MICROBIOLOGY, MYCOLOGY AND PLANT PATHOLOGY BSCBO-101

UNIT-1-GENERAL ACCOUNT, DISTRIBUTION AND

CLASSIFICATION OF MICROORGANISMS AND
MAJOR MICROBES OF FOOD, WATER AND SOIL
1.1- Objectives
1.2- Introduction
1.3-General account of microorganism
1.4- Distribution
1.5- Classification
1.6-Major microbes of:
1.6.1-Food
1.6.2-Water
1.6.3-Soil
1.7- Summary
1.8- Glossary
1.9- Self assessment question
1.10- References
1.11- Suggested Readings
1.12-Terminal Questions

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MICROBIOLOGY, MYCOLOGY AND PLANT PATHOLOGY BSCBO-101

1.1 OBJECTIVES
Microbiology is the study of organisms invisible to our naked eye. This branch of science
explains the structure, nature, distribution, classification, occurrence, physiology
pathogenicity and application of microbes. This unit deals with the introduction, general
accounts, distribution, and classification of microbes and also about the soil, water and food
microbiology.
After reading this unit one is able to:
 Know about micro-organisms.
 Learn the variety of microorganisms which occur in the environment surrounding us.
 Understand the existence of minute organisms and realize that these microscopic
organisms are living and perpetuate themselves by reproduction.
 Discuss the distinct group of microbes which differ in form and other characters but
resemble with each other in their small size and simple structure.
 Study the systematic position, and distribution of micro organisms.

1.2 INTRODUCTION

Microbiology is the study of organisms too small to be clearly seen by the unaided eye. Since
objects less than about one millimeter in diameter cannot be clearly seen and must be
examined with a microscope, such living objects are collectively referred as microorganisms
or microbes. Therefore microbiology is defined as the study of microorganisms. A variety of
organisms like bacteria, protozoa, viruses, fungi and algae are included in this category.

Regarding the place of microorganisms in the living organisms, satisfactory criteria were
unavailable until late 1940, when more definite observation of internal cell structure was
made possible with the aid of the powerful magnification provided by electron microscope.
Two cell types were discovered among these microorganisms. In some organisms the cells
contained nuclear substance which was not enclosed by a nuclear membrane, while in others,
a well-defined nucleus with a nuclear membrane was present. These two patterns were called
prokaryotic and eukaryotic respectively. According to these special features of
microorganisms, bacteria are prokaryotic and fungi, algae and protozoa are eukaryotic.
Viruses are left out of this criteria as they are acellular organisms. Thus microbiology
includes five major branches namely, virology, bacteriology, phycology, mycology, and
protozoology.

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PHYCOLOGY AND BRYOLOGY BSCBO-102

UNIT –1 – GENERAL CHARACTERS AND LIFE

CYCLES OF ALGAE

1.1 Objectives
1.2 Introduction
1.3 General Characteristics of algae
1.3.1 Occurrence and distribution
1.3.2 Organization of thallus
1.3.3 Prokaryotic cell
1.3.4 Eukaryotic cell
1.3.5 Nucleus
1.3.6 Golgi bodies
1.3.7 Mitochondria
1.3.8 Endoplasmic reticulum
1.3.9 Eye spot
1.3.10 Vacuoles
1.3.11 Pyrenoid
1.3.12 Flagella
1.3.13 Reserve food material
1.3.14 Pigmentation in algae
1.4 Reproduction in algae
1.4.1 Vegetative reproduction
1.4.2 Asexual reproduction
1.4.3 Sexual reproduction
1.5 Life cycle
1.5.1 Haplontic type
1.5.2 Diplontic type
1.5.3 Diplohaplontic type
1.5.4 Triphasic life cycle

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PHYCOLOGY AND BRYOLOGY BSCBO-102

1.1 OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit you will able to know

 General characteristics of algae
 Various type of reproduction of algae
 Life cycle patterns and alternation of generation in algae

