the calcium carbide

residue and California bearing ratio values increased from 534kN/m2 and 28% for untreated

soil respectively to 3157kN/m2 and 180% respectively for clay stabilized with combination

of 10% cement and 10% calcium carbide residue. The use of two industrial wastes (ground

granulated blast furnace slag and Calcium carbide residue), to stabilize soil was investigated.

Addition of these two additives improved the permeability, unconfined compression strength

and California bearing ratio of the soil thereby reducing the thickness of pavements. To

18
improve economic and environmental impacts, some waste Ca(OH)2-rich materials can be

utilized together with waste pozzolanic materials, such as fly ash, biomass ash and rice husk

ash to develop a cementitious material. Calcium carbide residue (CCR) is a by-product of the

acetylene production process that contains mainly calcium hydroxide, Ca(OH)2. Between

1995 and 1998, the demand for calcium carbide for the production of acetylene gas in

Thailand was 74,000 tone. This demand is continuously increasing each year. Due to its

highly basic pH, calcium carbide residue has been little utilized and was typically gone to a

disposal area in the form of slurry. After being sundried for a few days, the slurry form

changes to a dry form. Jaturapitakkul and Roongreung (2003), have introduced a

cementitious material that is a mixture of calcium carbide residue and rice husk ash. The

cementing property was identified as a pozzolanic reaction between the two materials, and no

Portland cement was included in the mixture. Horpibulsuk et al. (2012) and Kampala and

Horpibulsuk (2013) explained the possible mechanism controlling the engineering properties

of Calcium carbide residue stabilized clay based on macro- and micro-scale observations.

The optimum water content (OWC) of the stabilized clay exhibits the highest strength

because it engenders the densest packing and highest cementitious products. Strength

improvement for a particular curing time is classified into three zones: active, inert and

deterioration. The data were obtained from an unconfined compression test under unsoaked

condition on Calcium carbide residue stabilized samples at optimum water content. In the

active zone, strength increases remarkably with increased calcium carbide residue content.

All the input Ca(OH)2 is consumed by the natural pozzolanic material in the soil to produce a

pozzolanic reaction. This active zone can be determined from the calcium carbide residue

fixation point, which is obtained simply from the 35 index test. Calcium carbide residue

fixation is defined as the calcium carbide residue content at which the plasticity index of the

19
calcium carbide residue - clay mixture changes insignificantly with the calcium carbide

residue input.

Thus, the incremental gradient becomes nearly zero and does not make any further significant

improvement. A decrease in strength, which appears when the calcium carbide residue

content is in the deterioration zone, is caused by unsoundness due to free lime. This free lime

[Ca(OH)2] is clearly observed by the thermal gravity analysis (TGA) (Horpibulsuk et al.,

2012). Even with the high unsoaked strength in the active zone, Kampala et al. (2013) found

that the wet-dry cycled strength of stabilized clay was considered insufficient according to

recommendations by the ACI (1990) and the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (2004). The

input of Fly Ash (as a calcium carbide residue replacement) may improve the strength of

calcium carbide residue stabilized clay when the calcium carbide residue content is in excess

of the active zone (that is in inert and deterioration zones) where natural pozzolanic material

in the soil is not in sufficient quantities to react with the Ca(OH)2. However, the optimal 36

input of Fly Ash and the mechanism controlling strength development in these two zones are

not clearly understood. The tensile strength, fracture toughness, modulus and energy of

cementitious materials are dependent on the hydration degree (Hoover, et.al., 2015).

2.3.1 Advantages of calcium-based additives

The following list presents some of the engineering advantages of calcium-based soil

stabilization (Solanki, 2010);

a) Functions as a working platform (expedites construction).

b) Reduces the need for dusting.

c) Waterproofs the soil.

d) Upgrades marginal aggregates or soils.

20
e) Improves strength.

f) Improves durability.

g) Controls volume changes of soils.

h) Improves soil workability.

i) Dries wet soils.

j) Reduces pavement thickness requirements.

k) Conserves aggregate.

l) Reduces construction and haul costs.

m) Conserves energy. n) Provides a temporary or permanent wearing surface.

