Advances in Hospitality and Tourism Research (AHTR) 2017

An International Journal of Akdeniz University Tourism Faculty Vol. 5 (1)

ISSN: 2147-9100 (Print), 2148-7316 (Online) 1-22
Webpage: http://www.ahtrjournal.org/

LOCAL RESIDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS OF SOCIO-CULTURAL

IMPACTS OF TOURISM IN MANGOCHI, MALAWI

Felix G. BELLO 1
Department of Tourism, Mzuzu University, Mzuzu, Malawi

Neil CARR
Department of Tourism, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand

Brent LOVELOCK
Department of Tourism, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand

Feifei XU
School of Humanities and Social Sciences, Southeast University, Nanjing, China

ABSTRACT
The purpose of this paper is to examine residents’
Article History
perceptions of the socio-cultural impacts of tourism in Received 10 October 2016
Mangochi, Malawi. This paper is based on results of a Revised 11 April 2017
survey of 196 households together with ten key informant Accepted 06 June 2017
interviews. A concurrent triangulation mixed method was
used to ensure well-validated and substantiated findings.
The study findings indicate that local residents perceive
Keywords
specific positive and negative socio-cultural impacts of Malawi
tourism in their community. Some of the positive socio- Residents’ perceptions
cultural impacts of tourism include the provision of jobs; Socio-cultural impacts
improved personal incomes; stimulation of the local Tourist-host encounters
Tourism development
economy and improved security in the destination area.
However, the study also revealed two major negative
socio-cultural impacts of tourism: the migration of people
to the area in search of jobs; and the influence of Western
visitors on local culture and “the way of life” of local
people due to the demonstration effect. The paper indicates
the degree to which local residents perceive different socio-

1
Address correspondence to Felix G. Bello, Department of Tourism, Mzuzu University, Mzuzu,
MALAWI. E-mail: [email protected]

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Bello et al.

cultural impacts of tourism development in an African

local community setting. Therefore, the paper will assist
tourism planners and local government in the planning and
implementation of tourism development strategies for the
area aiming at consolidating local residents’ support for
tourism.

INTRODUCTION

Tourism has become one of the preferred development agents and

economic alternatives to more traditional primary and secondary sectors
in developing countries (Opperman & Chon, 1997). Many developing
countries have regarded tourism as a means for development as it is one
of the economic sectors in which principles of free trade apply. Due to
tourism’s rapid and continuing growth and associated potential economic
contribution, it has been widely regarded as an effective means of
achieving development and poverty alleviation in non-industrialised
countries (Binns & Nel, 2002). In Malawi, a sub-Saharan nation with high
levels of poverty, tourism has been identified as one of the priority sectors
for economic development. The Malawi Growth and Development
Strategy II (2011 – 2016), a national medium-term development strategy,
identifies tourism as a priority sector and champions the development of
wildlife tourism, cultural tourism and adventure tourism (Malawi
Government, 2012).

It is argued that for a tourism industry to thrive and be sustainable,

the support of host communities is essential (Ryan, Chaozhi, & Zeng,
2011). Hence social impact studies that gauge levels of support are a
crucial input to tourism planning and decision making (Tovar &
Lockwood, 2008). This realisation has led to increasing attention being
given to the perceived impacts of tourism development in informing
planning and policy considerations for tourism development (Ap, 1992;
Ap & Crompton, 1998; Lankford, 1994).

Often tourism development is wrongly accused of being the sole

agent of rapid social and cultural change in host communities, and the
attention given to the negative changes overshadows the positive
contributions of tourism development (Sharpley & Telfer, 2002). Though
this is the case, Sharpley and Telfer (2002) argue that socio-cultural
impacts in a destination occur not only through tourism but also through
other globalising vectors such as the international media. Although the
socio-cultural impacts of tourism have been extensively studied,
researchers still identify the need to conduct further work in more diverse

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geographical locations (Tosun, 2002). Most of the studies have also been
contradictory in their findings (Dyer, Gursoy, Sharma, & Carter, 2007) but
Tosun (2002) asserts that the contradictions might be explained by the
differences in the local environment where the studies are conducted as
socio-cultural impacts can significantly be influenced by the place-specific
nature of the host – guest interactions. With this in mind, this paper
assesses the socio-cultural impacts of tourism development in Malawi.
Research on Malawian tourism remains underdeveloped (Rogerson &
Rogerson, 2011) and this paper advances our understanding of the socio-
cultural impacts of tourism in this destination. Ultimately this paper
contributes to a body of knowledge that is key to the successful
development, management and marketing of existing and future tourism
developments (Brunt & Courtney, 1999; Lankford, 1994).

