Cultural Diversity and Tourism Development in Yunnan Province, China

Author(s): CHUN-SHING CHOW

Source: Geography , Autumn 2005, Vol. 90, No. 3 (Autumn 2005), pp. 294-303
Published by: Geographical Association

Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/40574099

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 tourist arrivals and receipts (World Tourism
GEOGRAPHY
Organisation, 2002). Increases in international
VOLUME 90(3) arrivals have also occurred in eastern Asia,
PAGES 294-303
Cultural Diversity and including China. In the latter case, 33.2 million
arrivals were recorded in 2001, generating a
tourism receipt of US$17.8 billion (World Tourism
Tourism Development Organisation, 2002).
The increasing movement of holidaymakers

in Yunnan Province, represents one aspect of a globalising world, and

shifts in relative accessibility brought on by
Geography ©2005 technological advances and infrastructural
China developments. Few other economic activities are
comparable with tourism in terms of the variety of
its potential impacts on economic development
(roads, tourist facilities, employment), culture
CHUN-SHING CHOW
(preservation or damage to local ways of life and
cultural values, impacts on heritage), and
environment (pollution, damage to ecosystems)
ABSTRACT: In historic times, Yunnan province
was considered remote and inaccessible. The (Cater, 1995). Tourism developments often
ethnic minorities in Yunnan have thus been involve interactions between the private and
able to preserve their cultural traits and havepublic sectors and may, in some cases, introduce
remained uniquely different from the Han conflicts of interest (Crevoshay, 2002). Political
Chinese. In recent years, cultural diversities ideologies can sometimes feel challenged by
in Yunnan have become a major attraction exposure to 'foreign' ways and modern
for tourists and an important asset for the consumerism (Picard and Wood, 1997).
development of tourism. Tourism has brought International and regional tourism can
in much revenue and created jobs. Yet at theinvolve a self-sustaining cycle that may either
same time, tourism has resulted infrequent benefit or damage local socio-economic systems,
interactions between Yunnan 's ethnic depending on how it is managed. For example,
minorities and peoples with other cultures, tourism demand often leads to infrastructure
resulting in drastic changes in the ways of lifedevelopments that reduce or end isolation of local
of several nationalities. This article looks intocommunities. Once access is gained to a 'new'
the intricate relationship between ethnic region, further developments may follow,
cultures and tourism in Yunnan.
increasing tourist numbers. Clearly, this will
benefit some, but not necessarily all. For example,
Introduction some local inhabitants might be moved from
scenic locations to make way for tourist
developments and access (Mastny 2002). Tourism
INTERNATIONAL TOURISM HAS grown rapidlydevelopment
in in remote areas can thus often be
controversial.
recent decades, and is now widely recognised as Researchers and policy-makers
one of the largest industries in the world. have long been concerned about the impacts of
According to the World Tourism Organisation tourism development on remote areas, especially
(2002), there were 693 million international on issues relating to environmental sustainability
tourist arrivals in 2001, with the industry the social and economic well-being of the local
generating US$462 billion. To a large extent, people, as well as the preservation of indigenous
tourism reflects economic development, with cultural heritage (see, for example, Azarya, 2004;
relatively rich countries such as the USA, UK, and Briassoulis, 2002; Dearden, 1991; Grünewald,
France being associated with well-developed 2002; Kirstges, 2002).
tourism industries. However, in recent years, The purpose of this article is to describe the
international tourism has been spreading to other current cultural background of Yunnan (Figure 1)
nations as their economies and/or political and to point out the potential and real impacts of
restraints have changed. In the past two decades, tourism development on local minorities. Yunnan
East European countries, such as Poland and is of interest, in this context, as it demonstrates
294 Hungary, have opened up to greater travel, and how changes in a territory's relative location, or
have also gained substantially in international ease of access, may have effects on its economic,

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 Figure 1: Location map
of Yunnan. GEOGRAPHY

