Clinical Practice Guidelines For The Sustained Use of Sedatives and Analgesics in The Critically Ill Adult

Clinical practice guidelines for the sustained use of sedatives and analgesics in the critically ill adult
Judith Jacobi, PharmD, FCCM, BCPS; Gilles L. Fraser, PharmD, FCCM; Douglas B. Coursin, MD; Richard R. Riker, MD; Dorrie Fontaine, RN, DNSc, FAAN; Eric T. Wittbrodt, PharmD; Donald B. Chaln, MD, MS, FCCM; Michael F. Masica, MD, MPH; H. Scott Bjerke, MD; William M. Coplin, MD; David W. Crippen, MD, FCCM; Barry D. Fuchs, MD; Ruth M. Kelleher, RN; Paul E. Marik, MDBCh, FCCM; Stanley A. Nasraway, Jr, MD, FCCM; Michael J. Murray, MD, PhD, FCCM; William T. Peruzzi, MD, FCCM; Philip D. Lumb, MB, BS, FCCM. Developed through the Task Force of the American College of Critical Care Medicine (ACCM) of the Society of Critical Care Medicine (SCCM), in collaboration with the American Society of Health-System Pharmacists (ASHP), and in alliance with the American College of Chest Physicians; and approved by the Board of Regents of ACCM and the Council of SCCM and the ASHP Board of Directors
aintaining an optimal level of comfort and safety for critically ill patients is a universal goal for critical care practitioners. The American College of Critical Care Medicine (ACCM) of the Society of Critical Care Medicines (SCCMs) practice parameters for the optimal use of sedatives and analgesics was published in 1995 and recommended a tiered approach to the use of sedatives and analgesics, largely on the basis of expert opinion (1). These clinical practice guidelines replace the previously published parameters and include an evaluation of the literature published since 1994 comparing the use of these agents. The reader should refer to the accompanying introduc-
tion for a description of the methodology used to develop these guidelines (2). This document is limited to a discussion of prolonged sedation and analgesia. Consistent with the previous practice guidelines, this document pertains to patients older than 12 years. The majority of the discussion focuses on the care of patients during mechanical ventilation. A discussion of regional techniques is not included. Appendix A summarizes the recommendations made herein.
ANALGESIA
In these guidelines, analgesia is dened as the blunting or absence of sensation of pain or noxious stimuli. Intensive care unit (ICU) patients commonly have pain and physical discomfort from obvious factors, such as preexisting diseases, invasive procedures, or trauma. Patient pain and discomfort can also be caused by monitoring and therapeutic devices (such as catheters, drains, noninvasive ventilating devices, and endotracheal tubes), routine nursing care (such as airway suctioning, physical therapy, dressing changes, and patient mobilization), and prolonged immobility (3, 4). Unrelieved pain may contribute to inadequate sleep, possibly causing exhaustion and disorientation. Agitation in an ICU patient may result from inadequate pain relief. Unrelieved pain evokes a stress response characterized by tachycardia, increased myocardial oxygen consumption, hypercoagulability, immunosuppression, and persistent catabolism (5, 6). The com-
The American College of Critical Care Medicine (ACCM), which honors individuals for their achievements and contributions to multidisciplinary critical care medicine, is the consultative body of the Society of Critical Care Medicine (SCCM) that possesses recognized expertise in the practice of critical care. The College has developed administrative guidelines and clinical practice parameters for the critical care practitioner. New guidelines and practice parameters are continually developed, and current ones are systematically reviewed and revised. Special thanks to E. Wesley Ely, MD, for his contribution to the section on delirium. Address correspondence to Society of Critical Care Medicine, 701 Lee Street, Suite 200, Des Plaines, IL 60016. Available at www.sccm.org Key Words: analgesia; sedation; evidence-based medicine; fentanyl; hydromorphone; morphine; lorazepam; midazolam; propofol; haloperidol; guidelines Copyright 2002 by the Society of Critical Care Medicine and the American Society of Health-System Pharmacists, Inc.
bined use of analgesics and sedatives may ameliorate the stress response in critically ill patients (7, 8). Pain may also contribute to pulmonary dysfunction through localized guarding of muscles around the area of pain and a generalized muscle rigidity or spasm that restricts movement of the chest wall and diaphragm (9). Effective analgesia may diminish pulmonary complications in postoperative patients (10). Some patients recall unrelieved pain when interviewed about their ICU stays (3, 11, 12). The perception of pain can be inuenced by several factors, such as the expectation of pain, prior pain experiences, a patients emotional state, and the cognitive processes of the patient (11). Patients should be educated about the potential for pain and instructed to communicate their needs in an appropriate manner (such as using an assessment tool or other communication techniques). The goals of therapy should also be communicated to the patient and family. In many cases, pain will be managed but not completely eliminated. Fear of potent analgesics and misconceptions about pain and analgesics should be addressed. Similarly, practitioner bias against the adequate use of opioids or misplaced fears of adverse effects or addiction may produce inadequate prescribing or administration (13, 14). Educating practitioners and assessing the quality of a pain management program may improve analgesia therapy, but such programs have not been universally successful (4, 15). The importance of appropriate pain management programs has been reinforced by the Joint
119
Crit Care Med 2002 Vol. 30, No. 1
Sedation and Analgesia Task Force