TOURIST – HOST INTERRELATIONSHIPS AND SOCIO-CULTURAL

IMPACTS OF TOURISM

Socio-cultural impacts of tourism can be viewed from different and

overlapping viewpoints: tourism impact studies, tourist – host interaction,
tourist systems and tourists and their behaviour (Cooper, Fletcher, Fyall,
Gilbert, & Wanhill, 2008). Research on the social and cultural impacts of
tourism mostly falls into three categories: the tourist, the host, and the
tourist – host interrelationships. This paper focuses on the tourist – host
interrelationships in order to consider the effects of the contacts between
hosts and guests (Wall & Mathieson, 2006).

The tourist – host interrelationship concept has been central to the

socio-cultural impacts of tourism literature since Smith’s (1977) seminal
collection: “Hosts and guests – The anthropology of tourism”. The research
focus has mostly been on international tourism which often presents a
wider gap between the socio-cultural characteristics of the tourists and
hosts. These differences have a bearing on the magnitude of direct socio-
cultural impacts associated with tourism development (Inskeep, 1991).
Such socio-cultural characteristics include: basic value and logic system,
religious beliefs, traditions, customs, lifestyles, behaviour patterns, dress
code, sense of time and attitudes towards strangers (Inskeep, 1991).

International tourism is considered a major source of intercultural

contact through the tourist – host encounters in the contemporary world
as tourists from industrialised nations visit destinations in the developing
countries (Dogan, 1989). In most developing world destinations such as

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Malawi, international tourists find their encounters with local

communities fascinating and unique as the host is usually from a different
culture while the hosts may see the meetings as one of those many
superficial relationships they have to go through during a tourist season
(Wall & Mathieson, 2006). Local hosts may take advantage of such
encounters and become exploitative by providing tourists with simplified
and condensed experiences of the area (Cohen, 1988; Wall & Mathieson,
2006). As such, tourism may commercialise the usual spontaneous
hospitality activities in these destinations. The tourist – host relationships
are also viewed to be unequal and unbalanced in most cases as hosts feel
inferior to tourists due to their apparent wealth (Wall & Mathieson, 2006).

Negative socio-cultural impacts

Tourism needs the support from local residents in a destination to strive

and this realisation has eventually led to increasing attention being given
to the perceived impacts of tourism development (Ap & Crompton, 1998).
Tourism development brings in changes in a host community which affect
people’s habits, daily routines, social lives, beliefs and values (Dogan,
1989). Some of the major negative socio-cultural impacts of tourism
include: the demonstration effect, commodification, staged authenticity,
increase in crime, prostitution, overcrowding and loss of amenities for
residents, neo-colonisation, relocation of traditional settlements, drug
abuse, alcoholism, vandalism, and breaking up of family structures
(Archer, Cooper, & Ruhanen, 2005; Cohen, 2004; Cooper et al., 2008;
Inskeep, 1991; Mason, 2008; Mathieson & Wall, 1982; Mbaiwa, 2005;
Pizam, 1978; Shaw & Williams, 2002).

Demonstration effect

The demonstration effect is one of the direct aspects of socio-cultural

impacts of tourism which happens when tourists influence the behaviour
of the host population (Cooper et al., 2008). This happens due to the
introduction of foreign ideologies and ways of life into societies or
communities that have not been exposed to lifestyles of tourists (Bryden,
1973). Mathieson and Wall (1982) argue that international tourists display
unusual behaviour on vacations as there are fewer constraints and as a
consequence hosts develop a misconception about tourists. As such most
host communities in developing countries start to desire foreign

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commodities or adopt ways of living displayed by tourists (Shaw &

Williams, 2002).

The local population’s aspirations to the material standards and

values of tourists lead to copying of tourists’ consumption patterns and
the young members of the community are more susceptible to the
demonstration effect (Mathieson & Wall, 1982). The adoption of the
foreign values by a host community can also lead to premature departure
to modernisation producing rapid and disruptive changes to the society
(Shaw & Williams 2002). These disruptive changes include international
and intra-national migration as employment opportunities created by
tourism in resort towns facilitate the movement of people in many
countries (Mathieson & Wall, 1982). The demonstration effect is taken to
be beneficial if the local residents are motivated to get better education to
improve their living standards (Shaw & Williams, 2002).

Commodification

Cohen (2004) defined commodification as a process by which things and

activities are evaluated in monetary value in a trade context thereby
becoming goods and services. Tourism has a corrupting effect brought by
the cheapening of artistic values or the commoditisation of local traditions
and customs, for instance, the performance of religious or historical
ceremonies on demand, out of context and for monetary reward (Pearce,
1989). As a result, commoditisation leads to the organisation of pseudo-
events which are planned, designed to be performed to order by tourists
and have minimal relationship to real elements on which they are based
(Mason, 2008).

