PERENNIAL CROPS

SUGARCANE; Saccharum officinarum.

 Sugarcane is one of the few plants which store its carbohydrates reserves in the form of sucrose.
 It is grown throughout the tropics and provides more than half of the world’s sugar. Sudan is number one
producer in Africa.  The rest of the sugar is supplied by sugar beet which is a root crop grown in the
temperate areas.  In E. Africa, sugarcane is grown in Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania.
 The growing areas in Kenya:
I. Nyanza sugar belt — Kibos, Miwani, Chemelil, and Muhoroni Sugar
Companies. II. South Nyanza sugar belt — Awendo
III. Western sugar belt — Mumias, Nzoia, Kabras and Busia.
 For sugarcane to be economically produced and processed, the farm should be 30km radius from the processing
factory.

Uses of sugarcane.
1. Plays important role in economic development of the country.
2. Sugarcane stores its carbohydrates in form of sucrose from which we get white sugar and brown sugar for
consumption.
3. Molasses – by-product which is used as animal feed and to make alcohol, citric acid, baker’s yeast etc.
4. Baggase (fibrous residue) – source of fuel, manufacture of papers and compressed fibre boards.
5. Filter mud – rich in phosphorus, nitrogen and calcium and FYM (Farm Yard Manure) and is applied to cane
fields nearest to the factory.

Plant characteristics.
Family – Gramineae
Tribe – Andropogoneae
 Sugarcane is a tall perennial tropical grass which tillers at the base to produce unbranched stem referred to as
Culm which can grow between 3–4m tall and about 5cm diameter. It is cultivated for this thick stem.
Stem/culm.
 Grows to a height of 2.5–5m and 2.5–5cm thick when mature. Both height and thickness depend on variety
and growing conditions by harvest time. There are about 20–30 internodes depending on variety.
Roots.
 The plant develops a number of different roots at different stages of growth.
 The initial roots produced by setts rot and are replaced by new roots which develop from newly developed
nodes; these are used to provide water and nutrients to the plant.
 Roots and shoots develop from the nodes. So one set gives rise to a cluster of shoots called stools.
Leaves.

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 Borne alternately each consist of a sheath and blade. The blade is 2–10cm wide and 60–150cm long. The
colour varies according to variety.
 The inflorescence is loose white feathery panicle known as an 'arrow'.

Life cycle.
 The first crop after planting is called the plant crop. The period to maturity varies according to altitude i.e.
13–14 months at the Coast and 18-22 months in Western and Nyanza.
 After the plant crop has been harvested, the old stools regenerate rapidly producing a ratoon crop. The
1stratoon yields ¾ as much cane as the plant crop. The yields decline with successive ratoon.
 Ratoon crops are more profitable in that:
1. The farmer does not bear the cost of establishment as in plant crop.
2. They mature in a shorter time i.e. 12 months in the Coast and 15 months in Kano plains.

Ecological requirements.
 Rainfall and water requirements.
 Sugarcane is fairly drought resistant but needs a steady supply of moisture throughout the year.
 1,500–1,700mm p.a of well distributed rainfall is ideal. Excessive rain can be a problem due to poor drainage
(water logging), difficult in transportation and excessive weed growth.
• Altitude and temperature.
 Ideal altitude 1,500m–1,700m above sea level. Arrowing is less common in higher altitudes.
 Sugarcane is a tropical crop.
 The growing season should be warm with a mean day temperature around 30°C with solar radiation. The
ripening and harvesting period should be cool with mean day temperature of 10-20°C.
• Soils.
 Sugarcane tolerates a wide variety of soil conditions but only yields well under conditions of free drainage –
soil pH 5.5 - 8.0 is ideal//Well drained soils, deep, rich in humus, well aerated, pH of 5.0–7.0 are suitable.

Varieties.
– The number of each variety has a prefix of one or more letters which denote its origin e.g.
Co = Coimbatore (India)
N:Co = Natal (South Africa) from Coimbatore seed.
POJ = Proefstation Post Java (Indonesia).
B = Barbados (West Indies).
Q = Queensland (Australia).
1. CO. 421: It has fair smut resistant and yields well in a variety of soils.
2. CO. 331: Gives moderate yield in poorly drained soils. Suitable for black cotton soils fair smut
resistance, high fibre content which can reduce sucrose during processing.
3. CO. 945: It is high yielding fast maturing and fairly resistant to smut.
– Other varieties include: KEN 83-737, CB B8-22, EAK 75-335, D 8484, B 41227, N 14, N:Co. 376

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 LAND PREPARATION.
 Preparing land for sugarcane is both time consuming and expensive.
 After the last ratoon has been harvested, the soil has remained undisturbed for about 5yrs, during this time it
becomes compacted and the amount of dead roots increase steadily.
 Thorough cultivation is therefore required. the machinery used and the number of operations depends largely
on soil conditions e.g. on heavy clay soils of Kano plains, crawler tractors are needed to pull heavy cultivators
and sub soilers which penetrate up to 0.6m deep.
 In Mumias, conventional wheeled tractors and conventional ploughs and harrows are used. About 2
ploughings and 1 harrowing.
Planting.
 By use of stem cutting with three nodes and are taken from mature canes. They are dipped into organo-
mercurial fungicide which ensures even germination owing to protection from soil fungi.
 Sets are always buried horizontally 5–7.5 cm deep and placed end-to-end in a single line in the planting
furrow.
 Alternatively; Nurseries for planting material are established with heat treated cane in order to reduce the risk
of ratoon stunting disease. One acre of nursery should provide enough planting materials for 10–15 acres.
1½–2½ tons planting materials are needed for 1acre (3.8–6.3tons/ha) period in the nursery depends on growth
period and ranges from 8–14 months.
Time of planting: It is not very critical as long as there is enough rainfall.
Spacing: This varies between 1.2m–1.8m between rows and a furrow depth of 40cm.

Fertilizers.
1. Nitrogen.
 Adequate supply of Nitrogen is necessary to stimulate vigorous vegetative growth. Rate 65–80kg N/ha.
The Nitrogenous fertilizer should be applied to both plant crop and ratoons.
1. Phosphorus.
 It is used at planting time and subsequent years. Rate 65kg/ha P2O5

Weed control.
 Weeding is an important operation especially in the plant crop which grows more slowly in the early stages
than the ratoon crop.
About 3–4 weedings are needed. For ratoon crops 1–3 weedings.
 Herbicides such as 24-8 and MCPA are used but to a very limited extend.

CANE QUALITY.
 Brix - This is the percentage of soluble solids in the juice. For millable cane, the figure should be over 20%.
 Pol - This is the percentage of apparent sucrose in the juice. The millers prefer the pole figure to be as close
as brix figure as possible. Pol figure of 16 or more is acceptable.

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 Purity - this is the percentage of apparent sucrose in the soluble solids i.e. Pol/Brix × 100. For efficient
operation mills requires a purity of 80% but some insist on a minimum of 84%. A low purity means there is a
high proportion of impurities due to invert sugars i.e. Glucose and Fructose.
 Fibre content - The higher the fibre content, the lower the juice. Fibre retains some sucrose no matter how
thorough the milling is done.

Factors affecting cane quality.

a) The age of the cane.
 Young cane has watery juice with a low Brix figure. The cane ripens from the base upwards until at maturity
the quality is uniformly high throughout.
 After maturity, the process of inversion begins: the disaccharide sucrose is inverted with the help of the
enzyme invertase, into the monosaccharides glucose and fructose which are usually referred to as invert
sugars. This means that both Pol and Purity fall.
Inversion begins at the base of the cane and works its way
upwards.
b) The part of the cane.
 If the cane is immature, the Brix figure is higher at the base than near the top and if over mature the position
is reversed. Even when mature, the green tops are undesirable because it contains comparatively large
quantities of invertase. This ensures that carbohydrates are kept in a mobile monosaccharide form of growth.
Immediately after cutting, the base of the cane invertase moves down the stem from the top in order to
mobilize for future growth and for this reasons top must not be delayed after cutting the base.
c) The length of time from cutting to milling.
 A delay of 24hrs is maximum that should be allowed between cutting and milling; 48hrs is the usually
accepted limit before serious loss occurs because even if the top is removed immediately after cutting, the
cane contains enough invertase for inversion to proceed gradually.
d) Burning.
 Cane is burned intentionally before harvesting. Reasons:
• It makes harvesting less laborious because trash is destroyed.
• Necessary when non-stripping varieties are grown and when mechanical loading is used in loading the
cane vehicles to mills as excess trash is avoided.
 48 hours after burning the standing canes, rapid conversion occurs hence burning should be controlled to
avoid losses.
 Farmers cannot cut and transport large quantities of cane within this period because of the limited labour and
transport facilities. So large amount of cane are cut and sold at low price because of reduced quantity.
e) Climate.
 Cane quality is at its optimum under conditions of sunshine, low humidity, low night temperature and low
rainfall i.e. conditions favouring maximum photosynthesis and minimum mobilisation of stored
carbohydrates for physiological purposes.
f) Arrowing.

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 Cane quality falls after arrowing and the rate differs with variety e.g. for B. 41227 is immediately and for
N:Co. 293 delayed up to a month after arrowing.
g) Variety.
 The genetic constitution of the cane affects not only its inherent quality but also the speed at which quality
declines after maturity
e.g. Co. 421 maintains its quality several months after maturity while Co. 331
deteriorates immediately.
h) Agronomic factors.
 Agronomic factors such as fertilizer rates, moisture supply, drainage and depth of rooting can affect cane
quality.
i) Pest and disease.
 Some pests and diseases can affect quality e.g soil insect can remove many of the feeding roots and can thus
droughting before cane is mature.

DISEASES AND PESTS.

1. Ratoon Stunting Disease.
 Caused by virus Leifsonia xyli.
 Causes decrease in vigour and yield especially to ratoon crops.
Spread of the disease.
1. Infected planting materials.
2. Cutting pangas which are contaminated with the juice of diseased cane.
Symptoms.
• Decline in vigour and yields noticed in the ratoon crop i.e. stunted growth.
• Red spots seen in the vascular tissue especially in the lower nodes.
Control:
 Use of healthy seed cane.
 Hot water treatment of the setts for nursery establishment//Immersing the setts in water for 2hrs at a temp. of
50°C.
 Disinfecting/sterilizing the cutting pangas.

2. Sugarcane Mosaic.
 It is a viral disease caused by Sugarcane Mosaic Virus (SCMV).
 Spread by infected planting materials and aphids.
Symptoms.
• Stunting and yellow mottling of leaves.
• Leave Chlorosis at the base of the leave and on the leave blade.
Control.
• Use resistant varieties.
• Use healthy and clean planting materials.

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 • Rogueing out and destroying infected plants.
• Application of insecticides to control aphids.

3. Sugarcane Smut.
 Caused by the fungus Ustilago scitaminea.
Symptoms.
 The main symptom is a long whip like structure with a fibrous stem covered with black spores and contained
in a silver covered skin.
It emerges at the top of stem in place of inflorescence.
Control.
• Use of resistant varieties.
• The heat treatment recommended for ratoon stunting disease also kills the smut fungus.

Other diseases:
Pineapple disease.
 It is caused by a fungus.
Symptoms: Red or black internal discoloration of the setts with a smell of pineapples.

Pests.
 Pests are rarely a major problem in sugarcane.
 Some of the commonly found pests include:
White scale; Aulacapsis tegalensis.
 The adult scales are pear-shaped (females) to elongated (males). The scale mainly attacks stalks and leaf
sheaths but can also be found on leaves as a result of crowding on the stalks.
 In the case of severe infestation, the cane stalks are almost entirely covered by scales. When gravid, the
female's body is 1.8 mm long and 0.9 mm wide.
 After egg-laying, the female shrinks and loses her pink coloration. Eggs are laid under the females scale.
Upon hatching the crawlers (young immature mobile stage) wander looking for a feeding site.
 They insert their needle-like mouth-parts and suck plant sap and do not move again. They then develop a
thick, waxy scale cover.
 They form a mat beneath the leaf sheaths causing serious damages at the coast i.e severe wilting during
drought.
 Crawlers can be dispersed considerable distances by wind or movement of vegetation by field workers and
transport.
Control.
1. Stripping the drying leaf sheaths in order to expose the scales to insect predators and parasites.
2. Use of clean planting material will delay scale population build-up. Washing or hot-water treatment kills the
scales.

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3. Spray of white oils (foliage and trunks) is effective against young scales. However, care should be taken,
since mineral oils may be phyto-toxic.

Pink sugarcane mealybug (Saccharicoccus sacchari).

 The adult female is pinkish and it is elongated, oval to round in shape, and about 7mm long.
 This mealybug is usually found in colonies on the stem beneath the sheath but is sometimes found on the
stem just below ground level, on the root crowns, on the stem buds, and underneath the leaves.
 The leaves often turn red at the bases as a result of mealybug attack. Sooty moulds often develop in severe
infestations and ants feed on honey dew excreted by the mealybugs.
 This mealybug is often present in very large numbers, which excrete a considerable amount of honeydew.
 Damage is partially caused by the insect sucking the plant sap, which may lead to stunting and yellowing,
thin canes, death of young shoots and impaired growth when mealybugs are present in high numbers, but
direct damage rarely causes yield loss in sugarcane.
 Most damage is caused by honeydew excreted by the mealybugs and the gums exuded from the wounded
parts, which interfere with the synthesis of raw sugar juice leading to filtration and clarification problems,
lower quality of the syrup and reduced crystallization.
 Severe attacks decrease the general vitality of the plants, which become more susceptible to diseases.
Control:
Cultural methods such as destruction of crop residues and trash; clean cultivation; and use of un-infested planting
material is the best way of controlling this pest.

 White grubs (Schizonycha spp.)

 Live in the soil and feed on cane roots.
Control:
They can be controlled to a limited extent by BHC, dieldrin or aldrin sprayed onto the walls of the planting
furrows and onto the setts.

 Termites (Pseudocanthotermes militaris).

 Attack sugarcane setts.
 They are easily controlled by dipping setts in an insecticide before planting.

Harvesting.
 Most recommendation are guided by the quality consideration mentioned above.
 Cane must be cut when mature as judged by uniformity of the quality at the base and towards the top of
the cane.
 Each cane must be cut as near ground level as possible, then green tops removed immediately and dead
leaves must be stripped unless they have been removed by burning.
 The cane must be transported to the mills as soon as possible and in less than 48hrs after cutting and is
important especially when canes have been burned.

