Introduction

What is a Polynomial?
A polynomial is a mathematical expression involving a sum of powers in one
or more variables multiplied by coefficients. In simple terms, it's an
expression made up of variables (like x or y) raised to whole number
exponents and multiplied by coefficients, then added together.

Key Terms:
 Term: Each part of a polynomial separated by a plus (+) or minus (−) sign.

In 3 +4 +5, the terms are 3 2, 4 , and 55.

2

 Coefficient: The numerical factor of each term.

In 3 , the coefficient is 3.
2

 Variable: The letter representing an unknown value, commonly x.

 Exponent: The power to which a variable is raised.

In 3 , the exponent is 2.
2

 Degree of a Term: The exponent of the variable in the term.

For 3 , the degree is 2.

2

 Degree of a Polynomial: The highest degree of its terms.

For the polynomial 3 +4 +5, the degree is 2.

2

 Constant Term: A term without a variable.

 In 3 +4 +5, the constant term is 5.
2

 Monomial, Binomial, Trinomial: A polynomial with one term is a

monomial (e.g., 5x), with two terms is a binomial (e.g., 4 +5), and with
three terms is a trinomial (e.g., 3 +4 +5).
2

 Roots or Zeros: The values of x that make the polynomial equal to zero.

For the polynomial 4x2−4, the roots are =2 and =−2.

Types of Polynomials
1. Linear Polynomial

 Definition: A polynomial of degree 1.

 General Form: ( )= + ,where ≠0.
 Example: 2 +3
 Graph: A straight line.

2. Quadratic Polynomial

 Definition: A polynomial of degree 2.

2
 General Form: ( )= + + , where ≠0.
2
 Example: −4 +4
 Graph: A parabola (U-shaped curve).

3. Cubic Polynomial

 Definition: A polynomial of degree 3.

 General Form: ( ) = 3+ 2
+ + , where ≠0.
3
 Example: −3 2+3 −1
 Graph: An S-shaped curve.
 Polynomials in Physics
Polynomials are fundamental concepts which are widely used not only in mathematics but
also in science, including physics. Polynomials are particularly useful in describing the
motion of objects.

When an object moves with uniform acceleration, its displacement and velocity over time
can be represented using quadratic and linear polynomials, respectively. Understanding
these polynomial equations allows us to predict and analyze the motion of objects,
providing a solid foundation for more advanced studies in physics.

This section explores how polynomial equations describe uniformly accelerated motion and
demonstrates their practical applications through examples and graphical representations.

Projectile Motion
The path of a projectile under the influence of gravity is parabolic, which can be
described using a quadratic polynomial.

Equation:

The general form of the equation of motion for a projectile is

2
 = + +c, where:
 y is the height of the projectile.
 x is the horizontal distance.
 a, b, and c are constants determined by the initial conditions of the motion.

Example:

 We consider a ball thrown upwards with an initial velocity u at an angle θ to the horizontal. The
equation of the projectile can be written as:

2
= tan ( ) − / 2 2cos2 ( ).

This equation is in the form of a quadratic polynomial where is the acceleration due to
gravity.
 Application:

 By using this polynomial, we can predict the path of the projectile, determine its maximum
height, and calculate the horizontal distance traveled (range).

Here, the point O is called the point of projection; θ is the angle of projection and OB = Horizontal
Range or Simply Range. The total time taken by the particle from reaching O to B is called the time of
flight.

Velocity and Acceleration in Non-Uniform Motion

Polynomials can effectively represent the relationships between velocity, acceleration, and
time, especially in cases of non-uniform motion. While uniform acceleration results in linear
relationships, non-uniform acceleration often requires polynomial equations to describe the
changing velocity and acceleration over time.