Chair, Sedation and Analgesia Task Force Judith Jacobi, Pharm.D., FCCM, BCPS Task Force Chair Critical Care Pharmacy Specialist Methodist Hospital, Clarian Health Partners Indianapolis, IN Stanley A. Nasraway, Jr, MD, FCCM Executive Director of Task Force Director, SICU Associate Professor of Surgery, Medicine, and Anesthesia Tufts New England Medical Center Boston, MA Members H. Scott Bjerke, MD Medical Director of Trauma Methodist Hospital Indianapolis, IN Donald B. Chaln, MD, MS, FCCM Director, Division of Research and Attending Intensivist Department of Emergency Medicine Maimonides Medical Center Associate Professor of Clinical Epidemiology and Social Medicine Albert Einstein College of Medicine Brooklyn, NY William M. Coplin, MD Associate Professor, Departments of Neurology & Neurological Surgery Wayne State University Chief, Neurology; Medical Director Neurotrauma and Critical Care Detroit Receiving Hospital Detroit, MI Douglas B. Coursin, MD Professor of Anesthesiology and Internal Medicine Associate Director of the Trauma and Life Support Center University of Wisconsin Madison, WI David W. Crippen, MD, FCCM Associate Director Departments of Emergency and Critical Care Medicine St. Francis Medical Center Pittsburgh, PA Dorrie Fontaine, RN, DNSc, FAAN Associate Professor Associate Dean for Undergraduate Studies Georgetown University School of Nursing and Health Studies Washington, DC Gilles L. Fraser, PharmD, FCCM Department of Critical Care Medicine Maine Medical Center Portland, ME Barry D. Fuchs, MD Medical Director, MICU Hospital of the University of Pennsylvania, UPHS Philadelphia, PA Ruth M. Kelleher, RN Department of Nursing New England Medical Center Boston, MA Philip D. Lumb, M.B., B.S., FCCM Professor and Chairman, Department of Anesthesiology Keck School of Medicine of USC Los Angeles, CA Paul E. Marik, MDBCh, FCCM Department of Critical Care Medicine University of Pittsburgh Medical School Pittsburgh, PA Michael F. Mascia, MD, MPH Medical Director, Outpatient Surgical Services Department of Anesthesiology Tulane University School of Medicine New Orleans, LA Michael J. Murray, MD, PhD, FCCM Dean, Mayo School of Health Sciences Professor of Anesthesiology, Mayo Medical School Chair, Department of Anesthesiology Mayo Clinic Jacksonville, FL Willam T. Peruzzi, MD, FCCM Associate Professor of Anesthesiology, Northwestern University School of Medicine Chief, Section of Critical Care Medicine, Northwestern Memorial Hospital Chicago, IL Richard R. Riker, MD, Assistant Chief Department of Critical Care Medicine Maine Medical Center Portland, ME Eric T. Wittbrodt, PharmD Associate Professor of Clinical Pharmacy Philadelphia College of Pharmacy University of the Sciences in Philadelphia Philadelphia, PA
Commission on Accreditation of Healthcare Organizationss (JCAHOs) establishment of standards on pain assessment and management. Recommendation: All critically ill patients have the right to adequate analgesia and management of their pain. (Grade of recommendation C)
Pain Assessment
There is a limited amount of literature that directly addresses pain assessment in the critical care unit. The articles reviewed in this report include descriptions of pain assessment tools used for critically ill patients, even if these tools were not validated in this population. Studies of pain in the critically ill indicate the importance of systematic and consistent assessment and documentation (16). The most reliable and valid indicator of pain is the patients self-report (17). The location, characteristics, aggravating and alleviating factors, and intensity of pain should be evaluated. Assessment of pain intensity may be performed with unidimensional tools, such as a verbal rating scale (VRS), visual analogue scale (VAS), and numeric rating scale (NRS). VAS comprises a 10-cm horizontal line with descriptive phrases at either end, from no pain to severe pain or worst pain ever. Variations include vertical divisions or numeric markings. VAS is reliable and valid for many patient populations (18). Though not specically tested in the ICU, VAS is frequently used there (19 22). Elderly patients may have difculty with VAS (20). NRS is a zero to ten point scale and patients choose a number that describes the pain, with ten representing the worst pain. NRS is also valid, correlates with VAS, and has been used to assess pain in cardiac surgical patients (21). Because patients can complete the NRS by writing or speaking, and because it is applicable to patients in many age groups, NRS may be preferable to VAS in critically ill patients. Multidimensional tools, such as the McGill Pain Questionnaire (MPQ) and the Wisconsin Brief Pain Questionnaire (BPQ), measure pain intensity and the sensory, affective, and behavioral components of that pain but take longer to administer and may not be practical for the ICU environment (18, 22). The MPQ and BPQ are reliable and valid tools but have not been tested or used in the ICU. Although the most reliable indicator of pain intensity is what the patient re-
ports, critically ill patients are often unable to communicate their level of pain if sedated, anesthetized, or receiving neuromuscular blockade. Neither the VAS nor the NRS will resolve this problem as they rely on the patients ability to communicate with the care provider. Behavioral-physiological scales may be useful in assessing pain in these patients. Moderate agreement was found between the VAS and the observer-reported Faces scale for all observations, but less agreement was noted as the pain intensity increased (19). The verbal descriptive scale (VDS) used in another trial showed moderate correlation (r 0.60) with a behavioral pain scale in assessing pain in postanesthesia patients (23). A behavioralphysiological scale was compared with an NRS and a moderate-to-strong correlation was observed between the scales (24). The behavioral-physiological scale also assessed pain-related behaviors (movement, facial expression, and posturing) and physiological indicators (heart rate, blood pressure, and respiratory rate). However, such nonspecic parameters might be misinterpreted or affected by observer bias, leading to an underestimation of the degree of pain experienced by the patient (12, 24 27). Family members or other surrogates have been evaluated for their ability to assess the amount of pain experienced by noncommunicative ICU patients. While surrogates could estimate the presence or absence of pain in 73.5% of patients, they less accurately described the degree of pain (53%) (28). The most appropriate pain assessment tool will depend on the patient involved, his/her ability to communicate, and the caregivers skill in interpreting pain behaviors or physiological indicators. Recommendations: Pain assessment and response to therapy should be performed regularly by using a scale appropriate to the patient population and systematically documented. (Grade of recommendation C) The level of pain reported by the patient must be considered the current standard for assessment of pain and response to analgesia whenever possible. Use of the NRS is recommended to assess pain. (Grade of recommendation B) Patients who cannot communicate should be assessed through subjective observation of pain-related behaviors (movement, facial expression, and posCrit Care Med 2002 Vol. 30, No. 1
120
turing) and physiological indicators (heart rate, blood pressure, and respiratory rate) and the change in these parameters following analgesic therapy. (Grade of recommendation B)
Analgesia Therapy
Nonpharmacologic interventions including attention to proper positioning of patients, stabilization of fractures, and elimination of irritating physical stimulation (e.g., proper positioning of ventilator tubing to avoid traction on the endotracheal tube) are important to maintain patient comfort. Application of heat or cold therapy may be useful. Other nonpharmacologic techniques to promote patient comfort are discussed later in this document. Pharmacologic therapies include opioids, nonsteroidal anti-inammatory drugs (NSAIDs), and acetaminophen. Opioids mediate analgesia by interacting with a variety of central and peripheral opioid receptors. The opioids currently available have activity at a variety of these receptors, although the - and -receptors are most important for analgesia. Interaction at other receptors may contribute to adverse effects. The analgesic agents most commonly used in ICU patients (fentanyl, morphine, and hydromorphone) are addressed later (29). Although alfentanil has previously been reported as an analgesic with sedative effects, it will not be extensively discussed because it is not commonly used in North America (29). Comparative trials of opioids have not been performed in critically ill patients. The selection of an agent depends on its pharmacology and potential for adverse effects. The characteristics of commonly used opioids and nonopioids are reviewed in Table 1 (30 32). Desirable attributes of an opioid include rapid onset, ease of titration, lack of accumulation of the parent drug or its metabolites, and low cost. Fentanyl has the most rapid onset and shortest duration, but repeated dosing may cause accumulation and prolonged effects. Morphine has a longer duration of action, so intermittent doses may be given. However, hypotension may result from vasodilation and an active metabolite may cause prolonged sedation in the presence of renal insufciency. Hydromorphones duration of action is similar to morphines, but hydromorphone lacks a clinically signicant active metabolite or histamine release. Meperidine has an active metabolite that causes neuroexciCrit Care Med 2002 Vol. 30, No. 1
tation (apprehension, tremors, delirium, and seizures) and may interact with antidepressants (contraindicated with monoamine oxidase inhibitors and best avoided with selective serotonin-reuptake inhibitors), so it is not recommended for repetitive use (17, 33, 34). Because codeine lacks analgesic potency, it is not useful for most patients. Remifentanil has not been widely studied in ICU patients and requires the use of a continuous infusion because of its very short duration of action (35). The short duration of action could be benecial in selected patients requiring interruptions for neurologic examination (35). Disease states, such as renal or hepatic insufciency may alter opioid and metabolite elimination. Titration to the desired response and assessment of the drugs prolonged effect are necessary in all patients. The elderly may have reduced opioid requirements (30, 31, 36 39). Adverse effects of opioid analgesics are common and occur frequently in ICU patients. Of greatest concern are respiratory, hemodynamic, central nervous system, and gastrointestinal effects. Respiratory depression is a concern in spontaneously breathing patients or those receiving partial ventilatory support. Hypotension can occur in hemodynamically unstable patients, hypovolemic patients, or those with elevated sympathetic tone (40). Opioidmediated hypotension in euvolemic patients is a result of the combination of sympatholysis, vagally mediated bradycardia, and histamine release (when using codeine, morphine, or meperidine) (41, 42). Opioidinduced depression of the level of consciousness may cloud the clinical assessment of critically ill patients, and hallucinations may increase agitation in some patients. Gastric retention and ileus are common in critically ill patients, and intestinal hypomotility is enhanced by opioids (43, 44). Routine prophylactic use of a stimulant laxative may minimize constipation. Small-bowel intubation may be needed for enteral nutrition because of gastric hypomotility (45). Opioids may increase intracranial pressure with traumatic brain injury, although the data are inconsistent and the clinical signicance is unknown (46 48). Opioid Administration Techniques. Preventing pain is more effective than treating established pain. When patients are administered drugs on an as needed basis, they may receive less than the prescribed dose and encounter signicant delays in treatment, although the impact on
patient outcome has not been well documented (49). Analgesics should be administered on a continuous or scheduled intermittent basis, with supplemental bolus doses as required (17). Intravenous administration usually requires lower and more frequent doses than intramuscular administration to titrate to patient comfort. Intramuscular administration is not recommended in hemodynamically unstable patients because of altered perfusion and variable absorption. When a continuous infusion was used, a protocol incorporating daily awakening from analgesia and sedation allowed more effective analgesic titration and a lower total dose of morphine (50). Daily awakening was associated with a shorter duration of ventilation and ICU stay (50). A pain management plan and therapy goal should be established for each patient and reevaluated as the clinical condition changes. An algorithm that illustrates the potential use of opioid analgesics for mechanically ventilated patients is shown in Figure 1. Analgesic orders should be written to allow titration to achieve the analgesic goal and to balance the potential impact of adverse effects. In noncritically ill patients, patientcontrolled analgesia (PCA) has been reported to result in stable drug concentrations, a good quality of analgesia, less sedation, less opioid consumption, and potentially fewer adverse effects, including respiratory complications (10, 51). In addition, a basal rate or continuous infusion mode can be used for consistent analgesia during sleep. Patient selection is important when PCA is used, and particular attention should be paid to the patients cognition, hemodynamic reserve, and previous opioid exposure. PCA devices can also be used for nurse-controlled analgesia. The elimination of paperwork can improve the timeliness of analgesic administration. Fentanyl may also be administered via a transdermal patch in hemodynamically stable patients with more chronic analgesic needs. The patch provides consistent drug delivery, but the extent of absorption varies depending on the permeability, temperature, perfusion, and thickness of the skin. There is a large interpatient variability in peak plasma concentrations. Fentanyl patches are not a recommended modality for acute analgesia because of their 1224-hour delay to peak effect and similar lag time to complete offset once the patch is removed. Breakthrough pain should be treated with rapid-acting agents. The use of a reversal agent, such as
121
Table 1. Pharmacology of selected analgesics (1, 17, 30 32) Agent Fentanyl Hydromorphone Morphine Meperidine Codeine Remifentanil Ketorolac Ibuprofen Acetaminophen
a b
Equianalgesic Dose (i.v.) 200 g 1.5 mg 10 mg 75100 mg 120 mg ... ... ... ...
Half-life 1.56 hr 23 hr 37 hr 34 hr 3 hr 310 min 2.48.6 hr 1.82.5 hr 2 hr
Metabolic Pathway Oxidation Glucuronidation Glucuronidation Demethylation and hydroxylation Demethylation and glucuronidation Plasma esterase Renal Oxidation Conjugation
Active Metabolites (Effect) No metabolite, parent accumulates None Yes (sedation, especially in renal insufciency) Yes (neuroexcitation, especially in renal insufciency or high doses) Yes (analgesia, sedation) None None None ...
Adverse Effects Rigidity with high doses ... Histamine release Avoid with MAOIsc and SSRIsd Lacks potency, histamine release ... Risk of bleeding, GI and renal adverse effects Risk of bleeding, GI and renal adverse effects ...
More frequent doses may be needed for acute pain management in mechanically ventilated patients. Cost based on 2001 average wholesale price. c MAOIs monoamine oxidase inhibitors. d SSRIs selective serotonin-reuptake inhibitors.
naloxone, is not recommended after prolonged analgesia, because it can induce withdrawal and may cause nausea, cardiac stress, and arrhythmias. Analgesics with agonist-antagonist action, such as nalbuphine, butorphanol, and buprenorphine, can also elicit withdrawal symptoms and should be avoided during prolonged opioid use. Recommendations: A therapeutic plan and goal of analgesia should be established for each patient and communicated to all caregivers to ensure consistent analgesic therapy. (Grade of recommendation C) If intravenous doses of an opioid analgesic are required, fentanyl, hydromorphone, and morphine are the recommended agents. (Grade of recommendation C) Scheduled opioid doses or a continuous infusion is preferred over an as needed regimen to ensure consistent analgesia. A PCA device may be utilized to deliver opioids if the patient is able to understand and operate the device. (Grade of recommendation B) Fentanyl is preferred for a rapid onset of analgesia in acutely distressed patients. (Grade of recommendation C) Fentanyl or hydromorphone are preferred for patients with hemodynamic instability or renal insufciency. (Grade of recommendation C) Morphine and hydromorphone are preferred for intermittent therapy be122
cause of their longer duration of effect. (Grade of recommendation C) Nonopioid Analgesics. NSAIDs provide analgesia via the nonselective, competitive inhibition of cyclooxygenase (COX), a critical enzyme in the inammatory cascade. NSAIDs have the potential to cause signicant adverse effects, including gastrointestinal bleeding, bleeding secondary to platelet inhibition, and the development of renal insufciency. Patients with hypovolemia or hypoperfusion, the elderly, and those with preexisting renal impairment may be more susceptible to NSAID-induced renal injury (52, 53). Prolonged use (more than ve days) of ketorolac has been associated with a two-fold increase in the risk of renal failure and an increased risk of gastrointestinal and operative-site bleeding (54, 55). NSAIDs should not be administered to patients with asthma and aspirin sensitivity. Administration of NSAIDs may reduce opioid requirements, although the analgesic benet of NSAIDs has not been systematically studied in critically ill patients. Many oral agents are available, and ibuprofen and naproxen are available in liquid form. Ketorolac is currently the only parenteral NSAID. The safety of ketorolac administration in patients with severe renal insufciency or those undergoing dialysis has not been determined. The role, if any, of the more selective COX-2 inhibitors in the critically ill remains unknown. Selective COX-2 inhibiting agents cause less gastrointestinal
irritation with long-term use than traditional NSAIDs (56). The slow onset of action of some agents may decrease their utility for acute pain management. Acetaminophen is an analgesic used to treat mild to moderate pain. In combination with an opioid, acetaminophen produces a greater analgesic effect than higher doses of the opioid alone (57). The role of acetaminophen in critical care is limited to relieving mild pain or discomfort, such as that associated with prolonged bed rest or use as an antipyretic. Care must be taken to avoid excessive and potentially hepatotoxic doses, especially in patients with depleted glutathione stores resulting from hepatic dysfunction or malnutrition. Acetaminophen should be maintained at less than 2 g per day for patients with a signicant history of alcohol intake or poor nutritional status and less than 4 g per day for others (Table 1) (58). Recommendations: NSAIDs or acetaminophen may be used as adjuncts to opioids in selected patients. (Grade of recommendation B) Ketorolac therapy should be limited to a maximum of ve days, with close monitoring for the development of renal insufciency or gastrointestinal bleeding. Other NSAIDs may be used via the enteral route in appropriate patients. (Grade of recommendation B)
SEDATION
The indications for sedative agents are not well dened. Sedatives are common
Table 1. (Continued) Intermittent Dosea 0.351.5 g/kg i.v. q 0.51 hr 1030 g/kg i.v. q 12 hr 0.010.15 mg/kg i.v. q 12 hr Not recommended Not recommended ... 1530 mg i.v. q 6h, decrease if age 65 yr or wt 50 kg or renal impairment, avoid 5 days use. 400 mg p.o. q 46 hr 325650 mg p.o. q 46 hr, avoid 4 g/day Infusion Dose Range (Usual) 0.710 g/kg/hr 715 g/kg/hr 0.070.5 mg/kg/hr Not recommended Not recommended 0.615 g/kg/hr Infusion Cost per day 70 kgb 100 g/h: $26.00 0.75 mg/hr: $5.0011.00 5 mg/hr: $3.5012.00 ... ... 10 g/kg/hr: $170.00 ... ... ...
... ...
adjuncts for the treatment of anxiety and agitation. The causes of anxiety in critically ill patients are multifactorial and are likely secondary to an inability to communicate amid continuous noise (alarms, personnel, and equipment), continuous ambient lighting, and excessive stimulation (inadequate analgesia, frequent vital signs, repositioning, lack of mobility, and room temperature). Sleep deprivation and the circumstances that led to an ICU admission may increase patient anxiety, affecting up to 50% of ICU patients (38, 59). Efforts to reduce anxiety, including frequent reorientation, maintenance of patient comfort, provision of adequate analgesia, and optimization of the environment, may be supplemented with sedatives. Some patients with respiratory failure require sedation to facilitate mechanical ventilation, although sedation should not be used in lieu of appropriate ventilation strategies. Agitation is common in ICU patients of all ages, occurring at least once in 71% of patients in a medical-surgical ICU (38). Agitation can be caused by multiple factors, such as extreme anxiety, delirium, adverse drug effects, and pain (38). However, not all patients with anxiety will exhibit agitation; some patients may be fearful, anxious, and withdrawn. When patients exhibit signs of anxiety or agitation, the rst priority is to identify and treat any underlying physiological disturbances, such as hypoxemia, hypoglycemia, hypotension, pain, and withdrawal from alcohol and other drugs. The prevalence of drug and alcohol abuse in the general population is high, and these substances are commonly associated with traumatic injury (60 62). Patients in the ICU should be assessed for symptoms of
intoxication or withdrawal upon admission and for several weeks thereafter (60 62). When possible, patients should be questioned about the use of herbal medicines because these products may contribute to signicant drug interactions and adverse effects (63). Recent studies have conrmed that agitation may have a deleterious effect on patients by contributing to ventilator dysynchrony, an increase in oxygen consumption, and inadvertent removal of devices and catheters (38, 64 67). Sedatives reduce the stress response and improve the tolerance of routine ICU procedures (68). The use of sedatives to maintain patient safety and comfort is often essential to the ICU therapeutic care plan. The sedation of mechanically ventilated patients is often medically necessary and should be based on an individualized assessment and the patients needs. Sedatives should be administered intermittently or on an as needed basis to determine the dose that will achieve the sedation goal. Sedatives, as outlined in this guideline, are not intended to be used as a method of restraint and are not to be used as a means of coercion, discipline, convenience, or retaliation by staff (Federal regulation 42 CFR 482.13). It is important to consider this principle in order to follow the intent of the Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services regulation regarding restraints. An analgesic may be the appropriate initial therapy when pain is the suspected cause of acute agitation. Although opioids may produce sedating effects, they do not diminish awareness or provide amnesia for stressful events. Sedativeamnestic therapy is required to reliably
attain amnesia (69 72). Without amnesia, many patients who recall their ICU stay report unpleasant or frightening memories, which may contribute to posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms (21, 73). However, some patients have vivid hypnogagic hallucinations (dreams just before loss of consciousness) with sedative-amnestic therapy (74). As sedation blunts explicit memory, these hallucinations may be patients only memory of the ICU experience (75). Recalling delusions, without memory of real events, may also contribute to acute PTSD-related symptoms (75). Other data suggest that PTSD may be experienced by 4 15% of ICU survivors (76, 77). Amnestic sedatives may paradoxically contribute to agitation and disorientation because patients may not remember where they are or why they are in the ICU. Recommendation: Sedation of agitated critically ill patients should be started only after providing adequate analgesia and treating reversible physiological causes. (Grade of recommendation C)
Sedation Assessment
Subjective Assessment of Sedation and Agitation. Frequent assessment of the degree of sedation or agitation may facilitate the titration of sedatives to predetermined endpoints (78 80). An ideal sedation scale should provide data that are simple to compute and record, accurately describe the degree of sedation or agitation within well-dened categories, guide the titration of therapy, and have validity and reliability in ICU patients. Many scales are available, but a true goldstandard scale has not been established (79). Several scales have construct validity with good correlation between the scales measures and other measures of sedation. None of the scales have been tested for their ability to detect a patients response to changes in sedative therapy, dosage, or withdrawal. However, a dened sedation goal, using the Ramsay scale and a protocol-driven sedation plan, was shown to reduce the duration of mechanical ventilation and length of stay (80). The authors did not report other patient outcome measures relative to the adequacy of analgesia or sedation. The Riker Sedation-Agitation Scale (SAS) was the rst scale proven to be reliable and valid in critically ill adults (81, 82). SAS scores a patients level of
123
Figure 1. Algorithm for the sedation and analgesia of mechanically ventilated patients. This algorithm is a general guideline for the use of analgesics and sedatives. Refer to the text for clinical and pharmacologic issues that dictate optimal drug selection, recommended assessment scales, and precautions for patient monitoring. Doses are approximate for a 70-kg adult. IVP intravenous push.
consciousness and agitation from a seven-item list describing patient behavior (Table 2). Excellent inter rater reliability has been demonstrated and validity has been shown with two other scales. The Motor Activity Assessment Scale (MAAS), adapted from the SAS, has also been validated and shown reliable for use in critically ill patients (83). The MAAS has seven categories to describe patient behaviors in response to stimulation (Table 2). The Ramsay scale measures three levels of awake states and three levels of asleep states (Table 2) (84). It has been shown to have an acceptable interrater reliability compared with the SAS, but has been criticized for its lack of clear discrimination and specic descriptors to differentiate between the various levels (82, 85). Nevertheless, the Ramsay scale has been used in many comparative sedation trials and is widely used clinically. The Vancouver Interaction and Calmness Scale (VICS) has also been validated for
124
the assessment of sedation in adult critically ill patients (86). With the VICS scoring system, patients are assessed independently for the ability to interact and communicate and for their level of activity or restlessness. The VICS has not been tested to identify optimal sedation endpoints. Another scale, the Observers Assessment of Alertness/Sedation Scale, is often used in the operating room but lacks the ability to assess agitation and has never been tested in the ICU (87). The COMFORT scale has been extensively tested and applied in the ICU environment, but only in children (88). The appropriate target level of sedation will primarily depend on a patients acute disease process and any therapeutic and supportive interventions required. A common target level of sedation in the ICU is a calm patient that can be easily aroused with maintenance of the normal sleep-wake cycle, but some may require deep levels of sedation to facilitate me-
chanical ventilation. The desired level of sedation should be dened at the start of therapy and reevaluated on a regular basis as the clinical condition of the patient changes. Regimens should be written with the appropriate exibility to allow titration to the desired endpoint, anticipating uctuations in sedation requirements throughout the day. Objective Assessment of Sedation. Objective testing of a patients level of sedation may be helpful during very deep sedation or when therapeutic neuromuscular blockade masks observable behavior. Vital signs, such as blood pressure and heart rate, are not specic or sensitive markers of the level of sedation among critically ill patients. Tools utilized in objective assessment include heart rate variability and lower-esophageal contractility, but most are based on a patients electroencephalogram (EEG). The raw EEG signal has been manipulated by using several devices to simplify
Table 2. Scales used to measure sedation and agitation Score Description Denition Pulling at endotracheal tube (ETT), trying to remove catheters, climbing over bedrail, striking at staff, thrashing side-to-side Does not calm despite frequent verbal reminding of limits, requires physical restraints, biting ETT Anxious or mildly agitated, attempting to sit up, calms down to verbal instructions Calm, awakens easily, follows commands Difcult to arouse, awakens to verbal stimuli or gentle shaking but drifts off again, follows simple commands Arouses to physical stimuli but does not communicate or follow commands, may move spontaneously Minimal or no response to noxious stimuli, does not communicate or follow commands No external stimulus is required to elicit movement and patient is uncooperative pulling at tubes or catheters or thrashing side to side or striking at staff or trying to climb out of bed and does not calm down when asked No external stimulus is required to elicit movement and attempting to sit up or moves limbs out of bed and does not consistently follow commands (e.g., will lie down when asked but soon reverts back to attempts to sit up or move limbs out of bed) No external stimulus is required to elicit movement and patient is picking at sheets or tubes or uncovering self and follows commands No external stimulus is required to elicit movement and patient is adjusting sheets or clothes purposefully and follows commands Opens eyes or raises eyebrows or turns head toward stimulus or moves limbs when touched or name is loudly spoken Opens eyes or raises eyebrows or turns head toward stimulus or moves limbs with noxious stimulus Does not move with noxious stimulus Patient anxious and agitated or restless or both Patient cooperative, oriented and tranquil Patient responds to commands only A brisk response to a light glabellar tap or loud auditory stimulus A sluggish response to a light glabellar tap or loud auditory stimulus No response to a light glabellar tap or loud auditory stimulus
Riker Sedation-Agitation Scale (SAS) (82) 7 Dangerous agitation 6 5 4 3 2 1 Very agitated Agitated Calm and Cooperative Sedated Very sedated Unarousable
Motor Activity Assessment Scale (MAAS) (83) 6 Dangerously agitated 5 Agitated
4 3 2 1 0 Ramsay Scale (84) 1 2 3 4 5 6

