The Barometer

A barometer is used to measure air pressure. Firstly you should have some
understanding of what air pressure is.
Air pressure (atmospheric pressure)
Air pressure is the force put on the Earth’s surface by the weight of air above it.
Air pressure varies because of the Earth’s rotation, temperature differences and
altitude.
Temperature is the most important factor influencing air pressure. When air is
warmed it rises and creates areas low pressure at the Earth’s surface. Rising air cools ,
becomes denser and eventually sinks back down to Earth. This causes high pressure
conditions.
Since gases behave differently at different temperatures, that means you also get
pockets with high pressure and pockets with low pressure. In areas of high pressure,
the gases in the air are more crowded. In low pressure zones, the gases are a little
more spread out.
You might think that the warm air would lead to a higher pressure area, but actually
the opposite is true. Because warm air rises, it leaves behind an area of low pressure
behind it.
Air pressure and weather
Barometers

Mercury Barometer
Aneroid Barometer

Air Pressure Units

Hectopascals (hPa)
 Rain Gauge

Instructions for the use of a Rain Gauge

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JVOxLrMaWA8
https://www.metoffice.gov.uk/weather/guides/observations/how-we-measure-
rainfall
Rain
Relief Rainfall
Relief or orographic rain is formed when air is forced to cool when it rises over relief
features in the landscape such as hills or mountains. As it rises it cools, condenses and
forms rain.

Convectional Rainfall
Convectional rainfall occurs when the heated air from the earth's surface rises
upwards along with the water vapour and gets condensed when it reaches a higher
altitude. Here the clouds carrying the water vapour are not carried away by the wind
and hence, it rains in the same place.
Frontal Rainfall
When two air masses meet, they do not mix readily due to differences in temperature
and density. A front is an imaginary line separating two contrasting air masses. Fronts
are areas where rainfall takes place.
A warm front is found when warm air is advancing and rises over cold air, which is
denser and heavier. As the warm air rises it is cooled and condensation takes place.
Continued condensation leads to the growth of water droplets and when heavy
enough these fall as rain.
 The Maximum and Minimum Thermometer
Location: Kept inside the Stevenson Screen.
The maximum and minimum thermometer is designed to record the highest and
lowest temperatures in a 24-hour period. (Diurnal temperature range)

There are two markers in the thermometer that are moved by the mercury as the
temperature changes. These markers will stay in the maximum and minimum
temperature positions so that the temperature can be recorded.
The bottom of the marker is where the temperature is read from.
Once temperature is recorded the markers are re-set back to the position of the top
of the mercury. Some maximum and minimum thermometers have a re-set button
that is pressed while others use a magnet that is placed over the thermometer and
the marker is moved.

Note the black re-set button in the centre of the thermometer above.
The marker in the thermometer above is being moved with a magnet.
Instrument B shown above is a maximum and minimum thermometer. The image
comes from a Cambridge Geography Exam 0460. The maximum temperature is 100 C
and the minimum temperature is -50 C. Note that the liquid in the thermometer has
moved below the markers.
 The Hygrometer
A hygrometer is also known as a wet and dry bulb thermometer. A hygrometer is
used to measure relative humidity. Relative humidity describes the amount of water
vapour in the air.
Air contains water vapour because of evaporation and transpiration. The amount of
water vapour in the air depends on the temperature. Warm air can hold more water
than cold air.

A reading is taken from the wet and dry bulb thermometers. The difference between
the two readings is calculated. The dry bulb thermometer reading and the difference
between the dry bulb and wet bulb are used to find the relative humidity using a
chart (shown on the next page).
Relative humidity is expressed as a percentage.
Example
The dry bulb temperature is 240 C and the web bulb temperature is 190 C. The
difference (depression) is 50 C. Using the chart find the dry bulb temperature and the
difference. Where the column and row for each intersects the relative humidity is
indicated. The relative humidity in this example is 63%.
 The Sunshine Recorder

The sunshine recorder (Campbell-Stokes sunshine recorder) was invented in 1853 by

John Francis Campbell and improved in 1879 by Sir George Gabriel Stokes.
When the Sun is shining, it burns a line along special paper as it moves in the sky. The
total length of the burnt line shows how long the Sun has been shining that day.
 Wind Measurements
Wind
Wind is moving air. When gases warm up, the atoms and molecules move faster,
spread out, and rise. That’s why steam coming off a pot of boiling water always goes
upward. When air is colder, the gases get slower and closer together. Colder air sinks.

