FM&HM – MODULE 2 Department of Mechanical Engineering

MODULE – 2
TYPES OF FLUID FLOW
1. Steady & unsteady flow
2. Uniform & non uniform flow
3. Laminar & turbulent flow
4. Compressible & incompressible flow Turbulent flow occurs in nature. This flow is characterized
5. Rotational & Irrotational flow by random, unpredictable, zig-zag motion of fluid particles
6. One, Two & Three dimensional flow which results in eddies formation which are responsible
for high energy loss.
1. Steady & unsteady flow
In steady flow the fluid characteristics like velocity,
density, pressure etc. at a point do not change with
respect to time.

Mathematically;

dv/dt = 0; dρ/dt = 0; dp/dt = 0

Reynolds number >4000; it is Turbulent flow

In unsteady flow the fluid characteristics like velocity,
Reynolds number <2300; it is Laminar flow
density, pressure etc at a point changes with respect to
time.  Reynolds number in between 2300 & 4000 is called
transition region in which the laminar flow changes to
Mathematically;
turbulent flow.
dv/dt ≠ 0; dρ/dt ≠ 0; dp/dt ≠ 0 4. Compressible & incompressible flow
 A fluid in which the density of fluid changes from point
to point is called compressible flow.
 A fluid in which the density of fluid is constant during
2. Uniform & non uniform flow the flow is called incompressible flow.
In Uniform flow the fluid characteristics like velocity,
pressure, density etc. at a given instant remain the same at All liquids are generally considered as incompressible.
all points. 5. Rotational & Irrotational flow
Mathematically;  Rotational flow is a type of flow in which liquid
(dv/ds) t=const = 0; (dp/ds) t=const = 0; partials while flowing along a stream line also rotate
(dρ/ds) t=const = 0 about their own axis.
 If liquid partials while flowing along a stream line and
do not rotate about their own axis is called
In non-uniform flow the fluid characteristics like velocity, irrotational flow.
pressure, density etc. have different values at different 6. One, Two & Three dimensional flow
points at a given instant of time.
 A flow in which the stream lines of its moving particles
Mathematically; may be represented by a straight line is called one
(dv/ds) t=const ≠ 0; (dp/ds) t=const ≠ 0; dimensional flow.
(dρ/ds) t=const ≠0 V = f(x) steady one dimensional flow.

V = f(x,t) unsteady one dimensional flow.

3. Laminar & turbulent flow  A flow in which the flow path may be represented by a
 Laminar flow the fluid particles move in layers, gliding curve is called a two dimensional flow.
smoothly over the adjacent layers.
 The fluid particles in any layer move along a well- V = f(x, y) steady two dimensional flow.
defined path (Stream line) and all the stream lines are V = f(x, y, t) unsteady two dimensional flow.
straight & parallel
 A flow in which the flow path may be represented by
 The velocity at which the flow changes from laminar
three mutually perpendicular directions is called a
to turbulent flow is known as critical velocity.
three dimensional flow.

V = f(x, y, z) steady three dimensional flow.

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FM&HM – MODULE 2 Department of Mechanical Engineering

V = f(x, y, z, t) unsteady three dimensional flow. Pressure head, h = in meters of liquid per kg.
RATE OF FLOW / DISCHARGE Pressure head, h = meter of fluid.
 The quantity of fluid flowing per unit time across any
section of a pipe or conduit is called rate of flow or 2. Potential Energy
discharge and is denoted by ‘Q’.  It is the energy possessed by a fluid body by virtue of
its position or location in space.
Q=a×v  If a point ‘A’ in liquid is at a height of ‘z’ meters from a
datum plane.
a = Area of cross section of the flow ( )  The potential energy per Newton of fluid = Z meter of
v =Average velocity of fluid (m/s) fluid
3
Unit of discharge (Q) ism /s. 3. Kinetic Energy or Velocity Energy
 Energy possessed by liquid in motion due to its velocity
CONTINUITY EQUATON OF LIQUID FLOW
is called K.E.
 When a liquid flows through any stream or pipe the
If;
mass (or volume) of liquid at any cross-section remains V = Velocity of liquid at any instant in m/s.
same provided no additional liquid is added to it or m = mass of liquid (kg)
removed from it. This is called the law of continuity.
Kinetic Energy = m N.m
Consider two cross-sections of a pipe as shown, Where; m =

