UNIT IV - CALENDERING

 Calendering is a specialty process for the manufacture of large-volume and high-quality

products, mainly vinyl (PVC) film and sheet.
 Modified PE, PP, ABS, and other thermoplastics can also be calendered. An important
area in the calendering of film is the ability of surface treatment, such as embossing films
or enhancing the physical properties of the films by stretching.
 In the calendering process, the polymer is melted and compounded with heat and pressure
in an extruder/kneader. Then, the film is formed by the pressure of the calendering rolls.
Special features of the film are defined by formulation and processing conditions. A
typical calendering line comprises the following equipment.

Raw Material Bulk Handling & Mixing Unit

For the production of film, the ingredients can include both solid and liquid raw materials. Solids
are conveyed pneumatically from silos into bins; weighed in batches; and dropped into a high-
speed mixer. Liquids are metered into the mixer by piston pumps or other volumetric metering
devices.

Compounding & Calender Feeding

Compounding is done in continuous mixers. The dry blend is force-fed into the extruder.
Uniform compounding provides for minimal heat history and consistent feed rate, color, gauge,
and surface.

Calendering Configuration

Generally, the film industry distinguishes between two dominant calender types, “L” and
“Inverted L,” with roll configurations from 3-7 rolls. These rolls are driven and temperature
controlled. The temperature and speed of the rolls influence the properties of the calendered film.
Tempering Rolls/Embossing Unit

The film passes between an embossing roll and a cooled rubber roll. The embossing unit is used
to imprint special features on the film. A variety of surfaces can be applied to the embossing roll
to generate a desired surface effect.

Winding Station

The winding station includes cutting devices for edge trimming and in-line slitting of rolls.

EMBOSSING CALENDER

The function of an embossing calender is to impart a texture or pattern to the surface of the
fabric. It can be accomplished on all types of fabrics including woven, non-woven and knitted
cloth. The mechanical action is the same as that of the rolling Calender but with the addition of a
pattern engraved upon the steel roll..
.

Types of calenders/ ROLL CONFIGURATION

Calenders are generally made of high quality close grained cast iron, chilled on the surface to a
depth of 0.75 inches, and have surface hardness of 500-520°Brinell. The working faces of the
rolls are precisely finished and ground for concentricity and “crown”. Also the rolls are ground
internally to ensure uniform wall thickness to ensure uniform heating and cooling.

Sizes of Calenders

Diameter and length of Calender depend on the application that the Calender is intended to be
used. The ratio of the length to the diameter is a major factor in determining the
stability of the equipment against deflection stresses caused by load

Roll Types

1. Cored Rolls:

Mould cast with cores internally and is machined on the outer surface only.Will have variations
in wall thickness due to casting irregularities inherent in the process.
2. Centrally Bored Rolls:

Mould cast with cores internally and is machined internally Rolls are heavy – so the heat transfer
will be slow and uneven. May develop “Hot Spots “during processing

3. Peripherally drilled Rolls:

When line speed increases (above 30-40 mpm), the fast heat transfer required will not be
possible with centrally bored holes The peripherally drilled rolls are equipped with
channels close below the roll surface. With the heat transfer media passing at a relatively high
speed through these channels, the roll surface temperature can be adjusted to a tolerance range
of ±1 °C

Maintaining the rolls at the correct temperature is most critical to the right quality of the product.
The decision of the roll is therefore the next most important decision after machine stability.

TYPES OF CALENDERS

 3 ROLL CALENDERS, 4 ROLL CALENDERS

I Type

Fig 1: Roller setup in a typical 'I' type calendar

The I type, as seen in Figure 1, was for many years the standard calender used. It can also be
built with one more roller in the stack. This design was not ideal though because at each nip
there is an outward force that pushes the rollers away from the nip.

L Type

Fig 2: Roller setup in a typical inverted 'L' type calender

The L type is the same as seen in Figure 2 but mirrored vertically. Both these setups have
become popular and because some rollers are at 90o to others their roll separating forces have
less effect on subsequent rollers. L type calenders are often used for processing rigid vinyls and
inverted L type calenders are normally used for flexible vinyls.
Z Type

Fig 3: Roller setup in a typical 'Z' type calender

The z type calender places each pair of rollers at right angles to the next pair in the chain. This
means that the roll separating forces that are on each roller individually will not effect any other
rollers. Another feature of the Z type calender is that is that they lose less heat in the sheet
because as can be seen in Figure 3 the sheet travels only a quarter of the roller circumference to
get between rollers. Most other types this is about half the circumference of the roller.
 Rigid PVC manufacturers usual prefer the L-type with four to seven rolls being fed from
the floor level. Since there is no disturbing vapors from lower calender rolls within the
pickoff area, it is preferable to have the pickoff rolls on an elevated level.