a
Restless and cooperative Calm and cooperative Responsive to touch or name Responsive only to noxious stimulusa Unresponsive Awake Asleep
Noxious stimulus
suctioning or 5 seconds of vigorous orbital, sternal, or nail bed pressure.
bedside interpretation and improve reliability. For example, the bispectral index (BIS) uses a digital scale from 100 (completely awake) to 0 (isoelectric EEG) (89). Most of the literature about the use of BIS in the operating room supports strong agreement between BIS and patient recall or level of hypnosis (90). Elective surgery patients receiving sedatives have shown a strong inverse correlation between hypnotic drug effect and BIS (91, 92). Although the BIS may be a promising tool for the objective assessment of sedation or hypnotic drug effect, it has limitations in the ICU environment (9395). BIS scores may vary between patients at the same subjective level of sedation, and subjective scales may be more reproducible during light sedation (93, 94). Musclebased electrical activity may articially elevate BIS scores if the patient has not received neuromuscular blockade (94). A new version of BIS software is being tested for improved applicability in measuring ICU
sedation. BIS has not been tested in patients with metabolic impairments or structural abnormalities of the brain. Studies have not compared the patient outcomes of using BIS versus subjective scales. Although BIS is likely to be useful when patients are deeply comatose or under neuromuscular blockade, routine use of this device cannot be recommended until the value and validity are conrmed. Recommendations: A sedation goal or endpoint should be established and regularly redened for each patient. Regular assessment and response to therapy should be systematically documented. (Grade of recommendation C) The use of a validated sedation assessment scale (SAS, MAAS, or VICS) is recommended. (Grade of recommendation B) Objective measures of sedation, such as BIS, have not been completely evaluated
and are not yet proven useful in the ICU. (Grade of recommendation C)
Sedation Therapy
Benzodiazepines. Benzodiazepines are sedatives and hypnotics that block the acquisition and encoding of new information and potentially unpleasant experiences (anterograde amnesia) but do not induce retrograde amnesia. Although they lack any analgesic properties, they have an opioid-sparing effect by moderating the anticipatory pain response (96, 97). Benzodiazepines vary in their potency, onset and duration of action, uptake, distribution, metabolism, and presence or absence of active metabolites (Table 3). Patient-specic factors, such as age, concurrent pathology, prior alcohol abuse, and concurrent drug therapy, affect the intensity and duration of activity of benzodiazepines, requiring individualized titration. Elderly patients exhibit
125
Table 3. Pharmacology of selected sedatives (1, 30 32, 98 110) Onset After i.v. Dose 25 min 520 min 25 min Half-life of Parent Compound 20120 hr 815 hr 311 hr
Agent Diazepam Lorazepam Midazolam
Metabolic Pathway Desmethylation and hydroxylation Glucuronidation Oxidation
Active Metabolite Yes (prolonged sedation) None Yes (prolonged sedation, especially with renal failure) None Yes (EPS)c
Unique Adverse Effects Phlebitis Solvent-related acidosis/renal failure in high doses
Propofol Haloperidol
a b
12 min 320 min
2632 hr 1854 hr
Oxidation Oxidation
Elevated triglycerides, pain on injection QT interval prolongation
More frequent doses may be needed for management of acute agitation in mechanically ventilated patients. Cost based on 2001 average wholesale price. c EPS extrapyramidal symptoms.
slower clearance of benzodiazepines or their active metabolites and have a larger volume of drug distribution, contributing to a marked prolongation of elimination (111). Compromised hepatic or renal function may slow the clearance of benzodiazepines or their active metabolites. Induction or inhibition of hepatic or intestinal enzyme activity can alter the oxidative metabolism of most benzodiazepines (112). Benzodiazepine therapy should be titrated to a predened endpoint, often requiring a series of loading doses. Hemodynamically unstable patients may experience hypotension with the initiation of sedation. Maintenance of sedation with intermittent or as needed doses of diazepam, lorazepam, or midazolam may be adequate to accomplish the goal of sedation (78). However, patients requiring frequent doses to maintain the desired effect may benet from a continuous infusion by using the lowest effective infusion dose. Continuous infusions must be used cautiously, as accumulation of the parent drug or its active metabolites may produce inadvertent oversedation. Frequent reassessment of a patients sedation requirements and active tapering of the infusion rate can prevent prolonged sedative effects (80). However, awakening times after several days of sedation may be quite unpredictable in clinical use. In contrast, tolerance to benzodiazepines may occur within hours to several days of therapy, and escalating doses of midazolam have been reported (113, 114). While not well described in the literature, paradoxical agitation has also been observed during light sedation and may be the result of drug-induced amnesia or disorientation. Diazepam has been shown to provide
126
rapid onset and awakening after single doses (Table 3) (78, 115). Because of its long-acting metabolites, a prolonged duration of sedative effect may occur with repeated doses, but this may be acceptable for long-term sedation (78). Lorazepam has a slower onset but fewer potential drug interactions because of its metabolism via glucuronidation (Table 3) (98, 112). The slow onset makes lorazepam less useful for the treatment of acute agitation. Maintenance of sedation can be accomplished with intermittent or continuous intravenous administration. Lorazepam has an elimination half-life of 1215 hours, so an infusion is not readily titratable. Loading doses given by i.v. push should be used initially with relatively xed infusion rates. Lorazepam infusions should be prepared using the 2 mg/mL injection and diluted to a concentration of 1 mg/mL or less and mixed in a glass bottle (116, 117). Despite these precautions, precipitation may develop (118). An alternative is to administer undiluted lorazepam as an infusion using a PCA device (78). The lorazepam solvents polyethylene glycol (PEG) and propylene glycol (PG) have been implicated as the cause of reversible acute tubular necrosis, lactic acidosis, and hyperosmolar states after prolonged high-dose infusions. The dosing threshold for this effect has not been prospectively dened, but these case reports described doses that exceeded 18 mg/hr and continued for longer than four weeks and higher doses ( 25 mg/hr) continuing for hours to days (119 121). It seems prudent to avoid doses of this magnitude. Alternatively, lorazepam and diazepam may be administered via the enteral route in tablet or liquid form (122). Large doses of liquid lorazepam (i.e., 60 mg
of 2 mg/mL every six hours) may lead to diarrhea because of the high PEG and PG content (123). Midazolam has a rapid onset and short duration with single doses, similar to diazepam (Table 3) (115). The rapid onset of midazolam makes it preferable for treating acutely agitated patients. Accumulation and prolonged sedative effects have been reported in critically ill patients using midazolam who are obese or have a low albumin level or renal failure (99 103). Prolonged sedative effects may also be caused by the accumulation of an active metabolite, alpha-hydroxymidazolam, or its conjugated salt, especially in patients with renal insufciency (101 105). Signicant inhibition of midazolam metabolism has been reported with propofol, diltiazem, macrolide antibiotics, and other inhibitors of cytochrome P450 isoenzyme 3A4, which could inuence the duration of effect (107, 108, 112). Daily discontinuation of midazolam infusions (wake up) with retitration to a Ramsay scale endpoint reduced midazolam requirements and was associated with a reduction in the duration of mechanical ventilation and length of ICU stay (50). However, the patients in this trial were off of midazolam for an average of 5.3 hours per day, so this research technique may be difcult to implement. Patients should be closely monitored for self-extubation or the removal of other monitoring devices during the daily awakening sessions. The routine use of a benzodiazepine antagonist, such as umazenil, is not recommended after prolonged benzodiazepine therapy because of the risks of inducing withdrawal symptoms and increasing myocardial oxygen consumption
Table 3. (Continued) Intermittent i.v. Dosea 0.030.1 mg/kg q 0.56 hr 0.020.06 mg/kg q 26 hr 0.020.08 mg/kg q 0.52 hr ... 0.030.15 mg/kg q 0.56 hr Infusion Dose Range (Usual) ... 0.010.1 mg/kg/hr 0.040.2 mg/kg/hr
Cost per day 70 kg patientb 20 mg q 4 hr: $5.0020.50 48 mg/day: $55.00 6 mg/hr: $65.00309.00
580 g/kg/min 0.040.15 mg/kg/hr
50 g/kg/min: $235.00375.00 10 mg q 6 h: $62.0065.00
with as little as 0.5 mg of umazenil (124). An i.v. dose of umazenil 0.15 mg is associated with few withdrawal symptoms when administered to patients receiving midazolam infusions (125). If umazenil is used to test for prolonged sedation after several days of benzodiazepine therapy, a single low dose is recommended. Propofol. Propofol is an intravenous, general anesthetic agent. However, sedative and hypnotic properties can be demonstrated at lower doses. Compared with benzodiazepines, propofol produces a similar degree of amnesia at equisedative doses in volunteers (69). In a clinical trial of ICU patients, propofol did not produce amnesia as often as midazolam (70). Like the benzodiazepines, propofol has no analgesic properties. Propofol has a rapid onset and short duration of sedation once discontinued (Table 3). While most of the early literature documents the comparatively rapid resolution of sedation after propofol infusions, a slightly longer recovery has been reported after more than 12 hours of infusion (110, 126). No changes in kinetic parameters have been reported in patients with renal or hepatic dysfunction. Propofol is available as an emulsion in a phospholipid vehicle, which provides 1.1 kcal/mL from fat and should be counted as a caloric source. Long-term or high-dose infusions may result in hypertriglyceridemia (127129). Other adverse effects most commonly seen with propofol include hypotension, bradycardia, and pain upon peripheral venous injection. The hypotension is dose related and more frequent after bolus dose administration. Elevation of pancreatic enzymes has been reported during prolonged infusions of propofol (130, 131). Pancreatitis has been reported following anesthesia with propofol, although a causal relationship has
not been established (132). Prolonged use ( 48 hours) of high doses of propofol ( 66 g/kg/min infusion) has been associated with lactic acidosis, bradycardia, and lipidemia in pediatric patients and doses 83 g/kg/min have been associated with an increased risk of cardiac arrest in adults (133, 134). The adults at highest risk for cardiac complications received 100 g/kg/min infusion of a 2% propofol solution to achieve deep sedation after neurologic injury (134). FDA has specically recommended against the use of propofol for the prolonged sedation of pediatric patients. Patients receiving propofol should be monitored for unexplained metabolic acidosis or arrhythmias. Alternative sedative agents should be considered for patients with escalating vasopressor or inotrope requirements or cardiac failure during high-dose propofol infusions. Propofol requires a dedicated i.v. catheter when administered as a continuous infusion because of the potential for drug incompatibility and infection. Improper aseptic technique with propofol in the operating room has led to nosocomial postoperative infection (135). However, a clinically relevant incidence of infectious complications has not been reported with ICU use (136). The manufacturers suggest that propofol infusion bottles and tubing should hang no more than 12 hours and solutions transferred from the original container should be discarded every 6 hours. A preservative has been added to propofol to decrease the potential for bacterial overgrowth in case the vial would become contaminated. One of the propofol formulations contains edetic acid (Diprivan, AstraZeneca) and the manufacturer recommends a drug holiday after more than seven days of infusion to minimize the risk of trace element abnormalities. Another product
(propofol, Gensia Sicor) contains sodium metabisulte, which may produce allergic reactions in susceptible patients. Sulte sensitivity occurs more frequently in patients with asthma. While propofol appears to possess anticonvulsant activity, excitatory phenomena, such as myoclonus, have been observed. There are several case reports and small, uncontrolled studies describing the efcacy of propofol in refractory status epilepticus (after traditional treatment regimens have failed or are not tolerated) and electroconvulsive shock therapy (137, 138). Case reports have also described roles for propofol in delirium tremens refractory to high-dose benzodiazepine therapy (139). Propofol has been used to sedate neurosurgical patients to reduce elevated intracranial pressure (ICP) (140, 141). The rapid awakening from propofol allows interruption of the infusion for neurologic assessment. Propofol may also decrease cerebral blood ow and metabolism. Propofol and morphine produced improved control of ICP compared with morphine alone in the treatment of severe traumatic brain injury (TBI) (141). Propofol reduced elevated ICP more effectively than fentanyl following severe TBI (142). High doses of propofol should be used cautiously in this setting (134). Propofol infusions used to reduce elevated ICP may need to be continued longer than usually recommended for routine sedation (132). Central -Agonists. Clonidine has been used to augment the effects of general anesthetics and narcotics and to treat drug withdrawal syndromes in the ICU (143, 144). The more selective -2 agonist, dexmedetomidine, was recently approved for use as a sedative with analgesic-sparing activity for short-term use ( 24 hours) in patients who are initially receiving mechanical ventilation. Patients remain sedated when undisturbed, but arouse readily with gentle stimulation. Dexmedetomidine reduces concurrent analgesic and sedative requirements and produces anxiolytic effects comparable to benzodiazepines (145 148). Rapid administration of dexmedetomidine may produce transient elevations in blood pressure. Patients maintained on dexmedetomidine may develop bradycardia and hypotension, especially in the presence of intravascular volume depletion or high sympathetic tone. The role of this new agent in the sedation of ICU patients remains to be determined.
127
Table 4. Clinical trials with less than 24 hours of sedationa Level of Evidence (Reference) 1 (150)
Population Type (No. Patients) MICU/SICU (100)
Exclusion Criteria Obese, head injury, NMBA use Neurologic injury, ongoing NMBA use
Trial Design Multicenter, open-label Open-label
Drugs Propofol Midazolam Morphine: to all patients Propofol Midazolam Morphine: to all patients
Mean Dosage Propofol: 1.77 mg/kg/hr Midazolam: 0.1 mg/kg/hr Propofol: 2.3 mg/kg/hr Midazolam: 0.17 mg/kg/hr
2 (128)
2 (151)
MICU/SICU (88 total, 40 short-term sedation) CABG (30)
Obese, renal or hepatic insufciency Renal or hepatic insufciency None
Open-label
1 (152)
CABG (84)
1 (153)
SICU (60)
Propofol Midazolam Sufentanil: to all patients Open-label Propofol Midazolam Morphine: p.r.n. Open-label, Propofol consecutive Midazolam patients Morphine: p.r.n. Multicenter, open-label Double-blind Lorazepam Midazolam Morphine: p.r.n. Propofol Midazolam Morphine: p.r.n. Propofol Midazolam Both Propofol and Midazolam Morphine: to all patients Propofol Midazolam Opioids: p.r.n.
Propofol: 2.71 1.13 mg/kg/hr Midazolam: 0.09 0.03 mg/kg/hr Propofol: 0.7 0.09 mg/kg/hr Midazolam: 0.018 0.001 mg/kg/hr Propofol: 114.8 mg/hr (80.1 21.1 kg) Midazolam: 2.1 1.3 mg/hr (74.2 24 kg) Lorazepam: 1.6 0.1 mg i.v. push, Midazolam: 14.4 1.2 mg infusion over 8 hrs Propofol: 0.64 .17 mg/kg/hr Midazolam: 0.015 0.001 mg/kg/hr Propofol: 1.2 0.03 mg/kg/hr Midazolam: 0.08 0.01 mg/kg/hr Propofol and Midazolam: Propofol: 0.22 0.03 mg/kg/hr, Midazolam: 0.02 mg/kg/hr Actual doses not specied
1 (154)
MICU/SICU (61% trauma) Cardiac surgery (41) CABG (75)
1 (155)
Cardiac insufciency, neurosurgical or unstable Renal, hepatic, or cardiac failure Renal failure, neurologic history, hepatic failure, cardiovascular dysfunction Neurosurgery, coma, seizures
1 (156)
Double-blind
2 (157)
MICU/SICU (99)
Multicenter, openlabel, intentionto-treat analysis
a MICU medical intensive care unit, SICU CABG coronary artery bypass graft.
surgical intensive care unit, NMBA
neuromuscular blocking agent, GCS
Glasgow Coma Score,
Sedative Selection
Acute agitation arises from a variety of etiologies, including pain. A short-acting opioid analgesic, such as fentanyl, may provide immediate sedation and patient comfort; however, fentanyl has not been compared with other sedatives in a controlled trial. Midazolam and diazepam also have a rapid onset of sedation (115). Propofol has a rapid onset, but hypotension and infusion-site pain can result from bolus dose administration. Cautious use of sedatives is recommended for patients not yet intubated because of the risk of respiratory depression. Comparative trials of prolonged sedation have been performed in a variety of critical care settings. Many were supported by pharmaceutical industry research grants; as a result, newer products have been evaluated more frequently.
128
Outcome is usually described in terms of the speed of onset, ability to maintain the target level of sedation, adverse effects, time required for awakening, and ability to wean from mechanical ventilation. Most of the prospective, randomized trials are experimentally awed because they are unblinded, use uncontrolled amounts of opioids, and exclude patients with obesity or renal or hepatic insufciency. This limits their general applicability. There is a need for more large, high-quality, randomized trials of the effectiveness of different sedative agents (149). Most of the trials used a Ramsay scale for assessment, so the depth of sedation can generally be compared among the trials. The trials are summarized in Tables 4 6. Duration of Therapy. Short-term ( 24 hours), randomized, open-label tri-
als of sedation have compared propofol and midazolam most often (eight of nine trials) (Table 4). An opioid was available to all patients. Awakening times for patients taking propofol ranged from 1 to 105 minutes versus 1 to 405 minutes for patients receiving midazolam (128, 150 157). Time to extubation has also been compared, but other variables may inuence this outcome measure. Clinically, these agents produced similar outcomes following 24 hours of infusion (Table 4). An intermediate duration of sedation (one to three days) was reported in three randomized open-label trials (Table 5). Propofol and midazolam were compared for sedation of medical ICU patients and a mixed medical-surgical ICU population with respiratory failure (157, 158). Patients receiving propofol had statistically more predictable awakening times than
Table 4. (Continued)
Actual Duration Propofol: 20.2 hr Midazolam: 21.3 hr Propofol: 11.9 hr Midazolam: 11.9 hr Propofol: 9.5 hr Midazolam: 9.8 hr Propofol: 9.2 hr Midazolam: 9.4 hr 16 hr observation, total sedation duration not dened 8 hr
Sedation Endpoint or Goal Ramsay level 24
Outcome Measure Awakening time: most awake at end of infusion, longest: Propofol: 105 min, Midazolam: 405 min Time to extubation: Propofol: 0.3 hr Midazolam: 2.5 0.9 hr Time to extubation: Propofol: 250 135 min Midazolam: 391 128 min Time to extubation: Propofol: 4.3 hr Midazolam: 3.5 hr Postsedation score at 5, 30, 60, and 90 min: Propofol scores lower at 5 and 30 min Adequacy of sedation
Signicance or Conclusion No statistical analysis reported
Ramsay level 25 and modied GCS Ramsay level 5
0.05, Propofol more rapid extubation 0.01, Propofol more rapid extubation
Ramsay level 3
Not statistically signicant
Ramsay level 3 and response to stimulation
0.05, Midazolam more heavily sedated
Propofol: 4 hr Midazolam: 4 hr Propofol: 14.4 hr Midazolam: 14.1 hr Propofol and Midazolam: 14.7 hr 24 hrpost hoc stratum Propofol: n 21 Midazolam: n 26
Multiple scales: anxiety, amnesia, pain, GCS, Ramsay level 3 Ramsay level 24
Comparable sedation scores
Modied GCS
Awakening time: Propofol: 88.6 51 min Midazolam: 93.8 59.4 min Time to extubation: Propofol: 0.9 0.3 hr Midazolam: 2.3 0.8 hr Propofol and Midazolam: 1.2 Time to extubation: Propofol: 5.6 hr Midazolam: 11.9 hr
Not statistically signicant
0.01, Midazolam vs. Propofol or Propofol and Midazolam
0.6 hr p 0.029 Overall: Propofol: 60.2% of time at target Ramsay score Midazolam: 44% of time at target Ramsay score, p 0.05
Ramsay scale, level was specied daily
a MICU medical intensive care unit, SICU CABG coronary artery bypass graft.
surgical intensive care unit, NMBA
Glasgow Coma Score,
patients receiving midazolam in both trials. Clinically, this time difference was not as signicant and did not produce more rapid discharge from the ICU (157). In a three-way comparison of midazolam, lorazepam, and propofol infusions for sedation of surgical ICU patients, the authors concluded that lorazepam was the preferred agent in this population (118). Overall, these agents were similar in the levels of sedation provided, the time required to achieve adequate sedation, and the number of dose adjustments per day. However, midazolam produced adequate sedation during a greater percentage of time while propofol was associated with more undersedation and lorazepam with more oversedation. Morphine was provided on an as needed basis and the average dose was similar in all three groups. Awakening times were not reported. Precipitation of lorazepam infusions was reported (118).
Nine open-label, randomized trials comparing long-term sedation (more than three days) were reviewed in these guidelines (Table 6) (70, 127129, 157, 159 163). Most of the trials compared propofol with midazolam. All trials included opioid therapy, although administration was not controlled. Most studies used a Ramsay scale for patient assessment. In these trials, propofol consistently produced more rapid awakening than midazolam with a statistical and, probably, a clinical difference (70, 127129, 160, 161). Propofol patients awakened and were extubated in 0.25 4 hours while midazolam patients required 2.8 10 hours to awaken and up to 49 hours for extubation (Table 6) (157). The greatest difference in time to awakening was seen when a deep level of sedation was the goal of therapy (Ramsay level 4 5). Patients receiving propofol awakened from deep sedation signicantly faster than those receiving midazolam (127129). Lorazepam and
midazolam were also compared for longterm sedation (159, 162). One of these studies used a double-blind study design (162). There was no statistically signicant difference in awakening time between these agents when titrated to similar levels of sedation, although the awakening times associated with lorazepam appeared to be more predictable. Sedative Comparison. Four trials compared lorazepam with midazolam (118, 154, 159, 162). Intermittent lorazepam doses produced sedation comparable to a midazolam infusion during an eight-hour observation period (154). Both lorazepam and midazolam have the potential to cause accumulation and prolonged drug effects or oversedation if administered excessively via continuous infusion, especially when deep levels of sedation are attempted (118, 159). However, a rigorous protocol of assessment and titration of lorazepam infusions to
129
Table 5. Clinical trials with one to three days of sedationa Level of Evidence (Reference) 1 (158)
Population (No. Patients) MICU with respiratory failure (73)
Exclusion Criteria ...
Design Open-label
Drugs Propofol Midazolam Morphine: p.r.n. Propofol Midazolam Lorazepam Morphine: p.r.n. Propofol Midazolam Opioids: p.r.n.
Mean Dosage Propofol: 1.25 0.87 mg/kg/hr Midazolam: 3.1 3.2 mg/hr
2 (118)
Surgical or Trauma ICU (31)
Alcohol abuse, head injury, dialysis
Open-label
2 (157)
MICU or SICU (99)
Neurosurgery, coma, seizures
Multicenter, Open-label, intention-to-treat analysis
Propofol: 2 1.5 mg/kg/hr Midazolam: 0.04 0.03 mg/kg/hr Lorazepam: 0.02 0.01 mg/kg/hr Actual doses not specied
MICU
medical intensive care unit, ICU
intensive care unit, SICU
surgical intensive care unit.
moderate levels of sedation produced a less variable awakening time with lorazepam than with midazolam, although the absolute difference in awakening time was not statistically signicant (159). A nurse-managed sedation protocol, which included the active titration of lorazepam infusions to a dened endpoint, avoided a prolonged sedative effect compared with physician management of infusion rates (80). A blinded trial of lorazepam versus midazolam found that the lorazepam infusions were easier to manage than midazolam infusions because fewer dose adjustments were required to maintain the desired level of sedation (162). In this trial, wide inter- and intrapatient variability was noted between sedative plasma concentrations and the Ramsay score. No difference was noted in patient recovery when patients were evaluated for 24 hours after the end of the infusion. Awakening times were not reported in two of the other trials (118, 154). When titrated to a standard endpoint, midazolam and propofol provide comparable levels of sedation with a similar onset of effect (128, 150 153, 155157). As shown in Table 4, there is generally no statistical or clinical difference in awakening times between propofol and midazolam when used for short-term sedation. Data from longer trials of sedation (more than 72 hours) suggest that propofol is associated with more reliable and rapid awakening, both statistically and clinically, than midazolam (106, 127, 128, 156, 158, 160). Following long-term sedation, propofol awakening times ranged from 0.25 to 2.5 hours and midazolam awakening times ranged
130
from 2.8 to 30 hours (Table 6). One centers comparison of two concentrations of propofol (1% and 2%) versus midazolam used in trauma patients has shown that midazolam provides deep levels of sedation more reliably than propofol, but the awakening times were much longer with midazolam (127, 163). More patients receiving 1% propofol experienced failure because of elevated triglycerides, but the 2% propofol group experienced failure because of inadequate sedation. Failure of propofol to provide adequate sedation of trauma patients was reported elsewhere, although an explanation was not apparent (118). Economic Comparison. Several of these studies presented limited pharmacoeconomic data. In most reports, the sedative costs were the only costs considered (cost minimization) (118, 154 156, 162). Some studies included a portion of the costs for ICU patient care (128, 161). A sedative with a low acquisition cost may be cited as the least expensive agent for prolonged sedation (e.g., lorazepam) (1, 32, 118). A complete economic analysis should consider costs associated with the evaluation and treatment of sedationinduced adverse effects (e.g., prolonged sedation, infection, and hypertriglyceridemia), therapy failures (additional agents or high doses required), and drug preparation and administration costs (precipitation and tubing changes) to determine the total cost of therapy. The cost of sedation-induced prolongation of ventilation or length of ICU stay is likely to reduce the potential difference in acquisition costs between benzodiazepines and propofol (164). Institutional variables
(bed availability) or patient-specic factors (other injuries and the need for observation) may impact a patients length of stay more than the sedation regimen. More rapid extubation with propofol was not associated with a shorter length of stay in a multi-center Canadian trial (157). Research that considers all of these cost factors is needed to estimate the overall cost of sedative regimens. Since the frequency of sedation-induced adverse effects has not been well described, there are insufcient data to create pharmacoeconomic models comparing the potential costs of sedative regimens. The acquisition costs of sedatives vary widely among institutions, and costs may decline with the availability of generic products (Table 3). Multidisciplinary development and implementation of sedation guidelines have been shown to reduce direct drug costs (from $81.54 to $18.12 per patient per day), ventilator time (317 to 167 hours), and the lengths of ICU stay (19.1 to 9.9 days) and total stay without a change in mortality (165). Although an economic analysis was not performed, a nursing-implemented sedation protocol using lorazepam reduced the duration of sedation and mechanical ventilation and the tracheostomy rate (80). A systematic multidisciplinary team approach to sedation and analgesia will produce clinical and economic benets. An algorithm was developed to incorporate many of the assessment issues with the therapy options in this document (Figure 1). When using this algorithm, the pharmacology, potential adCrit Care Med 2002 Vol. 30, No. 1
Actual Duration Up to 3 days
Sedation Endpoint/Goal Behavior scale
Outcome Measure Awakening: dened by eye opening ability to follow with eyes, hand grasp, and tongue protrusion Time with adequate sedation: Midazolam: 79% Propofol: 62% Lorazepam: 68% Time to extubation Propofol: 7.4 hr Midazolam: 31.3 hr
Signicance/Conclusion Many awake during infusion, Propofol: smaller range of awakening times, Used daily wakeup to reassess patients Lorazepam vs. midazolam p 0.03 Midazolam vs. Propofol p 0.01 Propofol: more undersedation 31% Lorazepam: more oversedation 14% and precipitation 18% p 0.068, Enrollment ended early, insufcient power Overall: Propofol: 60.2% of time at target Ramsay score Midazolam: 44% of time at target Ramsay score, p 0.05
Propofol: 86.4 72 hr Midazolam: 60 72 hr Lorazepam: 72 52.8 hr
Ramsay level 24
2472 hr post hoc stratum Propofol: n 21 Midazolam: n 17
Ramsay scale, level was specied daily
verse effects, and therapeutic issues discussed in this document should be considered. Recommendations: Midazolam or diazepam should be used for rapid sedation of acutely agitated patients. (Grade of recommendation C) Propofol is the preferred sedative when rapid awakening (e.g., for neurologic assessment or extubation) is important. (Grade of recommendation B) Midazolam is recommended for shortterm use only, as it produces unpredictable awakening and time to extubation when infusions continue longer than 48 72 hours. (Grade of recommendation A) Lorazepam is recommended for the sedation of most patients via intermittent i.v. administration or continuous infusion. (Grade of recommendation B) The titration of the sedative dose to a dened endpoint is recommended with systematic tapering of the dose or daily interruption with retitration to minimize prolonged sedative effects. (Grade of recommendation A) Triglyceride concentrations should be monitored after two days of propofol infusion, and total caloric intake from lipids should be included in the nutrition support prescription. (Grade of recommendation B) The use of sedation guidelines, an algorithm, or a protocol is recommended. (Grade of recommendation B)
SEDATIVE AND ANALGESIC WITHDRAWAL