1.2 INTRODUCTION

Before knowing about the details of algae, have you ever wondered where one could find
algae? What is the cell structure of algae? Whether they have prokaryotic or eukaryotic
structure? Are they good for environment? Can they be used as food? These are some
obvious questions that come in our mind when someone talks about algae. During rainy
season most of us have experienced the slippery green structure on the shady and moist
places, which is actually responsible for many accidents. All these structures about which we
are talking about are in fact the living organisms which we are going to study in the following
paragraphs. These organisms are commonly known as ‗algae‘- a Latin word which literally
means sea weeds. Phycologists however, use the term algae in common manner for all the
classes of algae. They are thalloid autotrophic organism which can synthesize their own
food by the process of photosynthesis in the presence of chlorophyll and sun light. The study
of algae is known as Phycology. Various Indian and international phycologists have worked
on algae. Amongst them R.N.Singh, M.O.P. Iyengar, H.D.Kumar, M.S.Randhawa (all are
Indians), F.E. Fritsch and G.M Smith are known for their valuable contributions. M.O.P.
Iyengar is known as ―father of Phycology‖ in India and F.E. Fritsch is known as “father
of Phycology”.

1.3 GENERAL CHARACTERSTICS OF ALGAE

Algae are chlorophyll bearing autotrophic organisms having a thalloid plant body i.e., the
plant body is not differentiated into root, leaf and stem. The thallus is non vascular therefore
have no element for the transport of fluids. Algae have simple reproductive structure, sex
organ are unicellular and if multicellular all the cells are fertile. Sex organs also lack a sterile
jacket of cells around the reproductive cell and no embryo is formed after the fertilization.
They occur in a variety of habitat but mostly they are aquatic. They show distinct alteration
of generation.

1.3.1 Occurrence and distribution (Algal habitat)

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CELL BIOLOGY, MOLECULAR BIOLOGY AND BIOTECHNOLOGY BSCBO-301

UNIT-1THE CELL
1.1-Objectives
1.2-Introduction
1.3-Historical background
1.4-Cell theory
1.5- Size and structure of cell
1.6-Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic cell
1.7- Glossary
1.8-Self Assessment Question
1.9- References
1.10-Suggested Readings
1.11-Terminal Questions

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CELL BIOLOGY, MOLECULAR BIOLOGY AND BIOTECHNOLOGY BSCBO-301

1.1 OBJECTIVES

After reading this unit student will be able to understand about-

 the advancements in cell biology
 brief idea about the great diversity shown by cells in their shapes and sizes
 Also, to give an outline information about structures and purposes of basic components of
prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.
 to know how the cellular components are arranged in both types of cell.

1.2 INTRODUCTION

The basic structural and functional unit of cellular organization is the cell. Within a selective and
relative semi permeable membrane, it contains a complete set of different kinds of units
necessary to permit its own growth and reproduction from simple nutrients. All organisms, more
complex than viruses, consist of cells, yet they consist of a strand of nucleic acid, either DNA or
RNA, surrounded by a protective protein coat (the capsid). The word cell is derived from the
Latin word cellula, which means small compartment. Hooke published his findings in his famous
work, Micrographia. Actually, he only observed cell walls because cork cells are dead and
without cytoplasmic contents. A.G. Loewy and P. Siekevitz have defined cell as ―A unit of
biological activity delimited by a semi permeable membrane and capable of self reproduction in
a medium free of other living organisms‖. John Paul has defined the cell as ―The simplest
integrated organization in living systems, capable of independent survival‖.

On the basis of internal organization and architecture, all cells can be subdivided into two
major classes, prokaryotic cells and eukaryotic cells. Cells which have the unit membrane bound
nuclei are called eukaryotic, whereas cells that lack a membrane bound nucleus are prokaryotic.
Besides the nucleus, the eukaryotic cells have other membrane bound organelles (small organs)
like the Endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi complex, Lysosomes, Mitochondria, Microbodies and
Vacuoles. The prokaryotic cells lack such unit membrane bound organelles.