Gases move from high-pressure areas to low-pressure areas. And the bigger the
difference between the pressures, the faster the air will move from the high to the
low pressure. That rush of air is the wind we experience.
Wind Vane
A wind vane shows the direction from which the wind is blowing. The arrow on the
wind vane points to the direction from which the wind is blowing.

Wind vanes need to be positioned high enough to avoid wind interference from
objects, buildings, and trees.

Anemometer
An anemometer measures wind speed. A cup anemometer is shown below.
The cups on the anemometer are rotated by the movement of air. The number of
rotations is recorded and automatically converted into kilometres per hour (km/hr).
Anemometers like wind vanes need to be positioned high enough to avoid wind
interference from objects, buildings, and trees.
Digital hand-held anemometers are available to record the wind speed in specific
locations.

The Beaufort Scale

The Beaufort Scale is an empirical measure that relates wind speed to observed
conditions at sea or on land. Its full name is the Beaufort wind force scale.
The scale was devised in 1805 by the Irish hydrographer Francis Beaufort (later Rear
Admiral Sir Francis Beaufort), a Royal Navy officer while serving on HMS Woolwich.
 Climate Graphs
A climate graph displays yearly temperature and precipitation statistics for a
particular location.
Temperature (0C) is measured using the numbers on the left hand side of the chart.
The average temperature for each month is plotted on the graph with a red dot and
the dots are then connected in a smooth, red line. Precipitation (mm) is measured
using the numbers on the right hand side of the chart. The average rainfall for each
month is plotted on the graph with a blue bar.
 Clouds
Cloud Formation
Clouds form when air is unable to absorb any more water and becomes saturated.
This usually happens when air cools as cooler air holds less water than warmer air.
Condensation occurs and clouds form. The more clouds there are in the sky the
greater chance there is of rain.

Cloud Types
cirrus – meaning curl (as in a lock of hair) or fringe
cumulus – meaning heap or pile
stratus – meaning spread over an area or layer
nimbus-means rain-bearing
alto- means high

Cirrus Clouds
Cirrus clouds are short, detached, hair-like clouds found at high altitudes. These
delicate clouds are wispy, with a silky sheen, or look like tufts of hair. In the daytime,
they are whiter than any other cloud in the sky. While the Sun is setting or rising,
they may take on the colours of the sunset.
Cirrus clouds form from the ascent of dry air, making the small quantity of water
vapour in the air undergo deposition into ice (to change from a gas directly into a
solid). Cirrus is made up completely of ice crystals, which provides their white colour
and form in a wide range of shapes and sizes.
Cumulus Clouds
Cumulus clouds are detached, individual, cauliflower-shaped clouds usually spotted in
fair weather conditions. The tops of these clouds are mostly brilliant white tufts when
lit by the Sun, although their base is usually relatively dark.
All cumulus clouds develop because of convection. As air heated at the surface is
lifted, it cools and water vapour condenses to produce the cloud. Throughout the
day, if conditions allow, these can grow in height and size and can eventually form
into cumulonimbus clouds.

Cumulonimbus Clouds
Cumulonimbus clouds are menacing looking multi-level clouds, extending high into
the sky in towers or plumes. More commonly known as thunderclouds,
cumulonimbus is the only cloud type that can produce hail, thunder and lightning. The
base of the cloud is often flat, with a very dark wall-like feature hanging underneath,
and may only lie a few hundred feet above the Earth's surface.
Cumulonimbus clouds are born through convection, often growing from small
cumulus clouds over a hot surface. They get taller and taller until they represent huge
powerhouses, storing the same amount of energy as 10 Hiroshima-sized atom bombs.
They can also form along cold fronts as a result of forced convection, where milder air
is forced to rise over the incoming cold air.
Cumulonimbus clouds are associated with extreme weather such as heavy torrential
downpours, hail storms, lightning and even tornadoes. Individual cumulonimbus cells
will usually dissipate within an hour once showers start falling, making for short-lived,
heavy rain.