Patients exposed to more than one week of high-dose opioid or sedative therapy may develop neuroadaptation or physiological dependence. Rapid discontinuation of these agents could lead to withdrawal symptoms. Opioid withdrawal signs and symptoms include dilation of the pupils, sweating, lacrimation, rhinorrhea, piloerection, tachycardia, vomiting, diarrhea, hypertension, yawning, fever, tachypnea, restlessness, irritability, increased sensitivity to pain, cramps, muscle aches, and anxiety. Benzodiazepine withdrawal signs and symptoms include dysphoria, tremor, headache, nausea, sweating, fatigue, anxiety, agitation, increased sensitivity to light and sound, paresthesias, muscle cramps, myoclonus, sleep disturbances, delirium, and seizures. Propofol withdrawal has not been well described but appears to resemble benzodiazepine withdrawal. The occurrence of sedative and analgesic withdrawal has been described in both adult and pediatric ICU populations (166 168). In adults, withdrawal is associated with the length of stay, mechanical ventilation, and the dose and duration of analgesic and sedative therapy. Patients at highest risk include those who stay greater than seven days in the ICU, receive greater than 35 mg/day of lorazepam, or greater than 5 mg/day of fentanyl (166). Studies of pediatric patients have found that the rate of medication weaning may be very important in the development of withdrawal syndromes (167,
169). Although not tested prospectively, it has been recommended that daily dose decrements of opioids not exceed 510% in high-risk patients (170). If the drug is administered intermittently, changing the therapy to longer-acting agents may also attenuate withdrawal symptoms (171). Another recommendation for opioid weaning is to decrease a continuous infusion rate by 20 40% initially and make additional reductions of 10% every 1224 hours, depending on the patients response (172). Conversion to a continuous subcutaneous infusion has also been used for gradual fentanyl and midazolam weaning in children (173). Patient care costs may be increased unnecessarily if sedatives and analgesics are withdrawn too slowly. Recommendation: The potential for opioid, benzodiazepine, and propofol withdrawal should be considered after high doses or more than approximately seven days of continuous therapy. Doses should be tapered systematically to prevent withdrawal symptoms. (Grade of recommendation B)
DELIRIUM
As many as 80% of ICU patients have delirium, characterized by an acutely changing or uctuating mental status, inattention, disorganized thinking, and an altered level of consciousness that may or may not be accompanied by agitation. Placing severely ill patients in a stressful environment for prolonged periods exacer131
Table 6. Clinical trials of more than three days of sedation Level of Evidence (Reference) 2 (128) Population (No. Patients) MICU/SICUa (88 total, 28 medium-term, 20 long-term sedation) MICU (20) MICU/SICU (98)
Exclusion Criteria Neurologic injury, ongoing NMBA use
Design Open-label
Drugs Propofol Midazolam Morphine: to all patients Lorazepam Midazolam Morphine: to all patients Propofol Midazolam Morphine: p.r.n. Propofol Midazolam Morphine: to all patients Propofol Midazolam Morphine: p.r.n. Propofol alfentanil Midazolam morphine Propofol Midazolam Propofol midazolam Morphine: p.r.n. Lorazepam Midazolam Fentanyl p.r.n. Propofol 2% Midazolam Morphine: to all patients Propofol Midazolam Opioids: p.r.n.
Mean Dosage Propofol: 2.3 mg/kg/hr Midazolam: 0.17 mg/kg/hr
1 (159) 1 (160)
CNS abnormal Renal, hepatic, or cardiac failure, ongoing NMBA use Chronic liver disease, head injury, ongoing NMBA use None
Open-label Open-label, multicenter
Lorazepam: 0.06 0.04 mg/kg/hr Midazolam: 0.24 0.16 mg/kg/hr Propofol: 2.8 1.1 mg/kg/hr Midazolam: 0.14 0.1 mg/kg/hr
1 (129) 2 (70)
MICU/SICU (108 consecutive) MICU/SICU (68 consecutive) MICU/SICU (26)
Open-label Open-label
Propofol: 3.075.7 0.04 mg/kg/hr Midazolam: 14 0.1 mg/kg/hr Propofol: 1.8 0.08 mg/kg/hr Midazolam: 0.07 0.003 mg/kg/hr Alfentanil: 0.52 g/kg/hr Propofol: 14 mg/kg/hr Morphine: 1770 g/kg/hr Midazolam: 0.030.2 mg/kg/hr Propofol: 2.12 1.2 mg/kg/hr Midazolam: 0.19 0.09 mg/kg/hr Propofol and Midazolam: Propofol: 1.6 0.05 mg/kg/hr, Midazolam: 0.14 0.08 mg/kg/hr Lorazepam: 23.1 14.4 mg/day Midazolam: 372 256 mg/day Propofol: 6400 1797 mg/day Midazolam: 297.8 103.8 mg/day Actual doses not specied
2 (161)
1 (127)
Trauma ICU (100 consecutive)
Hepatic or renal insufciency, head injury, ongoing NMBA use Renal or hepatic failure
Open-label
Open-label
1 (162)
MICU (64)
Head injury, ongoing NMBA use Renal or hepatic failure Neurosurgery, coma, seizures
Blinded
2 (163)
Trauma ICU (63 consecutive) MICU/SICU (99)
Open-label
2 (157)
Multicenter, open-label, intentionto-treat analysis
a MICU medical intensive care unit, ICU intensive care unit.
intensive care unit, NMBA
Glasgow Coma Score; SICU, surgical
bates the clinical symptoms of delirium (174 177). Delirium is usually characterized by uctuating levels of arousal throughout the day, associated with sleepwake cycle disruption, and hastened by reversed day-night cycles (178). Delirium may be associated with confusion and different motoric subtypes: hypoactive, hyperactive, or mixed (179, 180). Hypoactive delirium, which is associated with the worst prognosis, is characterized by psychomotor retardation manifested by a calm appearance, inattention, decreased mobility, and obtundation in extreme cases. Hyperactive delirium is easily recognized by agitation, combative behaviors, lack of ori132
entation, and progressive confusion after sedative therapy.
Assessment of Delirium
The gold standard criteria used to diagnose delirium is the clinical history and examination as guided by the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 4th edition (DSM-IV) (177). Although many scales and diagnostic instruments have been developed to facilitate the recognition and diagnosis of delirium, these scales routinely exclude ICU patients because it is often difcult to communicate with them (178, 181). Several groups of delirium investigators have recently collab-
orated to develop and validate a rapid bedside instrument to accurately diagnose delirium in ICU patients, who are often nonverbal because they are on mechanical ventilation. This instrument is called the Confusion Assessment Method for the ICU (CAM-ICU) (181, 182). The work was begun by Hart and colleagues with their publication of the Cognitive Test for Delirium and a later version called the Abbreviated Cognitive Test for Delirium (183, 184). These two investigations were limited because they included approximately 20 patients each and excluded some of the most severely ill patients who are often cared for in the ICU. These factors led the authors
Actual Duration Medium: Propofol: 116 hr Midazolam: 113 hr Long: Propofol: 312 hr Midazolam: 342 hr Lorazepam: 77 hr Midazolam: 108 hr Propofol: 81 hr Midazolam: 88 hr
Sedation Endpoint/Goal Ramsay level 25 and modied GCS
Outcome Measure Time to extubation: Medium: Propofol: 0.4 0.1 hr Midazolam: 13.5 4 hr Long: Propofol: 0.8 0.3 hr Midazolam: 36.6 6.8 hr Return to baseline mental status: Lorazepam: 261 189 min, Midazolam: 1815 2322 min Awakening lightly sedated: Propofol: 14 0.8 min Midazolam: 64 20 min Deep sedation: Propofol: 27 16 min Midazolam: 237 222 min Time to t-tube Propofol: 4 3.9 hr Midazolam: 48.9 47.2 hr Awakening: Propofol: 1.8 0.4 hr Midazolam: 2.8 0.4 hr Amnesia: Propofol: 29% Midazolam: 100% Time to extubation: Propofol: 3 hr (113 hr) Midazolam: 50 hr (1121 hr) Awakening (excluding head trauma): Propofol: 110 50 min Midazolam: 660 400 min Propofol and Midazolam: 190 200 min Awakening similar, times not reported
Signicance/Conclusion Medium: p 0.05 Long: p 0.05
Ramsay level 23 Own sedation scale
Not statistically signicant Light: p 0.05 Heavy: p 0.01
Propofol: 139 hr Midazolam: 141 hr Propofol: 99 hr Midazolam: 141 hr ...
Ramsay level 45 Ramsay level 23 also rated amnesia Own scale, goal: moderateheavy sedation Own scale, goal: moderate to heavy sedation
0.0001 Propofol: high triglycerides 12% men, 50% women p 0.02 More propofol patients with agitation upon awakening p p 0.006
Propofol: 5.2 days Midazolam: 6.6 days Propofol and Midazolam: 7.2 days Lorazepam: 141 hr Midazolam: 141 hr Propofol: 6.5 hr Midazolam: 11.1 hr 2472 hrpost hoc stratum Propofol: n 4 Midazolam: n 10
Midazolam vs Propofol or Propofol and Midazolam: p 0.01; Propofol: high triglyceride levels Satisfactory sedation: Lorazepam: 87 10.5%, Midazolam: 66.2 23.1% p 0.0001 Awakening: not statistically signicant Less triglyceride elevation than historical control (reference 117) p 0.03, enrollment ended early, insufcient power limits conclusion Overall: Propofol: 60.2% of time at target Ramsay score Midazolam: 44% of time at target Ramsay score, p 0.05
Addenbrooke sedation scale, initial moderate to heavy sedation, tapering to light sedation Own scale, goal: moderate to heavy sedation Ramsay scale, level was specied daily
Awakening (no head trauma) Propofol: 145 50 min Midazolam: 372 491 min Time to extubation: Propofol: 8.4 hr Midazolam: 46.8 hr
to recommend that additional research with delirium assessment tools be conducted before routine application in mechanically ventilated patients (184). Collaboration among specialists in pulmonary and critical care, neurology, psychiatry, neuropsychology, and geriatrics has led to the development of a useful assessment tool (182, 185). It is based on the Confusion Assessment Method (CAM), which was designed specically for use by health care professionals without formal psychiatric training, and incorporates DSM-IV criteria for the diagnosis of delirium (186). CAM, which is the most widely used delirium assessment instrument for non-psychiatrists, is easy to use and has
demonstrated utility in important clinical investigations (187, 188). Critical care nurses can complete delirium assessments with the CAM-ICU in an average of 2 minutes with an accuracy of 98%, compared with a full DSM-IV assessment by a geriatric psychiatric expert, which usually requires at least 30 minutes to complete. The CAM-ICU assessments have a likelihood ratio of over 50 for diagnosing delirium and high inter rater reliability (kappa 0.96) (185). In the two subgroups expected to present the greatest challenge to the CAM-ICU (i.e., those over 65 years and those with suspected dementia), the instrument retained excellent inter rater reliability,
sensitivity, and specicity. To complete the CAM-ICU, patients are observed for the presence of an acute onset of mental status change or a uctuating mental status, inattention, disorganized thinking, or an altered level of consciousness (Table 7). With the CAM-ICU, delirium was diagnosed in 87% of the ICU patients with an average onset on the second day and a mean duration of 4.2 1.7 days (185). Ongoing research will assist in understanding the etiology of delirium and the effects of therapeutic interventions. Another instrument for delirium screening was validated in ICU patients by comparison with a psychiatric evaluation (189). The use of these tools in pro133
Table 7. The confusion assessment method for the diagnosis of delirium in the ICU (CAM-ICU) (182, 185) Feature 1. Acute Onset of mental status changes or Fluctuating Course 2. Inattention Assessment Variables Is there evidence of an acute change in mental status from the baseline? Did the (abnormal) behavior uctuate during the past 24 hours, i.e., tend to come and go or increase and decrease in severity? Did the sedation scale (e.g., SAS or MAAS) or coma scale (GCS) uctuate in the past 24 hours?a Did the patient have difculty focusing attention? Is there a reduced ability to maintain and shift attention? How does the patient score on the Attention Screening Examination (ASE)? (i.e., Visual Component ASE tests the patients ability to pay attention via recall of 10 pictures; auditory component ASE tests attention via having patient squeeze hands or nod whenever the letter A is called in a random letter sequence) If the patient is already extubated from the ventilator, determine whether or not the patients thinking is disorganized or incoherent, such as rambling or irrelevant conversation, unclear or illogical ow of ideas, or unpredictable switching from subject to subject. For those still on the ventilator, can the patient answer the following 4 questions correctly? 1. Will a stone oat on water? 2. Are there sh in the sea? 3. Does one pound weigh more than two pounds? 4. Can you use a hammer to pound a nail? Was the patient able to follow questions and commands throughout the assessment? 1. Are you having any unclear thinking? 2. Hold up this many ngers. (examiner holds two ngers in front of patient)? 3. Now do the same thing with the other hand. (not repeating the number of ngers) Alert: normal, spontaneously fully aware of environment, interacts appropriately Vigilant: hyperalert Lethargic: drowsy but easily aroused, unaware of some elements in the environment, or not spontaneously interacting appropriately with the interviewer; becomes fully aware and appropriately interactive when prodded minimally Stupor: difcult to arouse, unaware of some or all elements in the environment, or not spontaneously interacting with the interviewer; becomes incompletely aware and inappropriately interactive when prodded strongly; can be aroused only by vigorous and repeated stimuli and as soon as the stimulus ceases, stuporous subjects lapse back into the unresponsive state. Coma: unarousable, unaware of all elements in the environment, with no spontaneous interaction or awareness of the interviewer, so that the interview is impossible even with maximal prodding
3. Disorganized thinking
4. Altered level of consciousness (any level of consciousness other than alert (e.g., vigilant, lethargic, stupor, or coma)
Patients are diagnosed with delirium if they have both Features 1 and 2 and either Feature 3 or 4.
a
SAS
Sedation-Analgesia Scale, MAAS
Motor Activity Assessment Scale, GCS
Glasgow Coma Scale.
spective trials will delineate the longterm ramications of delirium on the clinical outcomes of ICU patients. The study of delirium and other forms of cognitive impairment in mechanically ventilated patients and other risk factors for neuropsychological sequelae after ICU care may be an important advancement in the monitoring and treatment of critically ill patients. Recommendation: Routine assessment for the presence of delirium is recommended. (The CAM-ICU is a promising tool for the assessment of delirium in ICU patients.) (Grade of recommendation B)
Treatment of Delirium
Inappropriate drug regimens for sedation or analgesia may exacerbate delirium symptoms. Psychotic or delirious patients may become more obtunded and confused when treated with sedatives,
134
causing a paradoxical increase in agitation (190). Neuroleptic agents (chlorpromazine and haloperidol) are the most common drugs used to treat patients with delirium. They are thought to exert a stabilizing effect on cerebral function by antagonizing dopamine-mediated neurotransmission at the cerebral synapses and basal ganglia. This effect can also enhance extrapyramidal symptoms (EPS). Abnormal symptomatology, such as hallucinations, delusions, and unstructured thought patterns, is inhibited, but the patients interest in the environment is diminished, producing a characteristic at cerebral affect. These agents also exert a sedative effect. Chlorpromazine is not routinely used in critically ill patients because of its strong anticholinergic, sedative, and -adrenergic antagonist effects. Haloperidol has a lesser sedative effect and a lower risk of inducing hypotension than
chlorpromazine. Droperidol, a chemical congener of haloperidol, is reported to be more potent than haloperidol but has been associated with frightening dreams and may have a higher risk of inducing hypotension because of its direct vasodilating and antiadrenergic effects (191, 192). Droperidol has not been studied in ICU patients as extensively as haloperidol. Haloperidol is commonly given via intermittent i.v. injection (193). The optimal dose and regimen of haloperidol have not been well dened. Haloperidol has a long half-life (18 54 hours) and loading regimens are used to achieve a rapid response in acutely delirious patients. A loading regimen starting with a 2-mg dose, followed by repeated doses (double the previous dose) every 1520 minutes while agitation persists, has been described (193, 194). High doses of haloperidol ( 400 mg per day) have been reported, but QT prolongation may result. However, the safety of this regimen has
been questioned (192, 195200). Once the delirium is controlled, regularly scheduled doses (every four to six hours) may be continued for a few days; then therapy should be tapered over several days. A continuous infusion of haloperidol (325 mg/hr) has been used to achieve more consistent serum concentrations (81, 201). The pharmacokinetics of haloperidol may be affected by other drugs (202). Neuroleptic agents can cause a dosedependent QT-interval prolongation of the electrocardiogram, leading to an increased risk of ventricular dysrhythmias, including torsades de pointes (195200). Signicant QT prolongation has been reported with cumulative haloperidol doses as low as 35 mg, and dysrhythmias have been reported within minutes of administering i.v. doses of 20 mg or more (199). A history of cardiac disease appears to predispose patients to this adverse event (200). The actual incidence of torsades de pointes associated with halperidol use is unknown, although a historical case-controlled study suggests it may be 3.6% (199). EPS can occur with these agents. A slowly eliminated active metabolite of haloperidol appears to cause EPS (203 208). EPS has been reported less frequently after i.v. versus oral haloperidol administration, but concurrent benzodiazepine use may mask EPS appearance. Self-limited movement disorders can be seen several days after tapering or discontinuing haloperidol and may last for up to two weeks (209). Treatment of EPS includes discontinuing the neuroleptic agent and a clinical trial of diphenhydramine or benztropine mesylate. Other adverse effects have also been described. Haloperidol therapy for the control of agitation after a traumatic brain injury may prolong the duration of posttraumatic amnesia, but the effect on functional recovery has not been well demonstrated in humans (210). Although haloperidol is the most common antipsychotic agent associated with neuroleptic malignant syndrome and has been implicated in approximately 50% of reported episodes (only three cases were reported in critically ill patients receiving intravenous haloperidol), its adverse effects may be underreported (211214). Haloperidol therapy for acutely agitated or delirious patients has not been studied prospectively in agitated ICU patients, but its utility has been suggested in case series (81, 193, 201).
Recommendations: Haloperidol is the preferred agent for the treatment of delirium in critically ill patients. (Grade of recommendation C) Patients should be monitored for electrocardiographic changes (QT interval prolongation and arrhythmias) when receiving haloperidol. (Grade of recommendation B)
SLEEP
Sleep is believed to be important to recover from an illness. Sleep deprivation may impair tissue repair and overall cellular immune function (215). Sleeplessness induces additional stress in critical care patients (3, 216). Allowing a patient to obtain an adequate amount of sleep may be difcult in a critical care unit. Sleep in the ICU has been characterized by few complete sleep cycles, numerous awakenings, and infrequent rapid-eye-movement (REM) sleep (217). Atypical sleep patterns were demonstrated in critically ill patients receiving high doses of sedatives (218).
Sleep Assessment
Similar to pain assessment, the patients own report is the best measure of sleep adequacy, since polysomnography is not a clinically feasible tool in the critical care setting. If self-report is not possible, systematic observation of a patients sleep time by nurses has been shown to be a valid measure (219). A VAS or questionnaire can be used to assess sleep for specic patients (220).
hour day helps patients achieve normal sleep patterns, so bright lights should be avoided at night. In addition, care should be coordinated to minimize frequent interruptions during the night. Relaxation. Head-to-toe relaxation may benet anxious critically ill patients who can follow directions. Relaxation will lead to a parasympathetic response and a decrease in respiratory rate, heart rate, jaw tension, and blood pressure. Relaxation techniques include deep breathing followed by the sequential relaxation of each muscle group (226). Relaxation, in combination with music therapy, is effective in patients with myocardial infarction (227). Music Therapy. Music therapy relaxes patients and decreases their pain. Music intervention with cardiac surgery patients, during the rst postoperative day, decreased noise annoyance, heart rate, and systolic blood pressure (228). In mechanically ventilated patients, music therapy decreased anxiety and promoted relaxation (229). Music therapy is a proven intervention for anxious patients in other critical care settings (229 231). Music can decrease heart rate, respiratory rate, myocardial oxygen demand, and anxiety scores and improve sleep (232, 233). When selecting music, a patients personal preference should be considered. Massage. Back massage is an alternative or adjunct to pharmacologic therapy in critically ill patients. Approximately 510 minutes of massage initiates the relaxation response and increases a patients amount of sleep (234, 235).
Nonpharmacologic Strategies
Titrating Environmental Stimulation. Nonpharmacologic interventions to promote sleep and increase overall patient comfort may include environment modication, relaxation, back massage, and music therapy. Noise in critical care settings is an environmental hazard that disrupts sleep (221223). Sources of noise include equipment, alarms, telephones, ventilators, and staff conversations. Noise levels above 80 decibels cause arousal from sleep. Sleep occurs best below 35 decibels (222). Earplugs effectively decreased noise and increased REM sleep in healthy volunteers in a study that simulated noise heard in an ICU (224). A creative unit design with single rooms may ameliorate noise and provide lighting that better reects a day-night orientation (225). Lighting mimicking the 24-
Pharmacologic Therapy to Promote Sleep