Culture loses its objective when it becomes a commodity for

financial transactions and usually crafts, ceremonies and rituals are
exploited, made more colourful, dramatic and spectacular in order to
attract the attention of tourists (Cooper et al., 2008). It should be noted
that these pseudo-events can eventually become authentic events
replacing the original events or practice and there is a danger for the hosts
to forget the true meaning and significance of the practice or event
overtime (Mason, 2008). Cohen (2004) also argues that commoditisation
can lead to the exploitation of the local residents and their cultural
resources by outsiders as the process is mostly initiated by culture-brokers
and entrepreneurs from outside the local community.

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Staged authenticity

In most destinations, there is now an increasing demand for tourism

products that offer cultural authenticity (Cooper et al., 2008). In a bid to
provide tourists with sufficient cultural exposure to satisfy their demands
while preserving the true cultural identity of the host community, the local
residents opt for staged authenticity (Cooper et al., 2008). In staged
authenticity, the host community strives to convince the tourists that the
festivals and activities being performed are authentic while they still
ensure that the tourists do not manage to penetrate behind the stage
curtains (Archer et al., 2005; Cooper et al., 2008). But it is argued that this
approach can lead to increasing levels of penetration by tourists when the
firewall curtains continue to retreat when trying to provide greater tourist
experiences and diversity in a competitive tourism market (Cooper et al.,
2008). With this situation, the host population will find it difficult to
maintain the integrity and pride of their culture.

Prostitution

In many destinations sexual exploitation and/or prostitution has grown

rapidly as tourism and more recently a major tourism market has grown
up around sex tourism with Thailand, the Gambia and some Central
European countries marketing the sexual content of their products
(Cooper et al., 2008). It should be noted that prostitution existed before
the growth of mass tourism (Mathieson & Wall, 1982), but it is argued that
tourism development has created locations and environments which
attract prostitutes and their clients. A study by Mbaiwa (2005) in the
Okavango Delta in Botswana also found out that tourism increased
prostitution in the area as prostitutes target tourists and business people
from other urban areas visiting the destination. Shaw and Williams (2002)
also contend that tourism development often creates a favourable
environment for prostitutes and the breaking of moral bonds of behaviour
by tourists when they are away from home usually leads to the expansion
of prostitution in host communities. Although tourism increases the
dividends of the prostitution trade, it is not solely responsible for it (Shaw
& Williams, 2002). At the meantime, the proliferation of AIDS is slowing
down the growth of prostitution or the sex element in the tourism
industry though many tourists from industrialised countries usually relax
their sexual morals during vacations (Cooper et al., 2008).

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Crime

Crime is another aspect of negative socio-cultural impact of tourism

associated with tourism. Though the link between crime and tourism has
been suggested, it is hard to establish whether crime increases simply
because of tourism or the increased population density or urbanisation
(Cooper et al., 2008). Though this is the case, a number of studies indicate
that crime is one of the negative impacts perceived by local residents in a
destination. Vandalism, drug abuse and disorderly behaviour are some of
the crimes which are perceived by local residents as the most negative of
the impacts of tourism development (Pizam, 1978). The presence of large
numbers of tourists in a tourist area usually provides the source for illegal
activities including drug trafficking, robbery and violence which have
been reported in Brazil, Florida and Jamaica (Cooper et al., 2008). Studies
by Ap (1990), Ap and Crompton (1998), Brunt and Courtney (1999), and
Mason and Cheyne (2000) also confirm that tourism increases rates of
crime in a destination area.

Neo-colonisation

One extreme perception of tourism development and its effects is the view
that it is a form of colonialism and imperialism (Mathieson & Wall, 1982).
It is argued that though most developing countries do not have any legal
ties with metropolitan powers, economic relationships between them are
still considered essential hence tourism is regarded as a neo-colonial
activity. Tourism in most developing countries is dominated by foreign
companies where most better paying and managerial jobs are occupied by
expatriates (Mbaiwa, 2005). With the domination of foreign companies,
tourism is characterised by leakages, thereby wealth is transferred from
the destination area to points of tourist generation, as the most goods
consumed by tourists are imported (Mathieson & Wall, 1982).

Relocation of local communities from their traditional settlements and

exploitation of local residents

Tourism development has forced communities to move from their

traditional settlements to pave way for the construction of tourist facilities
and establishments and wildlife management (Mbaiwa, 2005; Archer et al.,
2005). Such movements completely disrupt the way of life of local people.
Holloway (2006) gives examples of the removal of Masai tribesmen from

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their Ngorongoro lands in Tanzania, to allow tourists free movement to

photograph wildlife and in Botswana the Gana and Gwi Bushmen have
been evicted from their land in the central Kalahari game reserve to open
the area to tourism. Exploitation of porters has been reported in many
mountainous destination areas such as in Mt Kilimanjaro, in the
Himalayas and on the Inca Trail in Peru where porters carry heavy loads
of up to 60kgs and dressed in inadequate protective clothing (Holloway,
2006).