 Flexible PVC is commonly processed using a 4-roll inverted L- or an F-type.

 A universal five roll L calender is used for rigid or flexible PVC film.

 It provides heat stability and superior film control with good surface appearance. The
major difference between this universal machine and the others is in mounting and
placement of the first roll. These systems enable the plasticizer- saturated vapors to
escape via the usual suction hood located above the calender where they are filtered
before being released to the atmosphere.
Methods to control Roll Deflection

Roller deflection is bending due to its dimensions, material, and the load being applied to the roll
in its particular application.

Therefore, roll crowning is one common method of reducing the nip variation caused by roller
deflection. The other benefit of crowning a roll is that it will yield improved product quality. And
more importantly crowning helps the roll covering last longer, increases the rubber life and helps
reduce machine down time.

In calendaring the rollers are under great pressures, which can reach up to 41MPa in the final
nip. The pressures are highest in the middle of the width of the roller and due to this the rollers
get deflected. This deflection causes the sheet being made to be thicker in its center than it is at
its sides.

There are three methods that have bee developed to compensate for this bending:

i)roll crowning
ii)roll bending
iii)roll crossing

i. Roll crowning

Roll crowning uses a roller that has a bigger diameter in its center to compensate for the
deflection of the roller. Roll bending involves applying moments to both ends of the rollers to
counteract the forces in the melt on the roller. With roll crossing the rollers are put at a slight
angle to each other and because of this the force of the rollers on the melt is higher in the middle
where the rollers are on top of eachother more, and less force is applied on the edges where the
rollers are not directly over top of each other
Rollers that are crowned are utilized by many industrial manufacturers. As a roller manufacturer,
specifying a crown on a roller has to be taken with caution. Failure to do so may lead to
problems and costly errors. Let us first establish the definition of a crown with respect to the
roller industry. A crown is a shape or diameter profile necessary to compensate for deflection in
order to obtain a uniform nip pressure distribution.

ii.Roll Bending

Two additional bearings are provided in the rolls in addition to the regular taper bearings. A
Hydraulic cylinder is connected to these bearings. Hydraulic force is applied to the bearings and
the rolls are deflected forcibly. This deflection will be opposite in direction to the deflection
caused by the compound and hence they compensate the outward deflection produced at the
centre.

Roll Bending — Advantages

 The bending response is fast and instantaneous.

 Actions and reactions are linear
 Adjustment required is very small.
  Less Roll Wearing
 Better gauge control &

Roll Bending — Disadvantages

 Load on bearing increases

 Wear on adjusting screws and nuts is greater
 Greater the correction greater the deviation especially at the edges as compared with center.

iii.Roll Axis Crossing

Roll crossing is accomplished by tilting the plane of axis of one of two adjoining rolls in relation
to the common plane axis of the two. The journal boxes of the crossing roll slide either toward or
away from their mates on the adjoining roll Mechanical screws, hydraulic systems and sliding
wedges are being used.

The rolls on either side of the film forming nips are crossed –for eg., Rolls 1 and 4 of a 4 roll
Calender

Axis Crossing –Advantages

 Considerable greater range in gauge

 Almost no increased stresses are imposed on Calender frames, bearings and adjusting screws

Axis Crossing –Disadvantages

 Setting for the desired increase is more involved – Initial tilting causes little changes in gauge
, later a small increase in cross axis results in considerable gauge change
 Automatic gauge control is more complicated
 Only increase in gauge is possible
 Roll wear is somewhat faster
 Response time is slower because motor inertia must be overcome and back slash in drives
taken up
PVC CALENDERING

General purpose flexible PVC film formulation

Details parts

PVC resin 100

Dop Plasticizer 30
Epoxy thalate 5
Phosphate 15
CaCo3 10
Ba – cd liquid 2
Ba –cd soap 1
Stearic acid 0.3
Silica 0.5

 The best polymers for calendering are thermoplastics. One reason for this is because they
soften at a temperatures much lower than their melting temperature, giving a wide range of
working temperatures.