Stratus Clouds
Stratus clouds are low-level layers with a fairly uniform grey or white colour. Often
the scene of dull, overcast days in its 'nebulosus' form, they can persist for long
periods of time. They are the lowest-lying cloud type and sometimes appear at the
surface in the form of mist or fog.
Stratus clouds form in calm, stable conditions when gentle breezes raise cool, moist
air over colder land or ocean surfaces. These clouds can exist in a variety of
thicknesses and are sometimes opaque enough to darken days, allowing for little light
to pass through.
Stratus is usually accompanied by little to no rainfall but if it is thick enough, it can
produce light drizzle. This drizzle can also fall in the form of light snow if cold enough.
Estimating Cloud Cover
Nephoscope
An instrument for measuring the altitude, velocity, and direction of movement of
clouds.
 Locating Weather Instruments
Wind, air temperature, and water vapor pressure measurements are affected by
surface type and roughness, soil moisture, regional topography, and obstructions.
Sites selected for their applicability to a broader area should be free from
obstructions such as buildings, trees, and steep slopes.
Site Security
The security of weather instruments should be considered. Sites that are not secure
could have a risk of theft or damage.
Relative Humidity
Relative humidity shows how much moisture the air could hold compared to how
much it does hold. This percentage differs at various temperatures as warmer air has
a greater capacity for holding moisture than cooler air.
Calculating Relative Humidity
Dry bulb temperature – Wet bulb temperature = Depression
Then use the table.

1. The dry bulb temperature is 220 C and the wet bulb temperature is 190C. What
is the relative humidity?

2. The dry bulb temperature is 170 C and the wet bulb temperature is 150C. What
is the relative humidity?

3. The dry bulb temperature is 290 C and the wet bulb temperature is 190C. What
is the relative humidity?
 The Stevenson Screen
The Stevenson Screen was invented by Sir Thomas Stevenson in the 19th century.
The Stevenson Screen used to keep a barometer, thermometer, hygrometer and
maximum and minimum thermometer. It is essentially a place to store the instruments
in an environment where the air temperature can be measured as accurately as
possible.
 Weather Units of Measurement
Temperature
Degrees Celsius (C0)
Celsius, also called centigrade, scale based on 0° for the freezing point of water and
100° for the boiling point of water. Invented in 1742 by the Swedish astronomer
Anders Celsius, it is sometimes called the centigrade scale because of the 100-degree
interval between the defined points.

Air Pressure
Hectopascal (hPa)
Hectopascal (hPa) 1 hectopascal equals 100 pascals.
One hectopascal is exactly equal to one millibar and although the scientific
community has officially adopted the hectopascal in preference to the millibar, the
millibar is still used extensively throughout the world due to the proliferation of its
use historically.

Rainfall
Millimetres (mm)

Cloud Cover
Oktas (eighths)
Cloud amount is reported in oktas or eighths with the additional convention that:
0 oktas represents the complete absence of cloud
1 okta represents a cloud amount of 1 eighth or less, but not zero
7 oktas represents a cloud amount of 7 eighths or more, but not full cloud cover
8 oktas represents full cloud cover with no breaks

Relative Humidity
Percentage (%)
Relative humidity is the amount of water vapor present in the air divided by the
maximum amount that the air could contain at that temperature. Relative humidity is
expressed as a percentage. The relative humidity is 100% if the air is saturated with
water vapor and 0% if no water vapor is present in the air at all.

Wind
A number of different units are used to indicate wind speed, including meters per
second (m/s), kilometres per hour (km/h) and knots (kts).
 Wind Rose
The direction of wind for a specific place is shown on a wind rose.
The wind rose is made of circles that radiate rectangles representing points of a
compass.
Lengths of the rectangles show number of days or time that the wind blew from that
direction.
The number of days or hours when there is zero wind is shown in the centre of the
rose.