Overcrowding and loss of amenities for residents

In most cases, local residents become irritated and resentful when amenity
features, shopping and community facilities become congested by tourists
(Inskeep, 1991). Such overcrowding greatly inconveniences the local
residents making them feel out of place in their own area. At times local
beaches are even closed off to the local population by physical barriers
such as fences denying local residents access to a public amenity (Inskeep,
1991). It should be noted that with continued developments, tourism may
exceed community tolerance thresholds to increased congestion, noise,
littering, rising prices and changes to customary ways of life which
eventually leads to antagonism (Ross, 1998).

Positive socio-cultural impacts

Some of the positive socio-cultural impacts of tourism include: improving

quality of life, increasing the availability of recreational facilities,
improving quality of public social services such as fire and police
protection, improving understanding of other cultures, preserving cultural
heritage and promoting cultural exchange (Ap & Crompton, 1998).

Economic benefits and improvement of quality of life

The economic benefits of tourism which include provision of income and

employment improve people’s quality of life in a destination (Inskeep,
1991). Tourism serves as a catalyst for the development of other related
sectors such as construction, agriculture and fisheries hence the economic
benefits are further enhanced (Inskeep, 1991). The economic benefits to
local residents can further be improved through community based

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tourism initiatives where the local residents are actively involved in

tourism activities. In Botswana, the Wildlife Conservation Policy of 1986
and the Tourism Policy of 1990 led to the foundation of community based
tourism and natural resource management programmes which increased
opportunities for local residents hence improving their standards of living
(Mbaiwa, 2005).

Improvement of Infrastructure and social services

Tourism development comes with improved and better infrastructure in a

destination which enhances the quality of life of the local community
(Cooper et al., 2008). This is evidenced by development of improved
water supply and sewage treatment systems, airports, roads, and
electricity supply. In most tourist areas, local residents also have the
opportunity to access new restaurants and a better range of food and
beverages. Inskeep (1994) argues that revenue from tourism helps to pay
for improvements to community facilities and services. Tourism
development also facilitates provision of improved security by the police
and fire protection in a destination area (Ap & Crompton, 1998). Studies
by Pizam (1978), Milman and Pizam (1988), Lankford (1994), and Tovar
and Lockwood (2008) confirm that tourism development improves
infrastructure and social services to people in a destination area.

Cultural Rejuvenation, renewal of cultural pride and conservation of

cultural heritage

Tourism development promotes the rejuvenation and preservation of

cultural products and practices as indicated by Mbaiwa (2005) that in
Botswana, tourism has rejuvenated traditional villages providing services
to tourists such as accommodation in traditional huts, traditional dishes,
music and dance, use of dug-in-canoes for safaris, production of baskets
and other traditional wooden – engraved products and beads. It should
be noted that as part of tourism development the traditional villages in
Botswana promote and preserve culture that would have died by now
without tourism (Mbaiwa, 2005). Tourism puts new life into ceremonies,
rituals, old skills and crafts through tourists and this inspires pride in a
destination’s heritage and culture as it is re-valued (Cooper et al., 2008).
Inskeep (1991) also contends that tourists’ appreciation of traditional

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cultures brings a sense of pride to local people in their culture thereby

maintaining cultural identity of even minority cultural groups in a society.

Tourism also stimulates the conservation of cultural heritage of an

area and these elements of cultural heritage include archaeological and
historical sites, traditional arts, handcrafts, dance, music, drama, customs,
ceremonies and dress (Inskeep, 1991). Revenue realised from tourism also
assists the development and maintenance of museums, theatres and other
cultural heritage facilities (Inskeep, 1991; Inskeep, 1994; Tovar &
Lockwood, 2008). It is also argued that tourism development coupled
with good community tourism planning approaches can change peoples’
negative attitudes to wildlife conservation for the better as socio-economic
benefits start accruing to the local communities (Mbaiwa, 2005).

STUDY AREA

The study was conducted in Mangochi district which is situated in the

Southern region of Malawi. Mangochi district covers the southern end of
Lake Malawi and is one of Malawi’s premier tourism destinations with a
high concentration of tourist facilities and establishments along the
shoreline of Lake Malawi. Lake Malawi is Malawi’s iconic tourist
attraction and the southern end of the lake is the major tourist hotspot on
the lake. The lake is popular for snorkelling, kayaking, swimming and
scuba diving. The southern end of the lake also forms the Lake Malawi
National Park which is the world’s first fresh water national park and was
declared a World Heritage Site in 1984 to protect the diversity of marine
life more especially various species of fish most of which are endemic
(UNESCO, n.d). In addition to attracting international tourists, Mangochi
is one of the most preferred lakeside tourism destinations for domestic
tourism as it is easily accessible from two of Malawi’s major cities of
Blantyre and Lilongwe.