1.3 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

Ancient Greek philosophers such as Aristotle 384-322 B.C and Paracelsus concluded that ―All
animals and plants, however, complicated, are constituted of a few elements which are repeated
in each of them‖. They were referring to macroscopic structures of an organism such as roots,
leaves and flowers common to different plants, or segments and organs that are repeated in the
animal kingdom. Many centuries later, owing to the invention of magnifying lenses, the world
of microscopic dimensions was discovered. Da Vinci (1485) recommended the uses of lenses in
viewing small objects. In 1558, Swiss biologist, Conard Gesner (1516-1565) published results on

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Economic Botany, Genetics and Plant Breeding BSCBO-302

UNIT-1 CEREALS, MILLETS AND LEGUMES

1.1-Objectives
1.2-Introduction
1.3-Cultivation, production and uses of cereals and millets
1.3.1-Wheat
1.3.2-Paddy
1.3.3-Maize
1.3.4-Bajra
1.3.5-Jowar
1.4-Cultivation, production and uses of legumes
1.4.1-Pigeon pea
1.4.2-Pea
1.4.3-Green gram
1.4.4-Black gram
1.4.5-Rajmash
1.4.6-Gram
1.4.7-Lentil
1.5- Summary
1.6- Glossary
1.7-Self Assessment Questions
1.8- References
1.9-Suggested Readings
1.10-Terminal Questions

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Economic Botany, Genetics and Plant Breeding BSCBO-302

1.1 OBJECTIVES

After reading this unit students will be able-

 To study origin, domestication, genetics, cultivation and production of cereals, millets
and legumes.
 To establish link between biology and anthropology and exploiting ways humans use
cereals, millets and legumes for food and other purposes.

1.2 INTRODUCTION

Economic botany is the commercial exploitation of plants by people. It contributes

significantly to anthropology, biology, conservation, botany, and other related field of
science.
Economic plants are defined as being useful either directly, as in food, or indirectly,
as products we use or that enhance the environment. Plants that humans use for food are of
high economic importance. The present chapter describes commercial use of cereals, millets
and legumes including anthropology, biology, cultivation, production, conservation, botany
and related aspects of these food crops.

1.3 CULTIVATION, PRODUCTION AND USES OF CEREALS

AND MILLETS

1.3.1 Wheat
Wheat (Triticum spp.) is a cereal grain that belongs to the family Poaceae (family of grasses).
It originates from the Levant region of the Near East but now cultivated worldwide. Wheat
represents staple food in most countries in the world and inevitable part of human life.
Proteins and starch isolated from wheat have application in numerous industries. The world
production of wheat was 713 million tons in 2014, making it the third most-produced cereal
after maize (1,016 million tons) and rice (745 million tons).

World trade in wheat is greater than for all other crops combined. Globally, wheat is the
leading source of vegetable protein in human food, having a higher protein content than other
major cereals, maize (corn) or rice. There are six wheat classifications: 1) hard red winter, 2)
hard red spring, 3) soft red winter, 4) durum (hard), 5) hard white, and 6) soft white wheat.
The hard wheat have the most amount of gluten and are used for making bread, rolls and all-
purpose flour. The soft wheat are used for making flat bread, cakes, pastries, crackers,
muffins, and biscuits.

Origin and domestication

Wheat is one of the first cereals known to have been domesticated. The archaeological record
suggests that this first occurred in the regions known as the Fertile Crescent. Cultivation of

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PLANT PHYSIOLOGY AND BIOCHEMISTRY BSCBO-303

UNIT-1: ABSORPTION OF WATER AND ASCENT OF

SAP
1.1 Objectives
1.2 Introduction
1.3 Importance of water to plant life
1.4 Physical properties of water
1.5 Diffusion and Osmosis
1.6 Absorption of water
1.7 Ascent of sap
1.8 Summary
1.9 Glossary
1.10 Self Assessment Question
1.11 References
1.12 Suggested Readings
1.13 Terminal Questions

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PLANT PHYSIOLOGY AND BIOCHEMISTRY BSCBO-303

1.1 OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit students will be able:
 To study the plant water relations and physical properties of water.
 To study physical processes of water, diffusion, osmosis, absorption of water and factors
affecting water absorption process.
 To study the ascent of sap and its mechanism.

