Meteorological

Instruments
&
Their Uses
------------------------
By Tanish Rinkesh Bansal
------------------------
Roll No. 22
------------------------
Grade 9A
 Index
1. Acknowledgement
2. Introduction
3. Precipitation
4. Rain Gauge
5. Atmospheric Pressure
6. Mercury Barometer
7. Aneroid Barograph
8. Precision Aneroid Barometer
9. Wind
10. Hand-held Anemometer
11. Cup Counter Anemometer
12. Anemograph
13. Solar Radiation
14. Campbell-Stokes Sunshine Recorder
15. Evaporation
16. Evaporation Pan
17. Stevenson Screen
18. Temperature
19. Thermometers
20. Thermograph
21. Humidity
22. Hydrograph
23. Radiosonde
24. Glossary
25. Bibliography or Sources

1 | Page | Meteorological Instruments and their uses

 Acknowledgement
I would like to express my special thanks of gratitude to my
geography teacher Mrs Manavta Kapur for her wonderful guidance
& support throughout this project.

As well as I’d like to thank our school principal Mrs Anupama Sigh
who gave me the excellent opportunity to do this wonderful project.

Finally, I also wish to thank my parents & friends for the

encouragement, guidance and support which helped me to complete
my project in the limited time frame.

2 | Page | Meteorological Instruments and their uses

 Introduction
The equipment used for determining the situation in the atmosphere at the
moment include meteorological instruments (or weather instruments), such as
meteorological sensors (weather sensors). Each science has a distinct set of
laboratory equipment. However, meteorology is a science that relies more on
field observations and remote sensing tools that it does on laboratory apparatus.
An observation, also known as an observable, is a concept that can be observed
and measured and for which data may be collected. One of the first objects
historically measured was rain. Wind and humidity are two additional weather-
related factors that can be precisely quantified. Prior to the fifteenth century,
many attempts had been made to build suitable apparatus for tracking
environmental variables.

Some of the Instruments used are in the table given below :

Name of the Instrument Parameters Measured

Standard Rain Gauge Rainfall

Automatic Rain Gauge Continuous record of rainfall, storm

Aneroid Barometer Atmospheric Pressure

Cup-counter Anemometer Wind‐run, Wind Speed

Campbell‐Stokes Sunshine Recorder Sunshine hours

Evaporation Pan Evaporation

Stephenson Screen Housing for instruments

Dry & Wet bulb Thermometer Dry & Wet bulb temperature

Thermo‐hygrograph Temperature & Humidity

Wind Vane Wind Direction

3 | Page | Meteorological Instruments and their uses

 Precipitation
Precipitation comes in different forms depending on the climate but the
formation is basically the same. In cold air high in the sky, rain clouds will often
form. Rising warm air carries water vapor high into the sky where it cools,
forming water droplets around tiny bits of dust in the air. Water vapor
condenses onto tiny particles in the atmosphere. As more water vapor condenses
on the particle and it grows it becomes a cloud droplet. It grows bigger yet and
until it is large enough to be a rain droplet.
Since it is very cold high in the atmosphere, the rain droplets freeze into tiny ice
crystals which attract cooled water drops. The drops freeze to the ice crystals,
forming larger crystals we call snowflakes.
When the snowflakes become heavy, they fall. When the snowflakes meet
warmer air on the way down, they melt into raindrops.
The various forms of precipitation include:
Snow, freezing rain, sleet, ice pellets, rain, hail, showers.
Moisture that is lifted or otherwise forced to rise over a layer of sub-freezing air
at the surface may be condensed into clouds and rain. This process is typically
active when freezing rain occurs.
A stationary front is often present near the area of freezing rain and serves as
the focus for forcing and rising air. Provided there is necessary and sufficient
atmospheric moisture content, the moisture within the rising air will condense
into clouds, namely Nimbostratus and Cumulonimbus if significant
precipitation is involved. Eventually, the cloud droplets will grow large enough
to form raindrops and descend toward the Earth where they will freeze on
contact with exposed objects.
Where relatively warm water bodies are present, for example due to water
evaporation from lakes, lake-effect snowfall becomes a concern downwind of
the warm lakes within the cold cyclonic flow around the backside
of extratropical cyclones.

4 | Page | Meteorological Instruments and their uses

 Raingauge
• The bottom segment of this instrument is places firmly into the ground.
• Rainfall is collected in a bottle inside of the instrument.
• The bucket ensures retention of rainfall for measurement as it facilitates
for overflow of the bottle in heavy downpours.
• This instrument should not be situated near tall buildings and trees since
these obstruct the rain collection.