The mass of liquid flowing across 1-1 = The mass of liquid

flowing across 2-2. KE of W Newton of fluid =

Density = = ;m=ρav KE per Newton of fluid =

By law of continuity,
Kinetic head or Velocity head = meter of fluid
ρ× × =ρ× ×
TOTAL ENERGY
× = ×
 Total energy (E) of liquid in motion is the sum of
Q=av Pressure energy, Potential energy and Kinetic energy.

Hence,
HYDRAULIC ENERGY (ENERGY OF LIQUID IN MOTION)
 Hydraulic energy is the capacity of a liquid to do work. E= + +Z
It exists in different interchangeable forms.

 In fluid mechanics we study the following three types Or we say that, the total head = + + z meter of
of energies.
fluid.
1. Pressure energy or Flow energy
BERNOULLI’S EQUATION FROM EULER’S EQUATION
2. Potential energy or Elevation energy or Static energy
Euler’s Equation for steady flow of an ideal fluid along a
3. Kinetic energy or Velocity energy.
Some of these three energies are called total energy. stream line is + vdv + gdz = 0
1. Pressure Energy Now integrating the above equation we get Bernoulli’s
equation as follows.
 It is the energy possessed by a liquid by virtue of its
pressure.
∫( )
+ vdv + gdz = 0
w = Sp.weight of liquid (N/ )
p = Pressure intensity at any point in a liquid (N/ ) ∫ + ∫ vdv + ∫ gdz = 0
h= Pressure energy in terms of head of water
Then, If the flow is incompressible is constant
Pressure exerted by the liquid on the piston is P = ρ g h
where h is the height of liquid column above the axis of ∫dp + ∫ vdv + g ∫ dz = 0
the side tube.
We know that, + + gz = Constant
Sp. weight, w = ρ g
ρ = Density Dividing all the terms by g, we have

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FM&HM – MODULE 2 Department of Mechanical Engineering

 It is used to find the velocity of flow at any point in a

+ + z = Constant pipe line or a channel.
 The lower end of the tube faces the direction of flow.
The above equation is known as Bernoulli’s equation. The liquid rises up in the tube due to the conversion of
Where; kinetic energy into pressure energy.
 The velocity of fluid is determined by measuring the
= Pressure head (in meters of fluid) rise of fluid in the tube.

= Kinetic head (in meters of fluid)

Z = Potential head (in meters of fluid)

BERNOULLI’S THEOREM
 In a study continuous flow of frictionless, irrotational,
incompressible fluid, the sum of the potential head,
pressure head and kinetic head is the same at all
points. Velocity (v) = √
+ + z = Constant
ORIFACE METER / ORIFACE PLATE

+ + z1 = + +  It is used to measure the rate of flow of fluid through

pipe.
P = Pressure intensity  It consists of a plate having sharp edged circular hole
ρ = Density called orifice.
v = Velocity of liquid at any instant  The plate can be fitted to the pipe by flanged joint.
z = Datum head
ASSUMPTIONS IN BERNOULLI’S THEOREM
 The fluid is ideal, i.e. viscosity is zero.
 The flow is study.
 The flow is incompressible.
 The flow is irrotational.
 The flow is one dimensional.
LIMITATIONS OF BERNOULLI’S THEOREM
 In this theorem, it is assumed that the velocity of every
liquid particle at any cross-section is uniform. But  Theoretical discharge, Qth= ×√
actually the velocity of liquid particle at the center of √
the pipe is maximum and gradually decreases towards
the walls of the pipe due to friction. Thus while using  Actual discharge, Qact = Cd × ×√
this theorem, we take only mean velocity. √
 It is also assumed that no external force except the
gravity force is acting on the liquid. But actually there
VENTURIMETER
are some external forces like pipe friction is acting on
the liquid, which may affect the flow of liquid.  This is an instrument in which the practical application
of Bernoulli’s theorem is applied.
 It is assumed that there is no loss of energy while
flowing. But actually, it is not true.  It is used to measuring the discharge or rate of flow of
fluid.
 If the fluid is flowing in a curved path, the energy due
to centrifugal force should also be taken into account.  It consists of three parts.
But normally we neglect the energy due to centrifugal
1. A short converging part: It is that portion of the venturi
force.
where the fluid gets converges.
Simple problems using Bernoulli’s equation... 2. Throat: It is the portion that lies in between the
PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS OF BERNOULLI’S THEOREM converging and diverging part of the venturi. The cross
 Pitot - tube
section of the throat is much less than the cross section
 Orifice meter
 Venturimeter of the converging and diverging parts. As the fluid