International tourist arrivals to Malawi have grown from 227,600 in

2000 to 804,912 in 2015 (Department of Tourism, 2016). The key regional
source markets were South Africa, Zimbabwe, Mozambique, Zambia and
Tanzania. The major non-African tourist markets are the United Kingdom,
the Netherlands, Germany, USA and China (Department of Tourism,
2016). The travel and tourism sector in Malawi continues to show signs of
great potential growth. The WTTC (2017) estimated that in 2016, travel
and tourism directly contributed 3.4% of Malawi total GDP and 217,500

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jobs (2.9% of total employment). There are no specific tourism statistics for
Mangochi as a tourist town.

The predominant ethnic group in the district is the Yao but the
Nyanjas or Chewas have a significant presence in some of the villages
within the study area (Mangochi District Assembly, 2009). Yao is the main
language spoken in the district but Chichewa is widely spoken as well.
The people of Mangochi have maintained most of their traditions and
have a distinct culture which is evident in their initiation ceremonies,
dress code, dances and chieftainships (Mangochi District Assembly, 2009).

STUDY METHOD

The study on which this paper is based used a mixed methods research
approach. Data on residents’ perceptions of the socio-cultural impacts of
tourism in Mangochi were collected using a questionnaire survey and key
informant interviews with local people in the area between 2009 and 2012.
Creswell (2009) indicates that mixed methods research is an approach to
inquiry that combines or associates both qualitative and quantitative
forms whereby the qualitative and quantitative data can be merged into
one large database or the results can be used side by side to reinforce each
other where the qualitative material supports the quantitative results. The
three general strategies used in mixed methods research are sequential,
concurrent and transformative mixed methods. In this study a concurrent
triangulation strategy was used where the two databases were compared
“to determine if there is convergence, differences, or some combination”
(Creswell, 2009: 213).

Questionnaires provide a means to gather and record information

on the incidence of attitudes, meanings and perceptions in a population
and they are also a good means of capturing a complete picture of a
person’s patterns of participation in tourism activities (Veal, 2006). The
villages in which this research was carried out have a population of about
5, 939 (National Statistics Office, 2008). In the survey, 200 interviewer
completed questionnaires were administered to households in Mangochi,
resulting in 196 usable questionnaires, representing a 98% response rate.
Out of all the questionnaire survey respondents, 133 (67.9%) were male
and 63 (32.1%) were female. This is a reflection of Malawian culture which
is dominated by paternal authority. Most of the respondents were aged
between 25 and 34 representing 42.8%. Only 42.9% of the respondents
work or one of their family members works in the tourism industry while

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57.1% of the respondents do not economically depend on tourism. The

local residents in the study area have low levels of formal education as
70.41% of the respondents had only gone as far as primary school with
their education and only 2.55% of the respondents had college
qualifications. The researcher adopted a quasi-random sampling method.
In quasi-random sampling, the first item is selected at random and the
subsequent selections are systematically related to the first (Clark, Riley,
Wilkie, & Wood, 1998). After the random selection of the first household,
the questionnaires were administered at every seventh household in the
study area. At each household, family members were responsible for
selecting the respondent to the survey.

The questionnaire included 15 items on both positive and negative

impacts drawn from the existing socio-cultural impacts of tourism
literature (e.g. Andereck, Valentine, Knopf, & Vogt, 2005; Ap & Crompton,
1998; Brunt & Courtney, 1999; Cohen, 2004; Dogan, 1989; Gu & Wong,
2006; Gursoy & Rutherford, 2004; Lankford & Howard, 1994; Mason &
Cheyne, 2000; Mbaiwa, 2005; Milman & Pizam, 1988; Northcote &
Macbeth, 2006; Ryan et al., 2011; Shaw & Williams, 2002; Tovar &
Lockwood, 2008). The impact variables for this study were measured
using a five-point Likert scale. As observed by Maddox (1985), impacts of
tourism have mostly been measured using five-point scales.

Due to their flexibility, ten key informant semi-structured

interviews were carried out to complement the survey as they provided an
avenue for more probing on various topics or issues under study (Briggs,
1986). The interview participants included five males and five females and
all the interviews were digitally recorded. The participants included
tourism officials (2), local traditional leaders (5), and hotel managers (3).
Purposive and snowball sampling techniques were used to select the
participants for the interviews. The qualitative data was analysed using
thematic analysis. The analysis involved transcription of all the interviews,
generation of codes, searching for themes, reviewing of themes, defining
and naming of themes and production of a report (Braun & Clarke, 2006).
For the quantitative data, after checking all the completed questionnaires,
all the questions were coded in readiness for data entry. The data was
then analysed using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS).