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  In East Africa, cane is cut by hand using pangas i.e. manual labour.
YIELDS.
 This varies from one area to another e.g.
• Kano plains – 110tons/ha. • Tanzania under irrigation – 300ton/ha.
• Mumias – 80-90tons (one stack=6tons)

Milling
 It involves a complex process which requires large, heavy and expensive machinery. Also cost of
construction of large mills is expensive. The process is as follows;
i. The cane chopped and squeezed to express the juice.
ii. The juice is then led to the clarifier where fine suspended matter and soluble non-sugars are precipitated and
separated as a dark coloured mud.
iii. The juice is next led to evaporators where it is boiled under reduced pressure until it becomes thick syrup.
iv. In the next container, the vacuum pan, the concentration of sucrose in the syrup is so high and the pressure is
so low that sucrose crystals are formed; the vacuum pan produces massecuite which is dark brown mixture of
molasses and sucrose crystals.
v. The massecuite is next stirred in open tanks called crystallizers, where crystals are encouraged to grow.
Finally, the massecuite is led into centrifuges which separate the crystals from the molasses.
By products.
a) Bagasse.
 It consists of fibrous residue after the cane has been milled and juice extracted. Used as fuel for the factory
boilers or manufacturers of Fibre board or paper in some countries.
b) Filter cake.
 Is the product resulting from filtration and washing of mud from clarifier. Has high calcium content and has
approximately the same concentration of nitrogen and phosphate as farm yard manure and applied to cane
fields near the mills.
c) Molasses.
 Is a heavy dark brown liquid which consists largely of sucrose and invert sugar.
 Used in the distilling of industrial alcohol and incorporation of livestock feeds.

Jaggery manufacture;
 Is wide spread in East Africa than manufacture of white sugar, their factories are small and simple. The cane
is crushed to extract the juice which is then boiled until it is thick enough to set in moulds when cooled.
 This is a sweetening material used by the asian community for cooking sweet meals. Poor quality cane
produces bitter product usually called black jaggery which is used for illicit distillation of Nubian gin.

Challenges that have impacted on overall performance of the sugar industry.

• Corruption. • Lack of market. • Competition from related products. • Poor level of technology.
• Fluctuation of prices.

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• Unreliable weather conditions i.e. rainfall, temp. • Lack of government support. • Unfavourable
government policies.

COFFEE.
 Coffee is a popular beverage prepared from the roasted seeds (not beans as they are almost always
called) of the coffee plant.
 It is usually served hot but can also be served cold. It is the second most commonly traded
commodity in the world 2nd to oil.
 It is a source of foreign exchange to developing countries including Kenya.

History of coffee.
 Coffee has its history as far as the 9th C. It is thought to have originated in the highlands of Ethiopia and
spread to the rest of the world via Egypt and Europe.
 Dutch traders were the first to start large scale import of coffee into Europe where it became popular in the
17th C.
 For a long time, coffee has been the leading export crop in Kenya fluctuating in value between 15-35% of the
total export.
 Some of the leading producing countries in Africa are 1) Ethiopia – Arabica coffee.
2) Kenya – Arabica coffee.
3) Uganda – Robusta coffee.
4) Ivory Coast – Robusta and Excelsa coffee.
5) Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) – Robusta and Excelsa coffee
6) Cameroon.

Other producing countries: Costa Rica, Guatemala, Mexico, Brazil, Columbia, Peru, Venezuela, Indonesia,
Thailand.
 Brazil is the world’s leading producer of Arabica coffee followed by Columbia.
 The major consumers in order of importance are:
1. Germany.
2. France.
3. Italy.
4. United Kingdom.
5. Netherlands.
6. Spain.

Coffee species.
 Several species of shrub of the genus Coffea produce the berries from which coffee is extracted.
 The two main species commercially cultivated are Coffea canephora (predominantly a form known as
'robusta') and C. arabica.

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 C. arabica, the most highly regarded species, is native to the South western highlands of Ethiopia and the
Boma Plateau in south Eastern Sudan and possibly Mount Marsabit in Northern Kenya.
 C. canephora is native to Western and Central Sub-Saharan Africa, from Guinea to the Uganda and Southern
Sudan.
 Less popular species are C. liberica, excelsa, stenophylla, mauritiana, and racemosa.
Types of coffee.
 Robusta Coffee.
 Robusta is normally grown in warmer areas at lower elevations, up to approximately 3,300 feet (1,000 m)
above sea level.
 It is of lower quality and its price is normally about 30 to 40% less than that of Arabica.
 Robusta is used mainly to make instant coffee.
 It is more vigorous in growing, more productive and tolerant to leaf rust.

 Arabica Coffee.
 This type is normally grown in cooler, elevated areas of the tropics and sub tropics at 3,300 feet or more
above the sea level.
 It is higher quality and value and is the dominant commercial cultivator in Kenya.
 It is used in the roast and ground coffee market and is added to blends of Robusta to improve the quality of
instant coffee.

Arabica Coffee Varieties Recommended in Kenya.

 Developed for high yields and disease resistance.
1. SL 28: Suited to medium to high altitude areas. Is draught resistant, high yielding, not resistant to CBD and
leaf rust.
2. SL 34: Does well in higher altitude areas where rainfall is high. Selected at Loreto estate and is suited to wide
range of ecological conditions but susceptible to CBD and Coffee Leaf Rust.
3. K7: Suitable for low and medium altitudes and is drought tolerant. Has good yields and excellent cup quality.
Resistant to some races of Coffee Leaf rust and has partial resistance to CBD. Selected near Muhoroni.
4. Ruiru 11: Hybrid produced at the Coffee Research Foundation by crossing the existing variety. It is disease
resistant, high yielding and excellent cup quality. Suitable to a wide range of ecological conditions. Compact
variety. It is a high hybrid variety hence seed production is limited by the process. Avoid using the harvest as
seed. Production of seedlings can be done through grafting, cutting or tissue culture. Can also be grafted onto
existing varieties.
5. Batian: Resistant to Coffee Leaf rust & CBD. Has good yields and excellent cup quality. Tall variety. It is a
true bred cultivar
6. Blue mountain: Was imported from Jamaica and suitable for high altitude areas but susceptible to CBD and
coffee rust.
7. Kent: High yielder i.e. produces a reasonable amount of fruits during a bi-annual bearing cycle which is
heavy bearing in one season followed by no bearing (alteration in bearing).

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 Botany.
 All coffee plants are classified in the large family Rubiaceae. They are evergreen shrubs or small trees that
may grow 5 m (15 ft) tall when unpruned.
 The leaves are dark green and glossy, usually 10–15 cm (4–6 in) long and 6 cm (2.4 in) wide.
 The flowers are auxiliary, and clusters of fragrant white flowers bloom simultaneously and are followed by
oval berries of about 1.5 cm (0.6 inch).
 Green when immature, they ripen to yellow, then crimson, before turning black on drying. Each berry usually
contains two seeds, but 5–10% of the berries have only one; these are called pea berries. Berries ripen in 7–9
months.
 Coffea arabica is predominantly self-pollinating, and as a result the seedlings are generally uniform and vary
little from their parents.
 In contrast, Coffea canephora, C. excelsa and C. liberica are self-incompatible and require out crossing.
 This means that useful forms and hybrids must be propagated vegetatively. Cuttings, grafting and budding are
the usual methods of vegetative propagation.
 On the other hand, there is great scope for experimentation in search of potential new strains.

Plant Characteristics.
Root System.
 Coffee is shallow rooted; the root system of a mature coffee tree consists of a tap root which is sometimes
extensively branched, robust and generally short reaching 0.3–0.6m deep but it may grow deeper up to 1m in
deep soils.
 Tap root provides stability and anchorage and also important in water and mineral uptake.
 The plant also develops secondary roots from the tap root which grow vertically downwards, the lighter the
soil the deeper the penetration. Secondary roots assist in water uptake.
 The first three years of growth are very critical for the development of the root system therefore the plant
should be well supplied with; Phosphorous, Nitrogen, Calcium, Magnesium and Sulphur.
 Lateral roots also referred to as feeder roots develop from tap and secondary roots; these are generally
numerous and grow horizontally; they further extent into a network of rootlets. They are usually found in the
richest layer of soil (top soil) used for uptake of minerals and moisture.
 Factors that affect the development of the root system include;-
1) Hereditary.
2) Soil texture and composition.
3) Aeration.
4) Drainage.
5) Water and mineral resources.
6) Cropping methods.

The Shoot System.

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 The frame work of coffee consist of vertical axis/trunk with several series of branches.
 First ones are primary branches which bear fruits when young and then the secondary and tertiary branches.
The secondary and tertiary branches form the main stage of production.
 Coffee has two types of vegetative growth. Namely;
1) Vertical growth formed by main stem and suckers.
2) Horizontal growth formed by the crop bearing branches (primary, secondary and tertiary).
 These branches produce both vegetative growth and reproductive parts (flowers).

Buds.
 Buds on stems are found at each node of the vertical growth (stem and suckers) giving rise to pairs of
opposite leaves. In each axil there are 2 types of buds i.e. one in the upper part and one in the lower part.
 If the parts remain intact, the upper bud will develop and produce laterals of primary branches while the
lower buds remain dormant.
 If the lateral branch is removed or damaged, there will be no bud in the axil capable of replacing it hence this
lateral or primary branch on the main stem cannot be regenerated.
 Below each lateral there is a series of buds most or all of which are invisible and are capable of division and
multiplication.
 Buds on the lateral: Leaves are born in pairs opposite each other and in horizontal plane. Each axil is a
series of 3-5 buds and each bud is capable of developing into an inflorescence or a secondary branch.

The Fruit.
 Each flower produces one fruit normally referred to as berry containing 2 beans (seeds).
 The outer skin is fleshy when ripe and red in colour. Mesocarp (outer skin) has slimy mucilage. Exocarp
encloses the mucilage.
 Exocarp and mesocarp are removed during the pulping process.
 Each of the 2 beans are enclosed in a tough membrane called the parchment and closely adhering to it is a
very thin testa called the silver skin.
 Duration from flowering to maturity is 8 months. This period however can be prolonged by draught or cold
weather.

Terminologies.
• Cherry:- Collective term for ripe berries which have been picked but not pulped.
• Parchment:- Coffee which has been pulped but still has its parchment intact.
• Clean or green coffee:- This is coffee which has been milled, i.e. the parchment and silver skin has been
removed. Also called naked coffee. Looks bluish-green in colour.

Ecological Requirements.
Temperature.
 It is one of the most limiting factors in the life of coffee. The ideal temperature is 18°C–26°C with no
pronounced differences in day and night temperature; the crop does not survive at 0°C.
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 Arabica coffee withstands fluctuation in temperature provided they are not too extreme. Temperature above
30°C will lead to accelerated transpiration and wilting of foliage; extended high temperatures result in the
foliage turning brown, drying up and then falling off. Under such conditions at the 1st rains, the crop’s
nutritional reserves are used to rebuild its branches at the expense of fruits.
Altitude.
 In the Eastern region, 1,400–2,000m above sea level, Western zone 2,100m above sea level. In higher altitude
areas, there is continued small flowering which will produce small inferior berries. Stunted growth, hot and
cold syndrome will crack. At lower altitude, there is incidence of pests and diseases such as coffee leaf rust
and berry borer. Moisture is insufficient making irrigation essential.
Rainfall.
 It is the second most limiting factor after temperature. Coffee does well in areas receiving 1,500–1,800mm of
rain per annum. This should be well distributed throughout the year with a dry spell of 1½–2½ months. The
dry spell helps the crop to:
1. Harden the wood and get into the cycle of flowering and bearing.
2. It prevents the occurrence of the CBD because this disease increases in wet conditions.
Soil.
 Coffee does not seem to have specific soil requirements, it can do well in diverse soils and conditions.
However the texture and depth of the soil are important factors in coffee production.
 In compact or shallow soils, the tap root remains short and the roots only develop in the upper horizon at a
depth of 0.3m, soil pH should be 4.0–7.0
 Free draining soil with a minimum depth of 1m is required. Does not tolerate water logging. Coffee can be
grown on many different soil types but the ideal is a fertile, free draining volcanic red soil. Avoid heavy clay
or poor drain.
Shade.
 In a coffee plantation, some plants are grown within it to provide shade. Shade is also necessary for plant in
nursery where water is limited as it reduces evaporation.
 Common tree species that can be used as shade trees in both Arabica and Robusta coffee systems include
Grevelia robusta, Ficus natalensis, Albizia coriaria, Mesiopsis eminii, Cordial africana, Acacia or Erythrina
spp.
 Fruit trees such as mango, avocado or jackfruit can also be included at intervals.

Desirable characteristics of shade tree species:

1. Wind resistant - The species should have a deep rooting system that adds stability to withstand strong winds.
2. Small open crown/canopy – This allows for partial shading of coffee trees, allowing shade of about 50%.
3. Quick growing - The species should have quicker growth than coffee so as to provide the required shade.
4. Nitrogen fixing - Trees provide nitrogen to the cropping system through nitrogen-rich leaves and roots.

Advantages of shades.
1. They reduce wind speed, evaporation both from the leaves and the soil.

13
2. They help in reducing hailstorm and soil temperatures.
3. Pests cannot live under bushy conditions e.g. leaf minor.
4. The shade helps modify the temperatures and prevent a disorder in coffee known as crinkled leaf disorder
and make pleasant working conditions.
N.B: Crinkled leaf disorder is a physiological disorder caused by low temperatures where there is malformation
of the leaves. The leaf develops a sickle shape which reduces the photosynthetic surface area of the leaf. The
leaves have brown lesions on their margins.

Disadvantages of shades.
1. Shade trees reduce photosynthetic activities for young seedlings.
2. Shade trees compete for soil and atmospheric resources (CO2 and light).
3. Provide good conditions for the proliferation of pests and diseases e.g. berry borer.