2.3.2 Disadvantages of calcium-based additives

In spite of the significant advantages mentioned above, many serious disadvantages are

inherent from calcium-based stabilizers.

a) Negative environmental impact: Global warming is a serious threat which our planet is

facing. Carbon dioxide (CO2) is one of the main factors for this warming. Cement

manufacturing is a process which emits CO2 in large amount 29 (Gao et al., 2015). Cement

industry alone produces about 10% of total CO2 fossil fuels, electricity, and transportation.

b) Sulfate attack and carbonation: Two deleterious chemical reactions occur in the soils

treated with calcium-based materials. One of the sulfate salts existing in the soil and two lime

carbonation. In the soils containing sulfates, any calcium based additives result in heaving

and disintegration leading to a loss in strength. Soil composition, groundwater and mixed

water can be the source of sulfates (Alsh. Chemical reaction between calcium and aluminum

present in the soil mineralogy in the company of soluble sulfate and water produce ettringite

21
and/or thaumasite. Ettringite is a hydrous calcium aluminum sulfate mineral with formula:

Ca6Al2(SO4)3(OH)12.26H2 O . It is a colorless to yellow mineral crystallizing in the

trigonal system. The prismatic crystals are typically colorless, turning white on partial

dehydration. Calcium sulfate sources, such as gypsum, are intentionally added to Portland

cement to regulate early hydration reactions to prevent flash setting, improve strength

development, and reduce drying shrinkage. Sulfate and aluminate are also present in

supplementary cementitious materials and admixtures. Gypsum and other sulfate compounds

react with calcium aluminate in the cement to form ettringite within the first few hours after

mixing with water. Most of the sulfate in the cement is normally consumed to form ettringite

at early ages. The formation of ettringite in the fresh, plastic concrete is the mechanism that

controls stiffening. At this stage ettringite is uniformly and discretely dispersed throughout

the cement paste at a submicroscopic level (less than a micrometer in cross-section).

Thaumasite is a silicate mineral with chemical formula Ca3Si(OH)6(CO3) (SO4).12H2O. It

occurs as colorless to white prismatic hexagonal crystals, typically 30 as acicular radiating

groups. It also occurs as fibrous masses. Its Mohs hardness is 3.5 and it has a specific gravity

of 1.88–1.9.

c) Effect of organic materials: The high microbial biomass present in the organic soil

activates rates of decomposition in organic soils treated with lime resulting into reduction in

pH value. In addition, clay minerals are in lesser quantity in the organic soil. Therefore, the

organic materials slow down the pozzolanic reaction necessary to attain soil strength. The

organic soil is characterized by high water with holding capacity that may lead to a reduction

in available water for the hydration process. Furthermore, organic materials coat the additive

particles thus holding up the hydration process. There is a great tendency for the reaction

between calcium ions and black acid generated from lime to produce insoluble calcium

humid acid. The decomposition of organic materials hinders the polymerization of silicate.

22
Thus, the cementitious formation is blocked by organic materials. Though, it is key to know

that not all of the organic materials block cementitious reaction. Some have no effects such as

chloronaphthalene and others retard hydration reaction but do not affect soil strength gain

such as ethylene glycol, benzoic acid, cellulose (Firoozi et al., 2015). Cement-treated soil to

face the similar situation as mentioned for soils treated with lime. Shahram, et al. (2016)

reported that soil containing organic acids and having pH less than 9 inhibit the cementing

reaction. For the purpose to reduce the negative effect of organic materials, bentonite is added

to the organic soil. This treatment provides two benefits, one, bentonite has high water

retention ability, which is favorable for lime hydration. Two, bentonite is the source of silica

for pozzolanic reaction and can become a filler. Kaolinite and zeolite may also be used for

lime 31 treated soil having humid acid. This gives enough amount of silica that is required for

pozzolanic process.

2.4 Problems in sulfate soils stabilized with lime/cement

Though lime stabilization improves the volume and strength characteristics of the expansive

soils, there are some limitations to lime stabilization. These limitations include the presence

of organic carbon and soluble sulfates. It has been reported that the presence of organic

carbon in excess of one percent can interfere with the pozzolanic reactions, leading to low

strength gains. Compared to organic carbon, the presence of sulfates is of higher concern

because lime treatment in these types of soils leads to excessive heaving and pavement

failures. It has been reported that when soils contain sulfate minerals such as gypsum

(CaSO4·2H2O) and sodium sulfate (Na2SO4) in their natural formation and are treated with

calcium-based stabilizers, adverse reactions occur, causing severe heave and pavement

distress. These adverse reactions are due to formation of expansive minerals, ettringite, (Ca6.

[AL(OH)6]2. (SO4)3.26H2O) and thaumasite (Ca6. [AL(OH)6]2. (SO4)3.26H2O). There are

several sources of sulfates in soils, produced from primary or secondary origin. Primary

23
sources can be defined as the direct sources of sulfates in their natural form, as sulfate-

bearing minerals such as gypsum while, the secondary sources are those that are not a direct

source of sulfate but give out sulfates as a by-product of oxidation or other forms of chemical

interactions.