Scenario: Trajectory of a Ball Thrown into the Air

Problem:

Let's consider a ball thrown vertically upward from the ground with an initial velocity u of 20 m/s. The
acceleration due to gravity (g) is 9.8 m/s², acting downward. We want to derive the quadratic equation
representing its height y as a function of time t.
 1. Determining the equations of motion:

 The velocity v at any time t is given by:

( )= −

Here, / and =9.8 2

=20 /

 The displacement y at any time is given by:

2
 ( )= −1/2

2. Substituting the values of u and g:

( )=20 −1/2(9.8)2
2
( )=20 −4.9

This quadratic polynomial represents the height of the ball as a function of time.
 Practical Applications
Polynomials are essential in many real-world applications, helping professionals analyze and
predict the behavior of systems and objects under various conditions. Here's how
understanding these equations is crucial in fields such as engineering, sports, and space
science:

1. Engineering
Application: Structural Analysis

 Engineers use polynomials equations to model and analyze the behavior of structures under
load. For example, the deflection of beams under various forces can be described by
polynomial equations.
 Example: The bending of a beam under a uniform load can be modeled by a cubic polynomial
equation, helping engineers determine the maximum deflection and ensure structural integrity.

Application: Control Systems

 Polynomials are used in designing control systems for machinery, vehicles, and industrial
processes. These equations help in creating transfer functions that describe system responses.
 Example: The characteristic equation of a control system, often a polynomial, helps in
analyzing the stability and designing appropriate feedback mechanisms.

2. Sports
Application: Trajectory Analysis

 Athletes and coaches use polynomials to analyze and optimize the trajectories of projectiles,
such as balls, javelins, or discus.
 Example: In basketball, understanding the parabolic trajectory of a ball (modeled by a
quadratic equation) can help players improve their shooting accuracy by determining the
optimal angle and velocity.

Application: Motion Mechanics

 In sports like gymnastics or skateboarding, polynomials describe the motion of athletes

performing flips or jumps, helping in planning and improving performance.
 Example: Analyzing the quadratic path of a gymnast's center of mass during a flip can help
coaches fine-tune techniques to maximize height and control landing.
 3. Space Science
Application: Orbital Mechanics

 Polynomials are vital in calculating the trajectories of satellites and space probes. These
equations help in predicting positions and planning orbital maneuvers.
 Example: The path of a spacecraft approaching a planet can be described by higher-degree
polynomials, allowing scientists to calculate the precise timing and thrust needed for successful
orbital insertion.

Application: Landing and Ascent Trajectories

 The descent and ascent of spacecraft on planetary surfaces involve polynomials to model the
changing velocity and position over time.
 Example: The landing trajectory of a rover on Mars is planned using polynomial equations to
ensure a safe touchdown, considering the planet's gravity and atmospheric conditions.
 Polynomials in Economics

Polynomials are not only fundamental in mathematics and physical sciences but
also play a significant role in economics. They help model various economic
phenomena and analyze trends, making them essential tools for economists and
policymakers. Here’s how polynomials are applied in economic modeling:
1. Revenue, Cost and Profit Functions

1.1. Revenue Function:

 The revenue (R) generated by selling x units of a product can be expressed as a polynomial
function.
For instance, if the price per unit decreases with the number of units sold due to discounts or
bulk pricing, the revenue function might be quadratic.

 Example: If a company sells x items, the revenue can be a polynomial like-

( )=50 −2 2.
2
Here, 50 is the money earned without any discount, and −2 represents a decrease in earnings as
more items are sold at a discount.
 1.2. Cost Function:
 The cost (C) of producing x units can also be expressed as a polynomial, often including fixed
costs and variable costs that might increase with production levels.
 Example: The cost to produce x items might be-
( )=100+5
Here, 100 is the fixed cost (money spent no matter how many items are made), and 5x is the variable
cost (money spent on making each item).

1.3. Profit Function:

 Profit (P) is the difference between revenue and cost, and it can also be represented as a
polynomial.
 Example: The profit can be found by subtracting the cost from the revenue: ( ) = ( ) − ( ).
( )=(50 −2 2)−(100+5 )
( )=50 −2 2−100−5
( )=45 −2 2−100
 2. Supply and Demand Models
2.1. Demand Function:
 Definition: Demand shows how many items people want to buy at different
prices.
 Example: ( ) =100−2 means if the price P increases, the demand
decreases.

2.2. Supply Function:

 Definition: Supply shows how many items producers are willing to sell at
different prices.
 Example: ( ) =20+3 means if the price P increases, the supply increases.