Patients may remain sleep-deprived despite nonpharmacologic interventions. Most patients need a combination of analgesics, sedatives, and relaxation techniques to decrease pain and anxiety and promote sleep. Sedative-hypnotics can induce sleep in healthy individuals, but little is known of their use in the critically ill. There was no difference in sleep quality between two groups of nonintubated ICU patients receiving midazolam or propofol (59). Oral hypnotics, such as benzodiazepines or zolpidem, are used in nonintubated patients to decrease sleep latency while increasing total sleep time without affecting sleep architecture in stages three and four and REM sleep (215). Recommendation: Sleep promotion should include optimization of the en135
vironment and nonpharmacologic methods to promote relaxation with adjunctive use of hypnotics. (Grade of recommendation B)
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The following professional organizations and persons reviewed this guideline: the American College of Chest Physicians, the American Academy of Neurology, the American Association of Critical Care Nurses, the American Nurses Association, the American Pharmaceutical Association, the American College of Clinical Pharmacy, Stephanie E. Cooke, Pharm.D., Joe Dasta, Pharm.D., Doug Fish, Pharm.D., Erkan Hassan, Pharm.D., H. Mathilda Horst, M.D., Kathleen Kelly, M.D., Karen Kaiser, R.N., Corlayne E. Jackson, M.D., Maria Rudis, Pharm.D., Carl Schoenberger, M.D., Lori Schoonover, R.N., Gayle Takaniski, Pharm.D., Dan Teres, M.D., FCCM, and Karen Thompson, M.D.
REFERENCES
1. Shapiro BA, Warren J, Egol AB, et al: Practice parameters for intravenous analgesia and sedation for adult patients in the intensive care unit: An executive summary. Crit Care Med 1995; 23:1596 1600 2. Society of Critical Care Medicine, American Society of Health-System Pharmacists: Sedative, analgesia, and neuromuscular blockade of the critically ill adult: Revised clinical practice guidelines for 2002. Crit Care Med 2002; 30:117118 3. Novaes MA, Knobel E, Bork AM, et al: Stressors in ICU: Perception of the patient, relatives and healthcare team. Intensive Care Med 1999; 25:14211426 4. Desbiens NA, Wu AW, Broste SK, et al: Pain and satisfaction with pain control in seriously ill hospitalized adults: Findings from the SUPPORT research investigators. Crit Care Med 1996; 24:19531961 5. Epstein J, Breslow MJ: The stress response of critical illness. Crit Care Clin 1999; 15:1733 6. Lewis KS, Whipple JK, Michael KA, et al: Effect of analgesic treatment on the physiological consequences of acute pain. Am J Hosp Pharm 1994; 51:1539 1554 7. Mangano DT, Silician D, Hollenberg M, et al: Postoperative myocardial ischemia: Therapeutic trials using intensive analgesia following surgery. Anesthesiology 1992; 76:342353 8. Parker SD, Breslow MJ, Frank SM, et al: Catecholamine and cortisol responses to lower extremity revascularization: Correlation with outcome variables. Crit Care Med 1995; 23:1954 1961 9. Desai PM: Pain management and pulmonary dysfunction. Crit Care Clin 1999; 15:151166 10. Gust R, Pecher S, Gust A, et al: Effect of patient-controlled analgesia on pulmonary complications after coronary artery-bypass grafting. Crit Care Med 1999; 27:22182223
11. Carroll KC, Atkins PJ, Herold GR, et al: Pain assessment and management in critically ill postoperative and trauma patients: A multisite study. Am J Crit Care 1999; 8:105117 12. Ferguson J, Gilroy D, Puntillo K: Dimensions of pain and analgesic administration associated with coronary artery bypass in an Australian intensive care unit. J Adv Nurs 1997; 26:10651072 13. Whipple JK, Lewis KS, Quebbeman EJ, et al: Analysis of pain management in critically ill patients. Pharmacotherapy 1995; 15:592599 14. Sun X, Weissman C: The use of analgesics and sedatives in critically ill patients: Physicians orders versus medications administered. Heart Lung 1994; 23:169 176 15. Caswell DR, Williams JP, Vallejo M, et al: Improving pain management in critical care. Jt Comm J Qual Improvement 1996; 22:702712 16. Hamill-Ruth RJ, Marohn ML: Evaluation of pain in the critically ill patient. Crit Care Clin 1999; 15:3554 17. Acute Pain Management Guideline Panel. Acute pain management: Operative or medical procedures and trauma. Clinical practice guideline. Rockville, MD: Agency for Health Care Policy and Research, 1992; AHCPR publication no. 92-0032 18. Ho K, Spence J, Murphy MF: Review of pain management tools. Ann Emerg Med 1996; 27:427 432 19. Terai T, Yukioka H, Asada A: Pain evaluation in the intensive care unit: Observerreported faces scale compared with selfreported visual analog scale. Reg Anesth Pain Med 1998; 23:147151 20. Puntillo KA: Dimensions of procedural pain and its analgesic management in critically ill surgical patients. Am J Crit Care 1994; 3:116 128 21. Meehan DA, McRae ME, Rourke DA, et al: Analgesia administration, pain intensity, and patient satisfaction in cardiac surgical patients. Am J Crit Care 1995; 4:435 442 22. Melzack R, Katz J: Pain measurement in persons in pain. In: Wall PD, Melzack R, eds. Textbook of pain. Edinburgh, Scotland: Churchill Livingstone; 1994:337351 23. Mateo OM, Krenzischek DA: A pilot study to assess the relationship between behavioral manifestations of pain and self-report of pain in post anesthesia care unit patients. J Post Anesth Nurs 1992; 7:1521 24. Puntillo KA, Miaskowski C, Kehrle K, et al: Relationship between behavioral and physiological indicators of pain, critical care patients self-reports of pain, and opioid administration. Crit Care Med 1997; 25:11591166 25. Sjostrom B, Haljamae H, Dahlgren LO, et al: Assessment of postoperative pain: Impact of clinical experience and professional role. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 1997; 41:339 344 26. Hall-Lord ML, Larsson G, Steen B: Pain and distress among elderly intensive care unit patients: Comparison of patients experiences and nurses assessments. Heart Lung 1998; 27:123132
27. Stannard D, Puntillo K, Miaskowski C, et al: Clinical judgement and management of postoperative pain in critical care patients. Am J Crit Care 1996; 5:433 441 28. Desbiens NA, Mueller-Rizner N: How well do surrogates assess the pain of seriously ill patients? Crit Care Med 2000; 28: 13471352 29. Watling SM, Dasta JF, Seidl EC: Sedatives, analgesics, and paralytics in the ICU. Ann Pharmacother 1997; 31:148 153 30. Wagner BKJ, OHara DA: Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of sedatives and analgesics in the treatment of agitated critically ill patients. Clin Pharmacokinet 1997; 33:426 453 31. Barr JB, Donner A: Optimal intravenous dosing strategies for sedatives and analgesics in the ICU. Crit Care Clin 1995; 11:827 847 32. AmeriSource Corporation, ECHO software, version 3.1Q, release 00112. Accessed 2001 Feb 6 33. Danziger LH, Martin SJ, Blum RA: Central nervous system toxicity associated with meperidine use in hepatic disease. Pharmacotherapy 1994; 14:235238 34. Hangmeyer KO, Mauro LS, Mauro VF: Meperidine-related seizures associated with patient-controlled analgesia pumps. Ann Pharmacother 1993; 27:29 32 35. Tipps LB, Coplin WM, Murry KR, et al: Safety and feasibility of continuous infusion of remifentanil in the neurosurgical intensive care unit. Neurosurgery 2000; 46:596 602 36. Lay TD, Puntillo KA, Miaskowski MI: Analgesics prescribed and administered to intensive care cardiac surgery patients: Does patient age make a difference? Prog Cardiovasc Nurs 1996; 11:1724 37. Macintyre PE, Jarvis DA: Age is the best predictor of postoperative morphine requirements. Pain 1995; 64:357364 38. Fraser GL, Prato S, Berthiaume D, et al: Evaluation of agitation in ICU patients: Incidence, severity, and treatment in the young versus the elderly. Pharmacotherapy 2000; 20:75 82 39. Hofbauer R, Tesinsky P, Hammerschmidt V, et al: No reduction in the sufentanil requirement of elderly patients undergoing ventilatory support in the medical intensive care unit. Eur J Anaesthesiol 1999; 16:702707 40. McArdle P: Intravenous analgesia. Crit Care Clin 1999; 15:89 105 41. Grossman M, Abiose A, Tangphao O, et al: Morphine-induced venodilation in humans. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1996; 60:554 560 42. Flacke JW, Flacke WE, Bloor BC, et al: Histamine release by four narcotics: A doubleblind study in humans. Anesth Analg 1987; 66:723730 43. Yuan C, Foss JF, OConnor MF, et al: Effects of low-dose morphine on gastric emptying in healthy volunteers. J Clin Pharmacol 1998; 38:10171020 44. Heyland DK, Tougas G, King D, et al: Impaired gastric emptying in mechanically
136
45.
46.
47.
48.
49.
50.
51.
52.
53.
54.
55.
56.
57.
58.
59.
60.
ventilated, critically ill patients. Intensive Care Med 1996; 22:1339 1344 Bosscha K, Nieuwenhuijs VB, Vos A, et al: Gastrointestinal motility and gastric tube feeding in mechanically ventilated patients. Crit Care Med 1998; 26:1510 1517 Albanese J, Viviand X, Potie F, et al: Sufentanil, fentanyl, and alfentanil in head trauma patients: A study on cerebral hemodynamics. Crit Care Med 1999; 27:407 411 Sperry RJ, Bailey PL, Reichman MV, et al: Fentanyl and sufentanil increase intracranial pressure in head trauma patients. Anesthesiology 1992; 77:416 420 DeNaal M, Munar F, Poca MA, et al: Cerebral hemodynamic effects of morphine and fentanyl in patients with severe head injury. Anesthesiology 2000; 92:1119 Dasta JF, Fuhrman TM, McCandles C: Patterns of prescribing and administering drugs for agitation and pain in patients in a surgical intensive care unit. Crit Care Med 1994; 22:974 980 Kress JP, Pohlman AS, OConnor MF, et al: Daily interruption of sedative infusions in critically ill patients undergoing mechanical ventilation. N Engl J Med 2000; 342: 14711477 Boldt J, Thaler E, Lehmann A, et al: Pain management in cardiac surgery patients: Comparison between standard therapy and patient-controlled analgesia regimen. J Cardiothorac Vasc Anesth 1998; 12:654 658 Pearce CJ, Gonzalez FM, Wallin JD: Renal failure and hyperkalemia associated with ketorolac tromethamine. Arch Intern Med 1993; 153:1000 1002 Schlondorff D: Renal complications of nonsteroidal anti-inammatory drugs. Kidney Int 1993; 44:643 653 Feldman HI, Kinman JL, Berlin JA, et al: Parenteral ketorolac: The risk for acute renal failure. Ann Intern Med 1997; 126:193199 Strom BL, Berlin JA, Kinman JL, et al: Parenteral ketorolac and risk of gastrointestinal and operative site bleeding. JAMA 1996; 275:376 382 Bombardier C, Laine L, Reicin A, et al: Comparison of upper gastrointestinal toxicity of rofecoxib and naproxen in patients with rheumatoid arthritis. N Engl J Med 2000; 343:1520 1528 Peduta VA, Ballabio M, Stefanini S: Efcacy of propacetamol in the treatment of postoperative pain. Morphine sparing effect in orthopedic surgery. Italian Collaborative Group on Propacetamol. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 1998; 42:293298 Zimmerman HJ, Maddrey W: Acetaminophen hepatotoxicity with regular intake of alcohol. Analysis of instances of therapeutic misadventure. Hepatology 1995; 22:767773 Treggiari-Venzi M, Borgeat A, Fuchs-Buder T, et al: Overnight sedation with midazolam or propofol in the ICU: Effects on sleep quality, anxiety and depression. Intensive Care Med 1996; 22:1186 1190 Jenkins DH: Substance abuse and with-
61.
62.
63.
64.
65.
66.
67.
68.
69.
70.
71.
72.
73.
74.
75.
76.
drawal in the intensive care unit: Contemporary issues. Surg Clin North Am 2000; 80:10331053 Cornwell EE, Belzberg H, Velmahos G, et al: The prevalence and effect of alcohol and drug abuse on cohort-matched critically injured patients. Am Surg 1998; 64:461 465 Spies CD, Rommelspacher H: Alcohol withdrawal in the surgical patient: Prevention and treatment. Anesth Analg 1999; 88:946954 Kaye AD, Clarke RC, Sabar R, et al: Herbal medicines: Current trends in anesthesiology practicea hospital survey. J Clin Anesth 2000; 12:468 471 Atkins PM, Mion LC, Mendelson W, et al: Characteristics and outcomes of patients who self-extubate from ventilatory support: A case-control study. Chest 1997; 112: 13171323 Vassal T, Anh NGD, Gabillet JM, et al: Prospective evaluation of self-extubations in a medical intensive care unit. Intensive Care Med 1993; 19:340 342 Fraser GL, Riker RR, Prato BS, et al: The frequency and cost of patient-initiated device removal in the ICU. Pharmacotherapy 2001; 21:1 6 Conti J, Smith D: Haemodynamic responses to extubation after cardiac surgery with and without continued sedation. Br J Anaesth 1998; 80:834 836 Cohen D, Horiuchi K, Kemper M, et al: Modulating effects of propofol on metabolic and cardiopulmonary responses to stressful intensive care unit procedures. Crit Care Med 1996; 24:612 617 Veselis RA, Reinsel RA, Feshchenko VA, et al: The comparative amnestic effects of midazolam, propofol, thiopental, and fentanyl at equi-sedative concentrations. Anesthesiology 1997; 87:749 764 Weinbroum AA, Halpern P, Rudick V, et al: Midazolam versus propofol for long-term sedation in the ICU: A randomized prospective comparison. Intensive Care Med 1997; 23:1258 1263 Wagner BK, OHara DA, Hammond JS: Drugs for amnesia in the ICU. Am J Crit Care 1997; 6:192201 Wagner BK, Zavotsky KE, Sweeney JB, et al: Patient recall of therapeutic paralysis in a surgical critical care unit. Pharmacotherapy 1998; 18:358 363 Schelling G, Stoll C, Meier M, et al: Healthrelated quality of life and post-traumatic stress disorder in survivors of adult respiratory distress syndrome. Crit Care Med 1998; 26:651 659 Jones C, Grifths RD: Disturbed memory and amnesia related to intensive care. Memory 2000; 8:79 94 Jones C, Grifths RD, Humphris G, et al: Memory, delusions, and the development of acute post-traumatic stress disorder-related symptoms after intensive care. Crit Care Med 2001; 29:573580 Schnyder U, Morgeli H, Nigg C, et al: Early
77.
78.
79.
80.
81.
82.
83.
84.
85.
86.
87.
88.
89.
90.
91.
92.
psychological reactions to life-threatening injuries. Crit Care Med 2000; 28:86 92 Scragg P, Jones A, Fauvel N: Psychological problems following ICU treatment. Anaesthesia 2001; 56:9 14 Watling SM, Johnson M, Yanos J: A method to produce sedation in critically ill patients. Ann Pharmacother 1996; 30:12271231 DeJonghe B, Cook D, Appere-De-Vecchi C, et al: Using and understanding sedation scoring systems: A systematic review. Intensive Care Med 2000; 26: 275285 Brook AD, Ahrens TS, Schaiff R, et al: Effect of a nursing-implemented sedation protocol on the duration of mechanical ventilation. Crit Care Med 1999; 27:2609 2615 Riker RR, Fraser GL, Cox PM: Continuous infusion of haloperidol controls agitation in critically ill patients. Crit Care Med 1994; 22:89 97 Riker RR, Picard JT, Fraser GL: Prospective evaluation of the Sedation-Agitation Scale for adult critically ill patients. Crit Care Med 1999; 27:13251329 Devlin JW, Boleski G, Mlynarek M, et al: Motor Activity Assessment Scale: A valid and reliable sedation scale for use with mechanically ventilated patients in an adult surgical intensive care unit. Crit Care Med 1999; 27:12711275 Ramsay MA, Savege TM, Simpson BR, et al: Controlled sedation with alphaxalonealphadolone. Br Med J 1974; 2:656 659 Hansen-Flaschen J, Cowen J, Polomano RC: Beyond the Ramsay scale: Need for a validated measure of sedating drug efcacy in the intensive care unit. Crit Care Med 1994; 22:732733 DeLemos J, Tweeddale M, Chittock DR: Measuring quality of sedation in adult mechanically ventilated critically ill patients: The Vancouver Interaction and Calmness Scale. J Clin Epidemiol 2000; 53:908 919 Chernik DA, Gillings D, Laine H, et al: Validity and reliability of the Observers Assessment of Alertness/Sedation Scale: Study with intravenous midazolam. J Clin Psychopharmacol 1990; 10:244 251 Ambuel B, Hamlett KW, Marx CM, et al: Assessing distress in pediatric intensive care environments: The COMFORT scale. J Pediatr Psychol 1992; 17:95109 Rosow C, Manberg PJ: Bispectral index monitoring. Anesthesiol Clin North Am 1998; 2:89 107 Liu J, Singh H, White PF: Electroencephalographic bispectral index correlates with intraoperative recall and depth of propofol-induced sedation. Anesth Analg 1997; 84:185189 Doi M, Gajraj RJ, Mantzaridis H, et al: Relationship between calculated blood concentration of propofol and electrophysiological variables during emergence from anesthesia: Comparison of bispectral index, spectral edge frequency, median frequency, and auditory evoked potential index. Br J Anaesth 1997; 78:180 184 Liu J, Singh H, White PF: Electroencepha-
137
93.
94.
95.
96.
97.
98.
99.
100.
101.
102.
103.
104.
105.
106.
107.
logram bispectral analysis predicts the depth of midazolam-induced sedation. Anesthesiology 1996; 84:64 69 Simmons LE, Riker RR, Prato BS, et al: Assessing sedation levels in mechanically ventilated ICU patients with the bispectral index and the sedation-agitation scale. Crit Care Med 1999; 27:1499 1504 Riker RR, Simmons LE, Fraser GL, et al: Validating the sedation-agitation scale with the bispectral index and visual analog scale in adult ICU patients after cardiac surgery. Intensive Care Med 2001; 27:853 858 De Deyne C, Struys M, Decruyenaere J, et al: Use of continuous bispectral EEG monitoring to assess depth of sedation in ICU patients. Intensive Care Med 1998; 24:12941298 Ghoneim MM, Mewaldt SP: Benzodiazepines and human memory: A review. Anesthesiology 1990; 72:926 938 Gilliland HE, Prasad BK, Mirakhur RK, et al: An investigation of the potential morphine sparing effect of midazolam. Anaesthesia 1996; 51:808 811 Greenblatt DJ, Ehrenberg BL, Gunderman J, et al: Kinetic and dynamic study of intravenous lorazepam: Comparison with intravenous diazepam. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 1989; 250:134 139 Vree TB, Shimoda M, Driessen JJ, et al: Decreased plasma albumin concentration results in increased volume of distribution and decreased elimination of midazolam in intensive care patients. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1989; 46:537544 Driessen JJ, Vree TB, Guelen PJ: The effects of acute changes in renal function on the pharmacokinetics of midazolam during long-term infusion in ICU patients. Acta Anaesthesiol Belg 1991; 42:149 155 Greenblatt DJ, Abernethy DR, Locniskar A et al. Effect of age, gender, and obesity on midazolam kinetics. Anesthesiology 1984; 61:2735 Patel IH, Soni PP, Fukuda EK, et al: The pharmacokinetics of midazolam in patients with congestive heart failure. Br J Clin Pharmacol 1990; 29:565569 Macgilchrist AJ, Birnie GG, Cook A, et al: Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of intravenous midazolam in patients with severe alcoholic cirrhosis. Gut 1986; 27: 190 195 Boulieu R, Lehmann B, Salord F, et al: Pharmacokinetics of midazolam and its main metabolite 1-hydroxymidazolam in intensive care patients. Eur J Drug Metab Pharmacokinet 1998; 23:255258 Malacrida R, Fritz ME, Suter P, et al: Pharmacokinetics of midazolam administered by continuous infusion to intensive care patients. Crit Care Med 1992; 20:1123 Bauer TM, Ritz R, Haberthur C, et al: Prolonged sedation due to accumulation of conjugated metabolites of midazolam. Lancet 1995; 346:145147 Hamaoka N, Oda Y, Hase I, et al: Propofol decreases the clearance of midazolam by in-
108.
109.
110.
111.
112.
113.
114.
115.
116.
117.
118.
119.
120.
121.
122.