Field Establishment.
Propagation.
 The area to be planted with coffee must be prepared at least one year before the small coffee trees are planted
out.
 Starting with land preparation; planting of wind breaks; marking out the rows; establishing shade trees;
transplanting then irrigating.
Land preparation.
 Land must be cleared and all old trees removed using conventional tillage – 6months or longer.
Wind Breaks.
 Permanently planted wind breaks are only recommended in sites exposed to strong winds and also where they
are needed to supplement natural forest.
 If needed, wind breaks should be well established before planting the coffee. The wind breaks should be
located along boundaries of the coffee area. Silver oak (Grevillea robusta) is a preferred wind break tree.
Marking out the rows.
 Row direction ideally a North/south direction is best to allow maximum utilization of sunlight. The rows
should be marked 2m apart across the slope.
Establish shade trees.
 The shade trees should be established before coffee trees are planted out i.e. 1year earlier.
 Shade protects young coffee plants from drought stress and over exposure to sunlight which causes yellowing
or death of leaves, trees overbearing and die back in older trees. Legumes used also provide organic matter
and Nitrogen to the soil.
 Numerous species can be used e.g. Erythrina, Cassia Gravillea robusta cordia abyssinica spacing 4.5x4m. The
trees are planted within the coffee rows.
Irrigation.
 If irrigation is required it should be installed before planting coffee trees.

14
 Coffee propagation.
 Coffee is usually propagated by seed. The seeds that are to be sown should come from healthy fruits that have
been harvested when fully ripe from healthy plants.
 After selection, the fruits are pulped immediately after harvesting and spread out to dry on racks under shade
in a well ventilated area. The seeds are then sorted out removing the malformed, small and damaged ones.
These seeds should be sown as soon as possible because coffee seeds do not exhibit dormancy. The seeds can
be raised in soil nursery or in polythene bags.
 If they are raised directly in the soil, the following procedures should be taken.
I. Coffee seeds are germinated in seed beds of 5-7cm depth. This gives optimum results in terms of speed
and germination percentage.
II. Seeds should be planted at a spacing of 2.5 x 2.5cm.
III. After sowing, the seed bed should be covered with a thin layer of mulch to maintain high humidity and
reduce temperature fluctuation.
IV. A shade is also erected above the sand bed for protection against direct sunlight. V. The mulch cover
should be removed as soon as they start to emerge.
V. The seedlings remain in the sand bed until the 2
cotyledons start unfolding.
VI. Lift the seedlings to the main seedbed.

Propagation.
Use of poly bags for raising seedlings has the following advantages:
i. Root system will not be exposed, damaged or disturbed during transplanting to the
field and therefore young plants establishes quickly without any set back or
transplanting shock.
ii. The seedlings can be transported over a long distance. iii. Field planting can be delayed
until weather conditions are favourable for planting.
iv. Problems of soil borne diseases and nematodes can be avoided.
 Potting media is composed of a mixture of; 15 debes well sieved top soil (200kg), 100kg course sand, 200kg
FYM, 140g phosphatic fertilizers and aldrin dust 21%.
 The mixture can fill approximately 220 polybags of size 18–20cm diameter and 30cm length.
 The seedlings should remain in the polybag until they have a minimum of 6–8 pairs of leaves. The young
plants should be strong and healthy with no signs of disease and insect pests or before transplanting.
 Nursery maintenance practices include; watering at least twice a week depending on the weather, weeding
and pest control i.e. control of damping off disease.

Transplanting.
 The land should be prepared at least 6 months before transplanting.
 Planting spacing of 2m × 2m gives plant population of 2,500 plants per ha.
 Holes should be dug 60cm × 60cm deep; dug 3 months before transplanting to ensure sufficient weathering.

15
 Separate top soil on one side of the hole and sub soil to the other side of the hole. Top soil is mixed with 1
debe of manure and 85g TSP and the mixture used to refill the hole; the centre of the hole is then marked with
a stick.
 Planting should be done at the beginning of long rains to give them a good start.

Field Management.
 To achieve high yields of quality coffee, good field management practices are essential.
 Poorly managed coffee will take longer to produce a good crop and will suffer from die back. Management
practices include:
Watering.
 If there is no sufficient rain plants should be watered 2–3 times a week.
Weed control.
 Coffee trees are shallow rooted, which means that most feeder roots are near the surface making competition
with weeds for water and minerals very high. This is very critical in the lower zones of coffee growing
regions where water is insufficient.
 The most damaging weeds include; couch grass (Digitiria scalarum), star grass (Cynodon dactylon), and
sedge (Cyperus rotundus).
 There are several methods that may be used to control weeds;
1. Continuous cultivation using fork jembes, rotavators and pangas.
Advantages; weeds are controlled effectively, water infiltration and soil aeration are improved.
Disadvantages; the method encourages soil erosion in the long run
2. Slashing by use of slashers or rotary cultivators.
Advantages; very fast, utilizes less labour and is suitable in steep areas especially during rainy season where other
methods may encourage soil erosion.
Disadvantages; its less effective in weed control, can encourage development of swards of grass if used for long.
To minimize these problems practice ring weeding or band weeding around the plants or along the rows.
3. Use of herbicides.
 The use of herbicides is the current trend towards weed control especially in big plantations. If the crops are
still young, cover the seedlings with black polythene to minimize damage. Both pre-emergence and post
emergence herbicides may be used.
Advantages; effective, less time and labor requirements
Disadvantages; requires technical knowhow for effective and safe use of chemicals.
 Herbicides used include; - Paraquat (Gramoxone), 2, 4-D (for broad leafed weeds), Diuron, Atraxine,
Dalpopn for control of grasses, Simazine, and Roundup; Roundup is very effective in controlling rhizomatous
perennial grasses like star grass, couch grass and kikuyu grass.
1. Mulching.
 It is suitable for small scale farming because a lot of mulch is required.
1. Cover cropping.
 Other crops like beans are planted to cover the ground though may cause competition.

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 Fertilizers.
 The use of minerals and organic fertilizers is an important technique which can improve the productivity of
coffee plant provided that the right procedures are taken.
 The nutritional requirements of the plants are effectively studied by analyzing the plant tissue at different
stages of growth including that of the harvested crop. Leaf diagnosis also provides information on the level of
optimum nutrition.
 On the basis of various studies Nitrogen and phosphorus of young coffee plants are high while the
requirements of mature fruiting plants are mainly Nitrogen and potassium.
Fertilizer choice.
Inorganic fertilizers:
 This will depend on the pH range of the soil. For slightly acidic soils, you can use acidic fertilizers, urea, SA
etc and for moderately acidic ones, CAN and ASN.
 Application rate depends on how much fruit the tree is carrying e.g. heavy crop 135-155kg N/ha 
Compound fertilizers are also very important for the coffee plants.
 Coffee being a perennial plant requires enough nutrients for maturing the berries and producing fresh wood
for the succeeding crop. Rates
Year 1 and 2 – 30g/tree of NPK 15-15-15
Year 3 – 60g/tree of NPK 15-15-15
Year 4 – 90g/tree of NPK 15-15-15
Year 5 onwards – 120g/tree of NPK 15-15-15
 Nutrients sprays of urea or mixtures containing nitrogen, potash magnesium and zinc may be applied to
coffee at any time during the growth season along with the regular spray programme. these are used to
supplement other fertilizer.

Organic fertilizers/Manures:
The minimum amount to apply:
Year 2; 0.7 kg/tree. Year 3; 1 kg/tree. Year 4; 2kg/tree. Year 5 and onwards; 2.5kg/tree

Prunning.
 Arabica coffee should be pruned to single stem system.
 Pruning is required to;
1. Control cropping by maintaining the correct balance between
leaf area and crop
2. Prevent over bearing and die back
3. Reduce biennial bearing.
4. Maintain good shape for the tree.

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5. Improve efficiency of fertilizer uptake, fungicidal and insecticidal spray//To make spraying more efficient;
when the height is limited and the plant is less bushy, less chemicals are used reducing cost and can penetrate
to all parts of the crop.
6. Facilitate picking by limiting the tree height.
7. Make a less favourable micro-climate for certain pests & diseases e.g. CBD, CLR & antestia bugs thrive in
unpruned trees.
8. Open the harvesting line and allow air circulation.
9. Remove dead and diseased branches.
10. Facilitate change of crop cycle; done by cutting down all the affected crops at certain height, leave a small
branch and a stump.

Single stem pruning.

 The aim of single stem pruning is to establish one permanent stem capped at 1.5–1.8m above ground level
with a permanent framework of laterals.
 This method is based on the selection of those laterals that would grow strongly and produce berries.
Procedure.
 Year 1: desucker to maintain a single stem and avoid competition from suckers.
Remove ‘fly crop’ fruit (early fruit which compete with strong plant and root development) as they appear.
 Year 2: desucker to remove drooping primary branches that touch the ground. Remove secondary branches
within 20cm of the main stem. Remove all the fruits as they appear (fly crop).
 Year 3: trees should be allowed to crop in the third year. Cap the main stem by cutting above a side primary
shoot at about 1.6M from soil level desucker to remove drooping primary branches touching the ground.
Remove secondary branches within 20cm of the main stem.
 Maintain a maximum number of well spaced secondary branches on each primary branch. Remove all the
dead, weak, pests and diseases damaged branches.

Coffee harvesting.
 Coffee berries are ready 8–9 months after flowering
 Coffee harvesting-usually called picking is done by hand. Only uniformly ripe cherry can produce good
quality coffee.
 The entire surface of each cherry should be red although a very small amount of green at the base is
acceptable.
 Over ripe berries which are dark coloured may be difficult to pulp.
 Under ripe berries (green) may not have enough mucilage for efficient pulping.
 Berries of mixed ripeness cause uneven fermentation .berries which are yellow in colour produce poor quality
coffee. Berries attacked by pests and diseases produce poor quality coffee and may lead to problems in
pulping.
 It is therefore essential that high standards of picking are maintained. Picking must be done every 10-14days
or weekly to prevent over ripening.

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 Terminologies.
• Fly picking – this is small scale picking of ripe berries.
• Stripping – this is picking all berries irrespective of ripeness especially machine picking.
• Hulling – is a mechanical process of removing dry parchment skin or silver skin from the green skin.

Processing.
 Coffee is processed in two ways:
1) Wet processing: this is where parchment coffee is processed immediately after harvesting. Cherry must be
delivered to the factory on the same day after picking.
2) Dry processing: this is where the coffee berries that are picked are dried inside the whole coffee fruit in the
sun to 12% moisture content. The dry skin is then hulled to produce a dry green bean (mbuni). Produces
poor quality coffee.
Method.
 The cherry is fed with water into a pulping machine which separates the beans from the skins. The parchment
coffee is then left for 24 days to ferment in fermenting tanks where the sticky mucilage is broken down by
micro-organisms and enzymes. The beans are then washed to get rid of degraded mucilage after which they
are dried in the sun. If done well using good cherries the method gives good quality coffee.
Yields and quality.
 There are 3 factors which affect yield and quality of coffee:
1. Genetic makeup (species and variety)
2. Environment
3. Management aspects.

Diseases and Insect

Pests. Insect pests.
 Coffee can be attacked by many insects pests e.g. leaf miners, mealy bugs termites, aphids scalesgreen
coffee scales
1. Scales.
Are a common problem. They suck the plant sap resulting in reduced growth and yield. Sooty moulds often
develop on leaves (a black, loose sooty-like cover).
Symptoms
• Green oval shaped scales about 2–3mm long are found concentrated on leaf veins and tips of new shoots.
• Infestation can produce spots of honey dew which become covered with a black sooty mould. Defoliation of
badly affected trees can occur.
Control.
Biological – natural predators of scales include wasps and lady birds; these reduce the level of infestation
Chemical control; – use mineral oil at 200Mls/ 20ltrs water and then spray, if 10 or more leaves are attacked.
Then apply carbaryl 85% wettable powder at 20g per 10ltrs.

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2. Coffee berry borer
 Can cause significant damage on the berries, the adult is a small black beetle covered in thick hairs.
Symptoms
 Fruits of young green cherries drop. A small hole is evident on the cherry. Cherries that remain on the tree
often have defective and damaged beans/seeds.
Control.
 Orchard hygiene – removing dropped cherries, and carry over fruit from coffee bushes. Pick cherries that
have fallen on the ground.
 Chemical control is difficult as the borer spends most of its life cycle inside the coffee berry. But you can
use endosulpan 35EC at the rate of 6ml/4.5ltrs of water applied at early fruit set.
 Quarantine: do not allow cherries or coffee bags from other farms.
Other pests: Aphids, antestia bugs, moths, stem borers, termites, leaf miners and mealy bugs also attack coffee.

Diseases.
– The major diseases:
1. Coffee berry disease (CBD).
2. Coffee leaf rust (CLR).
3. Bacterial Blight of Coffee (BBC).
– The minor diseases:
• Die back.
• Fusarium root rot disease.

Coffee Berry Disease (CBD).

 It is a fungal disease caused by a fungus Colletotrichum coffeanum
 It affects flowers, berries (green and ripe and sometimes it affects leaves. The affected leaves are not killed
but losses of up to 80% or more can be realized. Symptoms.
I. Flowers.
 Dark brown blotches or streaks appear on the flowers. The whole flower soon becomes invaded and dies
however; the damage to flowers is limited due to their short life span.
II. Green berries.
 Small dark sunken patches appear on green berries in wet conditions and if the berry is expanding (between
the 8th week and 18th week). These patches spread rapidly and the berry becomes blackened, beans fail to
develop inside such berries.
III. Ripe berries.
 Dark sunken patches appear on ripe berries with minute black dots which spread rapidly and eventually cover
the whole berry-referred to as brown blight.
 The beans are not harmed but pulping is very difficult – leads to low quality coffee.
IV. Leaves.
 Brown patches occur on leaf margins with characteristic concentric rings. Leaf infection is not very common.

20
 Epidemiology of CBD.
 The fungus is able to colonize the maturing bark tissue of the lateral branches. This enables it to survive the
period when there is no crop on the trees. It does no apparent damage in this area. Fruiting bodies appear on
the surface of the young bark and in wet weather they produce pink spores.
 At least 24hours of wet conditions are needed for the fruiting bodies to produce spores. The spores are spread
by rain splash movement being mostly in a downward direction.
 CBD is spread from tree to tree or farm to farm by pickers, birds or infected seedlings.
Weather conditions favouring infection of CBD.
 In order for spore production to be favored, several hours of high humidity are required (at least 24hrs of wet
conditions)
 For the spores to germinate the infected surface must remain wet for 5hrs and the temperature must be 15°C -
27.7°C.
Control of CBD.
 Cultural Method
 Planting resistant varieties like Ruiru11
 Timely pruning reduces the incidences of CBD since there is no favorable micro climate for the fungus 
Regular change of cycle.
 Chemical method.
 Use recommended fungicides to control infection e.g copper hydroxide formulations such as Ridomil and
kocide 101 rate 50gms/20lts water daconil

Coffee Leaf Rust (CLR).