THIS CHANGING
WORLD:
FOCUS ON
YUNNAN

PROVINCE,
CHINA

Geography ©2005

tourism, and cultural development. Yunnan is a locations, and military bases where Han soldiers
land-locked province on the south-western were stationed (Hao, 1998). Indigenous cultures
margins of China and shares borders with prevailed in remoter and more mountainous
Myanmar (Burma), Lao (Laos), and Vietnam. areas. This isolation partly explains the multitude
Topographically, the province (394,000 km2) is of ethnic minority cultures in the province.
extremely rugged, with 94% of the area being In the contemporary era, however, advances
comprised of mountains and high plateaus. in transportation have drastically transformed
Altitudes range between 4000 and 5000m over the degree of accessibility. Today, Yunnan has
most of the terrain. Lowlands comprise the good air, rail, and road links to the rest of China
remaining 6% of Yunnan and consist of deeply and the external world. Along with this change
incised valleys and a few small plains (Zhang, in Yunnan's relative location, the scenic beauty of
1988). The imposing physical geography of the province and its great variety of ethnic
Yunnan has predetermined its relatively high cultures have attracted growing numbers of
degree of isolation from the rest of China, domestic and international tourists. In 1998,
especially in historic times prior to the invention 760,000 international tourists and 27.9 million
and operation of modern means of domestic tourists visited Yunnan, generating
transportation. revenues of US$261 million and 11.5 billion yuan
Historically, Yunnan was a peripheral and
respectively for the province (Yunnan Economic
remote province, and the people of Yunnan Yearbook,
were, 1999).
by and large, left alone by the rest of China. The
Han, the dominant ethnic group in China, mainly
penetrated into Yunnan along the lowland valleys
and occupied parts of the fertile plains. They were 295
mainly confined to political centres, accessible

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 GEOGRAPHY
Table 1 Ethnic minorities
Population data for ethnic groups in
Yunnan in 1998
in Yunnan
THIS CHANGING
WORLD:
FOCUS ON
The relative isolation of Yunnan in the past has
YUNNAN
facilitated the presence of large numbers of local
PROVINCE,
ethnic communities with distinctive and varied
CHINA
cultural practices. In 1998, Yunnan's ethnic
minorities numbered 13.79 million, accounting
for over one-third of the total population in the
Geography ©2005
province. Table 1, based on the government's
household registration system, shows population
data for ethnic groups in Yunnan in 1998. Figure 2
illustrates the spatial distribution of the major
minority groups.
The existence of such a great diversity of
groups within a single province has made Yunnan
a fascinating place to explore. The way of life of
each of the ethnic minorities varies tremendously
from place to place, and from group to group. In
a sense, each culture is unique and varies in terms
of language, religion, family structure and daily
practices.

Language

With the exception of the Hui, who have adopted

mandarin Chinese, all ethnic minorities in Yunnan
use their own local languages. In some cases,
languages vary spatially within cultural groups. For
Source: Yunnan Yearbook, 1999.

Figure 1: Distribution of major

minority groups in Yunnan
(original cartography b' Johnson
Ycuiil;. Department ot (ieo^raphy.
296 1 Ioni; Koni» Baptist I niversit' ).

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 GEOGRAPHY

THIS CHANGING
WORLD:
FOCUS ON
YUNNAN

PROVINCE,
CHINA

Geography ©2005

Figure 3: A mural with Dongba pictographs in Lijiang oid town. Photo: Johnson C.H. Yeung.

example, there are five different languages in use

Religion
among the Dai and four among the Naxi. Oral
traditions are often used to pass on local histories,
but the Yi, Bai, Naxi, Tibetan, and Dai peoples have Religious beliefs also vary tremendously between
a documented heritage in studies of astronomy, and within the numerous ethnic minorities in
history, literature, and medicine. Yunnan. Most groups still preserve traits of
Probably the most widely known ethnic indigenous religions that used to thrive locally,
languages are spoken by the Naxi, in the Lijiang such as totemism, animism, and shamanism.
area. This group includes the Dongba, religious
The Bai worship a number of deities who serve
shamans who have played a major role in
as local protectors, although with Kwanyin
traditional Naxi culture and its preservation. The
(Avalokitesvara), a Buddhist Bodhisattva, being
Dongba speak a language, developed around the
the
eleventh century AD, for the purpose of recording
most popular. The Naxi follow the Dongba
and teaching religious rites (Yang, 1999). The religion. Some Naxi and Bai believe in Chinese
Buddhism. Tibetans and a few Naxi believe in
written form of the Dongba language is made up
of pictographic signs and is probably the onlyTibetan Buddhism. Most of the Dai, Bulang,
surviving language in China that has retained suchAchang, and De'ang follow Hinayana Buddhism.
an ancient character (Figure 3). This language has The Hui believe in Islam. Some Jingpo, Lahu, Lisu,
never been extensively practiced, except among Hani, Wa, Dulong, Miao, and Yi nationalities are
the exclusive class of shaman within the Naxi. In Protestants. A small number are Catholics.
recent years, it has nearly become extinct, with Religious beliefs have exerted a tremendous
only a few aged shamans remaining, some impact
of on the cultural heritage of Yunnan.
whom have been helping the Dongba Cultural
Temples were constructed with strict adherence
Institute to translate the ancient texts into
to religious principles. The Tibetan Buddhist
standard Chinese.
monastery in Zhongdian, for instance, was built in
Tourism development in Yunnan may be
such a way that it appears to be a replica of the
proving a benefit for the ancient Dongba
Potala Palace in Lhasa, Tibet (Figure 4). Elegant
language. Tourists find the pictographs fascinating
statues of deities, such as the Kwanyin statue in
and of artistic value. Consequently, local
Dali (Figure 5), have been erected at sacred sites
entrepreneurs make use of Dongba pictographs
in their designs for tourist products, such as that are now attracting tourists, whether they are
souvenirs, T-shirts, paintings, and folk art (Yang,believers or otherwise. In Lijiang, commercial
2001). The 'rediscovery' of the Dongba language ventures, such as restaurants, make use of
in the Lijiang area has made the language religious paintings of Dongba deities as icons to
fashionable and has induced some local people to attract local customers and tourists (Figure 6). 297
learn the language.