The meteorologist George James Symons published the first annual

volume of British Rainfall in 1860. This pioneering work contained
rainfall records from 168 land stations in England and Wales. He was
elected to the council of the British Meteorological Society in 1863 and
made it his life's work to investigate rainfall within the British Isles. He
set up a voluntary network of observers, who collected data which were
returned to him for analysis. So successful was he in this endeavour that
by 1866 he was able to show results that gave a fair representation of the
distribution of rainfall and the number of recorders gradually increased
until the last volume of British Rainfall which he lived to edit, for 1899,
contained figures from 3,528 stations — 2,894 in England and Wales, 446
in Scotland, and 188 in Ireland. He also collected old rainfall records
going back over a hundred years. In 1870 he produced an account of
rainfall in the British Isles starting in 1725.

5 | Page | Meteorological Instruments and their uses

 Atmospheric
Pressure
Air pressure is the force exerted on you by the weight of tiny particles of air (air
molecules). Although air molecules are invisible, they still have weight and take up space.
o When air is compressed, i.e. have a smaller volume, it is said to be "under
pressure".

Atmospheric Pressure affects the Wind.

Pressure may change horizontally due to uneven heating of the earth’s surface. This causes a
pressure gradient to develop.
Cold air weighs more than warm air, so the pressure of cold air is greater. When the sun warms
the air, the air expands, gets lighter and rises.
Cooler, heavier air blows to where the warmer lighter air was. Pressure gradient force causes
wind to blow from high pressure area to low pressure area.
If the high pressure area is very close to the low pressure area, or if the pressure difference (or
temp difference) is very great, the wind can blow very fast.
Changes in Atmospheric Pressure indicate coming Weather
Air pressure can tell us about what kind of weather to expect as well.
• If a high pressure system is on its way, expect cooler temperatures and clear skies.
• If a low pressure system is coming, then look for warmer weather, storms and rain.

Measurements

An Italian scientist named Torricelli built the first barometer in 1643.

Barometers are used to measure the current air pressure at a particular location in "inches of
mercury" or in ‘millibars’ (mb).

Earth's atmosphere is pressing against each square cm of you with a force of 1 kilogram per
square centimetre. The force on 1,000 square centimetres is about a ton!

6 | Page | Meteorological Instruments and their uses

 Mercury
Barometer
• A glass tube with lower end dipped in mercury.
• Mercury fills tube except for a few inches at the top where a vacuum
exists.

• A very sensitive instrument.

Reading a Mercury Thermometer

• The attached thermometer is read.

• A vernier scale is set ‐ making it at the same level as the mercury.
• The reading is taken at the top of the mercury.
• Corrections are made to the readings.

7 | Page | Meteorological Instruments and their uses

 Aneriod
Barograph
• Movement of arm depends on the response to variations in
atmospheric pressure.
• The disc‐shaped boxes bulge outward when pressure falls, and
corresponding markings are made on the graph.

Precision Aneroid
Barometer
An aneriod capsule attached to a pivoted bar that is free to move with changes
in pressure enclosed in a metal case.
Displacement of the bar caused by the movement of the capsule is measured by
a micrometer screw.
Electrical sensors gives visible signal when contacts of the bar and screw meet.

8 | Page | Meteorological Instruments and their uses

 Wind
Wind blows from high pressure area to low pressure area.
Large scale atmospheric / wind circulations transfer heat from the tropics to the
temperate and polar regions, as the difference in temperatures create a pressure
gradient.
Coriolis Effect affect the wind flow as moving objects are deflected to the right
in the Northern Hemisphere caused by the rotation of the earth.
Without instruments, wind speed can be averaged by observing flags, trees or
the ocean waves and using Beaufort Scale.
Wind from thunderstorms and hurricanes can cause serious damage to buildings
and infrastructure. Tornadoes continue to cause massive damage and loss of
lives in ‘Tornado Alley’ (Texas, Kansas and Oklahoma) in the United States.
A tornado over the sea (or any water body) is called a ‘waterspout’ and is
common in the Tropics.
Gusts are short bursts of high speed wind.
Wind is measured in metres per second, kilometres per hour, miles per hour and
knots.
1 metre / second = 1.95 knots
= 3.61 km/hr
= 2.25 miles/hr
Wind direction is considered as the direction from which the wind is blowing.
Thus, wind measurements are vectors since magnitude of speed and direction
are considered.

9 | Page | Meteorological Instruments and their uses

 Hand‐held
Anemometer
• Portable instrument for instantaneous wind speed and wind direction
measurements.