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RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The local residents have a very positive attitude towards the existing
tourism development and the presence of tourists in the area. 84% of the
respondents favoured tourism development in the area. Similarly, 78.5%
of the respondents favoured the presence of tourists in the area. This
supports Ryan et al.’s (2011) recognition that in most developing tourist
destinations where tourism development is still in its early stages local
residents are mostly in support of tourism development. Within the
overall positive view of tourism, the respondents identified specific
positive and negative socio-cultural impacts of tourism in their
community as shown in Table 1.

Table 1: Residents’ perceptions of socio-cultural impacts of tourism development

Positive Impacts Mean Std.
Deviation
Tourism provides jobs for local residents 4.01 0.871
Tourism activities have improved personal income of the local 4.05 0.812
people
Tourism is good because the money spent by tourists stimulates 4.01 0.723
the local economy and is good for the local businesses
Tourism promotes development and better maintenance of 3.19 1.305
public facilities
Tourism has improved security in the area 3.48 1.200
Tourism has rejuvenated the local culture 3.34 1.022
Tourism is conserving your cultural heritage which could have 3.09 1.140
died
Negative Impacts
Tourism has increased crime in the area 1.53 0.761
Tourism has increased prostitution and sex permissiveness in 2.83 1.536
the area
Tourism denies local people access to beaches 3.14 1.414
Tourism developments have forced local people to be 2.14 1.018
relocated from their traditional settlements
Tourism leads to increases in the local prices of some goods and 3.07 1.342
services including land
Tourism has stimulated migration of people to the area in 3.86 1.065
search for jobs and related tourism opportunities
Tourism has changed the way of life of people by following the 3.52 1.390
western culture in their dress, behaviour, food
Tourism has led to loss of objectivity of local traditions 2.55 1.241
Mean scores Interpretation
1 – 1.8 = Strongly disagree
1.81 – 2.6 = Disagree
2.61 – 3.4 = Unsure
3.41 – 4.2 = Agree
4.21 – 5.0 = Strongly agree.

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Positive Socio-cultural Impacts

Out of the seven positive impacts of tourism development, the

respondents agreed with four statements. The residents agreed that
tourism provides jobs for the local residents (Mean = 4.01), tourism
improves personal income of the local people (Mean = 4.05), tourism
stimulates the local economy (Mean = 4.01) and that tourism improves
security in a tourist area (Mean = 3.48). These results conform to the
findings highlighted by Inskeep (1991) and Cooper et al (2008). The
survey findings were also corroborated by one villager who said:

“...Mangochi has been transformed because of tourism. There are a lot of

tourism investments in Mangochi employing a lot of people from across
the country. We are the primary beneficiaries of the employment
opportunities around here, whatever jobs we get from these tourism
establishments...... The people now have some improvement on their
personal incomes........ I can say that people’s lives have been transformed
for the better because of tourism development.”

The tourism industry’s ability to create job opportunities for local

people around Mangochi emerged as one of the most important positive
impacts of tourism development. The local people value the employment
opportunities which have been created by the tourism industry. It was
observed that the tourism industry provides employment opportunities
for the local people and others from across the country. As noted by
Snyman (2012: 395); income from tourism employment in Southern
African countries such as Malawi enables “households to invest in assets,
education and ‘luxury’ goods” and improves “financial security and social
welfare” in local communities around tourism establishments.

Most participants explained that most of the local people within the
study area are mainly dependent on either fishing or subsistence farming
and the tourism activities are playing a greater role in stimulating the local
economy. The tourism industry has led to the development of hotels,
restaurants and other related businesses which provide a ready market for
fish and most of the other local agricultural produce such as maize, rice
and vegetables. The increasing number of tourists visiting the area has
also resulted in high demand for curios and other artworks such as
paintings and handcrafts such that there is an increasing number of stalls

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owned by local people selling curios and artworks. This supports findings
by Gursoy and Rutherford (2004), Dyer et al. (2007), and Ryan et al. (2011)
who indicate that tourism development brings in more business
opportunities for local people.

The findings from both the survey and interviews have claimed
that tourism has improved security in the area. In one location within the
study area, Cape Maclear, local residents indicated that the increased
security was a result of tourism operators request to government which
led to the opening of a police unit in the area. It was observed that without
tourism development, the area which is an enclave within Lake Malawi
National Park could not have its own police unit due to its relatively low
population. This confirms Lankford and Howard (1994) and Ap and
Crompton’s (1998) findings that the presence of tourists and tourism
development in an area improves security as local authorities find it
necessary to provide a secure environment for tourism businesses and
tourists.

As seen in Table 1, the respondents were not sure (Mean = 2.61 –

3.4) about three of the positive socio-cultural impacts of tourism
development. It was noted by one local community respondent that as a
community they could not attribute the maintenance of public facilities in
the area to tourism development because local people “expect the
government to keep all public facilities in the area in good working order with or
without tourism development”. On cultural rejuvenation and conservation,
the result (unsure) in this research can be attributed to the fact that local
residents in the study area still have high regard for their traditional
ceremonies and dances which continue to be performed outside of a
tourism context. Consequently, respondents could not attribute cultural
rejuvenation and conservation to tourism.