1.2 INTRODUCTION
Water is an important factor for plant growth as it helps to fulfill all the vital activities of plants.
Water is essential for photosynthesis, respiration, absorption of minerals and nutrients,
metabolism and even to maintain the soil temperature too. Beside this, water is also important in
various other processes too, as it helps in the germination of seeds and in the process of
transpiration etc. Water helps a plant by transporting nutrients through the roots. Nutrients are
drawn from the soil and used by the plant. Without enough water in the cells, the plants droop so
water helps a plant stand. Water carries the dissolved sugar and other nutrients through the roots.
Plants absorb water through their entire surface- roots, stems and leaves. However, the majority
of water is absorbed by root hairs.

To maintain the level of water inside the plant cells, it is necessary, to loss excess water
from plant cells either in the form of evaporation or through transpiration. Evaporation of water
from leaves is primarily controlled by stomata, sometimes lenticels and pores also helps in this
process. This shows that, plants have a strong and significant relationship with water. Plant water
relation means plants control the hydration of their cells including the collection of water from
the soil, its transport within the plants and its loss by evaporation from the leaves. Transpiration
also includes a process called guttation, which is the loss of water in liquid form from the
uninjured leaf or stem of the plant principally through water stomata known as hydathodes.
Studies have revealed that about 10 percent of the moisture found in the atmosphere is releases
by plants through transpiration.

1.3 IMPORTANCE OF WATER TO PLANT LIFE

Water is most important and prime factor for life processes, as life itself has been originated in
an aqueous environment. In course of evolution it became fully dependent on water in a number
of ways. Thus we can say that water is the liquid of life or elixir of life. In general water is
essential for life and is the main constituent of the protoplasm comprising 90 to 95% of its total
weight. In absence of water, protoplasm becomes inactive and even killed. Water is a source of
hydrogen atoms for the reduction of carbon dioxide in the reaction of photosynthesis and as
mentioned earlier that water helps to fulfill different vital activities. Beside this water present in
the vacuoles which helps in maintaining the turgidity of cells which is essential for proper

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 UNIT: 1 PHYLUM-PROTOZOA
Contents
1.1- Objectives

1.2- Introduction

1.3- General characters and classification up to order

1.3.1- Distribution

1.3.2- Classification

1.4- Study of paramecium with particular reference

1.4.1-Locomotion

1.4.2-Osmoregulation

1.4.3-Nutrition

1.4.4- Reproduction

Page 1
1.1-Objectives:

• To study General characters of Phylum Protozoa and its classification up to order.

• Study of Paramecium with particular reference to locomotion, Osmoregulation and

reproduction.

1.2-Introduction
The Protozoa are heterogeneous assemblage of some 50,000 cellular or single- cell organism
found worldwide in most habitats. Protozoa means ‘first animal’ the simplest form of animal life.
Protozoa are unicellular microorganisms (eukaryotes) that lack cell walls. They are found in
marine habitat or soil, in fresh water bodies, symbiotic, some forms are parasites in other
organisms. Protozoa depends on nutrition, temperature, pH, and some depends on sunlight.
Protozoa were defined as unicellular protists with animal-like behavior, such as movement.
Protozoa were regarded as the partner group of protists to protophyta, which have plant-like
behavior, e.g. photosynthesis. The term protozoan has become highly problematic due to the
introduction of modern ultra structural, biochemical, and genetic techniques, which have showed
that the group does not form a clade as required by modern classifications. Modern
unicellular clades within Eukaryotes which may be viewed as approximately collectively
replacing the class of protozoa include: Excavata, Amoeba, Chromalveolata and Rhizaria.
Protozoans are usually single-celled heterotrophic eukaryotes containing non-filamentous
structures that belong to any of the major lineages of protists. They are restricted to moist or
aquatic habitats (i.e., they are obligate aquatic organisms). Many protozoan species are
symbionts, some are parasites, and some are predators of feces bacteria and algae. There are an
estimated 50,000 protozoan species.