 They also adhere well to the rollers, allowing them to continue through the chain well, but
they don't adhere too well and get stuck on the roller.

 The last reason is that thermoplastic melts have a fairly low viscosity, but they are still strong
enough to hold together and not run all over the place.

 Heat sensitive materials are also great for calenders because calenders put immense
pressures on the materials to work them and therefore do not need as high of temperatures
to process them limiting the chances of thermal degradation. This is why calendering is
often the method of choice for processing PVC. Due to the nature of the process the
polymers must have a shear and thermal history that is consistent across the width of the
sheet

 Blending or compounding of the plastic with different additives and fillers is a critical part of
the process, particularly of PVCs.

 The PVC compounds require heat stabilizers in order to be properly processed. Heat
stabilizer system imparts during processing primarily heat stability, as well as adequate
lubricating characteristics to reduce or control frictional heat. Stabilizers are also very
efficient for plate-out resistance.
 Plate-out is a condition where the calender rolls and/or embossing rolls become coated with a
deposit from the compound being processed that in turn interferes with obtaining an
acceptable surface finish of the film or sheet. This deposit may start out as a soft, waxy
material barely visible on the metallic contact surfaces of the processing equipment. When
plate-out occurs the line has to be shut down and the contamination removed.
Compound preparation (Blending & Fluxing)
 The resin is premixed and blended with stabilizers and other additives by using Ribbon
blender or High speed mixture. The premixing is done up to 80°C for better absorption
and soaking of the resin.
 After blending of the two compounds, it is fed to a fluxing machine. Fluxing is done
under temperature at about 150°C.
 Fluxing can be done in banbury mixture or a continuous extruder
 The residence time of the plastic flux at high temperature must be limited

Calendering process with plant details

 The rolls are heated either by steam or hot oil and roll temperature ranges from 150° to
180°C.
 Fluxed material delivered to the first calendar nip is regulated to form a rolling bank. The
sheet passing the first nip forms another bank between the second and third rolls, at the
final nip, the desired thickness is obtained from the smallest bank possible to minimize
stress in the sheet

 Rigid PVC manufacturers usual prefer the L-type with four to seven rolls being fed from
the floor level. Since there is no disturbing vapors from lower calender rolls within the
pickoff area, it is preferable to have the pickoff rolls on an elevated level.

 Flexible PVC is commonly processed using a 4-roll inverted L- or an F-type.

 A universal five roll L calender is used for rigid or flexible PVC film.

 It provides heat stability and superior film control with good surface appearance. The
major difference between this universal machine and the others is in mounting and
placement of the first roll. These systems enable the plasticizer- saturated vapors to
 escape via the usual suction hood located above the calender where they are filtered
before being released to the atmosphere.

 The stock delivered to the first calender nip needs to be well fused, homogeneous in
composition, and relatively uniform in temperature. The optimum average temperature
for good fusion depends on the formulation.

 A rigid PVC formulation based on medium molecular weight plastic (intrinsic viscosity
of 0.90 to 1.15) has a typical optimum temperature of 180 to 1900C at the first calender
nip. For best calendering, there should be no cold volume elements below 1800C and no
hot spots above 2000C. Required is close control of temperature to ensure proper fusion
and mixing conditions. This interaction depends on stock temperature and in turn on the
performance of PVC melts.

 Flexible PVC is normally calendered at temperatures of 10 to 200C lower than rigid

PVC. In flexible PVC production, a short single screw extruder acting as a strainer filters
out contaminants from stock before reaching the calender. This important method is not
applicable to rigid PVC because it drastically increases the head pressure and the
consequent overheating would cause the stock to decompose.

Embossing and laminating

 To create leather like grain or other surface structure, the hot sheet coming from the
stripper rolls is passed between a steel roll nipped by a rubber roll that forces the PVC
into the grain.
 To laminate another sheet or a fabric to the calendared sheet, it may be nipped against the
sheet on the last calendar roll or a laminating station may be installed in place of the
embossing rolls.