hibiting CYP3A4: An in vivo and in vitro study. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1999; 66: 110 117 Gorski JC, Jones DR, Haehner-Daniels BD, et al: The contribution of intestinal and hepatic CYP3A to the interaction between midazolam and clarithromycin. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1998; 64:133143 Ahonen J, Olkkola KT, Salmenpera M, et al: Effect of diltiazem on midazolam and alfentanil disposition in patients undergoing coronary artery bypass grafting. Anesthesiology 1996; 85:1246 1252 Bailie GR, Cockshott ID, Douglas EJ, et al: Pharmacokinetics of propofol during and after long-term continuous infusion for maintenance of sedation in ICU patients. Br J Anaesth 1992; 68:486 491 Hammerlein A, Derendorf H, Lowenthal DT: Pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic changes in the elderly. Clin Pharmacokinet 1998; 35:49 64 Michalets EL: Update: Clinically signicant cytochrome P-450 drug interactions. Pharmacotherapy 1999; 18:84 112 Shelly MP, Sultan MA, Bodenham A, et al: Midazolam infusions in critically ill patients. Eur J Anaesthesiol 1991; 8:2127 Nishiyama T: Sedation during articial ventilation by continuous intravenous infusion of midazolam: Effects of hepatocellular or renal damage. J Intensive Care Med 1997; 12:40 44 Ariano RE, Kassum DA, Aronson KJ: Comparison of sedative recovery time after midazolam versus diazepam administration. Crit Care Med 1994; 22:14921496 Newton DW, Narducci WA, Leet WA, et al: Lorazepam stability in and sorption from intravenous admixture solutions. Am J Hosp Pharm 1983; 40:424 427 Hoey LL, Vance-Bryan K, Clarens DM, et al: Lorazepam stability in parenteral solutions for continuous intravenous administration. Ann Pharmacother 1996; 30:343346 McCollam JS, ONeil MG, Norcross ED, et al: Continuous infusions of lorazepam, midazolam and propofol for sedation of the critically-ill surgery trauma patient: A prospective, randomized comparison. Crit Care Med 1999; 27:2454 2458 Laine GA, Hamid Hossain SM, Solis RT, et al: Polyethylene glycol nephrotoxicity secondary to prolonged high-dose intravenous lorazepam. Ann Pharmacother 1995; 29: 1110 1114 Seay RE, Graves PJ, Wilkin MK: Comment: Possible toxicity from propylene glycol in lorazepam infusion. Ann Pharmacother 1997; 31:647 648 Arbour RB: Propylene glycol toxicity related to high-dose lorazepam infusion: Case report and discussion. Am J Crit Care 1999; 8:499 506 Lugo RA, Chester EA, Cash J, et al: A cost analysis of enterally administered lorazepam in the pediatric intensive care unit. Crit Care Med 1999; 27:417 421
123. Shepherd MF, Felt-Gunderson PA: Diarrhea associated with lorazepam solution in a tubefed patient. Nutr Clin Pract 1996; 11:117120 124. Kamijo Y, Masuda T, Nishikawa T, et al: Cardiovascular response and stress reaction to umazenil injection in patients under infusion with midazolam. Crit Care Med 2000; 28:318 323 125. Breheny FX: Reversal of midazolam sedation with umazenil. Crit Care Med 1992; 20:736 739 126. Kowalski SD, Rayeld CA: A post hoc descriptive study of patients receiving propofol. Am J Crit Care 1999; 8:507513 127. Sanchez-Izquierdo-Riera JA, CaballeroCubedo RE, Perez-Vela JL, et al: Propofol versus midazolam: Safety and efcacy for sedating the severe trauma patient. Anesth Analg 1998; 86:1219 1224 128. Carrasco G, Molina R, Costa J, et al: Propofol versus midazolam in short-, medium-, and long-term sedation of critically ill patients. Chest 1993; 103:557564 129. Barrientos-Vega R, Sanchez-Soria MM, Morales-Garcia C, et al: Prolonged sedation of critically ill patients with midazolam or propofol: impact on weaning and costs. Crit Care Med 1997; 25:33 40 130. Kumar AN, Achwartz DE, Lim KG: Propofol-induced pancreatitis: Recurrence of pancreatitis after rechallenge. Chest 1999; 115: 1198 1199 131. Possidente CJ, Rogers FB, Osler TM, et al: Elevated pancreatic enzymes after extended propofol therapy. Pharmacotherapy 1998; 18:653 655 132. Leisure GS, OFlaherty J, Green L, et al: Propofol and postoperative pancreatitis. Anesthesiology 1996; 84:224 227 133. Bray RJ: Propofol infusion syndrome in children. Paediatr Anaesth 1998; 8:491 499 134. Cremer OL, Moons KGM, Bouman EAC, et al: Long-term propofol infusion and cardiac failure in adult head-injured patients. Lancet 2001; 357:117118 135. Bennett SN, McNeil MM, Bland LA, et al: Postoperative infections traced to contamination of an intravenous anesthetic, propofol. N Engl J Med 1995; 333:147154 136. Webb SA, Roberts B, Breheny FX, et al: Contamination of propofol infusions in the intensive care unit: Incidence and clinical signicance. Anaesth Intensive Care 1998; 26:162164 137. Avramov MN, Husain MM, White PF: The comparative effects of methohexital, propofol, and etomidate for electroconvulsive therapy. Anesth Analg 1995; 81:596 602 138. Stecker MM, Kramer TH, Raps EC, et al: Treatment of refractory status epilepticus with propofol: Clinical and pharmacokinetic ndings. Epilepsia 1998; 39:18 26 139. McCowan C, Marik P: Refractory delirium tremens treated with propofol: A case series. Crit Care Med 2000; 28:17811784 140. Herregods L, Verbeke J, Rolly G, et al: Effect of propofol on elevated intracranial pres-
138
141.
142.
143.
144.
145.
146.
147.
148.
149.
150.
151.
152.
153.
154.
155.
156.
sure. Preliminary results. Anaesthesia 1988; 43(suppl):107109 Kelly DF, Goodale DB, Williams J, et al: Propofol in the treatment of moderate and severe head injury: A randomized, prospective double-blinded pilot trial. J Neurosurg 1999; 90:10421052 Herregods L, Mergaert C, Rolly G, et al: Comparison of the effects of 24-hour propofol or fentanyl infusions on intracranial pressure. J Drug Dev 1989; 2(suppl 2):99100 Spies CD, Dubisz N, Neumann T, et al: Therapy of alcohol withdrawal syndrome in intensive care unit patients following trauma: Results of a prospective, randomized trial. Crit Care Med 1996; 24:414 422 Ip Yam PC, Forbes A, Kox WJ: Clonidine in the treatment of alcohol withdrawal in the intensive care unit. Br J Anaesth 1992; 69:328 Aantaa RE, Kanto JH, Scheinin M: Dexmedetomidine pre-medication for minor gynecologic surgery. Anesth Analg 1990; 4:407 413 Venn RM, Bradshaw CJ, Spencer R, et al: Preliminary UK experience of dexmedetomidine, a novel agent for postoperative sedation in the intensive care unit. Anaesthesia 1999; 54:1136 1142 Hall JE, Uhrich TD, Barnet JA, et al: Sedative, amnestic, and analgesic properties of small-dose dexmedetomidine infusions. Anesth Analg 2000; 90:699 705 Belleville JP, Ward DS, Bloor BC, et al: Effects of intravenous dexmedetomidine in humans. Anesthesiology 1992; 77:11251133 Osterman ME, Keenan SP, Seiferling RA, et al: Sedation in the intensive care unit, a systematic review. JAMA 2000; 283:14511459 Aitkenhead AR, Willatts SM, Park GR, et al: Comparison of propofol and midazolam for sedation in critically ill patients. Lancet 1989; 2(8665):704 709 Roekaerts PM, Huygen FJ, deLange S: Infusion of propofol versus midazolam for sedation in the intensive care unit following coronary artery surgery. J Cardiothorac Vasc Anesth 1993; 7:142147 Higgins TL, Yared JP, Estafanous FG, et al: Propofol versus midazolam for intensive care unit sedation after coronary artery bypass grafting. Crit Care Med 1994; 22:14151423 Ronan KP, Gallagher TJ, George B, et al: Comparison of propofol and midazolam for sedation in intensive care unit patients. Crit Care Med 1995; 23:286 293 Cernaianu AC, DelRossi AJ, Flum DR, et al: Lorazepam and midazolam in the intensive care unit: a randomized, prospective, multicenter study of hemodynamics, oxygen transport, efcacy, and cost. Crit Care Med 1996; 24:222228 Searle NR, Taillefer J, Gagnon L, et al: Propofol or midazolam for sedation and early extubation following cardiac surgery. Can J Anaesth 1997; 44:629 635 Carrasco G, Cabre L, Sobrepere G, et al: Synergistic sedation with propofol and midazolam in intensive care patients after cor-
157.
158.
159.
160.
161.
162.
163.
164.
165.
166.
167.
168.
169.
170.
171.
onary artery bypass grafting. Crit Care Med 1998; 26:844 851 Hall RI, Sandham D, Cardinal P, et al: Propofol vs midazolam for ICU sedation. A Canadian multicenter randomized trial. Chest 2001; 119:11511159 Kress JP, OConnor MF, Pohlman AS, et al: Sedation of critically ill patients during mechanical ventilation. Am J Resp Crit Care Med 1996; 153:10121018 Pohlman AS, Simpson KP, Hall JB: Continuous intravenous infusions of lorazepam versus midazolam for sedation during mechanical ventilatory support: A prospective, randomized study. Crit Care Med 1994; 22: 12411247 Chamorro C, DeLatorre FJ, Montero A, et al: Comparative study of propofol versus midazolam in the sedation of critically ill patients: Results of a prospective, randomized, multicenter trial. Crit Care Med 1996; 24:932939 Manley NM, Fitzpatrick RW, Long T, et al: A cost analysis of alfentanil propofol vs. morphine midazolam for the sedation of critically ill patients. Pharmacoeconomics 1997; 12:247255 Swart E, van Schijndel RJM, van Loenen AC, et al: Continuous infusion of lorazepam versus midazolam in patients in the intensive care unit: Sedation with lorazepam is easier to manage and is more cost effective. Crit Care Med 1999; 27:14611465 Sandiumenge Camps A, Sanchez-Izquierdo Riera JA, Toral Vazquez D, et al: Midazolam and 2% propofol in long-term sedation of traumatized critically ill patients: Efcacy and safety comparison. Crit Care Med 2000; 28:36123619 Kollef MH, Levy NT, Ahrens TS, et al: The use of continuous i.v. sedation is associated with prolongation of mechanical ventilation. Chest 1998; 114:541548 Mascia MF, Koch M, Medicis JJ: Pharmacoeconomic impact of rational use guidelines on the provision of analgesia, sedation, and neuromuscular blockade in critical care. Crit Care Med 2000; 28:2300 2306 Cammarano WB, Pittet JF, Weitz S, et al: Acute withdrawal syndrome related to the administration of analgesic and sedative medications in adult intensive care unit patients. Crit Care Med 1998; 26:676 684 Katz R, Kelly HW, His A: Prospective study on the occurrence of withdrawal in critically ill children who received fentanyl by continuous infusion. Crit Care Med 1994; 22:763777 Fonsmark L, Rasmussen YH, Carl P: Occurrence of withdrawal in critically ill children. Crit Care Med 1999; 27:196 199 Carr DB, Todres ID: Fentanyl infusion and weaning in the pediatric intensive care unit: Toward science-based practice. Crit Care Med 1994; 22:725727 Buck M, Blumer J: Opioids and other analgesics: Adverse effects in the intensive care unit. Crit Care Clin 1991; 7:615 637 American Pain Society. Principles of anal-
172.
173.
174.
175.
176.
177.
178.
179. 180.
181.
182.
183.
184.
185.
186.
187.
188.
189.
gesic use in the treatment of acute pain and cancer pain. 3rd ed. Skokie, IL: 1992. Anand KJS, Ingraham J: Tolerance, dependence, and strategies for compassionate withdrawal of analgesics and anxiolytics in the pediatric ICU. Crit Care Nurse 1996; 16:8793 Tobias JD: Subcutaneous administration of fentanyl and midazolam to prevent withdrawal after prolonged sedation in children. Crit Care Med 1999; 27:22622265 Koolhoven I, Tjon-A-Tsien MRS, van der Mast RC: Early diagnosis of delirium after cardiac surgery. Gen Hosp Psychiatry 1996; 18:448 451 Sanders KM, Stern TA, OGara PT, et al: Delirium during intra-aortic balloon pump therapy. Psychosomatics 1992; 33:35 44 Dyer CB, Ashton CM, Teasdale TA: Postoperative delirium. A review of 80 primary data collection studies. Arch Intern Med 1995; 155:461 465 American Psychiatric Association. DSM-IV: Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press; 1994. Trzepacz PT: Deliriumadvances in diagnosis, pathophysiology, and treatment. Psychiatr Clin North Am 1996; 19:429 449 Lipowski ZJ: Delirium in the elderly patient. N Engl J Med 1989; 320:578 582 Meagher DJ, Trzepacz PT: Motoric subtypes of delirium. Semin Clin Neuropsychiatry 2000; 5:75 85 Ely EW, Siegel MD, Inouye S: Delirium in the intensive care unit: an under-recognized syndrome of organ dysfunction. Semin Resp Crit Care Med 2001; 22:115126 Ely EW, Margolin R, Francis J, et al: Evaluation of delirium in critically ill patients: Validation of the confusion assessment method for the intensive care unit (CAMICU). Crit Care Med 2001; 29:1370 1379 Hart RP, Levenson JL, Sessler CN, et al: Validation of a cognitive test for delirium in medical ICU patients. Psychosomatics 1996; 37:533546 Hart RP, Best ALN, Sessler CN, et al: Abbreviated cognitive test for delirium. J Psychosom Res. 1997; 43:417 423 Ely EW, Inouye SK, Bernard GR, et al: Delirium in mechanically ventilated patients: Validity and reliability of the confusion assessment method for the intensive care unit (CAM-ICU). JAMA 2001; 286:27032710 Inouye SK, van Dyck CH, Alessi CA, et al: Clarifying confusion: the confusion assessment method. Ann Intern Med 1990; 113: 941948 Smith MJ, Breitbart WS, Meredith MP: A critique of instruments and methods to detect, diagnose, and rate delirium. J Pain Symptom Manage 1995; 10:3577 Inouye SK, Bogardus ST, Charpentier PA, et al: A multicomponent intervention to prevent delirium in hospitalized older patients. N Engl J Med 1999; 340:669 676 Bergeron N, Dubois MJ, Dumont M, et al: Intensive care delirium screening check-
139
190.
191.
192.
193.
194.
195.
196.
197.
198.
199.
200.
201.
202.
203.
204.
205.
list: Evaluation of a new screening tool. Intensive Care Med 2001; 27:859 864 Breitbart W, Marotta R, Platt MM, et al: A double-blind trial of haloperidol, chlorpromazine, and lorazepam in the treatment of delirium in hospitalized AIDS patients. Am J Psychiatry 1996; 153:231237 Frye MA, Coudreaut MF, Hakeman SM, et al: Continuous droperidol infusion for management of agitated delirium in an intensive care unit. Psychosomatics 1995; 36:301305 Faigel DO, Metz DC, Kochman ML: Torsade de pointes complicating the treatment of bleeding esophageal varices: Association with neuroleptics, vasopressin, and electrolyte imbalance. Am J Gastroenterol 1995; 90:822 824 Tesar GE, Murray GB, Cassem NH: Use of haloperidol for acute delirium in intensive care setting. J Clin Psychopharmacol 1985; 5:344 347 Tesar GE, Stern TA: Rapid tranquilization of the agitated intensive care unit patient. J Intensive Care Med 1988; 3:195201 DiSalvo TG, OGara PT: Torsade de pointes caused by high-dose intravenous haloperidol in cardiac patients. Clin Cardiol 1995; 28:285290 Metzger E, Friedman R: Prolongation of the corrected QT and torsades de pointes cardiac arrhythmia associated with intravenous haloperidol in the medically ill. J Clin Psychopharmacol 1993; 13:128 132 Wilt JL, Minnema AM, Johnson RF, et al: Torsade de pointes associated with the use of intravenous haloperidol. Ann Intern Med 1993; 119:391394 Hunt N, Stern TA: The association between intravenous haloperidol and torsades de pointes. Psychosomatics 1995; 36:541549 Sharma ND, Rosman HS, Padhi D, et al: Torsades de pointes associated with intravenous haloperidol in critically ill patients. Am J Cardiol 1998; 81:238 240 Lawrence KR, Nasraway SA: Conduction disturbances associated with administration of butyrophenone antipsychotics in the critically ill: A review of the literature. Pharmacotherapy 1997; 17:531537 Seneff MG, Mathews RA: Use of haloperidol infusions to control delirium in critically ill adults. Ann Pharmacother 1995; 29: 690 693 Kudo S, Ishizaki T: Pharmacokinetics of haloperidol. Clin Pharmacokinet 1999; 37: 435 456 Fang J, Baker GB, Silverstone PH, et al: Involvement of CYP3A4 and CYP2D6 in the metabolism of haloperidol. Cell Mol Neurobiol 1997; 17:227233 Tsang MW, Shader RI, Greenblatt DJ: Metabolism of haloperidol: Clinical implications and unanswered questions. J Clin Psychopharmacol 1994; 14:159 162 Avent KM, Riker RR, Fraser GL, et al: Metabolism of haloperidol to pyridinium species in patients receiving high doses intra-
206.
207.
208.
209.
210.
211.
212.
213.
214.
215.
216.
217.
218.
219.
220.
221.
222.
venously: is HPTP an intermediate? Life Sci 1997; 61:23832390 Eyles DW, McLennan HR, Jones A, et al: Quantitative analysis of two pyridinium metabolites of haloperidol in patients with schizophrenia. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1994; 56:512520 Usuki E, Pearce R, Parkinson A, et al: Studies on the conversion of haloperidol and its tetrahydropyridine dehydration product to potentially neurotoxic pyridinium metabolites by human liver microsomes. Chem Res Toxicol 1996; 9:800 806 Eyles DW, McGrath JJ, Pond SM: Formation of pyridinium species of haloperidol in human liver and brain. Psychopharmacology 1996; 125:214 219 Riker RR, Fraser GL, Richen P: Movement disorders associated with withdrawal from high-dose intravenous haloperidol therapy in delirious ICU patients. Chest 1997; 111: 1778 1781 Rao N, Jellinek HM, Woolston DC: Agitation in closed head injury: Haloperidol effects on rehabilitation outcome. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 1985; 66:30 34 Shalev A, Hermesh H, Munitz H: Mortality from neuroleptic malignant syndrome. J Clin Psychiatry 1989; 50:18 25 Still J, Friedman B, Law E, et al: Neuroleptic malignant syndrome in a burn patient. Burns 1998; 24:573575 Levitt AJ, Midha R, Craven JL: Neuroleptic malignant syndrome with intravenous haloperidol. Can J Psychiatry 1990; 35:789 Letter. Burke C, Fulda GJ, Casellano J: Neuroleptic malignant syndrome in a trauma patient. J Trauma 1995; 39:796 798 Krachman SL, DAlonzo GE, Criner GJ: Sleep in the intensive care unit. Chest 1995; 107:17131720 Stein-Parbury J, McKinley S: Patients experiences of being in an intensive care unit: A select literature review. Am J Crit Care 2000; 9:20 27 Redeker NS: Sleep in acute care settings: An integrative review. J Nurs Scholarsh 2000; 32:3138 Cooper AB, Thornley KS, Young GB, et al: Sleep in critically ill patients requiring mechanical ventilation. Chest 2000; 117: 809 818 Edwards GB, Schuring LM: Pilot study: Validating staff nurses observations of sleep and wake states among critically ill patients using polysomnography. Am J Crit Care 1993; 2:125131 Richardson SJ: A comparison of tools for the assessment of sleep pattern disturbance in critically ill adults. Dimens Crit Care Nurs 1997; 16:226 239 Meyers TJ, Eveloff SE, Bauer MS, et al: Adverse environmental conditions in the respiratory and medical ICU settings. Chest 1994; 105:12111216 Aaron JN, Carlisle CC, Carskadon MA, et al: Environmental noise as a cause of sleep
223.
224.
225. 226.
227.
228.
229.
230. 231.
232.
233.
234.
235.
disruption in an intermediate respiratory care unit. Sleep 1996; 19:707710 Freedman NS, Kotzer N, Schwab RJ: Patient perception of sleep quality and etiology of sleep disruption in the intensive care unit. Am J Resp Crit Care Med 1999; 159: 11551162 Wallace CJ, Robins J, Alvord LS, et al: The effect of earplugs on sleep measures during exposure to simulated intensive care unit noise. Am J Crit Care 1999; 8:210 219 Horsburgh CR: Healing by design. N Engl J Med 1995; 333:735740 Grifn JP, Myers S, Kopelke C, et al: The effects of progressive muscular relaxation on subjectively reported disturbance due to hospital noise. Behav Med 1988; 14:37 42 Guzzetta CE: Effects of relaxation and music therapy on patients in a coronary care unit with presumptive myocardial infarction. Heart Lung 1989; 18:609 616 Byers JF, Smyth KA: Effect of a music intervention on noise annoyance, heart rate, and blood pressure in cardiac surgery patients. Am J Crit Care 1997; 6:183191 Chlan L: Effectiveness of a music therapy intervention on relaxation and anxiety for patients receiving ventilatory assistance. Heart Lung 1998; 27:169 176 Updike P: Music therapy results for ICU patients. Dimens Crit Care Nurs 1990; 9:39 45 Bolwerk CA: Effects of relaxing music on state anxiety in myocardial infarction patients. Crit Care Nurs Q 1990; 13:6372 White JM: Effects of relaxing music on cardiac autonomic balance and anxiety after acute myocardial infarction. Am J Crit Care 1999; 8:220 230 Zimmerman L, Nieveen J, Barnason S, et al: The effects of music interventions on postoperative pain and sleep in coronary artery bypass graft (CABG) patients. Sch Inq Nurs Pract 1996; 10:153170 Labyak SE, Metzger BL: The effects of efeurage backrub on the physiological components of relaxation: a meta-analysis. Nurs Res 1997; 46:59 62 Richards KC: Effect of a back massage and relaxation intervention on sleep in critically ill patients. Am J Crit Care 1998; 7:288 299
APPENDIX ASUMMARY OF RECOMMENDATIONS