The Protozoa are considered to be a subkingdom of the kingdom Protista, although in the
classical system they were placed in the kingdom Animalia. More than 50,000 species have been
described, most of which are free-living organisms; protozoa are found in almost every possible
habitat. The fossil record in the form of shells in sedimentary rocks shows that protozoa were
present in the Pre-Cambrian era. Anton van Leeuwenhoek was the first person to see protozoa,
using microscopes he constructed with simple lenses. Between 1674 and 1716, he described, in
addition to free-living protozoa, several parasitic species from animals, and Giardia
lamblia from his own stools.

Page 2
ZO -103 Genetics, Taxonomy and Evolution Uttarakhand Open University

UNIT I: MENDALISM AND ELEMENTS OF HEREDITY

Contents
1.1 Objectives

1.2 Introduction

1.3 Elements of heredity and variation

1.3.1 - Mendel's principles of heredity

1.3.2 - Linkage

1.3.3 - Coupling and repulsion

1.4 Crossing over

1.4.1 - Mechanism of crossing over

1.4.2 - Theories of crossing over

1.4.3 - Importance of crossing over

1.5 Chromosomal mapping

1.5.1 - Three point cross

1.6 Summary

1.7 Self-assessment questions

1.8 Terminal Questions

Page 1
ZO -103 Genetics, Taxonomy and Evolution Uttarakhand Open University

1.1 Objectives:-
Genetics is the study of genes, genetic variation, and heredity in living organisms. It is
generally considered as a field of Biology, but intersects frequently with many other Life
sciences and is strongly linked with the study of information systems. The father of genetics
is “Gregor Johan Mendel” a late 19th-century scientist and Augustinian friar. Mendel studied
"trait inheritance" patterns in the way traits are handed down from parents to offspring. He
observed that organisms (Pea plants, Pisum Sativum) inherit traits by way of discrete "units of
inheritance." This term, still used today, is a somewhat ambiguous definition of what is referred
to as a gene.
However, in this chapter you will be able to understand the heredity and variation, Mendel’s
laws, linkage, crossing over and chromosomal mapping etc.

1.2 Introduction:-
The term Genetics was firstly introduced by “William Bateson” in 1906. It has been derived
from the Greek word Gene - which means "to become" or "to grow into". Therefore, Genetics
may be defined as "the science of coming into being" or study of heredity is called Genetics.
Genetics is the science of inheritance and variation.

Hence, genetics may be redefined as the science that deals with the structure, organization,
transmission and function of genes, and the origin of variation in them.

However, heredity may be defined "as the transmission of traits from one generation to the
following generations". It is the tendency on the part of the offspring to reproduce to characters
of the parents.

The resemblance between individuals related by descent may be close, but it is never complete.
An offspring is never an exact copy of its parents. Variation in heredity is observed in
sexually produced offspring but not in asexually produced clones unless a mutation occurs. It is
due to variations that each individual is unique in it and can be readily distinguished from
another.

Heredity and variations which go side by side are the basis of evolution. The branch of science
that deals with the facts and laws of heredity and inherited variations is known as genetics.
Genetics is the science which tries to explain why living things resemble with their parents, and
yet differ from them.

Page 2
ENVIRONMENTAL BIOLOGY AND ANIMAL BEHAVIOUR BSCZO202

UNIT 1: ECOLOGICAL CONCEPT

CONTENTS
1.1 Objectives:

1.2 Introduction:

1.3 Basic concept of ecology

1.3.1- Concept of Ecology

1.3.2- Definition of Ecology

1.3.3- Types of Ecology

1.3.4- Significance of Ecology

1.4 Basic concepts of habitat

1.4.1 Ecological niche:

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ENVIRONMENTAL BIOLOGY AND ANIMAL BEHAVIOUR BSCZO202

1.1 OBJECTIVES

To the study of Basic concept of ecology, definition, types of ecology, significance,

concepts of habitat and ecological niche.