Cooling and winding of the sheet

 The sheet is cooled by passing it over cooling rolls then through a thickness gauge (e.g.
betaray device) prior to being wound-up.
 If the sheet is wound up too hot, it has a tendency to shrink during the cooling process.
 The sheet is then trimmed to required width and wound on a tube or cut to length and
stacked as sheets.
 The trimmed edges of the sheet can be recycled.
Advantages of Calendering Process

 High Delivery/ Production rate

 Versatile in product design and pattern and permits lamination & embossing without
additional equipment.
 Increase in maximum width of film / sheet.
 Better control of film / sheet thickness.
 The properties are more uniform across the width of the product.
 Better optical properties due to cooling chilled rolls.
 PVC being heat sensitive material, it is safer by calendering process than extrusion
process.

Disadvantages

 Although the calendering process produces a better product than the extruding process there
are a couple of disadvantages.
 One disadvantage is that the process is more expensive to perform which is a major deterrent
for many companies.
 The calendering process also is not as good at too high of gauges or too low of gauges. If the
thickness is below 0.006 inches then there is a tendency for pinholes and voids to appear in
the sheets.
 If the thickness is greater than about 0.06 inches though there is a risk of air entrapment in
the sheet. Any desired thickness within that range though would turn out much better using a
calender process.
CALENDERING - SHEET THICKNESS CONTROL

There are two principal sources of variations in calendered gauge or thickness. These are:

 Mechanical induced variations

 Force induced variations

These two sources of variations are closely related. For purposes of this discussion, mechanically
induced variations will be classified as those that are present at ambient condition with the
calender not operating under load. Force induced variations will be classified as those that are
induced by the way the calender is operated or by the proceeding process steps.

A. Mechanically Induced Variations

Mechanically induced variations relate directly to the calendars mechanical condition and are
thus basically a maintenance issue. While there are many maintenance issues that affect calender
performance, the following are the main items that directly effect calendered gauge:
 Calender Roll grind profile
 Calender Roll eccentricity or run out at ambient temperature
 Bearing condition
 Roll water passage condition
 Roll end actuator condition

i.Calender Roll Grind Profile

The calender rolls must be ground periodically to establish the proper profile. The profile is
selected so that the roll separating forces, which cause the rolls to bow apart in the center, are
partially compensated for by grinding the center to a larger diameter. The specific profile
selected is based on the range of rubber compound hardness, type of center compensation such as
cross-axis or roll bending, and roll width. If the grind profile is incorrect it will be difficult or
even impossible to achieve a flat-calendered rubber profile.

ii.Calender Roll Eccentricity Calender rolls must be round and free of run-out at ambient
temperature. Any run-out of the individual calender rolls will be amplified as the high spots and
low spots periodically match up between the roll pairs. This is relatively easy to check with dial
indicators when the calender is running without rubber and with a slight gap between the rolls.

iii.Bearing Condition
Calender roll bearings may also have excessive run-out. The result is the same as, and will
appear as calender roll surface run-out. Excessive bearing clearance will result in the roll shifting
during operation as roll separating forces vary. These conditions will adversely affect the ability
to control calendered gauge.

iv.Roll Water Passage Condition

Most modern calender rolls are the drilled type. This means that water passages are drilled across
the roll face under the surface. This effectively forms a radiator-like heat exchanger around the
periphery of the roll. If these passages become plugged, then non-uniform heat transfer will
occur and this results in a thermal ‘out-of-round’ condition for the roll or rolls. This has the
same effect as if the rolls were machined „out-of-round‟. To avoid this condition only treated
water should be used and the rolls should be periodically flushed. Comparing the roll run-out at
ambient temperature with that at normal operating temperatures can check this condition.

v.Roll End Actuator Condition

Electric screw actuators are the most common type of calender roll end positioning system. The
screw and nut operate under very high loads and thus experience significant wear even with
proper lubrication. As the actuators wear, backlash develops. As the back lash increases, the
response to small changes or corrections deteriorates. Also with increased backlash the number
of corrections required would increase, which in turn causes increased wear. Most calenders still
have fixed speed electric motors with mechanical brakes. These require periodic maintenance,
particularly the brakes. Sticky brakes will adversely affect gauge control results.

General Proper maintenance of all the above systems is crucial to calendar performance.

B. Force Induced Variations

Force induced variations result from the way the calender is operated and from previous process
steps such as feed mill operation and compound consistency from mixing.