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 GEOGRAPHY Family structure
THIS CHANGING
WORLD: Family traditions among some minorities, such
FOCUS ON the Naxi, differ from those normally practiced
YUNNAN most Chinese citizens. For example, it is
PROVINCE, customary that the male shares the household
CHINA chores with the female (Figure 7). Traditional
marital systems vary tremendously between
minority groups. These include monogamy, but
Geography © 2005 also include polygamy, polyandry, and 'group
marriage'. The latter involves no formal marriage,
Figure 4: Tibetan Buddhist monastery in Zhongdian, Yunnan.
but a situation where people live promiscuously,
having sexual relationships with many partners.
However, since the 1950s, government policies
and the influence of the Han have tended to
favour increasing monogamy, which has gradually
been adopted as the norm by most groups.
The Mosuo, in the Ninglang area in northern
Yunnan, adhere to an ancient matriarchal
marriage system known as Azu. Group marriage is
practiced, with inheritance passing through the
female line and the mother acting as the head of

Figure 5: Statue of Kwanyin (Avalokitesvara) in Dali.

Photo: K.K. Wong.

Figure 6: Restaurant decorated with Dongba deities in Lijiang.

298 Figure 7: In contrast to other parts of China, the Naxi males

take a greater share of household responsibilities.

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the family. Couples live separately in their and border areas, or in regions disadvantaged by
GEOGRAPHY
mothers' family homes (McKhann, 1996; Yan and their natural conditions (Xinhua News Agency, 2
Song, 1991; Yuan, 2000; Zhou, 2001). The December 2002). THIS CHANGING

retention of this system partly reflects the remote The great diversity of cultural practices WORLD:
among the many minorities in Yunnan has far-
location of the Mosuo and their isolation from FOCUS ON

outside 'modern' influences. Chinese reaching implications for academic research and YUNNAN

policy studies. Firstly, the existence of the many

anthropologists began to conduct ethnographic PROVINCE,
minority
studies of this nationality in the late 1950s, groups
but makes Yunnan a good base for CHINA

cultural
knowledge about the Mosuo was by and studies,
large promising clues about human
and cultural
constrained to only a few academic circles development. Secondly, the cultural
(Yan
and Song, 1991). In the 1980s, the traits
mass andmedia
artifacts of the minorities, and the Geography ©2005