PITOT TUBE

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FM&HM – MODULE 2 Department of Mechanical Engineering

enters in the throat, its velocity increases and pressure Let

decreases. ‘H’ be the head of liquid from the Centre of orifice.
3. Diverging part: It is the portion of the venturimeter ‘d’ be the diameter of the orifice
(venturi) where the fluid gets diverges.  Small orifices:(if H > 5d)
 Large orifices:(if H < 5d)
2. According to the shape
 Circular orifice
 Rectangular orifice
 Square orifice
 Triangular orifice
3. According to the shape of upstream edge
 Sharp edged orifice
 Bell mouthed orifice
 Venturimeter is bolted in a pipe line by two flanges at 4. According to nature of discharge
the two ends.  Free discharge orifice
 The venturimeter may be connected to a U- tube  Fully submerged orifice
manometer to read difference of pressure as shown in  Partially submerged orifice
figure.
 As the fluid flows through the meter, velocity will VENA CONTRACTA
increases at the throat, consequently the pressure will The continuous stream of liquid that comes on the
be reduced which can be read by the manometer.
downstream side of an orifice is known as jet.
The section at which maximum contraction of jet is
 Theoretical discharge, Qth= ×√ reached is known as vena contracta.
√ HYDRAULIC CO-EFFICIENTS
1. Coefficient of contraction, CC (0.61 – 0.69)
2. Coefficient of velocity, Cv (0.95 – 0.99)
 Actual discharge, Qact = Cd × ×√
3. Coefficient of discharge, Cd (0.60 – 0.64)
√
1. Coefficient of contraction, CC
 Where Cd is the coefficient of discharge,  The contraction of jet at vena contracta is defined by a
coefficient known as coefficient of contraction.
Cd = =  It is the ratio of the area of the jet at vena contracta to
the area of the orifice.
Cd< 1 (0.9 - 0.99)  It is usually denoted by Cc
Let;
Value of ‘h’ given by differential manometer 2
Let, ac = area of jet at vena contracta (in m )
2
Sh= specific gravity of heavier liquid a = area of orifice (in m )
Sp = specific gravity of liquid flowing through pipe Then;
x = difference of heavier liquid column in U – tube Coefficient of contraction (Cc) = ac / a
Then,  The value of Cc varies from 0.61 to 0.69, depending
upon the size & shape of the orifice and the head of
h=x ( ) liquid under which the flow takes place.
If water is flowing in pipe and mercury in U-tube  Generally the value of Cc may be taken as 0.64

h=x ( ) = 12.6 x m of water 2. Coefficient of velocity, Cv

 It is the ratio of actual velocity of the jet at vena
Simple problems… (Venturimeter) contracta to the theoretical velocity of jet.
 It is usually denoted by Cv
FLOW THROUHT ORIFICES & NOTCHES
Let;
ORIFICES v = actual velocity of jet at vena contracta (in m/s)
It is a small opening of any cross section such as circular, vth = theoretical velocity of jet at vena contracta
rectangular, triangular etc. in the wall or base of a vessel =√ (in m/s)
or a tank through which the fluid flows out. Then;
Types of orifices
Coefficient of velocity (Cv) = v/ vth=
1. According to size and head of liquid √