Therefore, polynomial models are essential tools for businesses, enabling them to optimize pricing,
production, and profits by predicting how different factors interact. By leveraging these models,
businesses can make data-driven decisions that enhance efficiency and profitability.
Polynomials in Geography
Polynomials, in Geography help us understand and predict
natural patterns and changes. By using polynomials, we can
model and analyze data like population growth, weather
patterns, and land formations, making it easier to study and
solve geographical problems. This helps in better planning and
decision-making for our environment.

1. Elevation Models and Terrain Mapping

 Polynomial Equations: Polynomial equations can be used to model the

elevation of terrain. For instance, a polynomial function can represent the
changes in elevation across a region.

 Topographic Profiles: By fitting a polynomial to elevation data, students can

create smooth curves that represent topographic profiles of hills and valleys.

2. Population Studies

 Growth Models: Polynomials can help in modeling population growth in

cities or regions. Higher-degree polynomials can provide more accurate
models for complex growth patterns.

 Trend Analysis: Polynomial regression can be used to analyze trends in

population data over time.

3. Environmental Studies

 Pollution Levels: Polynomial functions can model the spread of pollutants in

a particular area. For example, the concentration of pollutants might change in
a manner that can be approximated by a polynomial function.
  Climate Data: Analyzing temperature changes over time or other climate data
can sometimes be effectively done using polynomial fits.

4. Geographical Phenomena
 River Flow and Sediment Transport: The flow rate of a river and the
transportation of sediments can sometimes be modeled using polynomial
functions, especially when considering factors like riverbed elevation changes
and water volume.

 Erosion Patterns: Polynomial equations can describe how erosion patterns

change the landscape over time.

Example Problems

Problem 1: Elevation Modeling

Consider a hill whose elevation profile can be modeled using a quadratic polynomial. The
quadratic polynomial takes the form:

2
( )= + +

Where:

 ( ) is the elevation at distance x from the base of the hill.

 ,, are constants that define the shape of the elevation profile.

Let's say we have data points for the elevation at various distances from the base of the hill.
These data points are as follows:

 At =0 km, (0)=100 meters (base elevation).

 At =2 km, (2)=150 meters.
 At =4 km, (4)=120 meters.

We can use these data points to find the quadratic polynomial that models the hill's elevation.

Step 1: Forming Equations

Substituting the given points into the quadratic polynomial equation:

1. (0)= =100 (since =0).
2. (2)=4 +2 + =150.
3. (4)=16 +4 + =120.

Step 2: Solving for Constants

From eq. (1), we know that c = 100

Substituting = 100 into the other two equations, we get:

 4 +2 +100 =150

4 +2 =50

2 + =25….eq. (i)

 16 +4 +100=120

16 +4 =20

4 + =5....eq. (ii)

Now solving these equations simultaneously:

Multiplying eq. (i) by (ii)

4 +2 =50

Subtracting eq. (ii) from this:

(4 +2 ) − (4 + ) = 50−5

=45

Substituting = 45 back into eq. (1):

2 +45=25

2 =−20

a =−10

So, the constants are: =−10, =45 and =100

Step 3: Writing the Quadratic Polynomial
The quadratic polynomial that models the elevation of the hill is:

( )=−10 2+45 +100

Step 4: Using the Model:

Elevation at =1:

(1)=−10(1)2+45(1)+100

(1)=−10+45+100

(1)=135 meters

Elevation at =3 km:

(3)=−10(3)2+45(3)+100

(3)=−90+135+100

(3)=145 meters

Graphing the Polynomial:

Problem 2: Population Growth

Question:

The population of a small town can be modeled by the polynomial

( )=0.5 2+2 +100 where P is the population in thousands and t is the number of
years since 2000. Calculate the population in the years 2005 and 2010.

Solution:

For 2005, =5:

(5) =0.5(5)2+2(5) +100

(5) =0.5(25) +10+100

(5) =12.5+10+100

(5) =122.5 thousand

For 2010, =10:

(10) =0.5(10)2+2(10) +100

(10) =0.5(100) +20+100

(10) =50+20+100

(10) =170 thousand

These examples illustrate how polynomials can be used to model real-world
geographical data, providing us with a practical application of mathematical
concepts.