1. All critically ill patients should have the right to adequate analgesia and management of their pain. (Grade of recommendation C) 2. Pain assessment and response to therapy should be performed regularly by using a scale appropriate to the patient population and systematically documented. (Grade of recommendation C) 3. The level of pain reported by the patient must be considered the current standard for assessment of pain and
140
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
response to analgesia whenever possible. Use of the NRS is recommended to assess pain. (Grade of recommendation B) Patients who cannot communicate should be assessed through subjective observation of pain-related behaviors (movement, facial expression, and posturing) and physiological indicators (heart rate, blood pressure, and respiratory rate) and the change in these parameters following analgesic therapy. (Grade of recommendation B) A therapeutic plan and goal of analgesia should be established for each patient and communicated to all caregivers to ensure consistent analgesic therapy. (Grade of recommendation C) If intravenous doses of an opioid analgesic are required, fentanyl, hydromorphone, and morphine are the recommended agents. (Grade of recommendation C) Scheduled opioid doses or a continuous infusion is preferred over an as needed regimen to ensure consistent analgesia. A PCA device may be utilized to deliver opioids if the patient is able to understand and operate the device. (Grade of recommendation B) Fentanyl is preferred for a rapid onset of analgesia in acutely distressed patients. (Grade of recommendation C) Fentanyl or hydromorphone are preferred for patients with hemodynamic instability or renal insufciency. (Grade of recommendation C) Morphine and hydromorphone are preferred for intermittent therapy because of their longer duration of effect. (Grade of recommendation C)
11. NSAIDs or acetaminophen may be used as adjuncts to opioids in selected patients. (Grade of recommendation B) 12. Ketorolac therapy should be limited to a maximum of ve days, with close monitoring for the development of renal insufciency or gastrointestinal bleeding. Other NSAIDs may be used via the enteral route in appropriate patients. (Grade of recommendation B) 13. Sedation of agitated critically ill patients should be started only after providing adequate analgesia and treating reversible physiological causes. (Grade of recommendation C) 14. A sedation goal or endpoint should be established and regularly redened for each patient. Regular assessment and response to therapy should be systematically documented. (Grade of recommendation C) 15. The use of a validated sedation assessment scale (SAS, MAAS, or VICS) is recommended. (Grade of recommendation B) 16. Objective measures of sedation, such as BIS, have not been completely evaluated and are not yet proven useful in the ICU. (Grade of recommendation C) 17. Midazolam or diazepam should be used for rapid sedation of acutely agitated patients. (Grade of recommendation C) 18. Propofol is the preferred sedative when rapid awakening (e.g., for neurologic assessment or extubation) is important. (Grade of recommendation B) 19. Midazolam is recommended for short-term use only, as it produces unpredictable awakening and time to extubation when infusions continue longer than 48 72 hours. (Grade of recommendation A)
20. Lorazepam is recommended for the sedation of most patients via intermittent i.v. administration or continuous infusion. (Grade of recommendation B) 21. The titration of the sedative dose to a dened endpoint is recommended with systematic tapering of the dose or daily interruption with retitration to minimize prolonged sedative effects. (Grade of recommendation A) 22. Triglyceride concentrations should be monitored after two days of propofol infusion, and total caloric intake from lipids should be included in the nutrition support prescription. (Grade of recommendation B) 23. The use of sedation guidelines, an algorithm, or a protocol is recommended. (Grade of recommendation B) 24. The potential for opioid, benzodiazepine, and propofol withdrawal should be considered after high doses or more than approximately seven days of continuous therapy. Doses should be tapered systematically to prevent withdrawal symptoms. (Grade of recommendation B) 25. Routine assessment for the presence of delirium is recommended. (The CAMICU is a promising tool for the assessment of delirium in ICU patients.) (Grade of recommendation B) 26. Haloperidol is the preferred agent for the treatment of delirium in critically ill patients. (Grade of recommendation C) 27. Patients should be monitored for electrocardiographic changes (QT interval prolongation and arrhythmias) when receiving haloperidol. (Grade of recommendation B) 28. Sleep promotion should include optimization of the environment and nonpharmacologic methods to promote relaxation with adjunctive use of hypnotics. (Grade of recommendation B)
141