developed an interest in the Mosuo and province's natural beauty, have led to Yunnan
publicised their traditions widely within China, being an attractive place for tourists and an ideal
labelling them romantically as 'the Kingdom of the locality for the development of a tourism industry.
Daughters'. These stories, in turn, led to a The development of tourism in Yunnan has,
nevertheless, brought about drastic changes to
'curiosity value' being placed on their traditions,
which resulted in an increase in tourist visits. the economy and lifestyle of many minority
Chinese tourists began to travel to the Ninglang
groups, especially those in areas that were
previously inaccessible.
area in the late 1980s, and the tourism industry
Tourism has brought in large amounts of
has now become a major source of income for the
capital, promoted development, and created
Mosuo (Zhou, 2001).
numerous jobs for the people of Yunnan. In 1998,
the provincial government invested 3.1 billion
Implications of cultural
yuan to improve the highways, and spent over 100
million yuan on public works in the major tourist
diversity areas (Yunnan Economic Yearbook, 1999). Such
investments have not only benefited private
developers and public institutions, but also large
Yunnan is a 'poor' province. In terms of economic
numbers of people among the ethnic minorities
development, it lags behind most others,
who have increased their incomes either directly
especially those provinces along the coast in
or indirectly from the resulting boom in tourism.
eastern and south-eastern China. In 1998, the per
By the end of 2001, the number of enterprises and
capita gross domestic product (GDP) in Yunnan
corporations dealing with tourism in Yunnan had
was 4355 yuan, ranking twenty-fifth among the
grown to over 9300, involving an input of funding
31 provinces and autonomous regions in China
from the state, collectives, private individuals, and
(Yunnan Yearbook, 1999). Incomes for rural
foreign investors (Shao 2002). Along with the
households remain low. In 1999, the per capita net
development of tourism, new non-farm jobs have
income of rural households in Yunnan was 1437
been created, such as those in travel agencies,
yuan, considerably below the national figure of entertainment facilities, hotels and restaurants.
2210 yuan (China Statistical Yearbook, 2000). Large numbers of the minority peoples are
Members of the ethnic minorities are probably the
employed as tour guides (Figure 8), stage
poorest inhabitants, given that most of these
groups traditionally live in mountainous and Figure 8: A girl of the Bai nationality working as a tour guide.
remote areas. In 1984, 12 million people were Photo: K.K. Wong.
considered as being poverty stricken in Yunnan, of
whom 78% were ethnic minorities (Shi, 1998). In
2002, the deputy secretary of the Communist
Party of China (CPC) Yunnan Provincial
Committee, Wang Xueren, conceded that of the
43 million people in Yunnan, one-quarter were
poverty stricken, and that the peasants in the
province earned an average annual income of only
1500 yuan (US$180), at least 700 yuan (US$85)
below the national average. Moreover, the poorest
people among Yunnan's poverty-stricken 299

population were concentrated in ethnic minority

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 performers (Figure 9), transport workers,
GEOGRAPHY
restaurant waiters and cooks, or in gift shops
THIS CHANGING specialising in cultural artifacts and souvenirs for
WORLD: tourists (Figures 10 and 11). To pursue personal
FOCUS ON profits from the booming tourist industry, in
YUNNAN Lijiang, for instance, many local families have
PROVINCE, converted their homes into hotels, restaurants
CHINA and internet cafes. In 2000, Lijiang received 3
million visitors, earning the town some 1.5 billion
yuan, and providing employment for over 30,000
Geography ©2005 people (Asian Economic News, 18 June 2001).
Tourism has greatly modified the natural
and cultural ecology of the province. Modern
development, such as the construction of
highways, hotels, theme parks, golf courses, and

Figure 11: Local minority groups often rush to offer souvenirs

to tourists. Photo: K.K. Wong.

Zhongdian and Lijiang Counties (Crevoshay

2002). Increases in the numbers of visitors have
Figure 9: Performers of the Bai nationality on the stage, Dali. created additional pressures related to the
provision of social amenities, such as sewerage
and water supply Moreover, commercialisation
has changed the lifestyle and social values of
minority groups.
In Xishuangbanna, in south-western Yunnan,
for instance, tourism has brought in the influence
of both Han and western cultures, and has been
rapidly depleting the ethnic culture of the Dai
nationality. The Dai people form the major ethnic
group in Xishuangbanna. Since the territory was
first opened up to tourists in the 1980s, as
observed by Yang (2001):
H large numbers of visitors have been pouring in from
elsewhere. Han culture and western culture have been

most rapidly spreading in Banna, and the pace of

cultural transformation has been astonishingly fast.
Figure 10: Yi nationality women preparing costume for
Fewer and fewer Dai people are wearing clothes in Dai
tourists, Stone Forest, Kunming.
style. In most Dai villages, the traditional bamboo Dai
houses have vanished and been replaced by Han-style
related infrastructure, has resulted in urbanisation
brick houses or structures built with reinforced
and the depletion of the natural landscape. There
concrete... Although stores selling souvenirs at tourist
is, for instance, considerable concern that areas are numerous, most of the commodities sold in
tourism development has increasingly damaged the market were manufactured, and imported from
300 the natural environment of fragile wetlands, elsewhere. Items that genuinely reflect the indigenou
grasslands and mountainous areas in Yunnan's ethnic culture are rare (2001, p. 22).