Cup Counter
Anemometer
• Wind pushes into the cups causing the instrument to spin. The amount of
rotations is recorded by the counter on the device. This gives an idea of
the wind speed.
• Placement of this instrument is critical. It should not be close to buildings
or tall obstructions. Tall obstructions cause eddies, turning in the wind
around obstacles

10 | P a g e | Meteorological Instruments and their uses

 Anemograph
• A graph connected to the dials records the wind speeds and directions on
a continuous basis for a monthly period.

11 | P a g e | Meteorological Instruments and their uses

 Solar Radiation
Solar radiation is probably the most important element of climate.

Solar radiation heats the Earth's surface which in turn determines the temperature of
the air above.

The receipt of solar radiation drives evaporation, so long as there is water available.

Heating of the air determines its stability, which affects cloud development and
precipitation. Unequal heating of the Earth's surface creates pressure gradients that
result in wind.

Just about all the characteristics of climate can be traced back to the receipt of solar
radiation.

Campbell‐Stokes Sunshine
Recorder
• A solid glass sphere resting on an adjustable support.
• The sun’s rays are focused by the sphere, thus burning a mark onto a card held inside
the bowl.

• Three cards are used: summer card (long & curved), winter card (short & curved) and
equinoctial card (a straight card). This is because of the apparent movement of the
sun.

12 | P a g e | Meteorological Instruments and their uses

 Evaporation
Evaporation is the process by which water is converted from its liquid
form to its vapour form and thus transferred from land and water masses
to the atmosphere. It is an important process in the water cycle.
Evaporation from the oceans accounts for 80% of the water delivered as
precipitation, with the balance occurring on land, inland waters and plant
surfaces.
Three key parts to evaporation are heat, humidity, and air movement.
Laundry on a clothes line will dry (by evaporation) more rapidly on a
windy day than on a still day.

Evaporation
Pan
• A pan filled with water to a known depth.
• The stilling well is placed in the pan and supports the hook gauge, which
is used to measure the height of the water in the pan.
• Over a 24 hour period some water would be added by rainfall and
removed by evaporation.
• Rainfall is recorded and is thus known. Therefore the volume of water
evaporated can be derived.

Stevenson
Screen
To obtain measured parameter of weather at a particular place, instruments
should be placed at that specific location. However, the instruments must be
protected from the direct effects of the elements (sunshine, rainfall, wind) yet
be able to be influenced by them as would occur in the real world.
13 | P a g e | Meteorological Instruments and their uses
 Thus, it was necessary to devise a house for the delicate instruments.
The Stevenson screen holds instruments that may include thermometers, a
hygrograph and a thermograph and thus, forms part of a standard weather
station.
• A doubled‐louvered wooden box that is used to house thermometers
and other instruments from precipitation and radiation while also
allowing free passage of air.
• The screen stands 1.25m above the ground covered with short grass –
this ensures that the ground does not heat up quickly and the heat from
the ground does not influence the temperatures of the thermometers
housed in the screen.
• The screen faces north in the Northern Hemisphere and south in the
Southern Hemisphere. This is so to ensure that the inside of the screen
is never exposed to the sun.
• It is louvered so that air can pass through the screen – ventilation.

14 | P a g e | Meteorological Instruments and their uses

 Temperature
At the atomic level, temperature is the measure of the average speed
(kinetic energy) of the molecules and atoms on substance. Higher temp
means higher average speed of particles.

Temperature is a physical property of matter that quantitatively expresses

the notions of hot and cold. Objects of low temperature are cold, while
various degrees of higher temperatures are referred to as warm or hot.

Air temperature is a very important part of weather measurement. The

temperature of the air is always changing. Heat flows only from regions
of higher temperature to regions of lower temperature.

Scales used to measure temperature are Kelvin, Celsius and Fahrenheit.

Temperature readings collected are Maximum Temperature, Minimum
Temperature, Dry Bulb / Actual Temperature and Wet Bulb Temperature,
Dew Point Temperature, Sea Surface Temperature, Soil Temperature,
Water Temperature, etc.
Thermometers are used to measure temperatures.
Mercury Thermometers measure high temperatures since mercury is
sensitive to temperature changes. Alcohol‐in‐Glass measures low
temperatures since alcohol does no freeze.
Thermographs use bi‐metallic strip which is made up of different metals
that react differently to heat.