 Caused by a fungus called Hemileia vastatrix.
 Occurs in lower altitude areas below 1700m above sea level.
Symptoms.
 Orange patches on the lower surface of the leaf. In early stages only pale yellow spots are visible on the
leaf but the color changes in one or two days to yellow orange and sometimes the whole leaf may become
infected.

21
Epidemiology of CLR.
 Spores are mainly spread by wind and rain although dispersal by insects to a less extend has been
noted. Germination of spores occurs when water is present and temperature conditions are
favourable. Only germinating spores on the lower leaf surface can penetrate and cause infection.
 Presence of 2-3 pustules on the leaf will cause premature fall. Infected trees become defoliated
and in serious cases may lead to die back.
Control - As for coffee berry disease.

Bacterial Blight of Coffee (BBC).

 It is a bacterial disease caused by a bacteria Pseudomonas syringae
 Commonly called Solai or Elgon die back because it was first observed in Solai and on the slopes
of Mt. Elgon. Symptoms.
I. On leaves: lesions that appear water soaked and black at the start of the infection but
eventually the leaves dry up, roll inwards and then turn brown. Dead and dry leaves are
not shed but will remain attached to the plant.
II. On twigs and shoot tips: the terminal bud is attacked and a downward inversion follows
which result in a die back III. There is infection on nodes of young succulent branches
which eventually spread towards the internodes.
Control of BBC.
 Research indicates that chemical control using copper based bactericide e.g.
copper oxychloride are effective.
 The chemicals should be sprayed before the symptoms of attack are seen.

Common challenges to coffee production in Kenya.

 Coffee production in Kenya is reported to be declining. The decrease in productivity has been
attributed to a range of factors, mostly production related, such as:
1. Low yields - Most coffee comes from very old and poorly managed coffee gardens with old trees.
Since coffee is a perennial crop that can produce coffee beans for many years, most farmers leave
it to overgrow and only remember it at the time of harvest. Such old and poorly managed trees
usually have reduced production potential.
2. Declining soil fertility - Most farmers leave coffee plants to grow naturally and do not give much
attention to them. They harvest the coffee every season, but do not add any nutrients essential to
soil fertility. Even the coffee husks after pulping in wet processed coffee are taken to plots where

22
 annual crops are grown (in dry processed coffee the husks are sold along with the coffee). As a
result, soil is continuously mined and its fertility continues to decline.
3. Soil erosion - Soil erosion is most common in the Arabica systems at higher altitudes. It is also a
problem in Robusta systems on sloping land. Without erosion control measures, running water
from uplands washes down the nutrient- packed topsoil into the lowlands. Lack of appropriate
erosion control measures encourages soil degradation and decreases productivity.
4. Use of poor quality planting materials - Coffee is normally treated as a side crop and given very
little attention. Many farmers use undergrowth from fallen berries under the coffee trees as
planting material. This practice negatively affects the quality of the transplanted seedlings and
eventually the coffee trees.
5. Pest and disease problems - The larvae of the Coffee Berry Borer, which feed on the coffee
beans, can result in total yield loss. The coffee wilt caused by fungus is a major disease threat to
the coffee industry in Kenya. It has been reported in all major coffee producing countries like
Uganda, Democratic Republic of Congo, Tanzania (on Robusta coffee) and Ethiopia (on Arabica
coffee).
6. Low returns from coffee production - Although most coffee is grown under low input systems,
the costs of production are reported to be increasing. The major costs include hiring labour for
weeding, general maintenance of gardens, harvesting and postharvest handling. At the same time
coffee prices are decreasing. This situation has forced many farmers to abandon their coffee fields
for other crops.
7. High postharvest losses - When coffee prices increase, many farmers harvest coffee berries
prematurely (green or half green) hoping to get more money. Such beans will then be sorted out
during milling and grading. Poor handling during drying results in additional losses. In some
areas, lack of coffee pulping machines for wet processing lead to more postharvest losses.
8. Limited knowledge on organic market potential and certification – The market for organic
coffee is reported to be growing, especially in the export markets of Europe, USA and Japan. In
order for farmers to benefit from these premium export markets, they need to conform to organic
production requirements and certify their systems according to the applicable organic standards.As
a result of the many challenges associated with coffee production, many coffee farmers are
increasingly abandoning coffee for other crops. This situation calls for interventions, making the
coffee production more sustainable and profitable for the producing communities.

23
 TEA: Camellia
sinensis. Introduction.
 Tea originated from E. Asia and parts of Chinia, Cambodea and Russia. Tea is used worldwide as
a beverage after infusion of the leaves in hot water. Primarily, tea is drunk as black tea. Recently,
organic green tea and instant tea are manufactured in increasing quantities but is grown in Chinia
as a medical crop.
 Introduced to E. Africa in 1920’ s and was first planted in Limuru and spread to other districts.
Kenyan tea is exported to Pakistan and Afghanistan.

The main tea growing areas of the world:

1. South East Asia – India, Sri Lanka, Java, China, Japan, Taiwan etc.
2. East Africa – Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania.
3. Other countries: Malaysia, Mauritius, Belgium, Congo, Southern Rhodesia, Portugal, Cameroon,
Brazil, Peru, Argentina etc.  India is the largest producer, consumer and exporter of tea.

Tea growing areas in Kenya.

 Grown by both small scale holders in areas like Kisii, Kericho, Nandi, Kakamega, Kiambu,
Murang'a, Nyeri, Kirinyaga, Embu, Sotik, Meru District and Large scale holders include Brook
Bond Kenya ltd, Eastern produce, Agrican highlands and George Williamson Kenya Ltd.
 It is marketed by:-
i. KTDA – Helps farmers in
marketing and processing of tea. ii.
Tea boards of Kenya – helps in
legislation of tea industry. iii. Tea
research foundation is a centre for research.
iv. KETEPA – distribution of tea locally.

Plant characteristics.
 Root.
 Is a deep rooted plant with a strong taproot has lateral roots while forms surface mats of fibrous
roots and the length depends on variety. Most of the roots are found in the upper 0.9m.
 Leaves.
 They are produced alternately.

24
 Leaves of Assam varieties are wide, positioned horizontally or pointing slightly downwards and
pale green, they have a glossy upper surface and are bulleted i.e. there is a series of bulges on their
upper surfaces.
 The leaves of China – are narrower shorter and dark green. They point upwards and have a dull
flat surface.
 Stems.
 Assam – can grow upwards to form a single trunk to a height of 9m.
 China varieties produces many main stems even when pruned and do not exceed 4½m in height.
 Both varieties when pruned branch profusely and form a dense bush, a flat top or plucking table is
encouraged and should be pruned regularly to prevent it from growing out of reach of the
pluckers.
 Flowers.
 China varieties flowers prolifically.
 Assam produces large quantities of flowers if left unpruned.
 The flowers are white and sweet smelling and each produces a capsule which usually contains 3
seeds.  Seeds.
 Are usually spherical, brown and have a tough seed coat.

Ecology.
• Rainfall.
 Tea tolerates dry spell but gives continuous flush growth when there is adequate moisture
throughout the year.
 Minimum rainfall should be 1,000–1,400mm p.a and no upper limits because the higher it is, the
higher the yields. In long dry spells in the absence of irrigation flush growth ceases, the bushes
wilt and eventually defoliate. The rain should be evenly distributed.
• Altitude.
 1,500–2,200m above sea level. Flavour tends to be inferior in warmer areas.
 Within certain limits there is a negative linear relationship between the yields of tea and the
altitude at which it is grown.
 The lower limit is – 1,500m above sea level.
 The upper limit is – 2,250m above sea level.
 Below the lower limit:
• Poor quality tea.
• High temperature.

25
 • Preference by diseases.
 Research findings indicate that average annual production falls by 200kg net tea per hectare for
every rise by 100m in altitude. The fall is directly attributed to fall in air, leaf and soil temperature.
• Temperature.
 It should be a Minimum of 13°C–27°C but does well at temperature of 21–22°C above 35°C
growth ceases.
 Air temperature: In general temps below 13°C are likely to bring damage to the foliage and
temps greater than 30°C leading to cessation of active growth. Ideal temp. is 13°C–30°C.
 Leaf temperature: Research findings have found out that net photosynthesis of leaf rises steadily
with increase of leaf temperature up to 35°C and then decline sharply ceasing when leaf
temperature reaches 45°C.
 Soil temperature: The optimum soil temperature within the feeder roots is around 20–25°C.

• Soil.
 Requires deep well drained soils of up to 1.8m and at a pH of between 4–6 i.e. slightly acidic.
Outside this range, basic nutrients are rendered immobile, i.e. above pH 6, calcium restricts the
uptake of potassium and below pH 4, phosphorus is fixed (locked in). It should have good water
retaining capacity as the crop requires.
 Although tea may be grown in soils of diverse origin in Kenya, good tea soils are those of volcanic
origin – such as those found around Kericho, Kisii, slopes of Mt Kenya etc. These soils are well
drained, usually red brown or dark red in colour. In FAO – UNESCO classification system of soils
– Nitrosols are the predominant soil type for tea in Kenya. The soils should generally be deep,
well drained with a good water retaining capacity.
• Wind.
 Wind brakes are necessary to prevent high vapor transpiration and water stress the wind brakes
must be planted in straight lines and at right angles to the direction of the prevailing wind.
Hekea Saligna – planted in rows 60–75m a part and grows to a height of 6–7.5m

Varieties.
• Assam and China Varieties.
• Clones — TRI6/8 and BB 35 which are high yielding, adapted to wide ecological conditions
and produce good quality teas.

Tea Propagation.

26
 Tea is propagated vegetatively using cuttings. To obtain the best cuttings in large quantities, it is
good to prune mother bushes twice a year. The cut branches (cuttings) are wrapped in wet sacks
and taken to shelter near the nursery where they are immediately watered. They should always be
shaded. Only vigorous young shoots 5–7 months old should be used for making cuttings. When
making cuttings, the very soft tips and the lower harder parts should be discarded because if too
soft, they are likely to be damaged at planting. If too hard, they will grow poorly and produce
flowers which exhaust the food reserve in the stem and this may lead to death. Cuttings should
consist of a single leaf with a stem 3–4cm long below the leaf.
 Care to be taken when preparing cuttings.
 Cuttings should be wrapped in wet sacks and taken to a shade:
• The time from pruning mother bushes to the time of delivery to the shelter should be as short
as possible.
• The branches should not be exposed to direct sunlight.
• The branches should not be compressed as this will damage the leaves.
• When planting in the sleeves, it should be planted in a way that the leaves should not rest on
the soil surface and the bud should just be above the soil level. If the leaves touches the soil,
chances of fungal attack is too high.

Planting of the Seeds.

 Seeds can also be used: – they are collected from un-pruned trees daily and subjected to flotation
test and those which float after 24 hours are light and will die, and are discarded.
 They may be planted directly on the main field or in a nursery.
 Planting should not be done in very wet weather to prevent soil from puddling around the new
plants. Ideal conditions are when the soil is moist rather than wet. The weather should be cloudy.
At plant time the soil in the sleeves should not be dry so handle the sleeve carefully to avoid the
soil cracking. Make holes 15–20cm deeper than the length of the sleeves and double their
diameter.
 To reduce fungal attack to the young plants, apply fungicides in the planting holes mixed with SSP
(30g) and top soil. Slice the polythene tube with a sharp object while in the hole avoiding cutting
the roots and then eventually removing the polythene then completing refilling while the seedling
is in the middle. Tea is planted at spacing of 1.5m by 0.75m.

Step:

27
 The seeds are pre-germinated first by putting them in polythene sheets in the sun and sprayed with
water daily or laid on beds of rotting vegetation which provides heat to stimulate germination.
 The seeds are inspected daily and those with cracked seed coats or have a little roots are
transferred to a nursery bed where they are planted 25cm deep and at 15cm triangular spacing to
prevent the infection and transmission of soil borne diseases due to overcrowding. The nursery
should be cultivated to a depth of 0.75m to encourage health root development.
 Provide shade to prevent direct sunlight.
 They take between 6–12 months in the nursery and are ready for transplanting.
 In certain circumstance they remain in the nursery for up to 3years.They are controlled at a height
of 10cm from the ground to leave the stumps. These stumps are uprooted and transplanted in the
main fields. Seedlings should be discarded as being too short or thin or having too short or bent a
root. Advantage is that they take relatively shorter time in the field to attain maturity.

Vegetative propagation:
 Select mother plants with desired characteristics; good tea clones for establishment should the
following traits:
 Appearance of plucking table; bushes with high density of plucking table per unit area of
surface are selected because there is a correlation between density and yield.
 Bush structure; weak frames with poor spread and unhealthy foliage is discarded in favour of
strong spreading bushes with healthy foliage.
 Tendency to produce banjhi shoots and flower freely; bushes that become dormant
frequently are undesirable. Those that flower and seed freely at the expense of leaves are
always poor leave yielders hence discarded.
 Rate of recovery from pruning; clones with slow rate of recovery hence low yield per year.
 Quality of made tea; clones which are none or poor fermentors and produces poor quality of
fermented and should not be selected.
 Drought tolerance; those that can survive and still yield well are selected.
 Rooting ability of planting materials; mother plants which produce cuttings which fail or
give low rooting percentage under optimal conditions are discarded as it would be difficult to
establish them in the field.
 Overall yield throughout the year; clones with high overall yield in the year are selected. 
Resistance to pest and diseases.
 Then the identified mother plant is allowed to grow for about six months so that they can produce
long stem for cuttings. The cuttings should be taken during the coolest part of the day.

28
 Prunings (cut branches) are wrapped in wet sacks and taken to a nearby shelter (shade) where they
are watered immediately. They should be kept shaded at all stages thereafter. Cuttings are made
from young shoots (5-7 months old), which are vigorously growing. Discard (trim off) the very
soft tips (those that are smashed when pressed in between two open fingers and thumb) and the
very hard lower parts of branch where bark is forming.