2.5 Mechanisms of stabilization

Mechanisms of stabilization that utilize cement, lime, or fly ash were summarized as follows

(Little, 1999): 1. Cation exchange: sodium, magnesium, and other cations are replaced by the

calcium cations from the available calcium hydroxide. 2. Flocculation and agglomeration:

flocculation of the clay particles increases the effective grain size and reduces plasticity, thus

increasing the strength of the matrix. 3. Pozzolanic reaction: the high pH environment created

by the available calcium hydroxide solubilizes silicates and aluminates at the clay surface,

which in turn react with calcium ions to form cementitious products that are composed

primarily of calcium silicate hydrates or calcium aluminate hydrates, or both. 27 Li, (2014)

provided a detailed description of the hydration process of cement concrete: If a proper

amount of moisture is available to ensure complete hydration of the cement, then each

cement particle is covered with water and thus forms a gel-like film. These coated particles of

cement coat the aggregate or soil particles as well. At this stage, the cement has not begun to

set. The reaction between the water and the cement forms small single crystals. With the

development of hydration, the single crystals begin to grow into one another and form a

crystalline network. The adjoining crystals are attracted to one another by van der Waals

forces instead of a chemical bond.

24
 CHAPTER THREE

MATERIAL AND METHODOLOGY

2.1 Soil Sample

The soil sample will be collected from the borrow pit along Ado-Iworoko road, close to the

Ekiti State University, Ekiti State, Nigeria. Vegetative materials will be remove from the

samples before being placed in a polythene bag to prevent loss of natural moisture content.

The sample will be air-dried in the laboratory and prepare following BS 1377. The soil

sample will pass through a sieve to eliminate an influence of coarse particles and it will

called fine soil (FS). The FS will compose percentage sand, silt, and clay respectively

coinciding with a certain specific gravity. The liquid limit and plastic limit of FS will be

measure and recorded in percentage respectively. Based on the Unified Soil Classification

System (USCS), the FS is a low plasticity silt (ML). The compaction characteristics under

modified Proctor energy (ASTM D 1557; 2012) will show an optimum water content (OWC

%) at a certain percentage of maximum dry unit weight, as described by ASTM C131 /

C131M – 14 (2014). The chemical composition of soil and CCR will be analyzed by

indicates that FS consisted mainly of SiO2 and Al2O3 with some impurities with the sum of

SiO2, Al2O3, and Fe2O3 respectively.

25
2.2 Calcium Carbide Residue, (CCR)

The CRR used will be collected from automobile workshops in Ado-Ekiti, Ekiti State,

Nigeria. The CCR will be oven-dried at 100oC for 24 hours and ground. It will then pass

through a sieve (mm) with the specific gravity measure and recorded. The chemical

compositions of the CCR will be summarize indicating tha CaO content as the main

chemical composition at by weight. The grain size distribution of CCR will be also show and

recorded.

3.3 Methodology

All the basic properties and compaction tests of the CCR and oil palm fibres as stabilized

samples will be carried out immediately after a thorough mixing of materials in accordance

with the American Standard for Testing and Materials (ASTM). The CCR and dried soil will

be put in a container and mixed by hand until a uniform mixture is obtained. The compaction

of the soil samples will be carried out using a standard mold of 100 mm diameter and the

modified Proctor energy as described in ASTM D1557 - 12e1 (2012). The percentage of

CCR and Oil palm fibres addition of 3-10% by weight of dry soil will be chose as this range

is successfully used to test the addition of CCR. The Unconfined Compressive Strengths

(UCSs) will be measure on cylindrical samples which will be compacted at optimum water

content (OWC). The optimum compacted strength is normally used to gauge the strength of

soil sample, and the optimum water content will be sufficient for the hydration reaction to

obtain the optimum strength. However, the compressive strength after immersion is often

used to assess the stabilized material in terms of stability and susceptibility to deleterious

swelling. The samples will be wrapp with plastic sheet to prevent moisture loss. The samples

were left for twenty-four hours to gain sufficient strength for demolding, wrapp in vinyl bags

and store in a moist chamber at temperature of 25±2 oC. The strength from pozzolanic

26
reaction develope with time [39-41] therefore, curing time will also be study. The UCS test

will performed on the samples after 1, 7, 14, and 28 days of curing time with the rate of

displacement of 1 mm/min. The CBR test will be carriy out in the standard one-dimensional

CBR mold where the samples will be prepared under the modified Proctor compaction

energy and will be impose by a pre-loading pressure

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