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 FM&HM – MODULE 2 Department of Mechanical Engineering

 The value of Cv varies from 0.95 to 0.99, depending the side of a tank, through side of a tank or dam over
upon the size & shape of the orifice and the head of which the fluid is flow. which the fluid is flow
liquid under which the flow takes place. The upper edge of the The upstream water level is
 For sharp edged orifice the value of Cv generally taken orifice is below the free below the upper edge of the
surface of the water in notch.
as 0.98
which the tank.
3. Coefficient of discharge, Cd The stream of water The sheet of water flowing
 We know that discharge is the product of jet and its flowing through an orifice over a notch is termed as
cross-section area. is termed as jet nappe / vein
 The actual discharge through an orifice will be always Head of water compared to Head of water over the sill of
be found much less than the theoretical discharge. the orifice dimension is the notch is small compared
 The ratio of actual discharge from an orifice to the large. to the notch dimensions.
Pressure on the upper Pressure on the upstream as
theoretical discharge from the orifice is known as
stream side of the orifice is well as downstream side of
Coefficient of discharge. more than downstream the notch is atmospheric.
 It is usually denoted by Cd side pressure.
Let;
3
Q = actual discharge (in m /s) DISCHARGE OVER A RECTANGULAR NOTCH
3
Qth = theoretical discharge (in m /s) Consider a rectangular notch provided in a channel
Then; carrying water.
Coefficient of contraction (Cd) = Qact/ Qth

Cd =

C d = Cc X C v
 The value of Cd varies from 0.60 to 0.64, depending
upon the size & shape of the orifice and the head of
liquid under which the flow takes place.
 Generally the value of Cc may be taken as 0.62
Let;
Simple problems… (Hydraulic co-efficient) H = head of water over the sill (m)
NOTCHES L = width or length of rectangular notch (m)
 Notch is an opening provided in the side of a tank or Cd= coefficient of discharge
3
vessel in such a way that the upstream liquid level Q = discharge over the notch (m /s)
below the top edge of the opening. Discharge over the rectangular notch
 The bottom edge over which the liquid is flow is called
3/2
sill or crest of notch. Q = Cd. L. √ .H
 The sheet of liquid flowing over a notch is called the
nappe or vein.
 Notches are used to measure the flow of water which DISCHARGE OVER A TRIANGULAR NOTCH
is open to atmosphere such as flow of water in rivers, It is also called V – notch
streams and canals or discharge of condensate from The angle at the vertex or apex is θ.
the condenser, etc. V notch is better than rectangular notch for accurately
Classification of notches measuring smaller discharge.
1. According to shape of opening
 Rectangular notch
 Triangular notch
 Trapezoidal notch
 Stepped notch
2. According to the effect of the sides on the nappe.
 Notch without end contraction (Suppressed notch)
 Notch with end contraction.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ORIFICE & NOTCH Let;
H = head of water over the sill (m)
ORIFICE NOTCH
θ = angle of notch (in degree)
This is a small opening in This is a large opening, in the
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 FM&HM – MODULE 2 Department of Mechanical Engineering

Cd= coefficient of discharge • Losses at exit or outlet.

3
Q = discharge over the notch (m /s) DARCY – WEISBACH FORMULA
Discharge over the triangular notch  Due to frictional force in the pipe flow, the available
head (total energy) gradually reduces implying loss of
Q = C d. √ tan H
5/2 head.
 Darcy’s equation gives head lost due to frictional or
The average value of Cd may be taken as 0.6 substituting turbulent flow through a pipe in terms of velocity of
flow of fluid, friction factor and diameter of pipe.
the value of Cd in the equation we get;
5/2
Q = 1.417tan H
0
For a right angled V notch, θ = 90

tan = tan 45 = 1
Q = 1.417H5/2
ADVANTAGES OF TRIANGULAR NOTCH OVER RECTANGULAR
NOTCH

 In a right angled V-notch the expression for the

computation.
 For measuring more accurate results for low
discharge, triangular notch is preferred than
rectangular notch.
 In case of triangular notch, only one reading (H) is
required to be taken for the computation of discharge.
 The same triangular notch can measure wide range of = Head lost due to friction (m)
flows accurately. f = Darcy’s friction factor
 The head over the crest of triangular notch is l = Length of pipe (m)
v = Velocity of flow (m/s)
independent of wetted edge.
d = Diameter of pipe (m)
FLOW THROUGH PIPES & NOZZILES  In terms of Discharge, Q (rate of flow),
LOSS OF ENERGY IN PIPIES