Nursery soil.
 Site should be near suitable source of soil.
 Top soil should have a pH of 5.5 while subsoil should have a pH of 5. Cuttings will not root in soil
with a pH higher than 5.5. Test both topsoil and subsoil for pH if it is being used the first time.
 Avoid subsoil with a high clay content as it will have poor drainage.
 Rooting of cuttings is also hampered if the soil has a high organic matter content (humus).
 Cuttings should therefore be rooted in subsoil or in soil from below long established grass.
 After establishment roots should eventually get access to a more fertile soil.

Nursery fertiliser guidelines.

 Cuttings should be planted in a layer of subsoil about 7½cm deep, containing 600g/m³ rock
phosphate and 300–500g/m³ wood ashes (containing potassium) or in polythene sleeves containing
the same.
 Beneath this subsoil ("cap") or sleeve, enrich rooting medium by mixing with topsoil and
additional fertiliser similar to above application. On grassland soil and exhausted soil, the site
should be prepared with legumes 1 year ahead, e.g. with Crotalaria spp., Tephrosia candida that
are afterwards mulched and worked into the subsoil and above "cap" added on top before planting.
 Do not compact the surface of the lower rooting medium to ensure transitional layer between it
and the sub-soil "cap" or sleeve.
 Soil used in the nursery may be heated to 60°C for killing the infective juveniles of root knot
nematodes.

Sleeve Nurseries.
 They are easier to transfer to planting holes than uprooted plants. Size of sleeves depends on size
of plants required by the grower - larger plants need larger sleeves. Sleeves should be spot sealed
or stapled once in the middle of the bottom edge to help hold the soil and allow for drainage.
Excess water is drained by punching a few holes near the bottom edge.

29
 Fill sleeves with soil mixture described above, from which all roots, hard soil lumps and stones are
removed up to a height of 17½– 18cm.
 Pack soil firmly (not too hard) and let it be damp all the time, otherwise it will pour out of the
sleeve. If soil in the sleeve is allowed to dry, it becomes difficult to wet later.
 Make cuttings consisting of a single leaf with 3–4cm of stem below the leaf as shown on below
diagram. Make one cut just above the bud and sloping away from bud with a sharp knife. Make
second cut across the stem 3–4 cm below the bud and also a sloping cut.
 Place cuttings immediately in a container full of water and let soak for about 30 minutes before
planting. Place each cutting as in the drawing above making sure neither leaf nor bud is touching
the soil. The bud should be just above the soil surface.
 Do not touch the top or bottom (ends) of the cutting as the sweat from the fingers may affect
survival. Keep the cuttings moist during planting by regular light watering.
N.B: Strong water jets displace cuttings. Shade the cuttings by spreading a clear polythene sheet over
the nursery bed, forming a dome
shape and tacking it into the soil.

After planting care:

 All beds should be inspected at least once a week to check the following:
i. Whether the sleeves are
adequately watered. ii.
Whether there is weed
growth.

30
 A heavy condensation should be found on the under surface of the polythene sheeting (enough to
mar clear view). If there is only a little condensation, it means the soil in the sleeves is too dry or
sheeting is torn or seal is poor. Such faults should be corrected immediately. Remove weeds by
hand pulling and replace the shade. In hotter areas a more dense shade may be necessary.
 The fungus usually occurs in nurseries in warm areas especially where the soil remains wet for
long periods. This fungus attacks the stems of young seedlings near the soil surface. The bark of
the affected region becomes soft. The affected plant turns yellowish and unhealthy during rainy
seasons and will suddenly wilt in dry weather.
 During the dry weather, the soil around the polythene should be kept moist.

Hardening off:
 Hardening off should be done by reducing the shade gradually. The plant is ready for planting
after achieving a height of 20cm. It takes 6–10 months to attain this height.
 Plants grown under polythene sheeting and shade are soft and will be scorched to death if sheeting
is removed too quickly.
 Hardening off starts as soon as new shoots are 20cm (8") tall. During the first 4 weeks, the
polythene is gradually opened and raised on the side away from prevailing winds. First week open
polythene a bit every 3m and support by a stake. Second week the vents are doubled by making
similar vents every 1.5m.
 Soil in the sleeves should not be allowed to dry, so watering is done through the vents with a
hosepipe. Third week the whole sheeting is completely rolled upon the vent side, leaving only one
side of the bed covered and at the fourth week polythene is removed completely, washed
thoroughly and stored away from sun and rodents for later use.
 Two weeks after removal of polythene the shade frame is raised 30 cm (1 ft) on one side only and
supported by stakes. After this it is raised 30 cm every week for 3 weeks and then completely
removed. Plants must be watered as necessary and foliar feed applied
weekly until they are transplanted.
N.B: If the weather changes and gets suddenly dry and plants start scorching, hardening off should
be postponed or beds recovered.

Field establishment.
 Early seedbed preparation is important to give time for organic matter to rot.before transplanting,
proper land preparation is important and ring bark are important in controlling Armilleria disease.

31
 The stumps are then dug out 50cm deep. Also establish green manure plant one year before
establishing tea to;  Control soil erosion.
 Provide shade for young seedlings.
 Improve soil fertility.
 For weed control measures.
 Apply 20 ton/ha of manure. Spacing.
 The diameter of the hole should be 30cm wide and 45–60cm deep at a spacing of 1.5m × 0.7m or
1.2m × 0.9m.The hole are then refilled with a mixture of topsoil and 15–30g of Double Super
Phosphates or DAP.
 Transplanting should be done at the beginning of the rains to the crop a good start remove the soil
from the containers but leave the soil lump along the seedling without disturbing the roots. Place
the seedling in the hole upright and at the same depth it was in the sleeve.
N/B: The stem should not be below the soil because of water logging which could lead to soil borne
pests and diseases. The soil is then firmed and pressed around the base of the seedling.
 Depending on annual precipitation, the crop may take up to 3–4 years before 1st harvest. During
this period other crops can be interplant with tea like legumes.

Fertilizer application.
 After planting your seedlings will need fertilizer where there is on a well cared for seedling while
in nursery, they tend to have vigorous leafy growth therefore timing fertilization is very important.
The 1st application should be done 3months after transplanting, apply N.P.K.S 25;5;5;5 rate
50g/tree. This fertilizer should be put in a broad ring around each plant and should not touch the
stem of the plant because of scorching effect.
 In the 2nd year the total application should supply 120kg N/ha in splits of three applications i.e.
40kg N/ha .In the 3rd, 4th and 5th year whatever you are applying should be 150kg N/ha in splits
and one should be thinking of pruning or changing the cycle.
Note; Sulphur acidifies soil very fast and experiments have shown that it improves the rate of growth
of tea bushes.
 A foliar application of Zinc oxide, Zinc sulphate and copper sulphate is applied for leaf tissue
formation during the month of June when it is cool in estates.
• Nitrogen.
 Tea is a heavy feeder of Nitrogenous fertilizer as it induces a heavy and vigorous leaf which is the
economical part in tea.

32
 After transplanting, apply N at the rate of 20kg N per Ha and this rate is high for high yielding
varieties. This is applied during the long rains and amount applied in splits.
• Compound fertilizers; N-P-K-S 25:5:5:5 is applied, Sulphur element is to lower the PH of
the soil.
• Sulphate of ammonia used in place with history of former settlements to lower the PH.
• Murate of potassium applied after pruning to add potassium element.
• Copper is important because it makes up enzymes which assist in fermentation during
processing and should be applied as foliar spray or copper sulphate.
N.B; CAN is never applied because it restrict calcium uptake of potassium. Also mature tea does not
respond to phosphorous therefore not applied but used during planting only.

Crop Management.
 After planting, carry out frequent watering, mulching and shading, weeding, and fertilizer
application with nitrogen, potassium, and phosphate is recommended.
• Watering.
 Young tea should be irrigated during dry season but water logging should b avoided.
• Mulching.
 The area should be mulched adequately with green vegetative matter leaving 10 cm distance from
the collar of the plants uncovered.
 Mulch can be applied along the inter rows or as a ring around individual plant and must not touch
the stem because it leads to heat build-up which might kill the crop. Therefore it should be placed
between 15–20cm away from the stem and also minimize attack by insects like weevils and dusty
brown beetles. Another advantage of mulching is the release of nutrients during decomposition of
the mulch.
 Mature tea is mulched with its own prunings.
• Provision of Shade.
 Temporary shade for a few weeks using nurse crops e.g. oats
 Sowing of young plants such as Crotalaria spp and Tephrosia spp in the young tea plant fields
between alternate rows provides shade and generates mulching materials.
• Weed Control.
 Weed growth is most vigorous in young tea fields during April to October warranting adequate
control measures. The ground should be mulched heavily or sprayed with a pre-emergence
herbicide such as simazine or oxyfluofen. Hand weeding in rings of 15cm radius can also be done
around the collar of the plant.

33
 Weeding should be done mechanically through hand pulling because implements like jembe can
cause injuries and wounds that gives way to attack by fungus like Armilleria melea.
 Some chemical can be used to control troublesome weeds.  Drainage.
 Young tea fields should be adequately drained to avoid retention of excessive soil moisture and to
promote root development. The ground should remain leveled, without any ridges depressions to
prevent localized water logging.

Frame formation (Bringing young tea to bearing).

 Tea should be encouraged to grow laterally in order to provide permanent, wide frame for the
plucking table. Therefore any operation designed to form a permanent branch system, from the
time the plants are in the nursery to the time they are "tipped in" to form a plucking table in the
field is defined as 'bringing tea into bearing'.
 During the 1st two years of the tea plants’ life, in the field, it must be encouraged to grow laterally
in order to provide a permanent wide frame for the plucking table. The frame should be wide
enough to allow a continuous plucking table with no gaps within the bushes.

Methods:
– The lower parts of the bush will form the "permanent frame" which remains unchanged throughout
the life of the bush or until the bush is cut down or 'collar- pruned' to rejuvenate it. This frame must be
low, strong and have a good spread. In tea, a wide frame of branches is needed for the "plucking
table". The tea plant is cut back to 15 cm after being in the field for 12 months. When the new shoots
reach height of 60–75 cm they are trained using either of the two methods (when the reddish bark
starts to develop near the main stem).
• Formative pruning.
• Pegging.
a) Formative Pruning.
 It relies on repeated cutting back to restrict upward growth and to encourage lateral growth. When
sleeved cutting are used each usually produces one dominant stem. This should be cut back to
15cm above ground level when it reaches a height of 30–35cm. It encourages lateral shoots. They
are then cut back again when about pencil thickness (1cm thick) at a height of 30cm above ground
level. This procedure should be repeated when the next shoots reach a pencil thickness at a height
of 41cm above ground level. This pruning is done at an interval of 12months. Each clone varies in
their ability to branch i.e. some branch freely and some may need one or two prunings.

34
 Disadvantage is that it provides severe and repeated checks to the growth of the crop that plucking
cannot commence until 2½– 3years after planting.

b) Pegging.
 This is the most popular method in East Africa of achieving frame formation. First step is as in
formative pruning i.e. the stem of each plant is cut back to 15cm above the ground level when it
has reached a height of 30–35cm. This cutting will stimulate lateral branches on each plant and
they are pegged down when they are 50–65cm long, usually one peg per branch.
 Great care should be taken during pegging to ensure that branches radiate outwards from the stem
and points slightly upwards. If they are horizontal and slightly pointing downwards then most
buds will remain dormant. This is because some growth hormones will inhibit lateral growth and
encourage terminal growth. If they point steeply upwards, then you are likely to end up without a
low spreading stem (not achieved). If the branches are correctly positioned, then buds will break
along its length producing shoots which eventually form a wide spreading frame (plucking table).
 After pegging, the terminal leaf and bud of each branch is removed (nipping).

Advantages of pegging.
i. A wide healthy frame is produced quickly because the plants are not continually subjected to
severe check and pruning. Pegging bushes therefore come into bearing more quickly because
the plants are not continually subjected to checks as pruned bushes and a small crop can be
taken in the 2nd year after planting.
ii. Pegged bushes produce more than pruned bushes. It also produces more yields i.e. extra
1,100–2,200kg/ha of made tea in the first 3–5 years of crop life.

Methods of pegging.
a) Individual hooked peg method.
 Each branch is held down by a single peg measuring about 50cm long and pegged at an angle of
30–45°C. It requires a lot of pegs but can be made from wood or metal, then the tips are nipped. b)
Use of rings and pegs.
 A ring of 30cm in diameter made of thin sticks or thick wires which are placed on the branches
and then gently forced to bend downwards at an angle of 30–45°. Three pegs are then placed to
hold the ring in position. The tips of the shoots are then nipped off/tipping in to encourage growth
of more shoots. c) Parallel sticks or fitos and pegs.

35
 In this method, two parallel straight light fitos are placed on either side of a row of tea bushes. The
pegs are then used to hold the two fitos/sticks down. Light sticks about 45cm long are then placed
under the fitos or parallel stick to hold it in position. Plus any branches between the parallel stick

Plucking table formation.

 As soon as the frame has been formed, the new shoots are allowed to grow for about 3months after
which they are checked by a procedure known as “Tipping in”. It involves the removal of three
leaves and a bud from each shoot when the amount of growth has appeared above the desired
height of the plucking table.
 The height will depend on the method which you undertook when establishing frame formation
whether formative or pegging.
 When frames are formed by formative pruning, then the initial plucking table should be about
60cm above the ground.
 When formed by pegging, the frames tend to be lower and plucking table should be about 50cm
above the ground. This height allows sufficient depth of maintenance foliage i.e foliage below the
plucking table. If this is less than 20–25cm position is restricted and there are no enough
carbohydrates to maintain an adequate root reserve system. If more the plucking table becomes
unnecessarily high.
 Tipping is done by hand or by using knives with the help of wooden frames or Y-forked sticks to
give accurate guide on tipping height.
 Pruned plants are tipped at least three times at 2-3 weeks intervals while pegged plants are tipped
five times. After this, plucking can commences.

Plucking.
 It is the harvesting of the tips of the shoots as they appear above plucking table. They are
transferred to a basket on the pluckers back. During plucking, ensure that the leaves should not be
compressed in the basket nor must they be collected in one hand while plucking with the other;
both of these practices crush and rapture the leaf surface initiating fermentation.
 When delivered, the baskets are emptied, weighed and kept in a shade. Frequency of plucking.
 The length of time between one plucking operation and next depends on the following factors like;
Type of plucking, whether Fine or coarse plucking, Hard or light, or whether the bushes are in
flush growth or not. If hard plucking is practiced, as a general rule, the plucking round should be
5–7 days in the flush season but only 10 days in slacker times of the year. Fine or coarse
plucking.