Force Induced Variations – The key points

1. Keep the calender running – stops cause the rolls to become egg shaped and introduce
significant gauge thickness variation.
2. Keep the calender running during warm-up and cool-down.
3. Increase the temperature by 20 to 40 degrees F when the rolls are stopped to maintain a more
uniform roll surface temperature.
4. Limit the temperature rate of change at all times to a maximum of 3 degrees per minute.
Faster rates can damage or warp the rolls.
5. Minimize speed changes: Changes in the calender speed result in gum wall gauge thickness
changes that are undesirable.
6. Mill management - consistent feed to the calender will substantially reduce gauge variations.
7. Cord Spacing Effects on Calendered Gauge - Cord spacing has a significant impact on overall
sheet gauge and quality, but consider the following:
- Weight samples alone do not distinguish between cord & gum
- Thickness samples alone do not distinguish between cord & gum
- Thickness & weight still do not distinguish between cord & gum
- Cord count must always be considered

Sampling Techniques When Checking Calendered Gauge : Proper sampling techniques are
essential in accurately determining actual calendered gauge distribution.

The principal considerations in sampling are:

  The calender must be running in a steady state and stable condition
o Running at a fixed speed
o Running without extended stop time (less than 15 seconds) for previous 15
minutes to assure rolls are thermally round
 The proper sampling tape must be used in order to stabilize the sample
o Prevent sample stretch
o Prevent sample shrinkage
 Check for long term and short term variations
 Check cross direction and machine direction

EMBOSSING:

 Embossed are used in industry for two reasons: (1) Aesthetic, and (2) Functional.
 Aesthetic applications also include appliance panels, building products, elevator panels,
garage door panels, automotive trim, metal office furniture, and others.
 Functional applications are those in which a performance characteristic is enhanced. This
can include a product‟s ability to disperse liquid more effectively, reduction friction and
static, increase panel‟s stiffness and rigidity, increase surface area for acoustic or heat
transfer applications, and improve traction.
 The embossing process can produce a variety of patterns. Some of the most common
patterns include stucco, leather grain, wood grain, weather grain, and rough sawn cedar.
Most embossers will tool to form any needed pattern, depending on the cost parameters
involved.
 A schreiner Calender is a specific kind of an embossing Calender distinguished by its
pattern. Embossing calendars can operate at speeds up to 50 yards per minute and have a
maximum nip loading of 1,500 PLI. Embossing calendars are two roll machines using a
forged steel top roll and a filled bottom roll with the filling of wool felt paper, resilient
wool/cotton or, in the case of signature
Calendering Trouble Shooting

It is extremely important to supply only the minimum amount of warm compound to the calendar
nip that is necessary to maintain a continuous sheet. Mixed compound must be pre-warmed, prior
to being placed in the calender nip. The stock to be calendered should be warmed on a calender
mill (minimum shear) to at least 45°C . Internal release agents should be kept to a minimum, to
prevent slipping on the calendar rolls.
Rough Surface
If the surface of the calendered sheet is rough, check to make sure that:
• The compound is warm enough before placing in the calender nip
• A minimum amount of material is added to the nip at any given time, and that excess material
is not allowed to „hang‟ at the nip, thereby losingtemperature
• The calendar rolls are hot enough

Lacey Sheet
A „lacey‟ appearance (e.g., has numerous holes and tears, randomly occurring throughout the
sheet) can be the result of excessively high roll temperatures and/or using a polymer that is too
low in molecular weight to provide the necessary degree of green strength. If this problem
occurs, it is recommended that lower calendar roll temperatures be evaluated, and/or that a
higher viscosity polymer be used in the compound.

Uneven Thickness Across Sheet Width The higher the viscosity of the polymer, the greater
will be the difficulty in maintaining consistent thickness across the width of the calendar rolls.
The use of lower viscosity polymer, or increased roll temperature (if practical) should be
evaluated, to alleviate this type of problem.

Slipping/Bagging On the Calendar Rolls

If the stock fails to grab, and feed consistently through the nip, it is probably the result of too
high a level of internal process aid, and the levels of such materials may have to be reduced.

APPLICATIONS OF CALENDERING

Calendering is a speciality process for high-volume, high quality plastic film and sheet, mainly
used for PVC as well as for certain other modified thermoplastics.

The melted polymer is subject to heat and pressure in an extruder and formed into sheet or film
by calendering rolls. The temperature and speed of the rolls influences the properties of the film.

Calendering allows speciality surface treatments of the film or sheet such as embossing or
enhancing the physical properties or in-line lamination

 continuous flooring, rainwear

 shower curtains, table covers
 pressure-sensitive tape, automotive and furniture upholstery
 wall coverings, luminous ceilings, signs and displays