 When a liquid runs under pressure in a pipe, there will be

some losses of head (energy). These losses are broadly = Head lost due to friction (m)
classified as Major or primary losses and minor or f = Darcy’s friction factor
secondary losses. l = Length of pipe (m)
MAJOR / PRIMARY LOSSES Q = Discharge ( /s)
 This loss is due to friction and known is as head loss d = Diameter of pipe (m)
due to friction.
 It can be evaluated by using CHEZY’S FORMULA

a) Darcy-Weisbach formula Velocity of flow (v) = C.√ (Chezy’s formula)

b) Chezy’s formula. C = Chezy’s constant
MINOR / SECONDARY LOSSES M= Hydraulic mean depth
I = Loss of head per unit length = (hf / l)
 This loss is due some other reasons rather than friction hf = Head loss due to friction
 Minor losses in case of long pipes are negligible l = length of pipe (m)
compared to frictional losses. However, in case of short
pipes minor losses are of appreciable amount. The value of ‘m’for a uniform circular pipe is always equal
Various minor losses are: to
• Losses at inlet or entry to a pipe line.
This formula is used to determine the head loss due to
• Losses due to sudden enlargement of pipe cross
friction if the mean velocity through the pipe and also the
section.
value of Chezy’s constant C is known.
• Losses due to sudden contraction of pipe cross
section Simple problems (using Darcy-Weisbach formula&Chezy’s
• Losses due to change of direction (Due to bends, formula)...
elbows etc.,)
• Losses due to obstruction in path of flow.
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 FM&HM – MODULE 2 Department of Mechanical Engineering

MINOR / SECONDARY LOSSES

2
 Head loss due to sudden enlargement (he) = (V1-V2)
2g
***************************
2
 Head loss due to sudden contraction (hc) = 0.375 x V2
2g

 In theoretical case Head loss due to sudden contraction

2
is taken as(hc) = 0.5 x V2
2g
2
 Loss of head at the entrance in a pipe (hi) = 0.5 x V2
2g
2
 Loss of head at the exit of a pipe (hd) = V2
2g
Where;
V1 = Velocity of fluid flow at section 1-1 (m/s).
V2 = Velocity of fluid flow at section 2-2 (m/s).
g = acceleration due to gravity.
HYDRAULIC GRADIENT & TOTAL ENERGY LINE
 Hydraulic gradient & total energy lines are the
graphical representation for the longitudinal variation
in piezometric head and total head at a salient point of
a pipe line
 The sum of potential head and pressure head at any
point is called piezometric head, if the line joining
piezometric level at various points, hence the line
obtained is called Hydraulic gradient line (HGL).
 The line joining total heads at various points is called
Total energy line (TEL)
• TEL always drops in the direction of flow due to
loss of head.
• HGL may rise or fall depending up on the pressure
change.
• HGL is always below the TEL.
• In a uniform cross section of pipe slope of HGL is
equal to slope of TEL.
WATER HAMMER IN PIPES
 Water flowing through a long pipe line brought to rest
by sudden closing the valve provided on the pipe line, it
will cause sudden rise in pressure due to momentum of
water being destroyed.
 This sudden rise in pressure has the effect of
hammering action on the walls of the pipe and this
phenomenon is called water hammer or hammer blow

The magnitude of pressure rise is depends on,

a) The speed at which valve is closed.

b) The velocity of flow of water in pipe.
c) The length of pipe.
d) The elastic properties of the material of pipe.