36
 • Fine plucking involves removing 2 leaves and a bud. Produces good quality tea.
• Coarse plucking involves removal of more than two leaves and a bud. This is be done less
frequently because it takes longer for three leaves to grow above the plucking table thus not
practiced. If done should be 5–7 days in the flush seasons.

Hard and light plucking.

• Hard plucking involves breaking off the tips of the shoots at exactly the height of the plucking
table
Effects; Maintenance of foliage becomes gradually less productive and plucking table becomes
denuded of growing points with an accumulation of twigs.
• Light plucking is removal of two leaves and a bud after 3 leaves and bud appear above the
plucking table must not occur too often else plucking table would be out of reach and is usually
done 2–3 times a year.

Breaking back.
 It is carrying out fine plucking followed by breaking off and discarding the part of the shoot which
is still above the plucking table. This done when shoots with three or more leaves and a bud grow
above the plucking which occurs if tea is seldomly plucked. This practice is waste full and avoided
by short plucking rounds.

Banjhi shoots.
 After a shoot has produced several leaves it becomes dormant or banjhi. At this state; the bud is
very short compared to the bud in flush growth which is at least half the length of the top leaf and
the top leaf becomes hard. This occurs after the tips of shoots appear above the plucking table.
 When they appear above the plucking table they can be plucked and taken to the factory if the top
leaf is still soft (only one leaf and a bud), once they harden they are discarded.
 Sometimes, when soil or climatic conditions or both are unfavorable, whole bush go into banjhi
stage; at such times they should not be plucked until flush growth resumes.

Pruning.
 Once after 3–4 years and involves removal of all maintenance foliage and only the frame remains.
The pruning cycle varies from every 2 years in tropical lowlands to every 3–5 years at higher
altitudes. Pruning should preferably be done during a dormant period if there is one, e.g.
immediately following dry weather in East Africa.

37
Reason: - to prevent an excessive decline in yields.
-To keep the plucking table within reach of puckers.

Pruning height.
 If bushes were brought into bearing by formative pruning they should be pruned 3–4 years later at
50cm above ground level. Pegged plants are pruned 3–5 years later at 40cm, then next pruning
cycle at 50cm.
 The subsequent pruning for both should be 5cm above the previous one. After several pruning
which raises the plucking table by 5cm it is necessary to prune down to 45cm to prevent plucking
table growing out of reach.

Pests.
Yellow tea mite (Polyphagotarsonemus latus).
 Sporadic yield losses in the affected areas in Kenya are estimated to be about 50%. Growth of
young tea is reduced by mites by about 30%. It is a minute mite yellowish to whitish in colour and
cannot be seen with the naked eye.
Symptoms: Young leaves become distorted and curl inwards. Corky patches appear between the
main veins on the lower sides of the leaves. The plants are severely stunted in case of serious
infestations. Control:
1. Spraying of chemicals.
2. Use neem extracts in emergencies.
3. Till weeds early enough before the main harvest begins
4. Use resistant clones, if available. It has been observed that certain clones suffer more attack by red
spider mites than other during an outbreak of the mites. Thus, clone 7/9 is less suitable for red
spider mite development. Certain clones, like SFS 150 and 6/8, exhibit resistance to the red
crevice tea mite.
5. Provide good growing conditions, healthy plants are more likely to withstand mite attack.

Red crevice mites (Scarlet mites) – Previpalpus

phoenicis. Distribution.
 It occurs in all tea growing areas of Kenya.
 Serious attack occurs during dry period season especially in the East of Rift valley.
Status: This is a sporadic pest of tea that increases during drought period. Its outbreak is serious on
tea that is not properly fertilized.

38
 Symptoms.
• Brown curvy symptoms will develop on the underside of the leaves especially petioles and the
main veins.
• Later the leaves dry off and then fall prematurely.
• Occasionally the bushes may be heavily infected and the damage may be correspondingly
bigger.
• The pest size is 0.3mm long, bright red in colour & eggs are also bright red and can be seen in
the crevices or cracks.
– It is also a pest of coffee.
Control.
 Spray with Dicofol 18½% wp/litre of water at the rate of 2.7g/litre of
water (81.5% is carrier material).  After spraying allow at least one
week interval before plucking.

Red spider mites (Oliyonyches coffeae).

Distribution.
– It occurs in low number in most tea growing regions of Kenya.
Symptoms:
 The upper surface of mature leaves will darken and then turn brown and eventually become
scotched.
 The mite is about 0.5mm long and can be seen on the upper surface of the leaves.
 The front part of the body is red and the wind part is purple.
 White cast skins of the immature stages can be seen together with small reddish eggs which
are laid alongside the leaves veins.  The pest is found throughout Kenya especially on
unshaded tea.
 It also attacks coffee, gravellea and Castor.
Natural enemies: The lady bird beetles
Control: Spray with dicofol 18½% wp/litre of water at the rate of 2.7g/litre.
Other tea pests:
• Purple tea mites.
• Cyprus aphids.
• Common cut worms.

Diseases of Tea.

39
1. Armellaria Root Rot of tea (Armillaria mellea).
2. Hypoxylon Wood Rot of tea (Hypoxylon serpecs).
3. Branch and Collar Cankers (Phormopsistheae).

 Armillaria Root Rot.

 Caused by the fungus Armillaria mellea. The fungus is distributed countrywide.
 It is endemic in Kenya and it occurs in Kenyan forests as a saprophyte or a parasite or
the roots of trees.  The infection can nearly be traced to woody debris of stumps
present before planting. Infection.
 It occurs mainly in three ways;  Wind borne spores (not common).

Rhizo
morp
hs. 
Root
conta
ct.
 Occasionally, infection may occur on trees, dead stumps and wood materials infection
by rhizomorphs sometimes referred to as boot laces which consists of an outer layer
of dark brown to black mycelium and a core of white mycelium. These strands which
can openly be confused with roots can penetrate and grow to great length in the soil to
infect non-infected bushes. They may also penetrate non-wooden or wooden surfaces
and infection is more likely or weakens or less vigorous roots (never used enough
phosphatic fertilizer).
N/B: Formation of rhizomorphus under tropical condition is rare because they rarely
withstand high temperatures. The symptoms of infection.
1. Infected bushes show gradual reduction in growth making them shorter than the surrounding
healthy bushes.
2. They exhibit yellowing.
3. Pre-mature flowering.
4. Defoliation.
5. Eventually the bushes die.
6. At the base (collar region) there are some cracking of the back and there is characteristic
mycelium white growth under the bark.

40
 Prevention.
 The tree should be ring barked before they are cut down during land preparation for planting.
 The trees should not be felt until they are completely dead and starch reserves completely
exhausted.
 In case they are felt before the bark ringing (green) the stump and roots and debris should be
removed from the cleared area.
 Practicing field hygiene; during land preparation stumps, pieces of wood and roots of forest
trees must be removed from the soil. If Armillaria occurs in established tea, diseased trees
must be thoroughly removed so that they do not become a source of infection for the
neighbouring bushes.
 The period required elapsing between ring barking and felling of the tree varies with the tree
species, but it ranges from 18–24 months.

Control.
1. There is no effective chemical control.
2. If observed, uproot and burn all the infected bushes.
3. When planting, use healthy seedlings
4. Before planting, dig out the roots completely during land preparation to reduce the chances of
infection.

 Hypoxylon wood rots of tea.

 Causal agent is a fungus Hypoxylon serpens
 The disease cause wood rot of economic importance in tea in countries like Sri-lanka and India.
 It has been found to be in most tea growing areas in Kenya
 It also attacks a wide range of forest trees. The disease is presumably transmitted by spores
entering through pruning wounds or spores landing on sun scotched path of the host.
Symptoms.
 The outside of dead branches will carry a symptom of small black patches as of far had been
painted on the bark. These patches have irregular shape.
 The wounds inside the branches would be dead and they are very light in weight.
Prevention.
 Prevent sun scorching by shading exposed branches with pruning immediately after pruning.

41
  Once the disease is diagnosed, then the dead and drying branches must be selectively pruned
down to help you retain a healthy bush. This may mean heavy pruning but if not done it may
kill the entire bush.
 When pruning, the pruning cut should be sloping so that rain water will run off and give the
wound a chance to heal.
 After pruning the large cuts should be painted over with a wound dressing and also a paste of
50% copper oxy-chloride in raw linseed oil.

 Branch and collar crackers.

 Causal agent is Phormopsistheae fungus.
 It occurs in all tea growing areas of Kenya. Symptoms.
1. Some cankers and lesions will develop on the stem at the collar region of the base of the branches.
2. The lesions are heavily callused.
3. The branches will turn yellow and the bushes may die. Its spread rapidly when plants are
subjected to moisture stress hence drought is the most important factor which influence disease
incidence.
4. The fungus enters through the bark and again eats its way through the bark and these causes
lesions that cause some bark depression accompanied by callusing or swelling above the wounds
similar to those of ring barked tree.
 These affect the transportation of manufactured food below the injury point resulting in the death of
branches.
Predisposing factors of branch and collar crackers
1. Injury during pruning.
2. Injury during weeding.
3. Injury due to pegging. Control.
 Prune off badly infected branches at least 10cm below the wound.
 Burn the punning and treat pruning cuts with a fungicide. Prevention.
• Minimizing injury to the young plants.
• Ensure water conservation method such as mulching so that you can conserve moisture.

Processing:
 Is a fermentation process converting either to go to completion or left halfway or none at all takes
place.
 This results to three classes of tea namely:

42
 a) Green tea: Involve suppression of fermentation by using hot steam which stops enzymatic
activities for fermentation. The leaves are then dried to retain its colour and exported to Asian
countries.
b) Halfway (0'0 long) tea – where fermentation condition are provided halfway then stopped.
Hot air is used and the product is brown green in colour. The brown colour is due to half
fermentation and green colour because it is not exposed. They are mainly exported to china.
c) Black tea- is the tea in which fermentation goes through to competition and it takes the
following steps.
Steps.
i. Withering stage – fresh leaves with 70–80% moisture content are subjected to warm air
(30°C) for 10–12 hours to reduce to 60% moisture content and the leaves wither.
ii. Rolling stage – Fresh leaves are cut into small pieces to destroy the cell membranes and this
ensures enzymatic catalytic activity which initiates fermentation.
iii. Fermentation – the leaves are then placed in trays of suitable containers at a temp of 25 oc at a
R.H. of 90%.They are left under this condition until they turn brown either completely or
almost.
iv. Drying – done to stop fermentation and is achieved by passing hot air over the leaves.
v. Sorting is done then grade them to various classes based on the fibre contents and sizes of the
grains.
vi. Packing is done by KETEPA and other marketing agencies.

Constrains limiting tea

production in Kenya 1)
Low prices and delayed
payments.
2) Changes of climatic conditions in tea growing areas hence unfavourable for its growing
leading to low yields.
3) Incidence of pests and diseases.
4) Lack of market information due to poor market research and training. 5) High labour
cost.
6) Lack of extension service or farmer education; a gap exist between researchers or
research work, extension officer and farmer. 7) Limited factory processing capacity.
8) Lack of modern technology e.g. motorized plucking machine.

43
9) Poor infrastructure; poor roads in buying centres and this leads to reduction in leaf efficiency
transport.
10) Lack of electricity in the production areas.
11) Low yields due to changes in soil pH due to continuous use of inorganic fertilizers leads to
high soil pH.
12) Poor land tenure; ownership, land subdivision and government regulations (policies).
13) Lack of government credit as most government credit facilities are non-functional.

CASHEW NUT – Anarcadium occidentale.

44
 Cashew is a member of the family Anacardiaceae, a native of the Tropical, Central and South
America, but now distributed all over the tropics and part of the warm sub tropics. Its origin is
North Brazil from where it has spread throughout Mexico and West Indies.

World Producers
 The leading world producer is India and in Africa, Tanzania and Mozambique are the leading.
Other producers include; Brazil, Columbia, Cuba, Costa Rica, Guatemala, Peru, Venezuela,
Angola, Benin, Madagascar, Mozambique, Nigeria, South Africa, Tanzania, Uganda, Kenya,
Indonesia, Malaysia, Sri-Lanka.

Importance /uses of Cashew

Leaves
1. Leaves contain about 23% tannin which is used in tanning for dyeing fishing nets.
2. Young leaves are used to prevent diarrhoea and as tooth powder to relieve toothache.
3. Older leaves form a good mulch and decompose to give manure.
Bark:
4. Contains high percentage of tannin which is used for tanning or coloring purposes.
5. The sap is used to manufacture indelible ink for marking.
Stem:
6. The fleshy stem is used as a beverage and also to manufacture a type of varnish.
Wood:
7. The reddish brown wood is used for building houses, fencing poles; building boats. It can also be
used to burn charcoal. Cashew Apple.
8. It is a fleshy juicy aromatic sugary and edible mass which is eaten fresh. Has high content of
vitamin C. The vitamins are 5 times that of citrus fruits. The juice is used as a drink either pure or
mixed with water; various products are made from the apple – fruit juice, syrup pickles jam jelly,
chutney wine vinegar. Cashew Kernel.
9. Has a mild and pleasant taste used as an ideal appetizing snack.
10. The kernel is widely used in the confectionary industry for flavoring in cakes. It is used as a
dessert in the manufacture of nut chocolates.
11. Cashew kernel oil obtained by cold pressure extraction. It is used in treatment of worms, ulcers,
leprosy etc.

45
12. Cashew nut shell liquid (CNSL) consists of two highly reactive phenolic compounds. Namely;
anarcadic acid (90%) and cardol (10%). The two are used in a number of industrial products such
as paints, plastics, brake linings etc.

Plant Characteristics.
i. It is an evergreen perennial that grows vigorously to height of 7–14m tall.
ii. It spreads widely; old trees have a canopy with a diameter of about 12m. iii. Roots grow
deep and spread considerably as far as twice the canopy diameter. iv. The inflorescence is
panicle-like and consists of many small pinkish flowers in which 14% are hermaphrodite and the
rest male.
v. The crop is mainly cross-pollinated; insects being the most important agents of pollination
although wind may play a part. From flowering to nut formation take a period of 55–70 days.
vi. The nuts hang on the fleshy cashew apple from which sometimes juice is sucked from it or
can be fermented to make an alcoholic drink.