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In Lijiang, the Dongba religion and its entertainment of predominantly Han tourists. The
GEOGRAPHY
situation in Yunnan is not too different from the
pictographic signs are of considerable appeal to
tourists. Dongba antiquities, such as paintingssituation
of that Azarya observed among Maasai THIS CHANGING
Dongba deities and sutras in pictograph, have pastoral groups in Kenya and Tanzania in which WORLD:
become collectable items. The locals sell these tourism: FOCUS ON

items to whoever will pay, resulting in the loss of a YUNNAN

Q generates new sources of income for indigenous people
large number of cultural artifacts from the PROVINCE,
as service workers in the tourism industry as well as the
territory. Yang (2001) has noted that the opportunity of becoming tourism exhibits themselves, CHINA

emergence of tourist interest in the Dongba selling souvenirs, being photographed, opening their
culture, in Nijiang, has contributed not to the camps and villages to visitors, putting on shows of
dances, ceremonies, traditional food, art, customs, Geography
etc. ©2005
preservation, but rather to the destruction of the
While these latter activities incorporate those people in
Naxi people's ethnic heritage.
the new economy, they also 'freeze' them culturally at
In the Ninglang area, the Mosuo people's
the margin of society since it is their marginality that
tradition of group marriage has been at risk ever they exhibit and sell for profit (2004, p. 949).
since the opening up of their territory to tourism.
The expansion of tourism and the consequent Moreover, the marginalisation of ethnic cultures
increase in interaction with non-indigenous reflects the existing imbalance in power between
people has led the Mosuo to question their own the dominant Han people and the subordinate
marriage system. Being lured by the projected minorities in China (Davis, 2001; Oakes, 1995).
images of romance and the 'Kingdom of Tourism development is orchestrated by
daughters', most tourists go to Ninglang to look governmental organs for the purpose of
for free sex without any understanding of the generating as much revenue and accommodating
cultural and historical meanings of the Mosuo as many visitors as possible. Concerns about
marriage system. To avoid being perceived as environmental, biological, and cultural
promiscuous or sexually exotic, the Mosou are preservation are at best regarded as of secondary
feeling pressures to modify their group marriage importance (Crevoshay 2002). Cultural activities,
system, and to conform to the mainstream such as festivals and stage performances, are
Chinese norm of monogamy (Zhou, 2001). adapted and modified in such ways that they can
best suit the needs and the tastes of tourists,
To abandon the custom of group marriage,
however, means an abandonment of the cultural rather than preserving the original intent of such
uniqueness of the Mosuo nationality, a loss of its activities (Davis, 2001). In Lijiang, for instance,
religious rites that used to be performed when
appeal to tourists, and a potential loss of
economic benefits that the ethnic group might worshiping Dongba deities are condensed and
transformed into dances and shows that are
gain from tourism. The tourist industry has put
performed on the stage at hourly intervals so as to
the Mosuo at a crossroads. They are confronted by
fit into the tight schedules of tourist itineraries.
the dilemma of where to go: to develop tourism
The function of such performances has become
further for materialistic and economic gains at the
entertaining and profit making, rather than
expense of their cultural identity, or to preserve
religious.
their cultural uniqueness at the cost of remaining
isolated from the external world.
Conclusion
Marginalisation of
ethnic minorities Tourism can be beneficial and deleterious at the
same time. Geographic isolation and
inaccessibility promote cultural uniqueness in
Tourism development has not only threatened distant
the communities. However, advances in
transport and communication have greatly
cultural heritage of ethnic minorities in Yunnan,
but has also intensified the degree of marginality
improved people's abilities to overcome distance
of minority peoples. Tourism in Yunnan and
has to surmount the hindrance imposed by
generated jobs and provided business difficult terrains on human mobility. The
movements of tourists from one area to another,
opportunities for large numbers of ethnic
minorities. Nevertheless, many of these jobs are in
regionally or internationally, facilitate interactions
the service sector and are menial and of low between people with different cultural values and 301
status, catering for the enjoyment and social norms, and induce inter-cultural exchanges.

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 For better or worse, tourism is a catalyst for References
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