Clinical Practice Guidelines For The Sustained Use of Sedatives and Analgesics in The Critically Ill Adult

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Clinical Practice Guidelines For The Sustained Use of Sedatives and Analgesics in The Critically Ill Adult

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Clinical Practice Guidelines For The Sustained Use of Sedatives and Analgesics in The Critically Ill Adult

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Clinical practice guidelines for the sustained use of sedatives and analgesics in the critically ill adult

Crit Care Med 2002 Vol. 30, No. 1

Sedation and Analgesia Task Force

Half-life 1.56 hr 23 hr 37 hr 34 hr 3 hr 310 min 2.48.6 hr 1.82.5 hr 2 hr

Motor Activity Assessment Scale (MAAS) (83) 6 Dangerously agitated 5 Agitated

4 3 2 1 0 Ramsay Scale (84) 1 2 3 4 5 6

suctioning or 5 seconds of vigorous orbital, sternal, or nail bed pressure.

Agent Diazepam Lorazepam Midazolam

Metabolic Pathway Desmethylation and hydroxylation Glucuronidation Oxidation

Unique Adverse Effects Phlebitis Solvent-related acidosis/renal failure in high doses

12 min 320 min

Elevated triglycerides, pain on injection QT interval prolongation

580 g/kg/min 0.040.15 mg/kg/hr

50 g/kg/min: $235.00375.00 10 mg q 6 h: $62.0065.00

Population Type (No. Patients) MICU/SICU (100)

Trial Design Multicenter, open-label Open-label

MICU/SICU (88 total, 40 short-term sedation) CABG (30)

Obese, renal or hepatic insufciency Renal or hepatic insufciency None

MICU/SICU (61% trauma) Cardiac surgery (41) CABG (75)

Multicenter, openlabel, intentionto-treat analysis

surgical intensive care unit, NMBA

neuromuscular blocking agent, GCS

Glasgow Coma Score,

Sedation Endpoint or Goal Ramsay level 24

Signicance or Conclusion No statistical analysis reported

Ramsay level 25 and modied GCS Ramsay level 5

Not statistically signicant

Ramsay level 3 and response to stimulation

0.05, Midazolam more heavily sedated

Comparable sedation scores

Not statistically signicant

0.01, Midazolam vs. Propofol or Propofol and Midazolam

Ramsay scale, level was specied daily

surgical intensive care unit, NMBA

neuromuscular blocking agent, GCS

Glasgow Coma Score,

Population (No. Patients) MICU with respiratory failure (73)

Exclusion Criteria ...

Surgical or Trauma ICU (31)

Alcohol abuse, head injury, dialysis

MICU or SICU (99)

Neurosurgery, coma, seizures

Multicenter, Open-label, intention-to-treat analysis

medical intensive care unit, ICU

intensive care unit, SICU

surgical intensive care unit.

Actual Duration Up to 3 days

Sedation Endpoint/Goal Behavior scale

Propofol: 86.4 72 hr Midazolam: 60 72 hr Lorazepam: 72 52.8 hr

2472 hr post hoc stratum Propofol: n 21 Midazolam: n 17

Ramsay scale, level was specied daily

SEDATIVE AND ANALGESIC WITHDRAWAL

Exclusion Criteria Neurologic injury, ongoing NMBA use

Mean Dosage Propofol: 2.3 mg/kg/hr Midazolam: 0.17 mg/kg/hr

Open-label Open-label, multicenter

MICU/SICU (108 consecutive) MICU/SICU (68 consecutive) MICU/SICU (26)

Trauma ICU (100 consecutive)

Trauma ICU (63 consecutive) MICU/SICU (99)

Multicenter, open-label, intentionto-treat analysis