Ecological Requirements.
1. Rainfall and Water Requirements
 It is a drought tolerant crop because of its great horizontal growth of roots.
 Yields well in areas of only 750–900mm per annum.
 Requires dry weather during peak flowering period for good yields.
 High rains during flowering cause high incidences of fungal infections. Hailstorms may also cause
physical harm to the developing flowers.
 Harvesting period should be dry least the nuts become undesirably brown or black or rot.
2. Altitude and Temperature.
 Grows well from 0–750m above sea level. Crop performs poorly at high altitude giving low yields
due to few flowers because of low temperatures.
3. Soil Requirements.
 Requires free draining soils. Can do well even in infertile soils of varying pH.

Varieties
 There is a lot of research potential into high yielding varieties due to the crops’ cross
pollination nature. Varieties include:-  A100 – high yielding.
• A75/83 – larger nuts but gives low yields.
• A82 and A83

46
 Propagation and Field Establishment.
1. Seed selection.
 Seeds are selected from healthy and high yielding trees.
 Before planting, sort out seeds by water density method as follows:
• The seeds are subjected to the floatation test to eliminate the poor ones.
• The seed are placed in water and only those that sink are reliable and viable.
• Additional selection for tender seeds which tend to be more vigorous, can be done by planting
only those seeds which sink when placed in either a solution of sugar (150g in 1 litre of water)
or a solution of salt (100gms in 1litre of water). Those that float are rejected. If used, they give
poor germination, weak plants and lower yields in the initial 3years of bearing.
 Sun dry seeds for planting for several weeks to prevent mould and rotting.  Do not plant
seeds that are more than one year old.

2. Planting.
 Cashew nuts are directly planted in the field. Occasionally nursery establishment can be done.
 Direct planting in the field.
 Holes are made which are 30cm wide and 5–7.5cm deep.
 Three seeds are planted per hole in a triangular position to achieve maximum germination.
Germination occurs in 2–4 weeks. Thinning is done 1 year after planting to leave only one plant
per hole. The most healthy and vigorous is chosen to remain. Planting should be done at the
beginning of rains.
 This method has the advantage that less labour is needed, but there is higher risk of death during
dry season and also a higher risk of early diseases.

 Raising seedlings in polybags in the nursery.

 Seedlings raised in polybags should be transported 6 weeks after sowing in order to avoid damage
to the tap roots Advantages: • It is easier to water the seedlings properly, which is particularly
important in the dry season.
• It is possible to select the strongest and
healthiest plants for transplanting.
Disadvantages: • More labour is required.
• It is expensive.
3. Spacing.

47
 Cashew is established at spacing of 6m × 6m or 7.5m × 7.5m. Thinning is done at the age of 7
years to spacing of 12m x 12m or 15m × 15m to reduce competition as the trees grow.
 If planted at spacing of 12m × 12m or 15m × 15m, there is no thinning later but initially, yields are
lower which is compensated by growing other crops in between. It also saves on the expensive
operation of thinning.
N/B: Many farmers do not follow the specifications of spacing and plant cashew randomly in
coconuts, mango trees, cassava or bananas.

Field Maintenance.
 Has less field operations compared with other perennial crops. Has no need of addition of
fertilizers or manures; satisfactory yields can still be achieved. Pruning is done on the lower
branches to allow sufficient space for weeding and collection of fallen nuts. 1) Weeding; Weeding
is crucial done by:-  Slashing.
• In later years, weeds can be grazed by cattle.
• In the early years up to 3 years ring cultivation can be done.
N/B: Weeds hide fallen nuts and can be a fire hazard if tall grass catches fire; the trees can be injured.
2) Thinning:-Thinning is done if trees are closely spaced to achieve spacing close to 15m x 15m.
Early thinning is recommended up to 7 years. It is a very labour demanding exercise uprooting older
trees.

Harvesting.
 Trees normally bear fruits when they are 2.5–3years old. They reach maturity after 9–10years and
may have an economic lifespan of 30–40years if well cared for.
 Nuts are collected from the ground after they have fallen. This ensures that no unripe nuts are
harvested. Delay on the ground will lead to colour changes (discoloration) which is undesirable.
Colour change from grayish blue to brown then nuts rot.
 In wet weather, the nuts should be collected daily because rotting is very fast. Discoloured nuts are
rejected or may fetch half price of the quality nuts.
 Nuts fall down with the apple still attached. The two are separated by twisting during collection. A
small piece of apple which remains still attached must be removed using a knife immediately.
 The nuts are then sun dried for a few days till one can hear the rattling of kernels inside the nuts if
shaken.

Yields.

48
 Yields start at third year but full production is realized 8–10 yrs after planting; Up to 590kg/ha has
been realized.

Processing.
 This simply means the removal of the kernels from the nuts. In processing, the major operation is
roasting and shelling. The aim of roasting is to reduce a substance called C.N.S.L. This liquid is
formed in the mesocarp of the nut and has two undesirable effects.  Blisters the skin during
shelling.
 Contaminates the kernels if precautions are not taken.
 Roasting therefore gets rid of most of C.N.S.L. and makes the shell sufficiently brittle for ease of
cracking. Because the C.N.S.L, is also useful (see uses). It should not be lost altogether. Therefore
roasting is done in an oil bath of C.N.S.L. so that there will be movement of liquid (C.N.S.L.)
from the mesocarp to the liquid in the bath. Process used in Kilifi factory. The conditioned nuts
are placed in wire baskets and immersed in a tank containing heated C.N.S.L. maintained at a
constant temp. of 200°C for about 1.5 hours. The temperatures are maintained by burning cashew
shells in a furnace under the oil bath. The bottom of the tank is made of stainless steel to withstand
the action of the hot C.N.S.L. Advantages of hot bath method.
I. Achieve much more uniform roasting.
II. Achieve higher yields of white whole kernels and without burning of kernels than other methods
(open pan, drum etc).

Grading Cashew Nuts.

 Cashew nuts are graded into two categories:
1. FAQ (Fair Average Quality): – Normally about 75%. These are healthy nuts with pinkish–
greyish colour with no shrinkage or distortion.
2. UG (Under Grade): – Normally about 25%. Nuts which may have some blackish colour,
distortion or shrinkage but not rotten.  After grading, they are then exported.

Diseases.
 Diseases of seedlings: damping off, seedling blight, seedling root rot.
 Others; -Anthracnose, Powdery mildew, Leaf spots, Die back or pink disease.

1. Damping off.

49
  Affects seedlings in the nursery especially where drainage conditions are very poor; it is caused by
the fungus Phytophtora palmivora. Symptoms.
 The disease affects the collar region which appears swollen and also the root zone of tender
seedlings. The seedlings also turn pale and show water soaked spots around the tender stems. The
seedlings then coalesce and eventually rot. In severe cases, leaves also exhibit water soaked
lesions.
Control measures.
 Provide adequate
drainage in the nursery beds. 
Spray with a fungicide.

2. Anthracnose: – Colletotrichum gloeosporioides.

 This is one of the most wide spread and serious disease of cashew nut that attacks young plant
tissues.
Symptoms:
1) Early symptoms consist of reddish brown shiny water soaked lesions.
2) Affected inflorescences have a blackening of the peduncles.
3) Affected flowers also turn black, wither and fall off.
4) Tender leaves when affected, show tiny necrotic patches at the edges and tip.
5) Nuts and apples become shriveled, and may decay or dry out. 6) The nuts show small
necrotic spots while apples turn black.
Spread:- The disease develops under warm and humid/damp conditions. It becomes virulent
when heavy rainfall coincides with the flowering season of cashew. Control measures:
1. Regular plant sanitation and planting of wind breaks.
2. Prune dead branches and twigs and remove from the field. They constitute the principle source of
infection.
3. Though pesticide application on cashew nut is not practiced in East Africa, copper based
fungicides are known to be effective against anthracnose//Spraying with a fungicide Dethane
M45, Ridomyl, use Bordeaux mixture, ferrous sulphate
 Infection of this fungus is usually preceded by infestation of Halopeltis hence control of the bug is
recommended i.e. use of Malathion, dimethoate etc.

3. Die back or pink disease.

50
– Caused by the fungus Corticium
salmonicolor Symptoms:
1) Affected branches and shoots show whitish or pinkish growth of the fungus.
In advanced stages the bark splits and peels.
2) The affected shoots start drying up from tip downwards and hence the name
‘die back’. 3) On the affected branches, leaves turn yellow and fall off.
Control
 Pruning the affected branches and burning them. The cut surface should
be protected with Bordeaux mixture.  Spraying with a fungicide Bordeaux
mixture 1%.

4) Powdery Mildew:- The disease is caused by a fungus Oidium anacardii. Powdery mildew is often
found to occur along with Anthracnose, however the disease is considered minor.
Symptoms: - Whitish fungus growth which covers young twigs and inflorescence. It is found
during cloudy days. Leaves, shoots and inflorescence are often infected and in severe cases, the
leaves become shriveled and dry. Control: - Dusting with sulphur 2% (w.p). Other fungicides
e.g. dinocarp 0.15%, milraz etc.

Insect Pests.
Halopeltis bugs: - Two species Halopelti anarcardii and H. Schoudeteni – cause damage by sucking
sap from leaves, young shoots and inflorescence.
Symptoms:- Attacked parts show long black lesions and can dieback. Re-growth from attacked lateral
buds can give a “witches broom effect” (fan shaped).
There is also internal browning of a considerable distance down the shoot.
Control:- Chemical control with pesticide e.g. dimethoate, malathion etc. Spraying may only be
necessary if extensive attack is seen. Other insect pests include; Leaf miners, thrips and mites which
are troublesome on young trees.
SISAL – Agave
sisalana. Introduction
 Sisal leaves provide the world’s most important hard fibres i.e. they are so coarse and can be made
into twines, rope, sacks and mats Major world producers
 Mexico which is the origin of sisal.
• Brazil. • Tanzania. • Angola. • Kenya. • Cuba. • Haiti. •
Mozambique. • Venezuela.

51
• Uganda. • South Africa. • Madagascar.

SISAL IN KENYA
 It was introduced in Kenya by the Department of Agriculture in 1903 when plants were obtained
from Tanzania and other plants (1,500) came from West Indies in 1904. Sisal is mainly grown on
estates with majority being situated in the Coast province. Other areas outside Coast are around
Muhoroni, Nakuru, Baringo, Laikipia etc.

Uses of sisal.
1. Sisal fibres are used for the making of carpets and rugs, twine for use in baling.
2. Making sacks (gunny bags).
3. Making ropes.
4. Making brushes used in machinery.
5. Making sisal pulp.
6. Sisal gloves and bathroom accessories.
7. Construction and gypsum for interiors.
8. The plants are used in boundaries and hedge rows in small scale production.

Plant
characterist
ics. Roots.
 Sisal is a monocotyledonous plant hence; it has a spreading fibrous root system.
 Sisal roots rarely spread deeper than 0.6m. Most roots are found in the top 0.3m (30cm). 
The roots can extend horizontally for a distance of 1½ up to 3m, some up to 5m.

Suckers.
 They grow from rhizomes which are produced from the base of the stem
 The suckers could be up to 2.5cm thick. Many suckers emerge near the parent plant. Though
others may emerge as far away as 1.8m. Sucker production begins about one year after planting

The bole (stem).

 A hard, woody structure which reaches a width of 20cm at 2 years after planting.
 At maturity, the stem reaches a height of 1.2m.
 The bole appears to be thicker than 20cm owing to the presence of the basal end of the cut leaves.
The growing point is situated at the top of the bole.

52
 Healthy plants have wide boles and wide long leaves while unhealthy ones have thinner boles
narrow short leaves that are produced after a long interval.

Leaves.
 Sisal has a productive life of 9–12 years. During its 7–12 years, a sisal plant should produce 200–
250 leaves.
 Leaves are unrolled from the central vertical spike at the rate of 2–3 per month.
 If allowed to remain on the plant and grow older, they adopt a more horizontal position.
 Sisal leaves can reach a length of 1.8m. But 1.2m is more common in mature plants.
 The shortest leaves which can be produced are 0.6m
 Each mature leaf contain about 1,100 creamy white fibres which run the whole length of the blade.

The pole.
 Name given to inflorescence; The period from planting to poling varies from 7–12 years
especially for A. sisalana. This depends largely on climatic conditions and soil type.
 However the most common cycle is 10–11 years.
 Poles grow rapidly and reach a height of 6m. Many horizontal branches, with flowers at the end of
each, are produced at the top of the poles.

Bulbils.
 Bulbils are miniature sisal plants which are borne on the inflorescence.
 One pole may produce as many as 3,000 bulbils. Each bulbils is a plantlet having 6–8 reduced
leaves plus a rudimentary root system already developed from the base of lower leaves.
 It takes 2–3 months from appearing to maturity – depending on the weather.
 When mature, bulbils either fall off or may easily be shaken off the pole.
 Bulbils make excellent planting materials because:
a). They are easier to collect than sucker.
b). Give more uniform growth.

Ecological requirements.
Rainfall.
 Sisal is a drought tolerant plant.
 It can grow with 600mm p.a of rainfall.
 Optimum range is 1,200–1,500mm p.a which is well distributed.

53
 Problems associated with higher rainfall
i. Transportation problems in muddy conditions.
ii. High weed growth.
iii. Lower percentage of fibre in the leaves, though this is offset by the size of individual and the
number of leaves reaching harvesting stage at a given time.
iv. May lead to waterlogged conditions which lead to stunted growth due to death of roots.

Altitude and temperature.

 Grown commercially from sea level up to 1,800M above sea level.
 A hot climate with adequate rainfall is ideal for sisal.
 Maximum temperature of 27°C–32°C.
 Minimum temperature should not fall below 16°C.
 Lower temperature (cold) restrict meristematic activity causing the leaves to have a thick flesh
hence reduced fibre percentage.

Soils.
 Medium loam soils of reasonable fertility are preferred.
 Soils should not be too acidic, salinity and water logging are fatal to sisal.
 Does poorly in poorly drained soils which leads to pale looking and stunted sisal plant.  On
heavy clay soils, plant ditches must be dug to load off as much water as possible.