15 | P a g e | Meteorological Instruments and their uses

 Thermometers
• Dry bulb and wet bulb thermometers are supported
vertically. The wet bulb thermometer is has its bulb wrapped
in a muslin and the wick in a reservoir of distilled water.
Together, they measure the relative humidity.
• The dry bulb thermometer measures the temperature of the
atmosphere.
• The wet bulb thermometer measures the temperature of the
atmosphere if the atmosphere is 100% saturated.
• Low humidity occurs when the difference between the dry
bulb temperature and the wet bulb temperature are far apart.
• High humidity occurs when the difference between the dry
bulb temperature and the wet bulb temperature are close
together.
• Maximum and minimum thermometers are supported
horizontally and measures the maximum (daytime)
temperature and minimum (night time) temperature
respectively. They must be read at least twice a day. Usually
it is done every main hour (8a.m., 2p.m., 8p.m., 2a.m.)
• All are mercury‐in‐bulb thermometers except the minimum
thermometer, which is an alcohol‐ in‐bulb thermometer.
• Care must be taken when reading thermometers to avoid
errors due to parallax.

16 | P a g e | Meteorological Instruments and their uses

 Thermograph
• Thermograph consists of a bi‐metallic spiral coils and
uncoils with changes in temperature. This action causes
movement of an attached pen.
• This is a chart that is changed on a weekly basis.

17 | P a g e | Meteorological Instruments and their uses

 Humidity
Absolute humidity is the mass of water vapor divided by the mass of dry air in a
volume of air at a given temperature. The hotter the air is, the more water it can
contain.
Relative humidity is the ratio of the current absolute humidity to the highest
possible absolute humidity (which depends on the current air temperature).
A reading of 100 percent relative humidity means that the air is totally saturated
with water vapor and cannot hold any more, creating the possibility of rain.
Humans are very sensitive to humidity, as the skin relies on the air to get rid of
moisture. The process of sweating is your body's attempt to keep cool and
maintain its current temperature.
If the air is at 100-percent relative humidity, sweat will not evaporate into the
air. As a result, we feel much hotter than the actual temperature when the
relative humidity is high.
If the relative humidity is low, we can feel much cooler than the actual
temperature because our sweat evaporates easily, cooling us off.

18 | P a g e | Meteorological Instruments and their uses

 Hydrograph
• Hygrograph depends on the reaction of human hair to
humidity.
• The length of the hair increases with increasing relative
humidity.

Radiosonde
A radiosonde attached to a weather balloon measures weather conditions higher
up in the atmosphere.
The radiosonde has sensors that can take readings of meteorological parameters
at different levels and layers in the atmosphere and a transmitter then allows this
data to be transmitted to a computerized system.
Parameters measured are temperature, dew‐point, atmospheric pressure, geo‐
potential height, wind speed and direction.

19 | P a g e | Meteorological Instruments and their uses

 Glossary
1. Aneroid – without fluid
2. Bi‐metallic strip – equal lengths of different metals are riveted together so
that they would not move separately. When heated, one metal expands
more than the other and the strip bends. Bi‐metallic strips are used in fire
alarms, thermostats and in thermographs.
3. Displacement – the amount by which something is moved from its usual
position.
4. Equinox – the time or date when day and night are of equal length (about
20 March and 22 September).
5. Evaporation – the process where liquids turns into vapour.
6. Graph – a diagram which shows how two or more sets of numbers relate
with each other. In meteorological terms, it is usually how the parameters
change with time.
7. Housing – a space or accommodation; an enclosure.
8. Meter – a device that measures and records the quantity, degree or rate of
something.
9. Parallax – the apparent difference in position of an object when viewed
from different positions. To avoid parallax, the instruments are read at eye
level.
10. Segment – each of the parts into which something is divided.

20 | P a g e | Meteorological Instruments and their uses

 11. Vernier ‐ an additional scale which allows a measurement to be read more
precisely.
12. Wind‐run ‐ the total distance (or amount) of wind that has travelled over a
particular area over a period of time. This measurement helps determine
the rates of evaporation.

21 | P a g e | Meteorological Instruments and their uses

 Bibliograpghy

1. Sources Trinidad and Tobago Meteorological Services – Observations

and Photographs
2. Duncan, Tom and Deniz Önaç; Physics for the Caribbean – A CXC
Course
3. Oxford Dictionary
4. WMO 8 – Guide to Meteorological Instruments and Methods of
Observation
5. http://www.weatherwizkids.com/weather‐instruments.htm
6. http://en.wikipedia.org
7. http://techalive.mtu.edu/meec/module01/EvaporationandTranspiration.ht
m
8. http://science.howstuffworks.com/dictionary/meteorological‐
terms/question651.htm

FIN
22 | P a g e | Meteorological Instruments and their uses