Negative Socio-cultural Impacts

The second part of the survey encompassed eight statements on the

negative socio-cultural impacts of tourism development. The local
residents only agreed with two of the negative socio-cultural impacts.
They agreed that tourism has changed the way of life of people by
following the Western culture in their dress, behaviour and food (Mean =
3.52). The local residents are of the view that the most affected are the
youth and local tour guides as indicated by one villager:

15
Bello et al.

“…the only problem is the behaviour of our young boys, mainly tour
guides and vendors of arts and crafts at Cape Maclear. The behaviour of
these boys is not in line with our culture, their dressing and language has
totally changed due to the western tourists’ influence.”

This is consistent with Mathieson and Wall (1982) and Brunt and
Courtney (1999) who indicate that a demonstration effect can accompany
tourism development whereby local residents imitate the way of life of
tourists. The local population’s aspirations to the material standards and
values of tourists lead to copying of tourists’ consumption patterns and
the young members of the community are more susceptible to this
demonstration effect (Mbaiwa, 2005). The demonstration effect can be
viewed to be beneficial if the local residents are motivated to get better
education to improve their living standards (Shaw & Williams, 2002).

The local residents agreed that tourism stimulates migration of

people to a tourist area in search of jobs and other tourism related
opportunities (Mean = 3.86). It was explained by one local resident that a
good number of workers in tourist facilities and establishments in
Mangochi come from other districts as most local residents do not have
the minimum qualifications to secure most of the jobs on offer in the
tourism industry.

The local residents were unsure about three negative socio-cultural

impacts of tourism in the study area. The findings of the research show
that the local respondents were not sure whether tourism denies local
people access to the beaches (Mean = 3.14); whether tourism has led to an
increase in prices of goods and services (Mean = 3.07); and whether
tourism has increased prostitution and sexual permissiveness in the area
(Mean = 2.83). The study area being a lakeshore destination where the lake
is central to the local people’s livelihood, access to the lake is important for
the local people. The respondents were unsure as to whether the tourism
development in the area is hindering access to the beaches or the lake for
them.

On prostitution, the results indicate that the local residents are not
sure whether tourism has increased prostitution in the area. It was
explained by the local residents that it would not be proper to attribute
prostitution in the area only to tourism as the study area is in a district
with a higher level of sexual permissiveness compared to other districts in
the country. Such permissiveness is mainly blamed on the traditional

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 Advances in Hospitality and Tourism Research, 5 (1)

initiation ceremonies for both boys and girls where it is alleged the youth
are told they have matured and are ready to engage in sexual activities.
This tradition has been widely criticised for encouraging early and
underage marriages in the district. It was however, indicated that
prostitutes move to the area as there is conducive infrastructure
supporting their trade and most of their clients are domestic tourists.
These are usually people working in both the public and private sectors
who mostly visit the area to attend meetings and conferences. As noted by
Mbaiwa (2005) in most developing countries, prostitution is common in
areas visited by tourists hence hotels, lodges and night clubs can be
assumed to be contributing to prostitution.

The results of this research contradict Lankford and Howard (1994)

and Mbaiwa (2005) who indicate that tourism can increase crime in a
tourist area as the respondents disagreed with this negative impact of
tourism. The respondents also disagreed that tourism developments force
people to be relocated from their traditional settlements. As explained by
one of the local leaders:

“...no traditional settlements have been relocated due to tourism

developments. For example, here at Chembe Village (in Cape Maclear), we
are an enclave village within the Lake Malawi National Park; we have not
been moved by any tourism developments…..those selling their customary
land to tourism entrepreneurs are doing so at their own will, nobody is
forcing them…. And what you will see is that they only sell a portion of
their land and continue living on the other part, they are not leaving the
village at all.”

The respondents also disagreed that tourism development has led

to a loss of objectivity of local traditions. It was explained by one local
resident that although Mangochi has significant tourism development, the
culture and traditions of the Yao people have not been affected in anyway.
It was noted that the local people in the area have a strong belief in
following their traditions as evidenced by the strict adherence to initiation
ceremonies for both boys and girls. Although that is the case, traditional
dance performances for tourists at various accommodation units in
Mangochi are now becoming a common feature. One of the most
commonly performed traditional dances for tourists is the ‘Gule
Wamkulu’. Gule Wamkulu is a ritual dance performed by members of the

17
Bello et al.

Nyau brotherhood, a secret society of initiated men among the Chewa

people. The fact that this traditional dance belongs to the Chewa people
who are a minority in the district might explain the respondents’
perception that tourism development has not led to any loss of objectivity
of their local traditions.