Varieties.
a) All Kenyan sisal is of Agave sisalana variety.
Others
b) Agave four croydes (mainly in Mexico): Has bluish grey leaves with strong spiny
margins and stout tip spines. c) Agave cantala (philipines and Indonesia).
Have narrow bluish green leaves with needle-like terminal spines.
The leaf margins have sharp spines that curve upwards. It produces more leaves than A.
sisalana but of low yields since they are smaller and shorter.
d) A. amaniensis (origin not clear but small quantities are in Mexico). It has powder blue leaves.
The leaves tend to have longitudinal furrows. Margins of leaves are smooth, has more fibres
per leaf than in A. sisalana.

54
 e) Hybrid 11648: Only suitable for low altitudes. At high altitude, leaves are very short and
poling occurs as early as 3years after planting. Hybrid 11648 is also more susceptible to zebra
disease and sisal weevil compared to A. sisalana.

CHOICE OF PLANTING MATERIALS.

 Two types of materials are used;  Bulbils.
 Suckers.
 Both are vegetative materials and hence should possess same genetic constitution in normal
practice, bulbils are favoured as planting materials.
 They have the following advantages over suckers:
i. They give a more uniform field.
ii. Easier to collect while suckers require more labour. iii. Not bulky.
iv. More robust and vigorous due to more leaves from the beginning.

Nursery Establishment.
 Sometimes two nurseries are raised;  Primary nursery.  Main nursery.
 The aim is to reduce chances of transplanting undesirable plantlets into the field.
 Primary nursery is used before the main nursery; bulbils are spaced very closely in a square
formation of 7.5cm by 7.5cm  Sisal waste should be used as a mulch/manure in primary
nursery.
 The main advantage of primary nurseries is that weak and undesirable plants are discarded.
 Plants of uniform size are chosen to be transplanted to the main nursery hence increasing
uniformity in the field.
 The other advantage is that the primary nursery is small and thus easily managed.
 Bulbils stay in the primary nursery for 3 months before being transferred to the nursery

Main nursery.
 A fairly fine tilth is required. The bulbils are planted shallowly (1½cm deep).
 Spacing is 50cm by 25cm.
 Top dress at 34kg/ha only if plants appear pale, phosphate need not be used if sisal waste has been
used.

Weed control.
 Proper land tillage is necessary to control the weeds.

55
 Herbicides used 2-4D, simazine (soil applied).
 Use of black 150-gauge polythene spread over the entire nursery area and holes punched for the
bulbils. It has been found that the size of plantlets raised this way is 30% heavier than otherwise.

Duration in the nursery.

 18 months in the main nursery at the time are about 50–70cm tall and weight is 3kg.

Field
establishm
ent. Land
preparatio
n.
 Heavy machinery is normally used especially in preparing land that has had sisal before. 
The other important activity is the removal of the old sisal stems (boles)  This is the most
expensive activity in sisal production.

Procedure of removing of old sisal stems from an old field

 Poles are removed first (normally dry and strong and can be used as building post).
 The destruction of boles which can weigh up to 45–90kg and 1.2m high, is a major problem in
land preparation.
 In estates, bulldozers have been used, but this brought a problem of piling up of topsoil and boles
in heaps hence exposing parts of the field to subsoil which is infertile.
 Rome plough (heavy disc plough) have now been introduced though bulldozers are still used in
some places but with skilled operators.
 For small fields, human labour can be used to uproot or de-stump. The boles are collected together
and burned after 2-3 weeks.

Spacing.
 In choosing a particular spacing, two important factors are considered: a) Yields.
b) Ease of management and operations in the field.
 High plant densities lead to high fibre yields (though to a limit).
 But this could lead to weeding and harvesting problems if spacing is too close.

56
 The following should therefore be noted; Avoid too close spacing that can increase plant
competition. Close spacing makes the fields unmanageable i.e. difficulties in harvesting, weeding,
loading/transportation.

Double row spacing.

 1m × 1m and 3½–4m between the double rows. This spacing allows for ample space for the
workers to operate - weed harvest and load, also incase tractor use is required then this spacing is
ideal.
 Most popular and recommended spacing.
Problems associated with double row spacing.
a) The cutter is affected by spines of the sisal row which he is cutting and the other row of the
double row.
b) One has to stretch his hand around the plant in order to reach the least accessible leaves on the
innermost side of the bole. These leaves may be left uncut if strict supervision is not done.

Single row spacing.

2m by 1m
– Leads to the following problems:
a. Does not allow enough space for bundling and carrying leaves.
b. Weeding becomes a problem in later years.
c. Encourages heavy cutting to allow for easy passage of workers.
d. Narrow spacing mean a field can only be accessible after cutting, this might only be once
annually hence in between the field become very weedy and bushy.
e. Mechanized operation are not possible.

Preparation of Planting Materials.

a) Nursery plant are lifted with aid of a jembe – dig out
b) Care should be taken not to injure the bole. Any injuries to roots and lower leaves is not a
serious problem.
c) The fibrous root should be chopped off close to the base of plant without injuring the bole.
d) The lowest leaves should be pulled off not by cutting, cutting increases the possibility of bole
rot.
e) The plants are then sorted out so that those of closely equal size are planted.

57
 Intecropping.
 In the first 2–3 years, other crops can be planted between the double rows e.g. Beans, pigeon peas,
cotton, simsim. These crops should be regions by the time the sisal roots reach there

Planting.
 Holes can be dug using normal jembe 7cm deep.
 Once the plant is placed in the soil around should be firmed.

Fertilizers.
Phosphorus: – Sisal plant rarely give significant response to P2O5. However soils that are deficient
should be fertilized at the rate of 100kg P2O5 / ha placed in the planting holes.
Nitrogen: – To be applied in soils that is limited in N some 75kg N/ha will be required. Applied as top
dress
Potassium: – Deficiency causes banding disease with the following symptoms: Yellow pin head dots
on the underside of the leaf at the neck (narrowest) part of the leaf near its base. The dots eventually
coalesce to form a weak band of necrotic tissue

PREVENTION: – Application of Muriate of potash at the rate of 400kg/ha in 5 splits and place on
the soil along the lines of sisal.

Sisal Waste.
 Well rotten waste occasionally used on young sisal has the following benefits a) Mulch.
b) Manure.
N/B: Use of sisal waste is not common because of its bulkiness in transportation.

Weed competition.
 In the first few years sisal is very susceptible to weed competition.
 Poor weed control lead to:
a) Stunted growth which the plant may never recover from.
b) Delayed first cut. The serious weed problems are caused by perennial weeds.

Control.
1. Thorough cultivation during land preparation.
2. Hand weeding – Before the first cutting, there can be as many as 10 weeding per year.

58
3. Later years; weeding is restricted to one per annum, done immediately after cutting. The sisal at
this stage is able to compete for light (taller, more leaves).
 Moisture and nutrients (more roots and better spread).
 All hand weeding be shallow and fork jembe used to limit injury.

Tractor Cultivation.
 Used in large estates.
 Has an adverse effect — more injuries to roots.
Slashing.
• By hand in small farms.
• By tractor drawn rotary cultivators (large farms).
 Slashing is more effective for annual weeds.

Herbicides.
I. Can be used in place of mechanical control.
II. Also where human labour is limiting and more costly compared to herbicides.
III. Chemicals include: Simazine, Diuron 2-4D

HARVESTING (CUTTING).
 Sisal has a life span of 8–10 years.
 It is a labour intensive operation. Done once annually on all leaves growing at < 45cm from the
central spine .
 One labourer can cut about 1ton of leaves in a day.
 The spine is first removed and then the leaf is cut near the base, then grouped into bundles.
 The cut leaves must be transported to the factory within 24 hours, delay would lead to
deterioration in which the flesh adhere to the fibre making decortications difficult. Hot sunny days
worsen the situation.
 If possible cutting and bundling (30 leaves ~ 1 bundle) should be done in the morning or evening.
There are 3 factors to consider in cutting.
1. Time of first cut.
 If first cutting is too early, the leaves will be too small and most of them may not have reached the
required length > 60cm long. There can be severe setback in growth from which the plant may
take long to recover.

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 If the first cut is too late, some of the lower leaves (harvestable) may wither and hence go to
waste.
Guideline on when to cut: When lower leaves of 60cm long touch the ground or wither at this stage,
the likely number of leaves will be 120.
N.B: Length of time until first cutting depends on:
• Size of planting material.
• Weather.
 It ranges from 1½–4 years but generally, the first cut yield less fibre compared to subsequent cuts
because most leaves will be short and thus more leaves are needed to yield a ton of fibre (i.e.
100,000 compared to 50,000 in subsequent cuts).

2. Severity of cutting.
 Removal of too many leaves leads to reduced photosynthetic area hence recovery is slow.
 25 leaves should be left after 1st cut but in the subsequent cuts only 20 leaves should be left.
 Counting the remaining leaves is not practical, so the rule is to cut all leaves below those pointing
at <45.

3. Frequency of cutting.
 Very frequent cuts is a waste of labour and likely to lead severe cutting and inclusive of immature
leaves.  Excessive long cutting interval can also be wasteful due to withered lower leaves.
• A cutting interval of 1 year is recommended.
• In the sisal cycle 5–10 cuttings are possible.

Decortication.
 It is the process by which fleshy tissue is removed or separated from fibre.  The machines used
is Automatic Decorticators. Principles:
 Leaves are passed through the decorticator by a conveyor belt system of ropes which grip the ends
of the leaves.
 The leaves are then fed into machine at right angles to the line of flow. Human labour is used to
ensure an even flow.
 Each decorticator has 2 sides, one does one half of the leaf while the other does remaining half. 
A lot of water is required to wash the fibre and also carry away the waste.

Drying.

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 From the decorticator, the fibre is spread on wires to dry.
• Lines of three parallel wires are used. The central one being slightly higher to prevent
backward twist.
• Fibre should be dried to a moisture content of 10% as quickly as possible. In good weather
and fibre thinly spread on wire, this can be achieved in 4 hours. If the fibre is left on the
drying lines for more than 24 hours, the fibre becomes slightly yellow colour instead of
creamy white. If left for as long as 3 days, a great amount becomes severely discoloured.

Brushing.
 It is done before baling to remove pieces of flesh still adhering to the fibre after decortication.
 Brushing also frees the individual fibres which are called tow. Tow is saleable fibre though of low
price than line fibre.

Baling.
 Sisal fibre is finally baled under great pressure, it is important to achieve a very high density (as
high as 1.7m³/ton) since the shipment charges are per volume and not weight.
 Each bale measures approximately 1.2 by 0.6 by 0.6m and each weighs about ¼ ton.

GRADES.
 Sisal is graded according to its length and colour. A simple description of the six grades of line
fibre is as follows:
Grade 1.
 Length is from 0.9m upwards.
 Free of defective decortication.
 Properly brushed.
 Free of tow, bunchy ends and knots.
 Creamy - white to cream colour.

Grade A
 Length 0.9m upwards.
 Free of defective decortication.
 Properly brushed
 Free of tow, bunchy ends knots.
 Yellowish colour.

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 Slightly spotted or slightly discoloured.

Grade 2
• Length from 0.75–0.9m.
• Free of defective decortication.
• Properly brushed.
• Free of tow, bunchy ends knots.
• Colour – cream-white to cream.

Grade 3L (3 LONG).
 Length from 0.9m upwards.
 Brushed fibre with minor defects in cleaning.
 Free from tow knots, bark on decorticated fibre.
 Colour may vary from creamy – white to yellowish but a high proportion of spotted or discolored
fibre is permissible than for grade A above.

GRADE 3.
 Length from 0.6–0.9m
 Brushed fibre with minor defects in cleaning permissible. But must be free of tow, nots back or
decorticated fibre.
 Colour may vary from creamy white yellowish but a higher proportion of spotted or discolored
fibre is permissible than for grade 3L.

GRADE U.G (under grade).

 Length ≥0.6m.
 Fibre that does not conform to any of the above grades as regards color. Though defects in
cleaning are allowable and some imperfectly decorticated fibre or barky runners are permissible, it
must be free from undecorticated leaf and knots.

S.C.W.F (Short, clean, white fibre).

 Length from 0.45cm (18’’) upwards.  Free from defective decortications.
 Properly brushed.
 Free of tow, bunchy ends knots.
 Colour – creamy-white to cream.

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 INSECTS, PESTS AND DISEASES.
 A. sisalana is affected by very few pests and diseases of economic importance.

PESTS (scales and weevils)

Sisal weevil –
Scyphophorus interstitialis
 It is the most important
of all sisal pests.
 Occurs at altitudes below 1,400m
 Does a great deal of damage especially in coast region in the early years of the cycle  Mature
plants are rarely damaged. Symptoms.
a) The larva does the highest damage by making so many holes on the bole (tunneling) such that it
appears as honey comb.
b) Damaged plants often die and have to be replaced; this causes unevenness in the field.
c) Adult weevils do little damage by feeding at the bole of the leaves.
d) Brownish-grey patches or underside of leaves, usually near the base of leaves. Control.
 Use aldrin dust as top dress around nursery plants and around planting holes. This prevents eggs
being laid in the rotting tissue of the old leaves.
 Destruction of rotting boles.
 Pouring diesel oil on the boles.

DISEASES.
1. Zebra disease.
 It is a fungal disease caused by the fungus Phytophthora nicotianae.
 Usually found in areas with poor drainage.
Symptoms:
 Stripped lesions on the leaves.
 Rotting of the bole and central spike.
Control: Proper drainage (prevent any part of the plants coming into contact
with surface drainage water). N.B: No effective fungicide control yet.

2. Bole rot.
 Caused by the fungus Aspergillus niger.
 Once the plant is infected it dies off. It cannot be saved.

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 Predisposing factors:
• Wounded plant.
• Cutting during wet weather.
• Reduced nutrition.
Symptoms:
• Pale green colour of leaves.
• There is a foul smell due to rot coming from the bole.
• The bole becomes wet and mushy (soft).
• Once the top of the bole is completely rotten, the leaves turn yellow and collapse to the
ground and finally the spike falls over.
Control:
I. Avoid injury to the bole.
II. Avoid cutting in wet weather.
III. Maintain proper nutrition.

By-products of sisal.
 From sisal waste, the following can be obtained;
 Manure.
 Methane gas.
 Waxes.
 Sodium pectates.
 Alcohol.
 Hecogenin (containing cortisone).
 Sisal waste i.e. the flesh which constitutes 97% of the weight of the leaf, can be fed to cattle or can
be ensiled.

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