1.2 INTRODUCTION

Ecology is mainly concerned with the biological connections and processes of

organisms, land, water etc. It can be referred as the scientific study of the interactions
that determine the distribution and abundance of organism. The term ecology
(oekologie) is derived from two Greek words- oikos= means ‘house ` or place of live`
and-logos means ‘a discussion or study` Ecology is the study of organism at home in
their native environment. The term was first of all introduced by Reiter in 1868, but
because the German biologist Ernst Haeckel (1869) first of all fully defined ecology as
the study of reciprocal relations between organism and environment.
Ecology is divided into the two main divisions:
1. Autecology: It is also called species ecology. It is concerned with the study of
individual organism or the population of individual animals or plant species in relation
to environment.
2. Synecology: The branch of ecology that studies about the relationship of various
groups organism to their common environment.

1.3 BASIC CONCEPT OF ECOLOGY

The four basic concepts of ecology are Holism, ecosystem, succession, and
conservation.
Holism

Ecology as a basic division of biology attempts to define and explain patterns within and
among organisms, at each level of organization. The hierarchical levels at which we discus
interacting units of ecology are, individual < population < community < ecosystem < biome <
Biosphere. Each level of organization has characteristics peculiar to it that are not identifiable
at the levels below. Each unit is a whole built up by the interactions of lower level wholes
into a higher level whole in this kind of Hierarchy Williams Ophuls (1974) considered holism
as the real base of ecology. It focuses on the system paradigm of interrelationships.

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DEVELOPEMENTAL BIOLOGY AND APPLIED ZOOLOGY BSCZO 203

UNIT: 1 GAMETOGENESIS

CONTENTS
1.1 Objectives

1.2 Introduction

1.3 Basic concept of Gametogenesis

1.3.1- Types of eggs

1.3.2- Spermatogenesis

1.3.3- Oogenesis

1.3.4- Chemical and metabolic events during gamete formation

1.4 Summary

1.5 Glossary

1.6 Self-assessment question

1.7 Terminal questions/answer

1.8 References

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DEVELOPEMENTAL BIOLOGY AND APPLIED ZOOLOGY BSCZO 203

1.1 OBJECTIVES
1 To understand the Basic concept of gametogenesis.
2 To study their types of eggs, Spermatogenesis and Spermatogenesis.
3 To describe Chemical and metabolic events during gamete formation.

1.2 INTRODUCTION
Gametogenesis is a biological process by which diploid or haploid precursor
cells undergo cell division and differentiation to form mature haploid gametes. Depending on
the biological life cycle of the organism, gametogenesis occurs by meiotic division of
diploid gametocytes into various gametes, or by mitotic division of haploid gametogenous
cells. For example, plants produce gametes through mitosis in gametophytes. The
gametophytes grow from haploid spores after sporic meiosis. The existence of a multicellular,
haploid phase in the life cycle between meiosis and gametogenesis is also referred to
as alternation of generations.

1.3 BASIC CONCEPT OF GAMETOGENESIS

Gametogenesis is the process by which male and female sex cells or gametes, i.e., sperms and
ova are formed respectively in the male and female gonads (testes and ovaries). The gametes
differ from all other cells (= somatic cells) of the body in that their nuclei contain only half
the number of chromosomes found in the nuclei of somatic cells. Meiosis forms the most
significant part of process of gametogenesis.Gametogenesis for the formation of sperms is
termed spermatogenesis, while that of ova is called oogenesis. Both spermatogenesis and
oogenesis comprise similar phases of sequential changes.