Cohen (2004) defines commodification as a process by which things

and activities are evaluated in monetary value in a trade context thereby
becoming goods and services. Although tourism can improve cultural
values and activities in a destination (Oviedo-Garcia, Castellanos, &
Martin-Ruiz, 2008) it may have a corrupting effect on culture. Tourism can
cheapen artistic values or commercialise local traditions and customs
through activities such as the performance of religious, historical, or
traditional ceremonies on demand, out of context and for monetary
reward (Pearce, 1989). As a result, commoditisation leads to the
organisation of pseudo-events which are planned, designed to be
performed to order by tourists and have minimal relationship to the
elements on which they are based (Mason, 2008). It was explained by one
local community respondent that “most of the people who perform
GuleWamkulu are not initiated members of the Nyau brotherhood but only
perform for tourists to get money”.

The other negative socio-cultural impact of tourism which emerged

from the in-depth interviews could prove to be volatile for the sector and
the area as it encompasses traces of racism and exploitation of local
workers by foreign owners of tourism establishments. One villager
explained that:

“…the other problem emerging now is racism and exploitation of workers;

there are conflicts here [Cape Maclear] between local people and foreign
lodge owners with racist’s remarks and practices being the major concern
for us. These foreign lodge owners favour fellow foreigners in jobs which
can ably be done by local people and those who are lucky to be employed
are mostly treated unfairly and underpaid.”

The emergence of racism and exploitation of local workers in the

area supports the findings of Mbaiwa (2005) who noted racism among
foreign tourism operators in the Okavango Delta, Botswana. Racism is
among other things, characterised by foreign operators discriminating

18
 Advances in Hospitality and Tourism Research, 5 (1)

against locals, unfair treatment and unfair dismissal of local workers by

foreign employers and the unpleasant working conditions local people
that they are subjected to by employers.

CONCLUSION

This paper has examined local residents’ perceptions towards socio-

cultural impacts of tourism in Mangochi, a tourist destination in Malawi.
The literature review identified several impacts of tourism as a result of
tourism development and the tourist–host interrelationships. A concurrent
triangulation strategy was used to determine the perceived socio-cultural
impacts of tourism on the local communities.

The local residents perceive that the tourism development is

creating employment opportunities, improving local peoples’ incomes,
and stimulating the local economy. Residents in Mangochi also agreed
that tourism has improved security in their local communities. However,
the local residents agreed that tourism has changed their way of life, with
some people, particularly the youth population, following western
cultural norms and values in terms of their dress, food and behaviour.
Tourism was also perceived to have stimulated migration of people to
Mangochi in search for jobs and related tourism opportunities.

As noted by Jurowski and Gursoy’s (2004) research on residents’

perceptions towards tourism and its effects will continue to be of interest
as the sustainability of tourism development is highly dependent on local
people’s goodwill. Therefore, the findings highlighted in this paper can
assist tourism planners and local authorities in the planning and
implementation of tourism development strategies for the area aiming at
consolidating local residents’ support for tourism. It is appropriate to
know residents’ perceptions on tourism impacts in order to incorporate
community reaction into tourism planning and development. Therefore,
future research could focus on examining the factors that affect local
residents’ participation in tourism.

The gradual development of tourism in Mangochi is highly

commendable as the local communities have time to adapt to the
development but there is great need for the local communities to be
educated about tourism and learn how best to participate in its benefits.
The Government tourism planners should introduce tourism awareness
programmes for local residents to let them know about the concepts,

19
Bello et al.

benefits and problems of local tourism development. Furthermore, the

Government should start involving the local communities in Mangochi in
the tourism planning process to ensure that the development is sensitive
to its social and cultural impacts. It should be noted that given the
opportunity local communities can organize and represent themselves
effectively such that their contributions in the planning process could be
vital (Brohman, 1996).

The Government through the Department of Tourism should have

control of tourism developments in the area to ensure that only
appropriate tourism facilities and establishments are constructed and
opened in the area. There is currently no restriction or control on the type
of tourism facilities being opened in the area as there are no tourism
zoning regulations in place. There is need to preserve the local
architectural styles and encourage new tourism developments to use
similar styles as advocated by Inskeep (1994) as a way of conserving
culture and traditions. In order to enhance tourism benefits for the local
people, the Government should consider educating the local communities
in Mangochi on home stays; a pilot project in one of the villages would be
ideal for a start. The private sector operating in the tourism sector should
also be encouraged to support the home stay concept. Further to this, the
private sector and Government should collaborate to support the local
communities by constructing some infrastructure (e.g. curio stalls or
shops) for the local communities where they can be selling their arts and
crafts to tourists. This would improve local people’s access to tourists
when they want to sell their products to them.

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