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PHYSIOLOGY AND BIOCHEMISTRY BSCZO301

UNIT 1: DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

CONTENT:

1.1 Objective
1.2 Introduction
1.3 Digestive System
1.3.1 Intracellular and extracellular digestion
1.3.2 Salivary secretions
1.3.3 Gastric Secretions
1.4 Intestinal Digestion
1.4.1- Pancreatic secretion
1.4.2- Bile juices
1.4.3- Digestion in small intestine
1.4.4- Digestion and absorption in large intestine
1.4.5 Intestinal micro flora
1.5- Digestion and absorption:
1.5.1- Digestion and absorption of carbohydrate.
1.5.2- Digestion and absorption of Fat.
1.5.3- Digestion and absorption of Protein.
1.6- Regulation of enzyme action
1.7- Summary
1.8- Glossary:
1.9- Self assessment question
1.10- References

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PHYSIOLOGY AND BIOCHEMISTRY BSCZO301

1.1 OBJECTIVES

Study of this unit will let the students to:

• Define Digestive system;

• Explain the general organs of digestive system;
• Write about Digestive enzymes;
• Elucidate the mechanism of digestion and absorption;

1.2 INTRODUCTION
Digestion is a process in which carbohydrates, fats, proteins and minerals are break down into
simpler molecules which can be readily used by the animal through absorption and assimilation
human diet. Many enzymes secreted by alimentary canal and associated glands help in digestion
of food. Once the body has absorbed the required nutrient molecules form food, the rest of the
non-utilized component is excreted out. The process of digestion requires precision secretions of
many glands and hormones without which it is not possible to harness the energy of the food.
Consequent to the feeding habits of the organism, the digestive system and the mechanism has
been modified. Overall the purpose of the digestion for all the organisms is to provide energy to
body so that it can complete other major physiological functions.

1.3 DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

The human digestive system consists of the gastrointestinal tract along with accessory organs
like salivary glands, pancreas, liver and gall bladder. Mouth is followed by a muscular tube
called pharynx which is continued into another long tube like structure known as food pipe or
oesophagus. Oesophagus opens up into a relatively large chamber called stomach. The opening
of oesophagus into the stomach is guarded by a cardiac sphincter valve. The stomach is
followed by small intestine which can be further categorized into three parts i.e. duodenum
(starting part), jejunum (middle part) and ileum (the last part). Small intestine leads to last

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 2

1. Who was the first scientist to coin the term SMOG and to describe the layers of
SMOG?
(a) Nikola Tesla
(b) Stephen Hawking
(c) Dr Henry Antoine
(d) Nicolaus Copernicus

Answer
Answer: (c) Dr Henry Antoine.

2. Which of the following pollutants are responsible for the cause of SMOG?
(a) From incinerators
(b) Emissions from vehicles
(c) Both incinerators and emissions from vehicles
(d) None of the above

Answer
Answer: (c) Both incinerators and emissions from vehicles.

3. Which of the following is called the secondary air pollutant?

(a) PANs
(b) Ozone
(c) Carbon monoxide
(d) Nitrogen Dioxide

Answer
Answer: (b) Ozone.

4. Which of the following particles is called the particulate pollutants?

(a) Ozone
(b) Radon
(c) Fly Ash
(d) Ethylene

Answer
Answer: (c) Fly Ash.

5. Which of the following agents is responsible for turning the Taj Mahal yellow?
(a) Sulphur
(b) Chlorine
(c) Sulphur dioxide
(d) Nitrogen dioxide

Answer
Answer: (c) Sulphur dioxide

6. Which of the following statements is true about SMOG?

(a) SMOG is derived from the fog
(b) SMOG is derived from smoke
(c) SMOG is derived from water vapour
(d) SMOG is derived from both fog and smoke

Answer
Answer: (d) SMOG is derived from both fog and smoke.

7. What type of precautions should be taken to survive when the ozone level is
high?
(a) Drive less
(b) Stay hydrated
(c) Both A and B
(d) Go for a long walk

Answer
Answer: (c) Both A and B.

8. Which of the following statements is true about the Air Quality Index?
(a) It indicates the colour of the air.
(b) It predicts ozone levels in your area.
(c) It determines the intensity of sound and sound pollution.
(d) It estimates air pollution mainly sulphur content in the air.

Answer
Answer: (b) It predicts ozone levels in your area.

9. The major photochemical smog is________.

(a) Hydrogen peroxide
(b) Chlorofluorocarbon
(c) Peroxyacetyl nitrate
(d) All of the above

Answer
Answer: (b) Chlorofluorocarbon.
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